F.

422 TX.10
CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES

67. If f 0 is continuous and f 0 (t) 6= 0 for a t b, then either f 0 (t) > 0 for all t in [a, b] or f 0 (t) < 0 for all t in [a, b]. Thus, f

is monotonic (in fact, strictly increasing or strictly decreasing) on [a, b]. It follows that f has an inverse. Set F = g f 1 ,

that is, define F by F (x) = g(f 1 (x)). Then x = f(t) f 1 (x) = t, so y = g(t) = g(f 1 (x)) = F (x).
      
dy d d dy 1 d dy dy dy/dt y
69. (a) = tan1 = tan1 = . But = =
dx dt dt dx 1 + (dy/dx)2 dt dx dx dx/dt x
     
d dy d y yx x y d 1 yx x y x
y xy
= = = = 2 . Using the Chain Rule, and the
dt dx dt x x 2 dt 1 + (y/ 2
x) x 2 x + y 2
] tt t 
 dx 2  dy 2 dx 2
 2  2 1/2
fact that s = dt + dt dt ds dt = dt + dy dt = x + y 2 , we have that
0
     
d d/dt x
y x y 1 x
y x y  d   x y  |x
y x y|
. So   =  y x
ds
=
ds/dt
=
x 2 + y 2 (x 2 + y 2 )1/2
=
(x 2 + y 2 )3/2
=  ds   (x 2 + y 2 )3/2  = (x 2 + y 2 )3/2 .

dy d2 y
(b) x = x and y = f (x) x = 1, x
= 0 and y = , y = .
dx dx2
   2 
1 (d2 y/dx2 ) 0 (dy/dx) d y/dx2 
So = = .
[1 + (dy/dx)2 ]3/2 [1 + (dy/dx)2 ]3/2

71. x = sin x = 1 cos x = sin , and y = 1 cos y = sin y = cos . Therefore,

   
cos cos2 sin2  cos (cos2 + sin2 ) |cos 1|
= = = . The top of the arch is
[(1 cos )2 + sin2 ]3/2 (1 2 cos + cos2 + sin2 )3/2 (2 2 cos )3/2

characterized by a horizontal tangent, and from Example 2(b) in Section 10.2, the tangent is horizontal when = (2n 1),

|cos 1| |1 1| 1
so take n = 1 and substitute = into the expression for : = = = .
(2 2 cos )3/2 [2 2(1)]3/2 4

73. The coordinates of T are (r cos , r sin ). Since T P was unwound from

arc T A, T P has length r. Also P T Q = P T R QT R = 12 ,

 
so P has coordinates x = r cos + r cos 12 = r(cos + sin ),
 
y = r sin r sin 12 = r(sin cos ).

10.3 Polar Coordinates

   
1. (a) 2,
3 By adding 2 to 3,

we obtain the point 2, 7 3
. The direction
 
opposite
3
is 4
3
, so 2, 43
is a point that satisfies the r < 0
requirement.
F.

TX.10 SECTION 10.3 POLAR COORDINATES 423

     5 
(b) 1, 3
4 r > 0: 1, 3
4 + 2 = 1, 4
   
r < 0: 1, 34
+ = 1, 4

     
(c) 1, 2 r > 0: (1), 2 + = 1, 3
2
   
r < 0: 1, 2 + 2 = 1, 5
2

3. (a) x = 1 cos = 1(1) = 1 and

y = 1 sin = 1(0) = 0 give us
the Cartesian coordinates (1, 0).

   
(b) x = 2 cos 2
3
= 2 12 = 1 and
   
y = 2 sin 2
3
= 2 23 = 3
 
give us 1, 3 .

 
(c) x = 2 cos 3
4 = 2 2
2
= 2 and
 
y = 2 sin 3
4
= 2 22 = 2
 
gives us 2, 2 .

s  
5. (a) x = 2 and y = 2 r= 22 + (2)2 = 2 2 and = tan1 2 2
= 4 . Since (2, 2) is in the fourth
   
quadrant, the polar coordinates are (i) 2 2, 7
4
and (ii) 2 2, 3
4
.

t  2    
(b) x = 1 and y = 3 r = (1)2 + 3 = 2 and = tan1 13 = 2
3
. Since 1, 3 is in the second
   
quadrant, the polar coordinates are (i) 2, 2
3
and (ii) 2, 5
3
.
F.

424 TX.10
CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES

7. The curves r = 1 and r = 2 represent circles with center 9. The region satisfying 0 r < 4 and /2 < /6
O and radii 1 and 2. The region in the plane satisfying does not include the circle r = 4 nor the line =
6
.
1 r 2 consists of both circles and the shaded region
between them in the figure.

