Hybrid Car Major

Hybrid car using renewable energy sources 1
UNDERTAKING
I declare that the work presented in this project report titled hybrid car
using renewable energy Sources submitted to the electrical and electronics
engineering department, of Beehive college of engineering and technology
for the award of the bachelor of technology degree in electrical and
electronics engineering is my original work. I have not plagiarized or
submitted the same work for the award of any other degree. In case this
undertaken is found incorrect, I accept that my degree may be
unconditionally withdrawn.
May 2017
DEHRADUN
(LIMADEBBARMA)
(VIJAY LAKSHMI KHAJURIA)
(ZAIN UL ABDIN)
(SAIMA YOUSUF)
CERTIFICATE
Certified that ,
LIMA DEBBARMA (640540108002),
BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

VIJYA LAKSHMI KHAJURIA (640540108005),
ZAIN-UL-ABDIN (640540108007),
SAIMA YOUSUF (640540108006)
has carried out the project work presented in this report entitled hybrid car using renewable
energy for the award of bachelor of technology from beehive college of engineering and
technology ,Dehradun,under my supervision.The report embodies results of original work ,and
studies are carried out by the student themselves and the contents of the report do not form the
basis for the award of any other degree to the candidate or to anybody else from this or any
other university /institute.
Mr.SHIVANAND PANDAY
(H.O.D OF E.E.E)
Abstract
The project here is all about Power-Generating Shocker The Power-Generating

Shocker converts kinetic energy into electricity through the use of a Linear
Motion Electromagnetic System.
There are at least two entities who have spent time/resources developing this
concept: Goldner et al.; and Oxenreider.
An electromagnetic linear generator and regenerative shocker is

disclosed which converts variable frequency, repetitive intermittent
linear displacement motion to useful electrical power. The innovative
device provides for superposition of radial components of the magnetic
flux density from a plurality of adjacent magnets to produce a
maximum average radial magnetic flux density within a coil winding
array. Due to the vector
2 superposition of the magnetic fields and
magnetic flux from a plurality of magnets, a nearly four-fold increase in
magnetic flux density is achieved over conventional electromagnetic
generator designs with a potential sixteen-fold increase in power

generating capacity. As a regenerative shocker , the disclosed device is

capable of converting parasitic displacement motion and vibrations
encountered under normal urban driving conditions to a useful
electrical energy for powering vehicles and accessories or charging
batteries in electric and fossil fuel powered vehicles. The disclosed
device is capable of high power generation capacity and energy
conversion efficiency with minimal weight penalty for improved fuel
efficiency.
CONTENTS
1.INTRODUCTION
2.THEORY
.Regenerative shocker
.Sound energy
.Wind energy
.Solar energy
3.COMPONENTS USED
.Dynamo . Car structure sunpad sheet and sprayed. .connecting wires
.Dc gear motor .Diode . solar panel
.Capicitors .Tyer
.Rack $Pinion .Speaker

3
.Wind turbine .Battery
.Transformer .sensor

. bumper
4.DISADVANTAGES
5.ADVANTAGES
INTRODUCTION
The project we are doing on the topic "hybrid car", consisting of

renewable energy sun,noise ,wind etc as a sources of energy available .
The circuit is design using various components as required,solar panel

to store solar energy, speaker use to store noise energy ,fan for storing
wind energy ,shocker also stores energy ,it is a four way energy hybrid car.
4
Hybrid cars are todays demand since non-renewable energy is decreasing
day by day .Our project will show the complete ways and means how we
can use renewable energy in cars and other vehicles. The information

given under gives the basic idea about hybrid cars used in the world.
Part of a series about
Sustainable energy
Energy conservation
Cogeneration
Efficient energy use
Green building
Heat pump
Low-carbon power
Microgeneration
Passive solar building design
Renewable energy
Anaerobic digestion
Geothermal
Hydroelectricity
Solar
Tidal
5
Wind
Sustainable transport

Carbon-neutral fuel
Electric vehicle
Fossil fuel phase-out
Green vehicle
Plug-in hybrid
Sustainable development portal

Renewable energy portal
Environment portal
A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct types of power, such as internal
combustion engine plus electric motor,[1] e.g. in diesel-electric trains using
diesel engines and electricity from overhead lines, and submarines that use
diesels when surfaced and batteries when submerged. Other means to store
energy include pressurized fluid in hydraulic hybrids.
Power
Power sources for hybrid vehicles include:
Coal, wood or other solid combustibles
Compressed or liquefied natural gas
Petrol (gasoline) or Diesel fuel

6
Human powered e.g. pedaling or rowing
Electromagnetic fields, Radio waves

Electric batteries/capacitors
Overhead electricity
Hydraulic accumulator
Hydrogen
Flywheel
Solar
Wind
Vehicle type
A biodiesel hybrid bus in Montreal, Canada

Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles
Mopeds, electric bicycles, and even electric kick scooters are a simple form of
a hybrid, powered by an internal combustion engine or electric motor and the
rider's muscles. Early prototype motorcycles in the late 19th century used the
same principle.
In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor torques are mechanically
coupled at the pedal or one of the wheels, e.g. using a hub motor, a roller
pressing onto a tire, or a connection to a wheel using a transmission
element. Most motorized bicycles, mopeds are of this type.[2]
In a series hybrid bicycle (SHB) (a kind of chainless bicycle) the user
pedals a generator, charging
7
a battery or feeding the motor, which delivers
all of the torque required. They are commercially available, being simple in
theory and manufacturing.[3]

The first published prototype of an SHB is by Augustus Kinzel (US Patent

3'884'317) in 1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the
Electrilite[4] SHB with power electronics allowing regenerative braking and
pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Muller designed and built a
"FahrradmitelektromagnetischemAntrieb" for his 1995 diploma thesis. In 1996
JrgBlatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University of Applied Sciences built
an SHB and in 1998 modified a Leitra tricycle (European patent EP 1165188).
Until 2005 they built several prototype SH tricycles and quadricycles.[5] In
1999 HaraldKutzke described an "active bicycle": the aim is to approach the
ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic compensation.
A series hybrid electric-petroleum bicycle (SHEPB) is powered by
pedals, batteries, a petrol generator, or plug-in charger - providing
flexibility and range enhancements over electric-only bicycles.
A SHEPB prototype made by David Kitson in Australia [6] in 2014 used a
lightweight brushless DC electric motor from an aerial drone and small hand-
tool sized internal combustion engine, and a 3D printed drive system and
lightweight housing, altogether weighing less than 4.5 kg. Active cooling keeps
plastic parts from softening. The prototype uses a regular electric bicycle
charge port.
Heavy vehicles
Bus Rapid Transit of Metz, a diesel-electric hybrid driving system by Van

Hool[7]
Hybrid power trains use diesel-electric or turbo-electric to power railway
locomotives, buses, heavy goods vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and
ships. A diesel/turbine engine8 drives an electric generator or hydraulic pump,
which powers electric/hydraulic motor(s) - strictly an electric/hydraulic

transmission (not a hybrid), unless it can accept power from outside. With large
vehicles conversion losses decrease, and the advantages in distributing power

through wires or pipes rather than mechanical elements become more

prominent, especially when powering multiple drives e.g. driven wheels or
propellers. Until recently most heavy vehicles had little secondary energy
storage, e.g. batteries/hydraulic accumulators excepting non-
nuclear submarines, one of the oldest production hybrids, running on diesels
while surfaced and batteries when submerged. Both series and parallel setups
were used in WW2 submarines.
Rail transport
East Japan Railway Company HB-E300 series

