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Physic 960
amimo
Introduction
What is physic ?
Basic quantity
Basic Quantity is cannot be derived from other quantities.
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Systems of units
Several systems of units have been in use. Example:
- The MKS (meter-kilogram-second) system
- The cgs (centimetre-gram-second) system
- British engineering system: foot for length, pound for mass and second
for time.
Today the most important system of unit is the Systems International or Sl units.
Basic Quantities
1. In the interest of simplicity, seven basics quantities, consistent with a full
description of the physical world, have been chosen.
Dimension
Basic quantity Symbol (base Definition SI units
quantity
symbol)
length most commonly refers to the
Length L L Meter
longest dimension of an object
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Dimension
Basic quantity Symbol (base Definition SI units
quantity
symbol) Time is a dimension in which events
can be ordered from the past through
Time t T Second
the present into the future, and also
the measure of durations of events
Base Units
There are only seven base unit in SI system.
"The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time
Metre m interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second."
17th CGPM (1983, Resolution 1, CR, 97)
"The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international
Kilogram kg prototype of the kilogram."
3rd CGPM (1901, CR, 70)
"The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the caesium 133 atom."
Second s
13th CGPM (1967/68, Resolution 1; CR, 103)
"This definition refers to a caesium atom at rest at a temperature of 0 K."
(Added by CIPM in 1997)
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2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and
may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified
Mole Mol
groups of such particles."
14th CGPM (1971, Resolution 3; CR, 78)
"In this definition, it is understood that unbound atoms of carbon 12, at rest
and in their ground state, are referred to."
(Added by CIPM in 1980)
Prefixes
For very large or very small numbers, we can use standard prefixes with the base units.
Prefix tera giga mega Kilo deci centi mili micro nano pico
Factor 1012 109 106 103 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12
Symbol T G M K d c m n P
Table 1- 3
Example 1- 1:
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Derived Quantity is derived from basic quantities through multiplication and division.
For example,
mass
Density kg m-3
volume
L
Velocity m s-1
t
velocity
Acceleration m s-2
time
1
Frequency s-1/hz
T
Momentum Mass x velocity kg ms-1
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The dimension of a physical quantity is a product of the basic physical dimensions each
raised to a rational power.
1. Each derive quantity in physic can be represent by basic quantity. The dimension
of a physical quantities is the relation between the physical quantity and the base
quantities
2. The Bracket [ ] meant The dimension of (pronounce its loudly) or the power of
base quantity of
Example :
[v] the dimension of velocity , this means that the power of base quantities in the
velocity.
Example 1- 3
Write the dimensions for the following physical quantity
(a) Acceleration
Solution:
v u LT 1 LT 1
a LT 2
(a) t T
Use of dimensions
To check the homogeneity of physical equations
Concept of homogeneous
The dimensions on both sides of an equation are the same.
Those equations which are not homogeneous are definitely wrong.
However, the homogeneous equation could be wrong due to the incomplete or has
extra terms.
The validity of a physical equation can only be confirmed experimentally.
In experiment, graphs have to be drawn then. A straight line graph shows the
correct equation and the non-linear graph is not the correct equation.
Deriving a physical equation
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An equation can be derived to relate a physical quantity to the variables that the
quantity depends on.
Example 1- 4
Determine the homogeneous of the equation v2 = u2 +2as.
Solution:
Left hand side :
[v2] = [v]2 = (LT-1)2 = L2 T-2
Conclusion ; the RHS dimension as same as the LHS dimension, meaning that the above
equation is homogenic.
Example 1- 5
From the observations speed of sound in medium maybe affected by density d, wavelength
, and Young Modulus E. Derive an equation for the speed of sound in the medium.
([E] = ML-1T-2)
Solution:
Its observe that vd a b E c suppose the a,b and c are dimensionless constant.
Then v kd a b E c
LHS : v LT 1
RHS :
d (ML
a 3 a
) M a L3a
L
b b
E (ML T
c 1 2 c
) M c L cT 2c
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d E M
a b c a c 3 a b
L T 2 c
So LHS RHS
LT 1 M a c L3a b T 2 c
Pairing the similar physical quantities Dimension indices of both sides.