11. 2 < r < 3, 5

3
7
3

   
13. Converting the polar coordinates (2, /3) and (4, 2/3) to Cartesian coordinates gives us 2 cos 3 , 2 sin
3
= 1, 3 and
   
4 cos 2
3
, 4 sin 2
3
= 2, 2 3 . Now use the distance formula.
t t  2
d= (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 = (2 1)2 + 2 3 3 = 9 + 3 = 12 = 2 3

s
15. r = 2 x2 + y 2 = 2 x2 + y 2 = 4, a circle of radius 2 centered at the origin.
 2  2  
17. r = 3 sin r2 = 3r sin x2 + y 2 = 3y x2 + y 32 = 32 , a circle of radius 3
2
centered at 0, 32 .

The first two equations are actually equivalent since r2 = 3r sin r(r 3 sin ) = 0 r = 0 or r = 3 sin . But
r = 3 sin gives the point r = 0 (the pole) when = 0. Thus, the single equation r = 3 sin is equivalent to the compound
condition (r = 0 or r = 3 sin ).

1
19. r = csc r= r sin = 1 y = 1, a horizontal line 1 unit above the x-axis.
sin
21. x = 3 r cos = 3 r = 3/ cos r = 3 sec .

cos
23. x = y 2 r cos = r2 sin2 cos = r sin2 r= = cot csc .
sin2

25. x2 + y 2 = 2cx r2 = 2cr cos r2 2cr cos = 0 r(r 2c cos ) = 0 r = 0 or r = 2c cos .

r = 0 is included in r = 2c cos when =
2
+ n, so the curve is represented by the single equation r = 2c cos .
 
27. (a) The description leads immediately to the polar equation = 6,

and the Cartesian equation y = tan 6 x = 1
3
x is

slightly more difficult to derive.

(b) The easier description here is the Cartesian equation x = 3.
F.

TX.10 SECTION 10.3 POLAR COORDINATES 425

29. = /6 31. r = sin r2 = r sin x2 + y 2 = y

 2  2
x2 + y 12 = 12 . The reasoning here is the same
 
as in Exercise 17. This is a circle of radius 1
2
centered at 0, 12 .

33. r = 2(1 sin ). This curve is a cardioid. 35. r = , 0

37. r = 4 sin 3

39. r = 2 cos 4

41. r = 1 2 sin
F.

426 TX.10
CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES

43. r2 = 9 sin 2

3 
45. r = 2 cos 2

47. r = 1 + 2 cos 2

49. For = 0, , and 2, r has its minimum value of about 0.5. For =
2
and 3
2
, r attains its maximum value of 2.
We see that the graph has a similar shape for 0 and 2.

51. x = (r) cos = (4 + 2 sec ) cos = 4 cos + 2. Now, r

   3 +
(4 + 2 sec ) 2
or 2
[since we need only

consider 0 < 2], so lim x = lim (4 cos + 2) = 2. Also,

r /2
 +  3 
r (4 + 2 sec ) 2
or 2
, so
lim x = lim (4 cos + 2) = 2. Therefore, lim x = 2 x = 2 is a vertical asymptote.
r /2+ r
F.

TX.10 SECTION 10.3 POLAR COORDINATES 427

53. To show that x = 1 is an asymptote we must prove lim x = 1.

r

x = (r) cos = (sin tan ) cos = sin2 . Now, r sin tan

 
2 , so lim x = lim sin2 = 1. Also, r sin tan
r /2

 +
2 , so lim x = lim sin2 = 1. Therefore, lim x = 1 x = 1 is
r /2+ r

a vertical asymptote. Also notice that x = sin2 0 for all , and x = sin2 1 for all . And x 6= 1, since the curve is not

defined at odd multiples of

2
. Therefore, the curve lies entirely within the vertical strip 0 x < 1.

55. (a) We see that the curve r = 1 + c sin crosses itself at the origin, where r = 0 (in fact the inner loop corresponds to

negative r-values,) so we solve the equation of the limaon for r = 0 c sin = 1 sin = 1/c. Now if

|c| < 1, then this equation has no solution and hence there is no inner loop. But if c < 1, then on the interval (0, 2)

the equation has the two solutions = sin1 (1/c) and = sin1 (1/c), and if c > 1, the solutions are

= + sin1 (1/c) and = 2 sin1 (1/c). In each case, r < 0 for between the two solutions, indicating a loop.

(b) For 0 < c < 1, the dimple (if it exists) is characterized by the fact that y has a local maximum at = 3
2
. So we determine

d2 y
for what c-values is negative at = 3
, since by the Second Derivative Test this indicates a maximum:
d2 2

dy d2 y
y = r sin = sin + c sin2 = cos + 2c sin cos = cos + c sin 2 = sin + 2c cos 2.
d d2
At = 3
2
, this is equal to (1) + 2c(1) = 1 2c, which is negative only for c > 12 . A similar argument shows that

for 1 < c < 0, y only has a local minimum at =

2
(indicating a dimple) for c < 12 .

