Aircraft Structures II Laboratory Manual With Model Calculations and Graphs

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES II LABORATORY
MANUAL
N.TAMILSELVAM
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
ACE-HOSUR
ACE/AERO/STRUCTURES II LAB MANUAL BY N.TAMILSELVAM
SHEAR CENTRE LOCATION OF OPEN SECTION
(C, Z & I SECTION)
Abstract:
Due to external shear stress/forces on the beam, shear stresses are induced on the
cross-section of the beam. If the resultant of the internal force system and applied force at any
section do not coincide, a torque is developed and therefore the section undergoes twist. In
order that the section may not twist, the applied shear force must pass through the shear
centre of the open section. This experimental setup helped students to find out the location of
the shear centre of the open channel.
Aim:
To determine the shear centre for the given open channel section
Apparatus Required:
(i) Beam of channel section..
(ii) Known Weights with loading hook and.
(iii) Dial gauge with magnetic base.
Theory:
Shear centre is defined as that unique point on the beam cross section where the
application of the shear force does not produce the beam to twist. The channel section has a
horizontal axis of symmetry and the experiment is to determine its location on axis since
angular twisting moment causes a twist, it is simply a matter of placing the shear force at a
point on the cross section where the shear force and the shear centre combine to produce a
zero tensional moment about all points on a plane of beam cross section
2
Procedure:
1) Mount two dial gauges on the flange at a known distance, preload the dial gauge and
set it to zero
2) Place a total 500 gram load at A and place 100 grams load at B note down the dial
gauge readings
3) Now remove one load piece from hook A and place it on B. this became the total
vertical load on this section remains 600 grams
4) Record the dial gauge reading
5) Transfer all the load pieces one by one to hook B, and note down the dial gauges
readings
6) For every load case calculate the algebraic different between the dial gauge readings
as measure of angle of twist () suffered by the section
7) Plot a graph with e value on x-axis and d1 d2 value on y-axis, the meeting point
of the straight line with x-axis determine the shear centre
Formulae Used:
For theoretical
3^2
=
6
(1 )

For experimental
e exp = AB (WA WB) / (2WT)
Where:
h = height of the specimen
b = width of the specimen
AB = distance between load point
WA = load at point A
WB = load at point B
WT = total load
3
Table:
a. Length of the section (L) = .. mm

b. Breath of section (b) = ..mm
c. Height of the section (h) = ..mm
d. Thickness of the section (t) = ..mm
Tabulation:
Sl.no WA WB D1 D2 D1-D2 e exp
Result:
The shear centre for the open section
Theoretically =
Experimentally =
4
MODEL TABULATION AND CALCULATION
Let consider,
a. Breath of section (b) = 50mm

b. Height of the section (h) = 50mm
c. AB = 280mm
Tabulation:
Sl.no WA WB D1 D2 D1-D2 e exp
1 500 100 395 55 340 93.33
2 400 200 350 132 218 46.66
3 300 300 300 282 18 0
4 200 400 281 324 -43 -46.66
5 100 500 230 330 -100 -93.33
For Experimental calculation
e exp = AB (WA WB) / (2WT)
= 280(500 100)/2 x 600
= 93.33mm
5
For Theoretical calculation
3^2
= 6
(1 )

350^2
= 650
50(1 )
50
= - 30mm Ans
From the Graph, when (D1-D2 ) = 0 the experimental shear centre for the section is
-29mm Ans
6
Model Graph for Open section
7
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
AIM
To determine the deflection of beams with various end conditions, experimentally

compare with the theoretical values and draw the deflection curve.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Dial Gauges
Weights
Weights Hanger
Meter Scale
Beam Specimen and
Beam setup
THEORY
The deflection of an Aircraft wing can considerably change the lift distribution on a
wing. Hence estimation of deflections and restricting the deflection with in the allowable
limits are important for Aerospace structural engineer.
From the elementary theory of bending, the differential equation of the deflection
curve is
2
= (1)
2
From the above equation, the deflection curve for a simply-supported beam with a
concentrated load at the center is
2 3
= (2)
16 12
The deflection curve for cantilever beam with a tip load is

2 3
= (3)
2 6
The above equations are used to calculate the deflection theoretically at various points.
8
PROCEDURE
1. The beam is simply supported using the knife edges; weight hanger and dial gauge are
to be kept at the middle of the beam.
2. Apply the concentrated load of 0.1kg in the beam.
3. Note down the reading from the dial gauge and increase the load by 0.1kg.
4. The deflections at this point are also calculated theoretically using equation (2) and
(3).
5. The deflection curve is drawn on a graph sheet with proper scale.
6. The experiment can be repeated by fixing the specimen as cantilever beam.
7. For cantilever beam, note down the length of the beam using meter scale.
TABULATION
For Cantilever and Simply-supported Beam
Load Dial Gauge Reading