LHS RHS
M0 Ma+c
L1 L-3a+b
T-1 T-2c
Table 1- 5
M: 0 a c
L : 1 3a c
T : 1 2 c
Solve the above equation :
1 1
a c
2 , b 0 and 2
1 1
v kd 2 0 E 2
Meaning that the equation of v is
E
vk
d
Example 1- 6
(a) Given below are the equation of the liquid flow inside the horizontal pipe.
(1) p Av W
2
BTg
p X
(2) v2
(3) p Cgv Y
Where;
W,X,Y have the dimension as same as pressure
A,B,C are the constant without dimension.
g represent gravitational acceleration.
T represent liquid surface tension (its dimension is MT-2)
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p (Nm-2) 2.0 103 1.5 103 1.2 103 0.7 103 0.3 103
v (m s-2) 1.0 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1
Table 1- 6
Equation (2)
Tg
2
X has no dimension so its should be term P and v have the same dimension.
Tg 2 2 1 1 2
v 2 MT LT L2T 2 ML T
Equation (3)
Y has no dimension so its should be term P and gv have the same dimension.
gv LT 2 ML3 LT 1 ML1T 3
(b) Verily we can conclude that equation (1) and equation (2) are dimensionally correct.
(i) Equation (1) and equation (2) have to be rearrange into y = mx + c
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BTg 1
p 2
X 2
(2) v meaning graph p vs v is should be a straight line
To confirm which equation is correct the we have to plot both of the graph
according to the data given in the table.
p (Nm-2) 2.0 103 1.5 103 1.2 103 0.7 103 0.3 103
v (m s-2) 1 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1
2
v 1 1.96 2.56 3.61 4.41
1
1.000 0.510 0.391 0.277 0.227
v2
Table 1- 7
P, Pressure(103)Nm-2
2.5
equation (1)
equation (2)
1.5
Linear (equation (1))
Log. (equation (2))
0.5
y = -0.5011x + 2.5
1
v2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Graph 1
From the graph its confirm that the equation (1) is correct because it is a linear graph with
negative gradient.
(ii) to find A ;
From the graph the gradient is -0.5011.
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0.5011
A 5 10 4
1.0 10 3
And
> A vector quantity is a physical quantity which has magnitude and direction.
For example, force, momentum, velocity , acceleration ....
In most cases in physic, the physic quantity is express in vector. If the number(magnitude)
can be operated through Subtract, Add, multiplication and fraction. Then the vector also can
be threat the same way except fraction, but its have to follow the rule that govern them.
Figure 1- 1
Principles of vectors
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Case two
The velocity of B relative to A = (VB - VA)=BA
= (3 - 10) ms
= -7 ms -1 (in backwards direction).
We observe that(VB - VA) and (VA - VB) are same magnitude but different direction.
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Lets the same object VA = 10 ms-1 (faster), then after a while its decrease into VA
= 3 ms-1. (slower), on the same axis.
So the change of the velocity is 3 ms-1 (final velocity) subtract with 10 ms-1 (initial
velocity) then its -7 m s-1 which negative sign mean that the object is reducing its
velocity.
Figure 1- 5
This method is used when there are information about angle and magnitudes of the
vector.
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Figure 1- 6
Example 1- 7
Figure 1- 7
A kite flies in still air is 4.0 ms-1. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant velocity of
the kite when the air flows across perpendicularly is 2.5 ms-1. If the distance of the kite is 30
m from the player, what is the time taken for the kite to fly? Calculate the height of the kite
from the ground.
Solution:
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2.5 cm
B C
4 cm 4.72 cm
A D
Scaled to 1 cm : 1 m s-1
Figure 1- 5
Draw a straight line from A to B with the length of 4 cm, (1 cm : 1 m s-1). And another line B
to C with the length of 2.5 cm. the angle of ABC is 90 degree. The resultant of the vector can
be measured from A to C, 4.72 cm.
This answered can be converted into 4.72 ms-1.
Using the protractor the angle of DAC is 58 degree. Meaning that the kite is moving at
speed of 4.71 m s-1 and 58 degree from the ground.