57. r = 2 sin x = r cos = 2 sin cos = sin 2, y = r sin = 2 sin2

dy dy/d 2 2 sin cos sin 2

= = = = tan 2
dx dx/d cos 2 2 cos 2

dy  
When = , = tan 2 = tan = 3. [Another method: Use Equation 3.]
6 dx 6 3

59. r = 1/ x = r cos = (cos )/, y = r sin = (sin )/

dy dy/d sin (1/2 ) + (1/) cos 2 sin + cos

= = =
dx dx/d cos (1/2 ) (1/) sin 2 cos sin

dy 0 + (1)
When = , = = = .
dx (1) (0) 1

61. r = cos 2 x = r cos = cos 2 cos , y = r sin = cos 2 sin

dy dy/d cos 2 cos + sin (2 sin 2)

= =
dx dx/d cos 2 ( sin ) + cos (2 sin 2)
   
dy 0 2/2 + 2/2 (2) 2
When = , =     = = 1.
4 dx 0 2/2 + 2/2 (2) 2
F.

428 TX.10
CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES

63. r = 3 cos x = r cos = 3 cos cos , y = r sin = 3 cos sin

dy
d
= 3 sin + 3 cos = 3 cos 2 = 0 2 = or
2 2
2
= or
3
2

4
3
4
.
    k  l
So the tangent is horizontal at 32 , 4 and 32 , 3
4
same as 32 , 4 .
 
dx
d
= 6 sin cos = 3 sin 2 = 0 2 = 0 or = 0 or
2
. So the tangent is vertical at (3, 0) and 0, 2 .

65. r = 1 + cos x = r cos = cos (1 + cos ), y = r sin = sin (1 + cos )

dy
d = (1 + cos ) cos sin2 = 2 cos2 + cos 1 = (2 cos 1)(cos + 1) = 0 cos = 1
2 or 1
   
= 3 , , or 5
3
horizontal tangent at 32 , 3 , (0, ), and 32 , 5
3
.
dx
d = (1 + cos ) sin cos sin = sin (1 + 2 cos ) = 0 sin = 0 or cos = 12
   
= 0, , 2
3
, or 4
3
vertical tangent at (2, 0), 12 , 2
3
, and 12 , 4
3
.
dy/d
Note that the tangent is horizontal, not vertical when = , since lim = 0.
dx/d
67. r = 2 + sin x = r cos = (2 + sin ) cos , y = r sin = (2 + sin ) sin
dy
d = (2 + sin ) cos + sin cos = cos 2(1 + sin ) = 0 cos = 0 or sin = 1
   
= 2 or 3
2
horizontal tangent at 3, 2 and 1, 3 2
.
dx
d = (2 + sin )( sin ) + cos cos = 2 sin sin2 + 1 sin2 = 2 sin2 2 sin + 1
 
2 4+8 22 3 1 3 1+ 3
sin = = = < 1
4 4 2 2
     
1 = sin1 12 + 12 3 and 2 = 1 vertical tangent at 32 + 12 3, 1 and 32 + 12 3, 2 .
  
Note that r(1 ) = 2 + sin sin1 12 + 12 3 = 2 12 + 12 3 = 32 + 12 3.

69. r = a sin + b cos r2 = ar sin + br cos x2 + y 2 = ay + bx

 2  2  2  2  2  2
x2 bx + 12 b + y 2 ay + 12 a = 12 b + 12 a x 12 b + y 12 a = 14 (a2 + b2 ), and this is a circle
 
with center 12 b, 12 a and radius 12 a2 + b2 .

Note for Exercises 7176: Maple is able to plot polar curves using the polarplot command, or using the coords=polar option in a regular
plot command. In Mathematica, use PolarPlot. In Derive, change to Polar under Options State. If your graphing device cannot
plot polar equations, you must convert to parametric equations. For example, in Exercise 71, x = r cos = [1 + 2 sin(/2)] cos ,
y = r sin = [1 + 2 sin(/2)] sin .

71. r = 1 + 2 sin(/2). The parameter interval is [0, 4]. 73. r = esin 2 cos(4). The parameter interval is [0, 2].
F.

TX.10 SECTION 10.3 POLAR COORDINATES 429

75. r = 2 5 sin(/6). The parameter interval is [6, 6].

 
77. It appears that the graph of r = 1 + sin
6
is the same shape as

the graph of r = 1 + sin , but rotated counterclockwise about the

 
origin by 6 . Similarly, the graph of r = 1 + sin 3 is rotated by

3.

In general, the graph of r = f ( ) is the same shape as that of

r = f (), but rotated counterclockwise through about the origin.

That is, for any point (r0 , 0 ) on the curve r = f (), the point
(r0 , 0 + ) is on the curve r = f ( ), since r0 = f(0 ) = f ((0 + ) ).