S.No. Theoretical deflection
P (kg)
1
2
3
4
5
GRAPH
The draw the graph between loads vs. deflection.
APPLICATION
I. Aircraft wing is idealized as cantilever beam in the design of Aircraft (Box beam).
II. Aircraft fuselage is idealized as a free-free beam in the design of Aircraft.
9
RESULT
Deflection curves are drawn for the given beam. Experimental values are compared
with the theoretical values
MODEL TABULATION AND CALCULATION
For Cantilever beam
Let consider,
Length of the beam (L) = 60 cm
Breadth of the beam (b) = 12.5cm
Width of the beam (d) = 6mm
3
Moment of inertia (I = ) = 225mm4
12
3
Theoretical deflection =
3

P (kg)
1 0.1 150 149
2 0.2 299 298
3 0.3 448 449
4 0.4 597 597
5 0.5 746 747
Calculation
3
Theoretical deflection = = (0.1 x 9.81 x 6003) / (3 x 210 x 103 x 225)
3
= 1.49mm = 149
10
For Simply Supported beam (load and deflection at mid point)
Let consider,
Length of the beam (L) = 60 cm
Breadth of the beam (b) = 12.5cm
Width of the beam (d) = 6mm
3
Moment of inertia (I = ) = 225mm4
12
3
Theoretical deflection =
48

P (kg)
1 0.1 10 09
2 0.2 18 18
3 0.3 28 28
4 0.4 37 37
5 0.5 46 46
Calculation
3
Theoretical deflection = = (0.1 x 9.81 x 6003) / (48 x 210 x 103 x 225)
48
= 0.09mm = 09
11
Model Graph
800
700
600
500
Deflection
400
300
200
100
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Load (kg)
12
Maxwell Reciprocal Theorem
Aim: -
To verify clerk Maxwells reciprocal theorem
Apparatus Required:
Maxwells Reciprocal Theorem apparatus,

Weights, Hanger,
Dial Gauge,
Scale,
Knife edges
Theory: -
Maxwell theorem in its simplest form states that deflection of any point A of any
elastic Structure due to load P at any point B is same as the deflection of beam due to same
load Applied at A
It is, therefore easily derived that the deflection curve for a point in a structure is the
same as the deflected curve of the structure when unit load is applied at the point for which
the Influence curve was obtained.
13
Procedure: -
1. Apply a load either at the centre of the simply supported span or at the free end of the
beam, the deflected form can be obtained.
2. Measure the height of the beam at certain distance by means of a dial gauge before
and after loading and determine the deflection before and after at each point
separately.
3. Now move a load along the beam at certain distance and for each positions of the
Load, the deflection of the point was noted where the load was applied in step1.This
4. Deflection should be measured at each such point before and after the loading,
separately.
5. Plot the graph between deflection as ordinate and position of point graph drawn in
step 2 and 3.These are the influence line ordinates for deflection of the Beam.
Table:
Load at A Deflection at B Load at B Deflection at A

SlNo
(g) (mm) (g) (mm)
1 100 .42 100 .42
2 200 .97 200 .96
3 300 1.33 300 1.33
4 400 2.43 400 2.43
Precaution: -
i) Apply the loads without any jerk.
ii) Perform the experiment at a location, which is away from any disturbance
iii) Ensure that the supports are rigid.
14
Result:
From the results in the Table, it is found that the deflection at A is equal to the
deflection at B and Hence the Maxwell reciprocal theorem is verified.
CONSTANT STRENGTH BEAM
Aim:
To determine the stress at various locations along a length of a constant strength beam
to show that they are equal and compare with theoretical values.
Theory:
A beam in which section modulus varies along the length of the beam in the same
proportion as the bending moment is known as constant strength beam. In this case the
maximum stress remains constant along the length of the beam.
Consider,
b = width of the beam
h = depth of the beam
l = length of the beam
Section Modulus Z = bh 3
= M/Z = constant
Let the width of the beam be constant and the depth varies
Then = M/Z = 6Px/bh2 = 6PL/bh02 =constant
h2 = h02x/L (1)
15
Apparatus required:
A constant strength beam

Strain gauges
strain indicator
weights with hook.
Procedure:
The constant strength beam is fixed as a cantilever strain gauges are fixed near the
root, at 3L/4 and L/2.The strain gauges are fixed both on the top and bottom surfaces at each
location to increase the circuit sensitivity of the gauge circuit. Hence half bridge used in the
strain indicator to measure the strain indicator to measure the strain at each location.
(Strain=strain meter reading x2). The strain gauge readings are noted for every 2kg at
locations A, B, C and tabulated as given below.
Strain gauge resistance = 350 ohm
Gauge factor =2
Young s modulus = 70 GPa
S.NO
Weight