Europe
The new Autorail grandecapacit (AGC or high-capacity railcar) built by the
Canadian companyBombardier for service in France is diesel/electric motors,
using 1500 or 25000 V on different rail systems.[8] It was tested in Rotterdam,
the Netherlands with Railfeeding, a Genesse and Wyoming company.
China
The First Hybrid Evaluating locomotive was designed by rail research
center MATRAI in 1999 and built in 2000. It was a G12 locomotive upgraded
with batteries, a 200 kW diesel generator and 4 AC motors.
Japan
Japan's first hybrid train with significant energy storage is the KiHa E200, with
roof-mounted lithium ion batteries.[9]
India
Indian railway launched one9 of its kind CNG-Diesel hybrid trains in January
2015. The train has a 1400 hp engine which uses fumigation technology.
[how?]
The first of these train is set to run on the 81 km long Rewari-Rohtak

route.[10] CNG is less-polluting alternative for diesel and petrol and is popular
as an alternative fuel in India.
NorthAmerica
In the US, General Electric made a locomotive with sodium - nickel
chloride (Na-NiCl2) battery storage. They expect 10% fuel economy.
Variant diesel electric locomotive include the Green Goat (GG) and Green
Kid (GK) switching/yard engines built by Canada's Railpower Technologies,
with lead acid (Pba) batteries and 1000 to 2000 hp electric motors, and a new
clean burning ~160 hp diesel generator. No fuel is wasted for idling ~60
85% of the time for these type locomotives. It is unclear if regenerative braking
is used; but in principle it is easily utilized.
Since these engines typically need extra weight for traction purposes anyway
the battery pack's weight is a negligible penalty.[citation needed] The diesel generator
and batteries are normally built on an existing "retired" "yard" locomotive's
frame. The existing motors and running gear are all rebuilt and reused. Fuel
savings of 4060% and up to 80% pollution reductions are claimed over a
"typical" older switching/yard engine. The advantages hybrid cars have for
frequent starts and stops and idle periods apply to typical switching yard use.
[12]
"Green Goat" locomotives have been purchased by Canadian Pacific
Railway, BNSF Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway, andUnion Pacific
Railroad among others.
Cranes
Railpower Technologies engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems are
testing a hybrid diesel electric power unit with battery storage for use
in Rubber Tyred Gantry (RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are typically used for
loading and unloading shipping containers onto trains or trucks in ports and
container storage yards. The energy used to lift the containers can be partially
regained when they are lowered. Diesel fuel and emission reductions of 50
70% are predicted by Railpower engineers.[13] First systems are expected to be
operational in 2007.[14]
10

Road transport, commercial vehicles
2008 GMC Yukon hybrid version

Hybrid systems are coming into use for trucks, buses and other heavy highway
vehicles. Small fleet sizes and installation costs are compensated by fuel
savings,[15].[needs update] With advances such as higher capacity, lowered battery
cost etc. Toyota, Ford, GM and others are introducing hybrid pickups and
SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company recently introduced the Kenworth T270
Class 6 that for city usage seems to be competitive.[16][17] FedEx and others are
investing in hybrid delivery vehicles particularly for city use where hybrid
technology may pay off first.[18] As of December 2013 FedEx is trialling two
delivery trucks with Wrightspeed electric motors and diesel generators; the
retrofit kits are claimed to pay for themselves in a few years. The diesel
engines run at a constant RPM for peak efficiency.[19]
In 1978 students at Minneapolis, Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational Technical
Center, converted aVolkswagen Beetle to a petro-hydraulic hybrid with off-the
shelf components. A car rated at 32 mpg was returning 75 mpg with the 60 hp
engine replaced by a 16 hp engine, and reached 70 mph.[20] In the 1990s,
engineers at EPAs National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory developed
a petro-hydraulic powertrain for a typical American sedan car. The test car
achieved over 80 mpg on combined EPA city/highway driving cycles.
Acceleration was 0-60 mph in 8 seconds, using a 1.9 liter diesel engine. No
lightweight materials were used. The EPA estimated that produced in high
volumes the hydraulic components would add only $700 to the cost. [21] Under
EPA testing, a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 mpg
(7.4 L/100 km) City, and 22 mpg (11 L/100 km) highway.[21][22] UPS currently
[23]
has two trucks in service using
11 this technology.
Military off-road vehicles

Since 1985, the US military has been testing serial hybrid Humvees[24][25] and
have found them to deliver faster acceleration, a stealthmode with low thermal
signature/ near silent operation, and greater fuel economy.
Ships
Ships with both mast-mounted sails and steam engines were an early form of
hybrid vehicle. Another example is the diesel-electricsubmarine. This runs on
batteries when submerged and the batteries can be re-charged by the diesel
engine when the craft is on the surface.
Newer hybrid ship-propulsion schemes include large towing
kites manufactured by companies such as SkySails. Towing kites can fly at
heights several times higher than the tallest ship masts, capturing stronger and
steadier winds.
Aircraft
The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane has a Proton Exchange
Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an
electric motor, which is coupled to a conventional propeller. The fuel cell
provides all power for the cruise phase of flight. During takeoff and climb, the
flight segment that requires the most power, the system draws on lightweight
lithium-ion batteries.
The demonstrator aircraft is a Dimona motor glider, built by Diamond Aircraft
Industries of Austria, which also carried out structural modifications to the
aircraft. With a wing span of 16.3 meters (53 feet), the airplane will be able to
cruise at about 100 km/h (62 mph) on power from the fuel cell.[26]
Hybrid FanWings have been designed. A FanWing is created by two engines
with the capability to autorotate and landing like a helicopter.[27]
Engine type
Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles
12
Hybrid New Flyer Metrobus

Hybrid Optare Solo

Main article: Hybrid electric vehicle
When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to a Hybrid electric
vehicle. These encompass such vehicles as the Saturn Vue, Toyota
Prius, Toyota Yaris, Toyota Camry Hybrid,Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota
Highlander Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid, Lexus RX 400h and
450h and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid most commonly uses internal
combustion engines (using a variety of fuels, generally gasoline or Diesel
engines) and electric motors to power the vehicle. The energy is stored in the
fuel of the internal combustion engine and an electric battery set. There are
many types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains, from Full hybrid to Mild
hybrid, which offer varying advantages and disadvantages.[28]
William H. Patton filed a patent application for a gasoline-electric hybrid rail-
car propulsion system in early 1889, and for a similar hybrid boat propulsion
system in mid 1889.[29][30] There is no evidence that his hybrid boat met with
any success, but he built a prototype hybrid tram and sold a smallhybrid
locomotive.[31][32]
In 1899, Henri Pieper developed the world's first petro-
electric hybrid automobile. In 1900, Ferdinand Porsche developed a series-
hybrid using two motor-in-wheel-hub arrangements with an internal
combustion generator set providing the electric power; Porsche's hybrid set two
speed records.[citation needed] While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late
19th century, the braking regenerative hybrid was invented by David Arthurs,
an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 197879. His home-
converted Opel GT was reported to return as much as 75 mpg with plans still
13
sold to this original design, and the "Mother Earth News" modified version on
[33]
their website.