Example 1- 8
Figure 1- 6
Five coplanar forces act on a particle, as drown in Figure above. Draw a scaled force
polygon for these forces. State the magnitude and direction of the resultant of these forces.
Solution:
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45
D
5 cm
4 cm
45
2 cm
4 cm
F
G 3 cm
A
Scaled to 1 cm: 1 N
Figure 1- 7
Draw the polygon using a scaled 1 cm : 1N, refer to figure1- 6. The angle of the vector must
be referred to the figure 5 while connecting the head and tail of every vector.
The resultant of the vector can be measured using metre ruler from A to F and its length is
3.5 cm, meaning that 3.5 N
And its direction or angle, is 21 degree from the ground.
Resolving vector
The vector that is not on any axis have to be resolve into its component. Resolving vector
mean resolving :
1 This is the physic methode that is used to solve problem involving adding vector in physic
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(a) magnitude
(b) Direction
A vector R can be considered as the two vectors. R refers to the resultant vectors. There are
two mutually perpendicular component Rx and Ry
Resultant,R
Figure 1- 8
F x Fx1 Fx 2 Fx 4 ..............
and F y Fy1 Fy 2 Fy 4 ....
Resultant
arctan
Fy
Magnitude,
R F F
x
2
y
2
and Direction of R, F x
Example 1- 9
The figure 8 shows 3 forces F1, F2 and F3 acting on a point O. Calculate the resultant force
and the direction of resultant.
Figure 1- 9
Solution:
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Figure 1- 10
Magnitude,
R F F
x
2
y
2
R 3.33N 2 0.96 N 2
R 3.47 N
And
arctan
F y
Direction of R, F x
0.96N
arctan 16.08
3.33N
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Its have been discuss about subtraction and addition of the vector. From subtraction and
addition of vector we can explain most of the physical quantity. Now is about multiplication
of vectors. When two vectors were multiply the result is called product.
There are two kind of product produced :
1. Dot Product
2. Cross Product
Dot Product :The dot product is fundamentally a projection.
Figure 1- 11
The dot product of a vector with a unit vector is the projection of that vector in the direction
given by the unit vector. This leads to the geometric formula
r r r r
v . v cos
Furthermore, it follows immediately from the geometric definition that two vectors are
orthogonal if and only if their dot product vanishes, that is
r r
v . 0
Example 1- 10
Calculate the scalar product of vector F and s below.
F = 5N
= 60
S = 5M
Figure 1- 12
Solution:
F S (5 N )(5m) cos 60 12.5 Nm
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Figure 1- 13
whose magnitude is defined to be the area of the parallelogram. The direction of the cross
product is given by the right-hand rule, so that in the example shown v points into the
page.
v v sin
To determine the direction of the cross product we used the right hand rule. In mathematics
and physics, the right-hand rule is a common mnemonic for understanding notation
conventions for vectors in 3 dimensions. It was invented for use in electromagnetism by
British physicist John Ambrose Fleming in the late 19th century.
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Figure 1- 14
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Example 11
There are two vector a and b, calculate the a b.
b = 18 unit
a = 12 unit
Figure 1- 15
Solution:
a b (12)(18) sin 90 216
Magnitude,
Direction :
a
a b
Figure 1- 16
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(a) calculate the uncertainty in a derived quantity (a rigorous statistical treatment is not
required);
(b) write a derived quantity to an appropriate number of significant figures.
1.4.1 Error
VIM define the error as below:
error (of measurement) [VIM 3, 2.16] - measured quantity value minus a reference
quantity value
There are two type of error
(a) Systematic Error
Characteristics of systematic error in the measurement of a particular physical quantity:
-Its magnitude is constant.
-It causes the measured value to be always greater or always less than the true
value.
Corrected reading = direct reading - systematic Error
Sources of systematic Error:
- Zero Error of instrument.
- Incorrectly calibrated scale of instrument.
- Personal error of observer, for example reaction time of observer.
- Error due to certain assumption of physical conditions of surrounding for example,
g = 9.81 ms-2
Systematic error cannot be reduced or eliminated by taking repeated readings using the
same method, instrument and by the same observer.