A =E Ax2
B =E Bx2
C =E Cx2
(Kg) A B C
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Theoretical calculations:
At point A:
Distance of point A from loading point =
16
Depth of beam =
Width of beam =
Moment of inertia =
Moment =
=(Mh/2)/I =
17
At point B:
Distance of point B from loading point =
Depth of beam =
Width of beam =
Moment of inertia =
Moment =
= (Mh/2)/I =
At point c:
Distance of point C from loading point =
Depth of beam =
Width of beam =
Moment of inertia =
= (Mh/2)/I =
Result:
The experimental values of the stress are compared with the theoretical values.
18
S.NO Weight
kg A B A A =E A
B=E Bx2
c =E CX2
x2 MPa MPa
MPa
1 2.30 20 21 21 2.8 2.94 2.94
2 4.20 39 41 41 5.46 5.74 5.74
3 6.31 58 60 60 8.12 8.4 8.4
4 8.28 75 76 76 1.05 1.06 1.06
5 10.31 89 92 92 1.24 1.28 1.28
Theoretical calculations:
At point A:
Distance of point A from loading point = 47cm
Depth of beam = 78mm
Width of beam = 5mm
Moment of inertia = 14.0625cm4
Moment for load of 11.25 = 11.25x9.81x47=5187.0375
= (Mh/2)/I = 14.38
At point B:
Distance of point B from loading point = 35.5cm
Width of beam = 5mm
Moment of inertia = 9.1542
Moment for a load of 11.25 = 11.25x9.81x35.5=3917.868
= (Mh/2)/I = 13.9
19
At point c:
Distance of point C from loading point = 24cm
Width of beam = 4mm
Moment of inertia = 4.9626
Moment for a load of 11.25 = 11.25x9.81x24=2648.7
=(Mh/2)/I = 14.41
Result:
The experimental values of the stress are compared with the theoretical
values.
20
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING OF BEAMS
Aim:
To determine the principal axes of an unsymmetrical section.
Theory:
The well known flexure formula = (My/I) based on the elementary theory of
bending of beams assumes that the load is always applied through one of the principal axes of
a section. Actually, even if the applied load passes through the centroid and or the shear
center of the section the plane of bending and the plane of loading need not necessarily are
the same. Therefore, knowledge of the location of principal axes is required for the
determination of the stress distribution in beams using flexure formula. The determination of
the principal axes is experimentally is described here.
If IX, IY and IXY are the moments product of inertia of any section about an arbitrary
orthogonal centroidal axes OX and OY then the inclination of one of the principal.
Tan2=2IXY/ (IY-IX)
The experimental determination of the principal axes of the given section is based on the fact
that when the load passes through the shear center and is the direction of one of the principal
axes of section.
Apparatus required:
1. A thin uniform cantilever Z section as shown in fig. At the free end
extension pieces are attached on either side of the web.
2. Two dial gauges (to be mounted vertical and horizontal as in fig).
This enables the determination of displacement u and v.
3. Two hooks are attached to the extension pieces to apply the vertical
load WV.
21
4. A string and pulley arrangement to apply the horizontal load WH .

5. A steel support structure to mount the channel section as cantilever
Procedure:
1. Mount the two dial gauges on the tip section to measure the horizontal
and the vertical deflections on the point.
2. Apply the vertical load(about 2.4kg, including two hooks of each
200gms)
3. Read u and v horizontal and vertical deflections respectively.
4. Increase the load WH in steps of about 300gm (for first case

100gm+200gm hook) repeat the procedure and check for consistency in
measurements
5. Plot the graphs (u/v) vs.(WH/WV) and find the curve intersection with
straight line of origin 45o
6. Calculate the inclination one of the principal axes of a web as =tan-

1(WV/WH)
7. Calculate the inclination using Equ (1)
TABLE-1
Specimen dimensions
Vertical load WV
s.no WH Dial gauges WH/WV u/v remarks

readings
U V
1
2
3
exp= theo =
22
WV = (weight of hook +1kg) x2 =2.4kg
U = horizontal displacement. V= vertical