The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has

the range needed in locations where there are wide gaps with no services. The
batteries can be plugged into house (mains) electricity for charging, as well
being charged while the engine is running.
Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV)
Some battery electric vehicles (BEVs) can be recharged while the user drives.
Such a vehicle establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead
wires on the highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar
mechanism (see Conduit current collection). The BEV's batteries are recharged
by this processon the highwayand can then be used normally on other
roads until the battery is discharged. For example, some of the battery-electric
locomotives used for maintenance trains on the London Underground are
capable of this mode of operation.
Developing a BEV infrastructure would provide the advantage of virtually
unrestricted highway range. Since many destinations are within 100 km of a
major highway, BEV technology could reduce the need for expensive battery
systems. Unfortunately, private use of the existing electrical system is almost
universally prohibited. Besides, the technology for such electrical
infrastructure is largely outdated and, outside some cities, not widely
distributed (see Conduit current collection, trams, electric rail, trolleys, third
rail). Updating the required electrical and infrastructure costs could perhaps be
funded by toll revenue or by dedicated transportation taxes.
Hybrid fuel (dual mode)
Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid with aflexible fuel capability to run

on E85(ethanol)
In addition to vehicles that use
14 two or more different devices for propulsion,
some also consider vehicles that use distinct energy sources or input types
("fuels") using the same engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion with

hybrids as described above and to use correctly the terms, these are perhaps
more correctly described as dual mode vehicles:
Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on-board diesel
engine and overhead electrical power depending on conditions (see dual
mode bus). In principle, this could be combined with a battery subsystem to
create a true plug-in hybrid trolleybus, although as of 2006, no such design
seems to have been announced.
Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank
typically gasoline andethanol, methanol, or biobutanol.
Bi-fuel vehicle: Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very
different from petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so
it would be impossible to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel system.
Instead vehicles are built with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one
engine. For example, some Chevrolet Silverado 2500 HDs can effortlessly
switch between petroleum and natural gas, offering a range of over 1000
km (650 miles).[34] While the duplicated tanks cost space in some
applications, the increased range, decreased cost of fuel, and flexibility
where LPG or CNG infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant
incentive to purchase. While the US Natural gas infrastructure is partially
incomplete, it is increasing at a fast pace, and already has
2600 CNG stations in place.[35] With a growing fueling station
infrastructure, a large scale adoption of these bi-fuel vehicles could be seen
in the near future. Rising gas prices may also push consumers to purchase
these vehicles. When gas prices trade around $4.00, the price
per MMBTU of gasoline is $28.00, compared to natural gas's $4.00 per
MMBTU.[36] On a per unit of energy comparative basis, this makes natural
gas much cheaper than gasoline. All of these factors are making CNG-
Gasoline bi-fuel vehicles very attractive.
Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is
available, such as cars modified to run on autogas (LPG) and diesels
modified to run on waste vegetable oil that has not been processed into
biodiesel.
Power-assist mechanisms15 for bicycles and other human-powered
vehicles are also included (see Motorized bicycle).
Fluid power hybrid

Chrysler minivan, petro-hydraulic hybrid
French MDI petro-air hybrid car developed with Tata

Hydraulic hybrid and pneumatic hybrid vehicles use an engine to charge a
pressure accumulator to drive the wheels via hydraulic (liquid)
or pneumatic (compressed air) drive units. In most cases the engine is detached
from the drivetrain, serving solely to charge the energy accumulator. The
transmission is seamless. Regenerative braking can be used to recover some of
the supplied drive energy back into the accumulator.
Petro-air hybrid
A French company, MDI, has designed and has running models of a petro-air
hybrid engine car. The system does not use air motors to drive the vehicle,
being directly driven by a hybrid engine. The engine uses a mixture of
compressed air and gasoline injected into the cylinders. [37] A key aspect of the
hybrid engine is the "active chamber", which is a compartment heating air via
fuel doubling the energy output.[38] Tata Motors of India assessed the design
phase towards full production for the Indian market and moved into
"completing detailed development of the compressed air engine into specific
vehicle and stationary applications".
16

Petro-hydraulic hybrid
Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air/hydraulic concept car
Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air/hydraulic cutaway

Petro-hydraulic configurations have been common in trains and heavy vehicles
for decades. The auto industry recently focused on this hybrid configuration as
it now shows promise for introduction into smaller vehicles.
In petro-hydraulic hybrids, the energy recovery rate is high and therefore the
system is more efficient than electric battery charged hybrids using the current
electric battery technology, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in energy
economy in US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) testing.[41]The
charging engine needs only to be sized for average usage with acceleration
bursts using the stored energy in the hydraulic accumulator, which is charged
when in low energy demanding vehicle operation. The charging engine runs at
optimum speed and load for efficiency and longevity. Under tests undertaken
by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a hydraulic hybrid Ford
Expedition returned 32 miles per US gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-imp) City,
and 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg-imp) highway.UPS currently
has two trucks in service using
17
this technology.
Although petro-hydraulic hybrid technology has been known for decades, and
used in trains and very large construction vehicles, high costs of the equipment
precluded the systems from lighter trucks and cars. In the modern sense an

experiment proved the viability of small petro-hydraulic hybrid road vehicles

in 1978. A group of students at Minneapolis, Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational
Technical Center, converted a Volkswagen Beetle car to run as a petro-
hydraulic hybrid using off-the shelf components. A car rated at
32 mpg-US (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-imp) was returning 75 mpg-US(3.1 L/100 km;
90 mpg-imp) with the 60 hp engine replaced by a 16 hp engine. The
experimental car reached 70 mph (110 km/h).
In the 1990s, a team of engineers working at EPAs National Vehicle and Fuel
Emissions Laboratory succeeded in developing a revolutionary type of petro-
hydraulic hybrid powertrain that would propel a typical American sedan car.
The test car achieved over 80 mpg on combined EPA city/highway driving
cycles. Acceleration was 0-60 mph in 8 seconds, using a 1.9 liter diesel engine.
No lightweight materials were used. The EPA estimated that produced in high
volumes the hydraulic components would add only $700 to the base cost of the
vehicle.
The petro-hydraulic hybrid system has faster and more efficient
charge/discharge cycling than petro-electric hybrids and is also cheaper to
build. The accumulator vessel size dictates total energy storage capacity and
may require more space than an electric battery set. Any vehicle space
consumed by a larger size of accumulator vessel may be offset by the need for
a smaller sized charging engine, in HP and physical size.
Research is underway in large corporations and small companies. Focus has
now switched to smaller vehicles. The system components were expensive
which precluded installation in smaller trucks and cars. A drawback was that
the power driving motors were not efficient enough at part load. A British
company (Artemis Intelligent Power) made a breakthrough introducing an
electronically controlled hydraulic motor/pump, the Digital Displacement
motor/pump. The pump is highly efficient at all speed ranges and loads, giving
feasibility to small applications of petro-hydraulic hybrids. [42] The company
converted a BMW car as a test bed to prove viability. The BMW 530i, gave
double the mpg in city driving compared to the standard car. This test was
using the standard 3,000 cc engine, with a smaller engine the figures would
have been more impressive. The design of petro-hydraulic hybrids using well
sized accumulators allows downsizing an engine to average power usage, not
18
peak power usage. Peak power is provided by the energy stored in the
accumulator. A smaller more efficient constant speed engine reduces weight
and liberates space for a larger accumulator.