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The surroundings and the instruments used are also sources of random error.
Instrumental Measurement
When handling the experiment the reading is given by the apparatus used, these apparatus
have their own uncertainty.
instrumental measurement uncertainty(VIM 3, 4.24) - the amount (often stated in the
form x) that along with the measured value, indicates the range in which the desired or
true value most likely lies. Instrumental measurement uncertainty is used in a Type B
evaluation of measurement uncertainty
Absolute Uncertainty is the smallest scale of the instrument or half of the smallest scale if its
can be determine easily.
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The smaller absolute uncertainty of the instrument is contribute to the high accuracy,
precision and sensitivity of the measuring system of the experiment.
a
- Mean value of Uncertainty of a, should be calculated this way
1. Calculated the deviation of every data given:
s1 a1 a
s2 a2 a
.
.
.
sn an a
2. Find the sum of deviation
1
s sn s1 s2 ..... sn
n
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s
s
3. find the mean of deviation n
Its known that the mean deviation is equally the same as the Uncertainty
of the mean value(true value).
Or
a s
i ii iii iv v vi
(d0.01)/c 1.55 1.52 1.54 1.53 1.54 1.53
m
Table 1- 11
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Note: calculating the uncertainty this way is refer to a single quantity and not involving with
the graph.
2. Secondary data are derived from primary data. Secondary data have to be
recorded to the correct number of significant figures. The number of significant figures
for secondary data may be the same (or one more than) the least number of
significant figures in the primary data. Measurement play a crucial role in physics, but
can never be perfectly precise.
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= 2.8 cm
1.15 1.13 1.16 1.14 1.13
cm
3. c= 5
= 1.142 cm
= 1.14 cm
Note: Sometimes the final answer may be obtained only after performing several
intermediate calculations. In this case, results produced in intermediate
calculations need not be rounded off. Round only the final answer.
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R
R 100%
(b) The percentage Uncertainty of R : R
3. Consequential Uncertainties/Uncertainty- to state the Uncertainty of a derive
quantities
Given
R 1 R1 = Data Absolute Data Uncertainty = 51.2 0.1
R 2 R2 = Data Absolute Data Uncertainty = 30.1 0.1
(a) Addition
W = R1 + R2 = 51.2 + 30.1 = 81.3
W = R1 + R2 = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2
So W W = 81.3 0.2
(b) Subtraction
S = R1 - R2 = 51.2 - 30.1 = 21.1
S = R1 + R2 = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2
So S S = 21.1 0.2
(c) Product
P = R1 R2 = 51.2 30.1 =1541.12
P R 1 R 2
From P R 1 R2
R1 R 2
P P
R1 R 2
0.1 0.1
P 1541 .12
51.2 30.1
P 7.71
P P = 1541.12 7.71
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(d) Quotient
R1 51.2
Q 1.70
R2 30.1
Q R1 R 2
From
Q R 1 R2
R1 R 2
Q Q
R1 R 2
0.1 0.1
Q 1. 7
51.2 30.1
Q 0.01
Q Q = 1.70 0.01
Working example:
1. Aim : to determine the value of B
2. Theory :
B is given by
( a b) d 2
B
q T
3. Precaution : B have a combine uncertainty from various apparatus (quantity)
4. Choosing Apparatus and Determine the absolute uncertainty:
Uncertainty
Quantity Instruments
(Absolute/actual)
a,b meter ruler 1 cm
q Stopwatch(Digital) 0.01 s
Table 1- 12
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b=(1.65 0.01) m,
d=(0.001060.00003)m,
q = (4.28 0.05) s
T = (3.7 0.1) x 103 s.
6. Determine the quantity and its uncertainty
(a) Find B use the equation given
( a b) d 2
B
q T
(1.83m 1.65m)0.00106m 2
4.28s 3.7 10 3 s
B = 7.8 x 10-11 m3 s-
1
in T because a square root is a power of 2 .
This gives:
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1
Uncertainty percentage in B = 11% + 2(3%) + 1.2% + 2 (3%) = 19.7%
20%
This gives B = (7.8 1.6) x 10-11 m3 s-1.