displacement
s.no WH U V WH/WV U/V

1 0 22 39 0 0.564
2 0.3 42 44 0.125 0.954
3 0.6 49 46 0.25 1.065
4 0.9 56 50 0.375 1.12
5 1.2 66 54 0.5 1.27
6 1.5 75 59 0.625 1.343
7 1.8 86 64 0.75 1.411
8 2.1 96 68 0.875 1.433
9 2.5 105 73 1.0 1.474
10 2.8 115 78 1.125 1.53
11 3.0 124 81 1.25 1.578
b= 52mm h=78mm t=2.5mm
From the graph
exp = tan-1(WV/WH)
= tan-1(1/1.7)
exp = 30.50
23
IXX = 0.25X783/12+5.2X0.25X3.92
= 49.432cm4
IYY = 0.25x5.23/12x2+5.2x0.25x2.63x2
= 23.434cm4
IXY = 5.2X0.25X (-2.6) X3.9+5.2X2.6X9-3.9)
= -26.364CM4
tan2 = 2IXY (IYY-IXX)
= 31.87O
Model graph:
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING
4.5
3.5
3
WH/WV
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
10 20 30 40 50
U/V
24
COMBINED LOADING
Aim:
To determine the principal stresses and the principal planes of a hollow circular
shaft due to combined loading.
Theory:
The most common combined load system encountered in structural design is
probably that are due to the bending and torsion. In an aircraft wing the lift acting at the
center pressure produces a torque about the elastic axis varying bending moment along the
wing span. To understand their combined effect a simpler specimen, namely a hollow
cylinder is subjected to a bending and torsion.
For an elastic structure
=M Y/ I
= Bending stress (N/m2)
M= bending moment (N-m)
Y= distance from the layer to the neutral axis (m)
I= moment of inertia (m4)
I= (do4-di4)/64
The shear stress due to torsion
= shear stress (N/m2)
T= torque applied (N-m)
r= radius of shaft (m)
j= polar moment of inertia (m4)
j= (do4-di4)/32
25
()2
1,2= x+y/2 + ()2 (1)
2

1,2=/2 (2 ) 2 +()2 (2)

1,2= 16do/(do4-di )[
4
2 + 2 ] (3)

tan2=2xy/x-y =2/ (4)
=principal angle
Apparatus required:
Hollow circular shaft fixed as a cantilever, weight hanger with slotted
weights, strain gauges, connecting wires, strain indicator and micrometer.
Procedure:
Two strain gauges are fixed near the root of the tube fixed as a cantilever,
one on the top fiber and the at the bottom to measure the bending strain. Another strains
gauge is fixed at the same location of the neutral axes at 450 to measure the shear strain.
Similarly three more strain gauges are fixed at the middle of the length to verify the various
locations of the tube. The strain gauges at the top and the bottom of the tube are connected to
half bridge the strain indicator. The outside diameter of the tube is measured using venire
calipers. Weights are added to the hook attached to the lever in steps of work kg and strain
gauge readings are noted from the train indicator for each load. From the strains the bending
stress, shear stress is calculated and hence principal stresses and principal angle are
calculated. These values are compared with theoretical values.
Table:
Youngs modulus of the tube =
Outside diameter of the tube =
Thickness of the tube =
Length of the tube =
26
Strain gauge resistance =
Gauge factor =
Distance of strain gauges near the root from tip =
Distance of the strain gauges at the middle from tip =
Distance from the center of the tube to the center of hook =
Weight of hook =
s.no W kg
A B A
Result:
Bending stress of root (A) =EX X2

A
Shear stress at (B) =EX X4

B
Principal stress at the root =
Principal angle at the root =
Principal stress at the root (theatrical) =
Principal angle at the root (theoretical) =
Repeat the calculations for the mid-section.
27
Table:
Youngs modulus of the tube =70Gpa
Outside diameter of the tube =50mm
Thickness of the tube =3mm
Length of the tube =55cm
Strain gauge resistance = 350ohm
Gauge factor =2
Distance of strain gauges near the root from tip =50cm
Distance of the strain gauges at the middle from tip =25cm
Distance from the center of the tube to the center of hook =26cm
Weight of hook =0.25kg
s.no W (kg)
A B C
L=52cm L=28cm L=38.5
1 2.28 23 13 6
2 4.31 39 21 8
3 6.29 54 29 11
4 8.27 68 38 13
5 10.26 82 46 16
Result:
Load: =10.26kg
Bending stress of root (A) =70x109x82x10-6x2=11.41Mpa
Shear stress at (B) =70x109x16x10-6x4=44.80
Principal stress at the root =11.87Mpa, -0.95Mpa
Principal angle at the root =16.89o
Theoritical calculations:
I =12.28cm4 J= 24.56cm4
M= 10.26X9.81X50 = 5032.53N-cm
28
T=10.26X9.81X26 =2616.915N-cm
=Mdo/2I =12.35Mpa
= Tdo/2J =3.71Mpa
Principal stress at the root =10.89Mpa, -0.65Mpa
Principal angle at root =14.860
Principal stress and directions are calculated using equ (2) & (4).
29
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF A SEMI TENSION FIELD BEAM
Aim:
To investigate and study the behavior of a semi-tension beam.
Theory:
The development of a structure in which buckling of the web is permitted with
the shear loads being carried by diagonal tension stresses in the web is a striking the design of
aerospace structures from the standard structural designs. Such as beam design for bridges
and buildings.
As thin sheets are week in compression, the webs of the Wagner beam
will buckle at a low value of the applied vertical load. The phenomena of buckling may be
observed by noting the wrinkles that appears on the thin sheet. As applied load further
increased, the stress in the compression direction does not increase, however the stress
increases in the tension direction. This method of carrying the shear load permits the design
of relatively thin webs because high allowable stress in tension.
Theory developed by the Wagner .the diagonal tensile stress t in the thin web given
by the expression.
t =2W/dt sin2 (1)
Where W = shear load
D = distance between the c.g of the flanges
T =thickness of the web
=angle at which wrinkling occurs
Tan4 =1+td/2AF /1+tb/AS (2)
b= distance between stiffeners
AF = area of flange
As = area of stiffener
Z = distance of strain gauge on the flange from the tip.