Current vehicle bodies are designed around the mechanicals of existing

engine/transmission setups. It is restrictive and far from ideal to install petro-
hydraulic mechanicals into existing bodies not designed for hydraulic setups.
One research project's goal is to create a blank paper design new car, to
maximize the packaging of petro-hydraulic hybrid components in the vehicle.
All bulky hydraulic components are integrated into the chassis of the car. One
design has claimed to return 130 mpg in tests by using a large hydraulic
accumulator which is also the structural chassis of the car. The small hydraulic
driving motors are incorporated within the wheel hubs driving the wheels and
reversing to claw-back kinetic braking energy. The hub motors eliminates the
need for friction brakes, mechanical transmissions, drive shafts and U joints,
reducing costs and weight. Hydrostatic drive with no friction brakes are used in
industrial vehicles. The aim is 170 mpg in average driving conditions. Energy
created by shock absorbers and kinetic braking energy that normally would be
wasted assists in charging the accumulator. A small fossil fuelled piston engine
sized for average power use charges the accumulator. The accumulator is sized
at running the car for 15 minutes when fully charged. The aim is a fully
charged accumulator which will produce a 0-60 mph acceleration speed of
under 5 seconds using four wheel drive.
In January 2011 industry giant Chrysler announced a partnership with the US
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to design and develop an
experimental petro-hydraulic hybrid powertrain suitable for use in large
passenger cars. In 2012 an existing production minvan was adapted to the new
hydraulic powertrain for assessment.
PSA Peugeot Citron exhibited an experimental "Hybrid Air" engine at the
2013 Geneva Motor Show.[51] The vehicle uses nitrogen gas compressed by
energy harvested from braking or deceleration to power a hydraulic drive
which supplements power from its conventional gasoline engine. The hydraulic
and electronic components were supplied by Robert Bosch GmbH. Mileage
was estimated to be about 118 mpg-US (2 L/100 km; 142 mpg-imp) on the Euro
test cycle if installed in a Citron C3 type of body. PSA Although the car was
ready for production and was proven and feasible delivering the claimed
results, Peugeot Citron were unable to attract a major manufacturer to share
the high development costs and are shelving the project until a partnership can
be arranged.[54] 19
Electric-human power hybrid vehicle

Another form of hybrid vehicle are human power-electric vehicles. These

include such vehicles as the Sinclair C5, Twike, electric bicycles, and electric
skateboards.
Hybrid vehicle power train configuration
Parallel hybrid
Honda Insight, Mild Parallel Hybrid
Toyota Prius, series-parallel hybrid
Ford Escape Hybrid, a series-parallel drivetrain

In a parallel hybrid vehicle an electric motor and an internal combustion engine
are coupled such that they can power the vehicle either individually or together.
Most commonly the internal20combustion engine, the electric motor and gear
box are coupled by automatically controlled clutches. For electric driving the
clutch between the internal combustion engine is open while the clutch to the

gear box is engaged. While in combustion mode the engine and motor run at
the same speed.
The first mass production parallel hybrid sold outside Japan was the 1st
generation Honda Insight.
Mild parallel hybrid
These types use a generally compact electric motor (usually <20 kW) to
provide auto-stop/start features and to provide extra power assist[55] during the
acceleration, and to generate on the deceleration phase (aka regenerative
braking).
On-road examples include Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight 2nd
generation, Honda CR-Z, Honda Accord Hybrid, Mercedes Benz S400
BlueHYBRID, BMW 7-Series hybrids, General Motors BAS Hybrids,
and Smart fortwo with micro hybrid drive.
Power-split or series-parallel hybrid
In a power-split hybrid electric drive train there are two motors: a traction
electric motor and an internal combustion engine. The power from these two
motors can be shared to drive the wheels via a power split device, which is a
simple planetary gear set. The ratio can be from 100% for the combustion
engine to 100% for the traction electric motor, or anything in between, such as
40% for the electric motor and 60% for the combustion engine. The
combustion engine can act as a generator charging the batteries.
Modern versions such as the Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive have a second
electric motor/generator connected to the planetary gear. In cooperation with
the traction motor/generator and the power-split device this provides a
continuously variable transmission.
On the open road, the primary power source is the internal combustion engine.
When maximum power is required, for example to overtake, the traction
electric motor is used to assist. This increases the available power for a short
period, giving the effect of having a larger engine than actually installed. In
most applications, the combustion engine is switched off when the car is slow
or stationary thereby reducing curbside emissions.
21
Passenger car installations include Toyota Prius, Ford Escape and Fusion, as
well as Lexus RX400h, RX450h, GS450h, LS600h, and CT200h.
Series hybrid

Chevrolet Volt, a series hybrid plug-in hybrid, also called extended range
electric vehicle (EREV).
A series- or serial-hybrid vehicle is driven by an electric motor, functioning
as an electric vehicle while the battery pack energy supply is sufficient, with an
engine tuned for running as a generator when the battery pack is insufficient.
There is no mechanical connection between the engine and the wheels, and the
purpose of the range extender is to charge the battery. Unless there has been a
rework of the drivetrain since its first release there is a mechanical linkage in
the Chevrolet Volt.[56]Series-hybrids have also been referred to as extended
range electric vehicle, range-extended electric vehicle, or electric vehicle-
extended range (EREV/REEV/EVER).
The BMW i3 with Range Extender is a production series-hybrid. It operates as
an electric vehicle until the battery charge is low, and then activates the
generator to maintain power, and is also available without the range extender.
The Fisker Karma was the first series hybrid production vehicle.
When describing cars, the battery of a series hybrid is usually charged by being
plugged in - but technically a series-hybrid allows for a battery to only act as a
buffer (and for regeneration purposes), and for the electric motor's power to be
supplied constantly by the supporting engine. Series arrangements have been
common in diesel-electric locomotives and ships. Ferdinand
Porsche effectively invented this arrangement in racing cars in the early 20th
century, such as the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid, with Porsche naming the
arrangement "System Mixt" - a wheel hub motor arrangement, with a motor in
each of the two front wheels was used, setting speed records. This arrangement
was sometimes referred to as an electric transmission, as the electric generator
and driving motor replaced a mechanical transmission. The vehicle could not
move unless the internal combustion
22 engine was running.
In 1997 Toyota released the first series-hybrid bus sold in Japan.
[57]
GM introduced the Chevy Volt series plug-in hybrid in 2010, aiming for
an all-electric range of 40 mi (64 km),[58] though this car also has a mechanical

connection between the engine and drivetrain.Supercapacitors combined with

a lithium ion battery bank have been used by AFS Trinity in a converted Saturn
Vue SUV vehicle. Usingsupercapacitors they claim up to 150 mpg in a series-
hybrid arrangement.[59]
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)
The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid has an all-electric range of 11 mi (18 km).
The Ford Fusion Energi is a plug-in hybrid with an all-electric range of 21 mi

(34 km).
Main article: Plug-in hybrid
See also: Plug-in electric vehicle
Another subtype of hybrid vehicles is the plug-in hybrid electric
vehicle (PHEV). The plug-in hybrid is usually a general fuel-electric (parallel
or serial) hybrid with increased energy storage capacity, usually through
a lithium-ion battery, which allows the vehicle to drive on all-electric mode a
distance that depends on the battery size and its mechanical layout (series or
parallel). It may be connected to mains electricity supply at the end of the
journey to avoid charging using the on-board internal combustion engine.[60][61]
This concept is attractive to 23
those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by
avoiding or at least minimizing the use of ICE during daily driving. As with
pure electric vehicles, the total emissions saving, for example in CO 2 terms, is
dependent upon the energy source of the electricity generating company.