79. (a) r = sin n.

n=2 n=3 n=4 n=5

From the graphs, it seems that when n is even, the number of loops in the curve (called a rose) is 2n, and when n is odd,
the number of loops is simply n. This is because in the case of n odd, every point on the graph is traversed twice, due to
the fact that
+
sin n if n is even
r( + ) = sin[n( + )] = sin n cos n + cos n sin n =
sin n if n is odd

(b) The graph of r = |sin n| has 2n loops whether n is odd or even, since r( + ) = r().

n=2 n=3 n=4 n=5

F.

430 TX.10
CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES

1 a cos
81. r = . We start with a = 0, since in this case the curve is simply the circle r = 1.
1 + a cos

As a increases, the graph moves to the left, and its right side becomes flattened. As a increases through about 0.4, the right
side seems to grow a dimple, which upon closer investigation (with narrower -ranges) seems to appear at a 0.42 [the

actual value is 2 1]. As a 1, this dimple becomes more pronounced, and the curve begins to stretch out horizontally,
until at a = 1 the denominator vanishes at = , and the dimple becomes an actual cusp. For a > 1 we must choose our
parameter interval carefully, since r as 1 + a cos 0 cos1 (1/a). As a increases from 1, the curve
splits into two parts. The left part has a loop, which grows larger as a increases, and the right part grows broader vertically,

and its left tip develops a dimple when a 2.42 [actually, 2 + 1]. As a increases, the dimple grows more and more
pronounced. If a < 0, we get the same graph as we do for the corresponding positive a-value, but with a rotation through
about the pole, as happened when c was replaced with c in Exercise 80.

a=0 a = 0.3 a = 0.41, || 0.5

a = 0.42,|| 0.5 a = 0.9, || 0.5 a = 1, || 0.1

a = 2.41, | | 0.2

a=2 a=4

a = 2.42, | | 0.2
F.

TX.10SECTION 10.4 AREAS AND LENGTHS IN POLAR COORDINATES 431

dy dy/d
tan tan
tan tan dx/d
83. tan = tan( ) = = dx =
1 + tan tan dy dy/d
1+ tan 1+ tan
dx dx/d
   
dy dx dr dr sin2
tan sin + r cos tan cos r sin r cos + r
d d
= d d =     = cos
dx
+
dy
tan
dr dr dr dr sin2
cos r sin + tan sin + r cos cos +
d d d d d d cos
r cos2 + r sin2 r
= =
dr dr dr/d
cos2 + sin2
d d

10.4 Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates

] ] ]
/4
1 2
/4 /4  
1 5 /4
 5
1. r = 2 , 0
4
. A= 2
r d = 1
2
(2 )2 d = 1 4
2
d = 10
0 = 1
10 4
= 1
10,240
5
0 0 0

3. r = sin ,
3
2
3
.
] ]
2/3 2/3  2/3  2 
A= 1
2
sin2 d = 1
4
(1 cos 2) d = 1
4
1
2
sin 2 /3
= 1
4 3
1
2
sin 4
3

3
+ 1
2
sin 2
3
/3 /3
k    l  
1 2
= 4 3 12 23
3 + 1
2 2
3
= 1
4

3 + 2
3
=
12 + 8
3

] ]  2 ]
2
1 2
2 2 1 2
5. r = , 0 2. A = 2
r d = 1
2
d = 1
2
d = 4
2 0
= 2
0 0 0

7. r = 4 + 3 sin , 2
2
.
] /2 ] /2 ] /2
A= 1
2
((4 + 3 sin )2 d = 1
2
(16 + 24 sin + 9 sin2 ) d = 1
2
(16 + 9 sin2 ) d [by Theorem 5.5.7(b)]
/2 /2 /2
] /2  
= 1
2 2 16 + 9 12 (1 cos 2) d [by Theorem 5.5.7(a)]
0
] /2 
41 9
  /2  41 
= 2
2
cos 2 d = 41
2
9
4
sin 2 0
= 4
0 (0 0) = 41
4
0

9. The area above the polar axis is bounded by r = 3 cos for = 0

to = /2 [not ]. By symmetry,
U /2 1 2
U /2 U /2
A=2 0 2r d = (3 cos )2 d = 32 0 cos2 d
0
U /2 1
 /2   
=9 0 2
(1 + cos 2) d = 92 + 12 sin 2 0 = 92 2 + 0 (0 + 0) = 9
4
 3 2
Also, note that this is a circle with radius 32 , so its area is 2
= 9
4
.

11. The curve goes through the pole when = /4, so well find the area for

0 /4 and multiply it by 4.
U /4 U /4
A = 4 0 21 r2 d = 2 0 (4 cos 2) d
U /4  /4
=8 0
cos 2 d = 4 sin 2 0 = 4