30
Stress in the flange F = W/2AF tan +WZ/AFd (3)
Stress in the stiffener S =Wb/ASdtan (4)
Apparatus required:
A stiffened thin-webbed cantilever beam held on a suitable
frame, strain gauges, strain indicators, hydraulic jack, and load cell and load indicator.
Procedure:
The wrinkling angle is calculated using the equation (1) and the strain gauge is fixed
at the angle in the web. Strain gauges also fixed on the flanges and a stiffener to measure
their respective stresses. The load is applied gradually in steps of 100kg using the hydraulic
jack. Fr each loads the load indicator reading, strain indicator reading corresponding to each
strain gauge noted. Precaution is taken so that the beam does not undergo any permanent
deformation. Hence the beam is loaded about the wrinkling load.
The strain gauges are connected in Quarter Bridge and the strain indicator
readings are to be multiplied by 4 to obtain the actual strain.
t= b= d= =
AF = AS = E=
S.NO W (kg)
t F S t=4E t F =4E F s =4E S
A
1
2
3
4
5
Result:
t, f and s values are calculated theoretically using equations (1),(3) and (4) and
compared with the experimental values given in the table.
31
t = 1mm b = 230mm d = 290mm

=43.90
AF = 366mm2 AS =366mm2 E =70Gpa
S.NO Wkg

t F S t=4E t F =4E F s =4E S
1 100 19 25 11 5.32 7.00 3.08
2 200 35 45 17 9.8 14.00 4.780
3 300 53 68 23 14.8 19.04 6.44
4 400 75 89 28 21.00 24.940 7.84
5 500 96 119 34 26.88 33.32 9.52
Result:
t, f and s values are calculated theoretically using equations (1), (3) and (4) and
compared with the experimental values given in the table.
32
HINGED BAR SUSPEBDED BY TWO WIRES OF DIRRERENT

MATERIALS
Aim:
To determine the forces in the two wires of different materials attached to the
hinged bar experimentally.
Theory:
A statically determinate force system is one in which the values of all the external
forces acting on the body can be determined by the equation of statics along more unknown
forces than the equations of the equilibrium such a case of the force system is said to be
statically in determinate.
A hinged bar suspended by two wires of different materials in an indeterminate

system. it will have one unknown force in each wire and a vertical unknown reaction at the
hinged support. To determine the known forces DETERMINATION Methods used, in
which considers the deformation of the system. The procedure to be followed in analyzing.
An indeterminate system. Enough equations involving deformations must be written so that
the total number of equations from both statics and deformations is equal to the number of
unknown forces involved.
The present experiment is aimed at finding these unknown forces using simple
dial gauges.
Apparatus required:
Loading frame, hinged bar suspended steel and copper wires of
equal length and the diameter, dial gauges (2 Nos.), spirit level, weights and hook for placing
the weights.
Procedure:
The hinged bar is suspended horizontally using spirit level. Two dial gauges
are placed exactly below the point of the attachment of each wire. Weights are placed in the
weight hanger in steps of 2kgs up to 10kgs and the corresponding dial gauges reading are
noted and tabulated as given below. The load carried by each wire is calculated using the
theory from strength of materials as shown below and compared with the values obtained
from the dial gauge readings.
33
Experimental calculations:
L1 =L2 = L = 577mm d1 = d2= 1mm A1 = A2
= (/4) d2
E1 = 2000Gpa E2 =100Gpa
S.no P in kg 1 2
1 2 24 11
2 4 37 17
3 6 46 23
4 8 57 30
5 10 68 35
For a load 10-2 =8kg 1 = 44 2 = 23
P1 =AE1/L11 = (x100x103x44x10-2)/4x577 = 59.9N =6.1kgf
P2 = A2E1/L22 = (x200x103 x23x10-2 )/4x577 = 62.64N =6.4kgf
P1/P2 = 3.99
FROM THEORY P1 = P/2 AND P2 =P/2
Hence the ratio of forces from the experiment and theory coincides.
34
VERIFICATION OF RECIPROCAL THEOREM AND PRINCIPLE OF