For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive so long
as the electrical energy being used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel that they
would have otherwise used. Current tax systems in many European countries
use mineral oil taxation as a major income source. This is generally not the
case for electricity, which is taxed uniformly for the domestic customer,
however that person uses it. Some electricity suppliers also offer price benefits
for off-peak night users, which may further increase the attractiveness of the
plug-in option for commuters and urban motorists.
Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians
The 2011 Nissan Leaf was the firstplug-in electric car equipped withNissan's
Vehicle Sound for Pedestrians.
Main article: Electric vehicle warning sounds
A 2009 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration report
examined hybrid electric vehicleaccidents that involved pedestrians and
cyclists and compared them to accidents involving internal combustion
engine vehicles (ICEV). The findings showed that, in certain road situations,
HEVs are more dangerous for those on foot or bicycle. For accidents where a
vehicle was slowing or stopping, backing up, entering or leaving a parking
space (when the sound difference between HEVs and ICEVs is most
pronounced), HEVs were twice as likely to be involved in a pedestrian crash
than ICEVs. For crashes involving cyclists or pedestrians, there was a higher
incident rate for HEVs than ICEVs when a vehicle was turning a corner. But
there was no statistically significant difference between the types of vehicles
when they were driving straight.
Several automakers developed electric vehicle warning sounds designed to
alert pedestrians to the presence of electric drive vehicles such as hybrid
24
electric vehicle, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and all-electric vehicles (EVs)
travelling at low speeds. Their purpose is to make pedestrians, cyclists, the
blind, and others aware of the vehicle's presence while operating in all-electric
mode.Vehicles in the market with such safety devices include the Nissan

Leaf, Chevrolet Volt, Fisker Karma, Honda FCX Clarity, Nissan Fuga
Hybrid/Infiniti M35, Hyundai ix35 FCEV, Hyundai Sonata Hybrid,
2012 Honda Fit EV, the 2012 Toyota Camry Hybrid, 2012 Lexus CT200h, and
all Prius family cars recently introduced, including the standard 2012 model
year Prius, the Toyota Prius v, and the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid.
Environmental issues
Fuel consumption and emissions reductions
The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and lower
emissions than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles(ICEVs),
resulting in fewer emissions being generated. These savings are primarily
achieved by three elements of a typical hybrid design:
1. Relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power
needs, resulting in a smaller engine size more for average usage rather
than peak power usage. A smaller engine can have less internal losses
and lower weight.
2. Having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured
energy, especially in stop-and-go traffic typical of the citydriving cycle.
3. Recapturing significant amounts of energy during braking that are
normally wasted as heat. This regenerative braking reduces vehicle
speed by converting some of its kinetic energy into electricity,
depending upon the power rating of the motor/generator;
Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, but that are
frequently found on hybrid vehicles include:
1. Using Atkinson cycle engines instead of Otto cycle engines for
improved fuel economy.
2. Shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or during
other idle periods.
3. Improving aerodynamics; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad
fuel economy is the drag on the car. A box shaped car or truck has to
exert more force to move
25 through the air causing more stress on the
engine making it work harder). Improving the shape and aerodynamics
of a car is a good way to help better the fuel economy and also
improve vehicle handling at the same time.

4. Using low rolling resistance tires (tires were often made to give a quiet,
smooth ride, high grip, etc., but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires
cause mechanical drag, once again making the engine work harder,
consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use special tires that are more
inflated than regular tires and stiffer or by choice of carcass structure
and rubber compound have lower rolling resistance while retaining
acceptable grip, and so improving fuel economy whatever the power
source.
5. Powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliary pumps electrically
as and when needed; this reduces mechanical losses when compared
with driving them continuously with traditional engine belts.
These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic
where there are frequent stops, coasting and idling periods. In addition noise
emissions are reduced, particularly at idling and low operating speeds, in
comparison to conventional engine vehicles. For continuous high speed
highway use these features are much less useful in reducing emissions.
Hybrid vehicle emissions

Hybrid vehicle emissions today are getting close to or even lower than the
recommended level set by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The
recommended levels they suggest for a typical passenger vehicle should be
equated to 5.5 metric tons of CO 2. The three most popular hybrid
vehicles, Honda Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota Prius, set the standards even
higher by producing 4.1, 3.5, and 3.5 tons showing a major improvement in
carbon dioxide emissions. Hybrid vehicles can reduce air emissions of smog-
forming pollutants by up to 90% and cut carbon dioxide emissions in half.
More fossil fuel is needed to build hybrid vehicles than conventional cars but
reduced emissions when running the vehicle more than outweigh this.
Environmental impact of hybrid car battery
Though hybrid cars consume less fuel than conventional cars, there is still an
issue regarding the environmental damage of the hybrid car battery. Today
26
most hybrid car batteries are one of two types: 1) nickel metal hydride, or
2) lithium ion; both are regarded as more environmentally friendly than lead-
based batteries which constitute the bulk of petrol car starter batteries today.

There are many types of batteries. Some are far more toxic than others.
Lithium ion is the least toxic of the two mentioned above.
The toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteries
the type currently used in hybridsare much lower than batteries like lead
acid or nickel cadmium according to one source. Another source claims nickel
metal hydride batteries are much more toxic than lead batteries, also that
recycling them and disposing of them safely is difficult. [71] In general various
soluble and insoluble nickel compounds, such as nickel chloride and nickel
oxide, have known carcinogenic effects in chick embryos and rats. The main
nickel compound in NiMH batteries is nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH), which is
used as the positive electrode.
The lithium-ion battery has attracted attention due to its potential for use in
hybrid electric vehicles. Hitachi is a leader in its development. In addition to its
smaller size and lighter weight, lithium-ion batteries deliver performance that
helps to protect the environment with features such as improved charge
efficiency without memory effect. The lithium-ion batteries are appealing
because they have the highest energy density of any rechargeable batteries and
can produce a voltage more than three times that of nickelmetal hydride
battery cell while simultaneously storing large quantities of electricity as well.
The batteries also produce higher output (boosting vehicle power), higher
efficiency (avoiding wasteful use of electricity), and provides excellent
durability, compared with the life of the battery being roughly equivalent to the
life of the vehicle. Additionally, use of lithium-ion batteries reduces the overall
weight of the vehicle and also achieves improved fuel economy of 30% better
than petro-powered vehicles with a consequent reduction in CO 2 emissions
helping to prevent global warming.
Charging
The optimum charging window for Lithium ion batteries is 3-4.2 V. Recharging
with a 120 volt household outlet takes several hours, a 240 volt charger takes
14 hours, and a quick charge takes approximately 30 minutes to achieve 80%
charge. 3 important factors-distance on charge, cost of charging, and time to
charge [76] In order for the hybrid to run on electrical power, the car must
perform the action of braking in order to generate some electricity. The
electricity then gets discharged
27 most effectively when the car accelerates or
climbs up an incline. In 2014, hybrid electric car batteries can run on solely
electricity for 70130 miles (110210 km) on a single charge. Hybrid battery
capacity currently ranges from 4.4 kWh to 85 kWh on a fully electric car. On a