Operator Uncertainty
addition and subtraction ADD absolute uncertainties
multiplication and division ADD percentage uncertainties
powers Multiply the percentage Uncertainty by the power
Table 1- 14
1. The usual quantities that are deduced from a straight line graph are
(a) the gradient of the graph m, and the intercept on the y-axis or the x-axis
(b) the intercepts on the axes.
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2. The straight line graph that is drawn must pass through the centroid
Figure . The best line is the straight line which has the plotted points closest to
it. This line will give m the best gradient together with c.
with the least gradient m min , are then drawn. For a straight line graph where
the intercept is not the origin , the three lines drawn must all pass through the
4. To find the Uncertainty for the gradient and intercept used this equation
m max m min c c min
m c max
2 and 2
Working Example
1. Aim
To determine the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum.
2. Theory : the theory of the simple pendulum, the period T is related to the
length l, and the acceleration due to gravity g by the equation
l l
T 2 4 2 g 4 2 2
g Hence, the acceleration due to gravity, T
2
A straight line graph would be obtained if a graph of T against l is plotted.
3. Precaution :
The time t for 50 oscillations of the pendulum is measured for different lengths
l of the pendulum. The period T is calculated using
t
T
50
4. Choosing Apparatus and Determine the absolute uncertainty:
Uncertainty
Instruments
(Absolute/actual)
Millimetre ruler 0.1 cm
Stopwatch (analogue) 0.1 s
Table 1- 15
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(a) Name or symbol of each quantity and its unit are stated in the
heading of each column. Example: Length and cm, and T(s).
The Uncertainty for the primary data, such as length and t time
for 50 oscillations, is also written. Example: (l 0.05) cm and (t
0.1)s.
(b) All primary data, such as length and time, should be recorded to
reflect the precision (absolute uncertainty) of the instrument
used.
For example, the length of the pendulum l is measured using a
metre rule. hence it should be recorded to two decimal places
of a cm, that is 10.00 cm, and not 10 cm or 10.0 cm.
The time for 50 oscillations t is recorded to 0.1 s, that is 32.0 s
and not 32 s.
The average value of t is also calculated to 0.1 s. The average
value of 31.9 s and 32.0 s is recorded as 32.0 s and not 31.95
s.
(c) The secondary data such as T and T2, are calculated from the
primary data. Secondary data should be calculated to the same
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(d) For a straight line graph, there should be at least six point
plotted. If the graph is a curve, then more points should be
plotted, especially near the maximum and minimum points.
From the graph we can determine the intercept and the gradient, both of them also have
their own uncertainty. In order to find the uncertainty of intercept and gradient , its have to
calculate the centroid point. Centroid point is the average reading of both in x-axis and y-
axis4.
l i
T i
2
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Figure 1- 18
l
g 4 2
from the equation T2
l
T 2 4 2
g
Hence a graph of T 2 against l is a straight line, passing through the origin,
and gradient,
4 2
m
g
From the graph,
gradient of best line,
2.00s 2
m
0.50m
4.00s 2m 1
Maximum gradient,
3.05s 2
mmax
0.75m
4.07s 2 m 1
Minimum gradient,
2.35s 2
mmin
0.60m
3.92s 2 m 1
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m
mmax mmin
(4.07 3.92)s 2m 1 0.15
0.075s 2 m 1
2 2 2
Fractional Uncertainty in the gradient
m 0.075
0.01875 0.0188
m 4.00
percentage Uncertainty in gradient
m
100% 1.88%
m
4 2 4 2
g 9.870ms 2
Acceleration due to gravity, m 4.00
Hence the percentage Uncertainty in g is the sum of the percentage
Uncertainty in m only because 42 is a constant.
Therefore percentage Uncertainty in gravity,g = Uncertainty percentage
= 1.88% according to above equation
Hence acceleration due to gravity,
Written in percentage Uncertainty
g = (9.8701.88%) m s2
also can be write in absolute Uncertainty
g 1.88% 9.870 0.2ms 2
g = (9.9 0.2) m s2 Since there is Uncertainty in the second significant figure,
the value of g is given to two significant figures.
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