SUPERPOSITION
Aim:
(i) To verify the reciprocal theorem
(ii) To verify the principle of superposition
Theory:
According to reciprocal theorem, the deflection of the beam at point 1, due to the
load p at point 2 is equal deflection of the beam at point 2, when same load is placed at point
1.
Consider a simply supported beam shown in figure.
Y = (pbx/6EIL) (L2 b2-x2)
Yx =d = (Pbx/6EIL) (L2-b2-d2)
This expression does not change if we substitutes for b and b ford
This means the if the load p is moved from the point c to the D, the deflection measured at c
is equal to the deflection point D.
The principle of superposition states that the deflection of the point in a structure due loads
P1 AND P2 is equal to the sum of deflections of the same point due to the load p1. Load p2
applied separately
35
Apparatus required:
(i) The beam is simply supported using the knife edges and the
weight hanger is kept at L/4. Apply a load of 0.5kg and measure
the deflection at 3L/4 using the dial gauges. Load is applied
gradually in steps of 0.5kg up to 2.5kg and the corresponding dial
gauge reading is noted at 3L/4. Now the dial gauge and the weight
hanger are interchanged and the deflections are noted for loads
0.5kg to 2.5kg. The readings are tabulated.
(ii) The beam is simply- supported using the knife edges weight
hanger is kept at L/4. Apply a load of 0.5kg and measure the
deflection at L/2 using the dial gauge. Load is applied. Load is
applied gradually in steps of 0.5kg up to 2.5kg and the
corresponding dial gauge reading is noted at 3L/4. Now the dial
gauge and the weight hanger is interchanged and the deflections
are noted for loads 0.5kg to 2.5kg. The readings are tabulated.
The experiment can be reaped by fixing the specimen as cantilever beam. For
cantilever apply load in steps of 2.0kg and L =40-50cm. similarly for aluminum specimen
apply load in steps of 2.0kg.
36
Table:-1
S.NO Load at A Deflection at C Load at C Deflection at A

PA kg c Pckg A
1 0.5 0.5
2 1.0 1.0
3 1.5 1.5
4 2.0 2.0
5 2.5 2.5
Table-2:
S.NO Load at A Defln at B Load at C Defln. At Load at A Defln. At

PA kg B PC kg B and C B
B (PA+PC)kg B
1 0.5 0.5 1.0
2 1.0 1.0 2.0
3 1.5 1.5 3.0
4 2.0 2.0 4.0
5 2.5 2.5 5.0
Result:
(i) From the results in the table 1, it is found that CA = AC and hence the
reciprocal theorem is verified.
37
(ii) From the results in the table 2, it is found that the sum of the deflections in the
columns three and five is equal to the deflections in the column seven and
hence the principle of superposition is verified.
BUCKLING OF COULMNS
Aim:
To determine a critical load of column using south well plot.
Theory
The need to make use of materials with high strength-to-weight ratio in aircrafts
design has resulted in the use of slender structural components that fail more than often by
instability than by excessive stress. The simplest example of such structural component is a
slender column. Ideal column under the small compressive equilibrium position returns to it
original equilibrium position. Further increase the load does not alter the situation. Until a
stage is reached. This is neutral equilibrium position for the column position also. The
column is said to have failed due its instability. The load beyond which the column is
unstable is called the Euler load or the critical load.
In an ideal column deflection appear suddenly at the critical load whereas in actual
column due to imperfections present the deflection starts appearing as soon as the loads are
applied. South well shown that there exists a relation between a compressive load. Later
deflations which can be utilized profitably to determine the critical load and the eccentricity
of the column by the graphical procedure without actually destroying the test specimen.
The well known formula for critical load of an uniform slender column is
Pcr =C (2EI)/L2
Where C is constant depending on the end conditions of the column, E is the youngs modulus
of the material of the column, I is the least moment of inertia of the section and L is the
length.
38
As mentioned earlier the lateral deflection of the ideal column is indeterminate at

the critical load. But for the deflations of a simple supported column at its midpoint due
to load P can be written as

= e/[/) 1 ]