hybrid car, the battery packs currently range from 0.6 kWh to 2.4 kWh
representing a large difference in use of electricity in hybrid cars.[77]
How hybrid-electric vehicles work
Hybrids-Electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the advantage of
gasoline engines and electric motors. The key areas for efficiency or
performance gains are regenerative braking, dual power sources, and less
idling
Regenerate Braking. The drivetrain can be used to convert kinetic
energy (from the moving car) into stored electrical energy (batteries). The
same electric motor that powers the drivetrain is used to resist the motion of
the drivetrain. This applied resistance from the electric motor causes the
wheel to slow down and simultaneously recharge the batteries.
Dual Power. Power can come from either the engine, motor or both
depending on driving circumstances. Additional power to assist the engine
in accelerating or climbing might be provided by the electric motor. Or
more commonly, a smaller electric motor provides all of the power for low-
speed driving conditions and is augmented by the engine at higher speeds.
Automatic Start/Shutoff. It automatically shuts off the engine when the
vehicle comes to a stop and restarts it when the accelerator is pressed down.
This automation is much simpler with an electric motor. Also see dual
power above.
Alternative green vehicles
Other types of green vehicles include other vehicles that go fully or partly on
alternative energy sources than fossil fuel. Another option is to use alternative
fuel composition (i.e. biofuels) in conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles,
making them go partly on renewable energy sources.
Other approaches include personal rapid transit, a public transportation concept
that offers automated on-demand non-stop transportation, on a network of
specially built guideways.
Peugeot/Citron Hybrid Vehicle
28
Peugeot and Citron have announced that they too are building a car that uses
compressed air as an energy source. However, the car they are designing uses a

hybrid system which also uses a gasoline engine (which is used for propelling
the car over 70 km/h, or when the compressed air tank has been depleted.[85]
Marketing
Automakers spend around $US8 million in marketing Hybrid vehicles each
year. With combined effort from many car companies, the Hybrid industry has
sold millions of Hybrids. Hybrid car companies like Toyota, Honda, Ford and
BMW have pulled together to create a movement of Hybrid vehicle sales
pushed by Washington lobbyist to lower the worlds emissions and become less
reliant on our petroleum consumption. In 2005, sales went beyond 200,000
Hybrids, but in retrospect that only reduced the global use for gasoline
consumption by 200,000 gallons per day a tiny fraction of the 360 million
gallons used per day. According to Bradley Berman author of Driving Change
One Hybrid at a time, "Cold economics shows that in real dollars, except for
a brief spike in the 1970s, gas prices have remained remarkably steady and
cheap. Fuel continues to represent a small part of the overall cost of owning
and operating a personal vehicle". Other marketing tactics
include greenwashing which is the "unjustified appropriation of environmental
virtue." TemmaEhrenfeld explained in an article by Newsweek. Hybrids may
be more efficient than many other gasoline motors as far as gasoline
consumption is concerned but as far as being green and good for the
environment is completely inaccurate. Hybrid car companies have a long time
to go if they expect to really go green. According to Harvard business professor
Theodore Levitt states "managing products" and "meeting customers' needs",
"you must adapt to consumer expectations and anticipation of future
desires." This means people buy what they want, if they want a fuel efficient
car they buy a Hybrid without thinking about the actual efficiency of the
product. This "Green Myopia" as Ottman calls it, fails because marketers focus
on the greenness of the product and not on the actual effectiveness.
Researchers and analysts say people are drawn to the new technology, as well
as the convenience of fewer fill ups. Secondly, people find it rewarding to own
the better, newer, flashier, and so called greener car. In the beginning of the
Hybrid movement car companies reached out to the young people, by using top
celebrities, astronauts, and popular TV shows to market Hybrids. This made
29
the new technology of Hybrids a status to obtain for many people and a must to
be cool or even the practical choice for the time. With the many benefits and
status of owning a Hybrid it is easy to think it's the right thing to do, but in fact
may not be as green as it appears.

THEORY
Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are powered by electricity stored in large

batteries within the vehicles. These batteries are used to power an electric
motor, which drives the vehicle. This system allows BEVs to operate with zero
emissions at their point of use. Most new BEVs also use regenerative
braking, which allows the electric motor to act as a generator in order to re-
capture energy that would normally be lost through heat dissipation and
frictional losses this improves energy efficiency and reduces brake wear.
BEVs benefit from the high levels of torque found in electrical motors as well
as smooth gearless acceleration and deceleration. BEVs have no emissions at
point of use and operate in almost complete silence, except for noise from the
tyres. All of these factors make them ideal for inner city and urban usage.
Although BEVs produce zero emissions at point of use, the source of the
electricity must be taken into account when considering the wider scale
environmental benefits; if renewable energy is used then electric cars can offer
a much reduced environmental impact over other vehicle technologies.
REGENRATIVE SHOKER30

Road vehicles can expand a significant amount of energy in undesirable

vertical motions that are induced by road bumps, and much of that is dissipated
in conventional shock absorbers as they dampen the vertical motions.
Presented in this project are some of the results of a study aimed at determining
the effectiveness of efficiently transforming that energy into electrical power
by using optimally designed regenerative shock absorbers. In turn, the
electrical power can be used to recharge batteries or other efficient energy
storage devices (e.g., flywheels) rather than be dissipated. The results of the
study are encouraging - they suggest that a significant amount of the vertical
motion energy can be recovered and stored
SOUND ENERGY
Sound energy is also a type of wave motion. We are heard by others when we
talk because of the sound energy we produce. It is due to the effect of the air
molecules vibrating when we talk. The vibrating molecules hit our eardrums,
which enable us to hear others talk. Sound energy may be converted into
electrical energy for transmission, and later the electrical energy can be
converted back into sound energy at the receiving end. An example of such
transformations could be seen in the microphone and the loudspeaker.
Sound, like heat energy is easily lost. The transformation of

one form of energy into another may be accompanied by
losses in the form of sound and/or heat that are often not
desirable.
Transformation of sound into electric physics, energy (from

the Greek - energeia, "activity, operation", from
- energos, "active, working"[1]) is a quantity that can
be assigned to every particle, object, and system of objects as
a consequence of the state of that particle, object or system of
objects. Different forms of energy include kinetic, potential,
thermal, gravitational, sound, elastic, light, and
electromagnetic energy. The forms of energy are often named
after a related force. German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz
31
established that all forms of energy are equivalent - energy in
one form can disappear but the same amount of energy will
appear in another form. Energy is subject to a conservation

law. Energy is a scalar physical quantity. In the International

System of Units (SI), energy is measured in joules, but in some
fields other units such as kilowatt-hours and kilocalories are
also used.
Any form of energy can be transformed into another form. When energy is in a
form other than heat, it may be transformed with good or even perfect
efficiency, to any other type of energy. In all such energy transformation
processes, the total energy remains the same. Energy may not be created nor
destroyed. This principle, the conservation of energy, was first postulated in the
early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. According to Noether's
theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws
of physics do not change over time.
Although the total energy of a system does not change with time, its value may
depend on the frame of reference. For example, a seated passenger in a moving
airplane has zero kinetic energy relative to the airplane, but non-zero kinetic
energy (and higher
Transformations of energy
One form of energy can often be readily transformed into another with the help
of a device- for instance, a battery, from chemical energy to electric energy; a
dam: gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy of moving water (and the
blades of a turbine) and ultimately to electric energy through an electric
generator. Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential
energy is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a very short
time. Yet another example is that of a pendulum. At its highest points the
kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at maximum. At
its lowest point the kinetic energy is at maximum and is equal to the decrease
of potential energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction, the
conversion of energy between these processes is perfect, and the pendulum will
continue swinging forever. 32
Energy gives rise to weight and is equivalent to matter and vice versa. The
formula E = mc, derived by Albert Einstein (1905) quantifies the relationship

between mass and rest energy within the concept of special relativity. In
different theoretical frameworks, similar formulas were derived by J. J.
Thomson (1881), Henri Poincar (1900), Friedrich Hasenhrl (1904) and
others (see Mass-energy equivalence#History for further information). Since c2
is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of ordinary
amount of mass (say, 1 kg) to other forms of energy can liberate tremendous
amounts of energy (~9x1016 joules), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and
nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass equivalent of a unit of energy is
minuscule, which is why a loss of energy from most systems is difficult to
measure by weight, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of energy
transformation into matter (particles) are found in high energy nuclear physics.
In nature, transformations of energy can be fundamentally classed into two

kinds: those that are thermodynamically reversible, and those that are
thermodynamically irreversible. A reversible process in thermodynamics is one
in which no energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in
a volume, from which it cannot be recovered into more concentrated forms
(fewer quantum states), without degradation of even more energy. A reversible
process is one in which this sort of dissipation does not happen. For example,
conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another, is reversible,
as in the pendulum system described above. In processes where heat is
generated, quantum states of lower energy, present as possible exitations in
fields between atoms, act as a reservoir for part of the energy, from which it
cannot be recovered, in order to be converted with 100% efficiency into other
forms of energy. In this case, the energy must partly stay as heat, and cannot be
completely recovered as usable energy, except at the price of an increase in
some other kind of heat-like increase in disorder in quantum states, in the
universe (such as an expansion of matter, or a randomization in a crystal).
As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped
in irreversible states (i.e., as heat or other kinds of increases in disorder). This
has been referred to as the 33
inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the
universe. In this heat death the energy of the universe does not change, but the
fraction of energy which is available to do produce work through a heat engine,

or be transformed to other usable forms of energy (through the use of

generators attached to heat engines), grows less and less.
Sound energy is also a type of wave motion. We are heard by others when we
talk because of the sound energy we produce. It is due to the effect of the air
molecules vibrating when we talk. The vibrating molecules hit our eardrums,
which enable us to hear others talk. Sound energy may be converted into
electrical energy for transmission, and later the electrical energy can be
converted back into sound energy at the receiving end. An example of such
transformations could be seen in the microphone and the loudspeaker.
Sound, like heat energy is easily lost. The transformation of one form of energy
into another may be accompanied by losses in the form of sound and/or heat
that are often not desirable.
Sound is a form of mechanical vibration, which propagates through any

mechanical medium. Sound is a vibration or wave of air molecules caused by
the motion of an object. The wave is a compression wave where the density of
the molecules is higher. This wave travels through the air at a speed dependent
on the temperature. A sound wave contains energy, which in turn means it can
make things move. However, if the wave strikes something solid, the wave will
bounce back -- an echo. Sound energy can be changed into other forms of
energy, e.g. electrical energy, and vice versa; this is one of its properties that
allow us to communicate by telephone.
Microphones
Soundenergy we can heartravels only so far before it soaks away into the
world around us. Until electrical microphones were invented in the late 19th
century, there was no satisfactory way to send sounds to other places. You
could shout, but that carried your words only a little further. You couldn't shout
in New York City and make yourself heard in London. And you couldn't speak
in 1715 and have someone listen
34 to what you said in 1750. Remarkably, such
things are possible today: by converting sound energy into electricity and
information we can store, microphones make it possible to send the sounds of

our voices, our music, and the noises in our world to other places and other
times. How do microphones work/ Let's take a closer look!
Photo: A high-quality, professional microphone typical of the ones used by

radio DJs. Photo by Gary Ward courtesy of US Navy.
Microphones are loudspeakers in reverse
If you've read our article on loudspeakers, you'll already know how

microphones workbecause they're literally loudspeakers working in reverse.
Indeed, you can actually take a loudspeaker and wire it into an electrical circuit
so it works as a microphone if you speak into it. Intercoms (electrical gadgets
that allow you to speak to someone in the next room) often have a combined
loudspeaker/microphone. It works as a microphone when you press a button to
speak into it and as a loudspeaker when the person next door pushes the button
on their intercom instead. It's exactly the same piece of equipment working in
two different ways. How's that possible?
In a loudspeaker, electricity flows into a coil of metal wire wrapped around (or
in front of) a permanent magnet. The changing pattern of electricity in the coil
creates a magnetic field all around it that pushes against the field the permanent
magnet creates. This makes the coil move. The coil is attached to a big flat disc
called a diaphragm or cone so, as the coil moves, the diaphragm moves too.
The moving diaphragm pushes air back and forth into the room and creates
sound waves we can hear.
In a microphone, there are almost identical parts but they work in reverse.
Sound waves created by your voice push against a diaphragm, making a coil
move near to a magnet. This makes an electric current flow through the coil
into an electrical circuit. By using this current to drive sound recording
equipment, you can effectively35
store the sound forever more. Or you could
amplify (boost the size of) the current and then feed it into a loudspeaker,
turning the electricity back into much louder sound. That's how PA (personal
address) systems, electric guitaramplifiers, and rock concert amplifiers work.

How microphones work
1. Sound waves carry energy toward the microphone.

2. The diaphragm moves back and forth when sound waves hit it.
3. The coil, attached to the diaphragm, moves back and forth as well.
4. The permanent magnet produces a magnetic field that cuts through the
coil. As the coil moves back and forth through the magnetic field, an
electric current flows through it.
5. The electric current flows out from the microphone to an amplifier or
sound recording device.
Types of microphones
36

Photo: Right: A typical BBC-Marconi radio broadcast microphone from about

the mid-1930s. Left: A simple, modern headset microphone.
All microphones turn sound energy into electrical energy, but there are various
different kinds that work in slightly different ways. Dynamic microphones are
just ordinary microphones that use diaphragms, magnets, and coils. Condenser
microphones work a slightly different way by using a diaphragm to move the
metal plates of a capacitor (an electric-charge storing device) and generate a
current that way. Most microphones are omnidirectional, which means they
pick up sound equally well from
37 any direction. If you're recording something
like a TV news reporter in a noisy environment, or a rare bird tweeting in a
distant hedgerow, you're better off using a unidirectional microphone that picks
up sound from one specific direction. Microphones described as cardioid and

hypercardioid pick up sounds in a kind of "heart-shaped" (that's what cardioid

means) pattern, gathering more sound from one direction than another. As their
name suggests, you can target shotgun microphones so they pick up sounds
from a very specific location because they are highly directional. Wireless
microphones use radio transmitters to send their signals to and from an
amplifier or other audio equipment (that's why they're often called "radio
mics").
Microphones convert acoustic energy into electrical energy: sound makes mic's
membrane vibrate, the vibrations make the material (for example coal dust)
placed beneath the membrane to be pressed periodically - in accordance with
the sound waves received - the electrical resistance of the material changes in
the same key, and so the direct current passing through the material is thus
changing its amplitude. Or it may be two membranes forming a capacitor
whose capacity, changing in accordance with the sound waves pressing, is then
processed in an electronic processor.
WIND ENERGY
Wind is a clean and inexhaustible source of energy. Wind is produced by