Rewriting the equation in the following form,
=Pcr(/P)-e
It is seen that the plot of the ratio (/P) against is a straight line and that and its inverse
slope gives the critical load and the intercept on (i)(i)(i) abovecthe axis gives the
magnitude of the eccentricity.
Apparatus required:
1. Column testing apparatus as shown in the figure.
2. Specimens
3. Dial gauge
4. Venire calipers
5. Weights
Procedure:
The ends of the given column specimen are carefully prepared to provide knife-
edge supports. The specimen is then mounted on the column testing apparatus. The columns
should be placed with the longitudinal axis aligned vertically at the mid-point of the given
column, a dial gauge is placed.
Loads are then gradually applied. A plot of /p versus is obtained. This is called
the south well plot, which should be a straight line. The inverse of the slope of this line will
be indicatedthe value of the critical buckling load, pcr of the given hinged- hinged column as
shown in the theory.
39
Table:
Specimen dimensions = d= L=
s.no P /P
1
2
3
4
9
10
Pcr =2EI/L2
Ptheo = Pexp =
40
SOUTH WELL PLOT

LOAD FRAME WEIGHT = 4kg
s.no P /P
1 4+1=5 12 2.4
2 4+2=6 16 2.6
3 4+3=7 20 2.8
4 4+4=8 27 3.3
5 4+5=9 34 3.7
6 4+6=10 43 4.3
7 4+7=11 55 5
8 4+8=12 67 5.5
9 4+9=13 81 6.2
10 4+10=14 100 7.1
Material: aluminum
L =1
b= 14.5mml
d = 8mm
I = bd3/12
I = 618.6mm4
P = (2EI)/L2 E =70X109Pa
P = 432.6N
Pcr the = 432.6/9.81 = 44.09kg
Pcr exp = tan-1 = (25.5/1.5) =17.0kg
41
(i) Aircraft landing gears fixed as well as retractable are columns.

(ii) Buckling of stringers in the aircraft is very important in the design of aircraft
(iii) The wing struts of executive aircrafts are beam- columns.
Model graph:
SOUTH WELL PLOT

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
/P
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10 20 30 40 50
tan
42
CALIBRATION OF PHOTO ELASTIC MODEL MATERIAL BY USING

A BEAM SUBJECTED TO PURE BENDING
Aim:
To find out material fringe value of photo elastic model material.
Apparatus required:
12 diffused light transmission polar scope universal loading frame.
Formula:
f = 12PLY/h3 N
Where.
P = Load applied
L = Distance of point of load application
Y = Distance of fringe from neutral axis
h = Depth of the beam model
Procedure:
(i) Load the beam at four points by applying known force

(ii) Use white lights with circular polar scope arrangement and
identify fringe order
43
(iii) The trace of the material surface is identified by zero order

fringe.
(iv) Shift the monochromatic light and carefully measure the
distance y from the nutral axis.
(v) The middle section of the beam subjected to a pure bending
moment
(vi) Assuming that only x is acting
(vii) Calculate value of f and find out the average value.
Observation:
(I) Load applied =16.35kg

(II) Distance of point of load application =113cm
(III) Depth of beam model 3cm
Tabular Column:
S.NO Load on Load on Fringe Distance f kg/cm Average

pan W kg model order from Kg/cm
P kg Distance NA = Y
from
NA = Y
1 10 16.35 1 0.25cm 14.30 12.71
2 10 16.35 2 0.4cm 11.44
44
Model Calculation:
f = 12pLY/h3 .N
f = 12x16.35x3x0.25/(2.9)3x1
f = 14.30kg/cm
Result:
Model of the beam subjected to pure bending can be used to calibrate the
photo elastic material and average f is found out.
CALIBRATION OF PHOTO ELASTIC MODEL MATERIAL BY USING

CIRCULAR DISC UNDER DIAMETER COMPRESSION
Aim:
To calibrate photo elastic model by using circular disc under diametrical compression.
Apparatus required:
1. Circular disc prepared out of photo elastic model material.

2. Universal loading frame
3. 12 diffused light transmission polar scope
Procedure:
1. Load the disc in universal loading frame under diametrical compression

2. The distance x and y must be initially measured.
3. Apply light load and plane polar scope arrangement
4. Observe the fringe part ten and note the iso clinic reading for the point of interest p
on the disc model
45
5. In this case as the point of interest p which is the center of the disc, isoclinic reading
automatically becomes zero.
6. Now apply known value of the load at the end of the lever and set the circular polar
scope arrangement.
7. Use white light and identify the fringe order at the point p
8. Increase the load in steps and note down the fractional fringe order at the center
point
9. After measuring the diameters of the disc proceed to calculate material fringe value
Formula:
f = 8p/DN
Where,
P = load on the model
D = diameter of disc in cm
N = fractional fringe order at the center
46
Calculation:
(I) Distance x=
(II) Distance y=
(III) Diameter of disc =
Tabular column:
s.no Load Load on the Fractional Fringe value

(w) model fringe order f
P =wy/x kg N
At the center
47
Model calculation:
(I) Distance x = 31.7cm

(II) Distance y = 113cm
(III) Diameter of disc = 6cm
Tabular column:
s.no Load Load on the Fractional Fringe value

(w) model fringe order f
P =wy/x kg N
At the center
1 4 12.5 0.491 10.8
2 6 18.75 0.720 10.9
3 8 25.00 0.9 11.78
48
(1) P = WY /X
P = 100X4/32
P = 12.5kg
(2) N= fringe order
N = 0+0.494 = 0.494
(3) f = 8p / 6 x 0.494
f = 10.8 kg /cm2
Result:
Circular disc model is easy to prepare to load hence is suitable for calibration
of photo elastic model
The average value of f calculates is in good arrangement with the value

specification
49
VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS
Aim:
To determine the acceleration, velocity and displacement of the given

specimen.
Apparatus required:
Vibration shaker
Signal generator
Frequency indicator
Procedure:
(i) Increase the voltage of the signal generator approaches and setup the
frequency.
(ii) The frequency may be set at 150 and 200
(iii) The shaker oscillates with the above frequency and the given test piece
u placed on the shaker.
(iv) On the display signal and generate instrument measure velocity,
acceleration and displacement.
(v) With the given frequency, verify the displacement, velocity and
acceleration.
Tabular column:
S.NO Frequency Hz Displacement Acceleration Velocity m/s

mm m/s2
50
MODEL CALCULATION:
Tabular column:
S.NO Frequency Hz Displacement Acceleration Velocity m/s

mm m/s2
1 20 0285 2.5 1.23
2 30 0.342 4.8 2.53
3 50 0.356 11 3.82
Velocity (v) = acceleration x100/2 x fs x 2

= 2.5x100/2 x 20 x 2
= 14cm/s
Displacement = A X1000 X2/ (2 X20)2
= (2.5) X1000 X2/ (2 X20)2
=0 .316mm
Result:
Thus the velocity, acceleration and displacement of the given test piece
was found out.
51
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES II LABORATORY

SHEAR CENTRE LOCATION OF OPEN SECTION

(C, Z & I SECTION)

4) Record the dial gauge reading

e exp = AB (WA WB) / (2WT)

b = width of the specimen

AB = distance between load point

a. Length of the section (L) = .. mm

Sl.no WA WB D1 D2 D1-D2 e exp

The shear centre for the open section

MODEL TABULATION AND CALCULATION

a. Breath of section (b) = 50mm

Sl.no WA WB D1 D2 D1-D2 e exp

1 500 100 395 55 340 93.33

2 400 200 350 132 218 46.66

3 300 300 300 282 18 0

4 200 400 281 324 -43 -46.66

5 100 500 230 330 -100 -93.33

For Experimental calculation

e exp = AB (WA WB) / (2WT)

= 280(500 100)/2 x 600

For Theoretical calculation

Model Graph for Open section

To determine the deflection of beams with various end conditions, experimentally

The deflection curve for cantilever beam with a tip load is

For Cantilever and Simply-supported Beam

Load Dial Gauge Reading

The draw the graph between loads vs. deflection.

MODEL TABULATION AND CALCULATION

For Cantilever beam

Length of the beam (L) = 60 cm

Breadth of the beam (b) = 12.5cm

Width of the beam (d) = 6mm

Load Dial Gauge Reading

For Simply Supported beam (load and deflection at mid point)

Length of the beam (L) = 60 cm

Breadth of the beam (b) = 12.5cm

Width of the beam (d) = 6mm

Load Dial Gauge Reading

Maxwell Reciprocal Theorem

Maxwells Reciprocal Theorem apparatus,

Load at A Deflection at B Load at B Deflection at A

CONSTANT STRENGTH BEAM

b = width of the beam

h = depth of the beam

l = length of the beam

Then = M/Z = 6Px/bh2 = 6PL/bh02 =constant

A constant strength beam

Strain gauge resistance = 350 ohm

Young s modulus = 70 GPa

Distance of point A from loading point =

Distance of point B from loading point =

Distance of point C from loading point =

Distance of point A from loading point = 47cm

Depth of beam = 78mm

Width of beam = 5mm

Moment of inertia = 14.0625cm4

Moment for load of 11.25 = 11.25x9.81x47=5187.0375

Distance of point B from loading point = 35.5cm

Depth of beam = 65mm

Width of beam = 5mm

Moment of inertia = 9.1542

Moment for a load of 11.25 = 11.25x9.81x35.5=3917.868

Distance of point C from loading point = 24cm

Depth of beam = 54mm

Width of beam = 4mm