temperature differences in the air. This is true both of a gentle evening breeze
as well as a roaring hurrincane. The main driving force behind the wind system
of the earth's atmosphere is the temperature difference between the tropics and
the polar regions. This temperature difference arises due to the fact that the
tropical regions of the earth are much warmer than the polar regions. Wind
energy is the energy of air in motion and has been used for ages for driving sail
boats, for grinding grain and pumping water. Today it is also used for
generating electric power. The windvane (phirki) is a child's common toy.
When air is blown on it, it38starts rotating. This idea is used in making the
windmill which is nothing but a big windvane. Several types of water pumping
windmills have been developed in the country. These include one which can

lift water from depth of up to 50 meters. Wind energy is inexhaustible and is

therefore a permanent source of energy as there will always be winds.
According to an estimate, about 175 to 220 thousand trillion watt hours per
year of wind energy can be produced globally. This is a very promising figure
as it is about 2.7 times the total energy used on the earth today.
SOLAR ENERGY
Solar panels absorb the sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity or

heat.
A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connect assembly of typically 6x10

photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array
of a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in
commercial and residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output
power under standard test conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to
365 Watts (W). The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module
given the same rated output an 8% efficient 230 W module will have twice
the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module. There are a few commercially
available solar modules that exceed efficiency of 22%[1] and reportedly also
exceeding 24%.[2][3] A single solar module can produce only a limited amount
of power; most installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system
typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a battery pack
for storage, interconnection wiring, and optionally a solar tracking mechanism.
The most common application of solar panels is solar water heating systems.[4]
The price of solar power has continued to fall so that in many countries it is
cheaper than ordinary fossil fuel electricity from the grid (there is "grid parity")
39

Theory and construction
From a solar cell to a PV system
Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate
electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-
based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells. The structural (load carrying)
member of a module can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must
also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules are
rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. The cells
must be connected electrically in series, one to another. Externally, most of
photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors type to facilitate easy weatherproof
connections to the rest of the system.
Modules electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output
voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The
conducting wires that take 40
the current off the modules may contain silver,
copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals. Bypass diodes may
be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module shading, to
maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.

Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused

by lenses or mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high
cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.
COMPONENTS USED
1 Dynamo 13 Car structure sunpad sheet and sprayed.
2 Dc gear motor 14 connecting wires
3 Diode 15 solar panel
4 Capicitors
5 Tyer
6 Rack $Pinion
7 Speaker
8 Wind turbine
9 Battery
10 Transformer
11 sensor
12bamper
Dynamo
41

A dynamo is an electrical generator that produces direct current with the use of
a commutator. Dynamos were the first electrical generators capable of
delivering power for industry, and the foundation upon which many other later
electric-power conversion devices were based, including the electric motor, the
alternating-current alternator, and the rotary converter. Today, the simpler
alternator dominates large scale power generation, for efficiency, reliability and
cost reasons. A dynamo has the disadvantages of a mechanical commutator.
Also, converting alternating to direct current using power rectification devices
(vacuum tube or more recently solid state) is effective and usually economical.
Etymology
The word dynamo (from the Greek word dynamis, meaning power) was
originally another name for an electrical generator, and still has some regional
usage as a replacement for the word generator. The word "dynamo" was
coined by Werner von Siemens in 1882.[1] The original "dynamo principle" of
W. Siemens meant only the direct current generators which use exclusively the
self-excitation (self-induction) principle to generate DC power. The earlier DC
generators which used permanent magnets were not considered "dynamo
electric machines".[2] The invention of the Dynamo principle (self-induction)
was a huge technological leap over the old traditional permanent magnet based
DC generators. The discovery of the dynamo principle made the industrial
scale electric power generation technically and economically feasible. After the
invention of the alternator and that alternating current can be used as a power
42
supply, the word dynamo became associated exclusively with the
commutateddirect current electric generator, while an AC electrical generator
using either slip rings or rotor magnets would become known as an alternator.

A small electrical generator built into the hub of a bicycle wheel to power
lights is called a hub dynamo, although these are invariably AC devices, and
are actually magnetos.
Description
The electric dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert
mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct electric current through Faraday's law
of induction. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, called the
stator, which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings
called the armature which turn within that field. Due to Faraday's law of
induction the motion of the wire within the magnetic field creates an
electromotive force which pushes on the electrons in the metal, creating an
electric current in the wire. On small machines the constant magnetic field may
be provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the
constant magnetic field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are
usually called field coils.
dc gear motor
A gear motor is a specific type of electrical motor that is designed to produce

high torque while maintaining a low horsepower, or low speed, motor output.
Gear motors can be found in many different applications, and are probably
used in many devices in your home.
Gear motors are commonly used in devices such as can openers, garage door
openers, washing machine time control knobs and even electric alarm clocks.
Common commercial applications of a gear motor include hospital beds,
commercial jacks, cranes and many other applications that are too many to list.
Basic Principles of Operation

43
A gear motor can be either an AC (alternating current) or a DC (direct current)

electric motor. Most gear motors have an output of between about 1,200 to
3,600 revolutions per minute (RPMs). These types of motors also have two

different speed specifications: normal speed and the stall-speed torque

specifications.
Gear motors are primarily used to reduce speed in a series of gears, which in
turn creates more torque. This is accomplished by an integrated series of gears
or a gear box being attached to the main motor rotor and shaft via a second
reduction shaft. The second shaft is then connected to the series of gears or
gearbox to create what is known as a series of reduction gears. Generally
speaking, the longer the train of reduction gears, the lower the output of the
end, or final, gear will be.
DIODE
Fig;Pn junction diode
Fig;Light emitting diode

44

A diode is a device which

only allows unidirectional
flow of current if
operated within a rated
specified voltage level.
A diode only blocks
current in the reverse
direction while the
reverse voltage is within a limited range otherwise reverse barrier breaks and
the voltage at which this breakdown occurs is called reverse breakdown
voltage. The diode acts as a valve in the electronic and electrical circuit. A P-N
junction is the simplest form of the diode which behaves as ideally short circuit
when it is in forward biased and behaves as ideally open circuit when it is in
the reverse biased. Beside simple PN junction diodes, there are different types
of diodes although the fundamental principles are more or less same. So a
particular arrangement of diodes can convert AC to pulsating DC, and hence, it
is sometimes also called as a rectifier. The name diode is derived from "di-ode"
which means a device having two
Types of Diode
The types of diode are as follow-
1. Zener diode
2. P-N junction diode
3. Tunnel diode
4. Varactor diode
5. Schottky diode
45
6. Photo diode
7. PIN diode
8. Laser diode

9. Avalanche diode
Light emitting diodeWorking Principle of Diode
Unbiased Diode
1. N - side will have a significant number of electrons, and very few holes
(due to thermal excitation) whereas the p side will have a high
concentration of holes and very few electrons. Due to this, a process
called diffusion takes place. In this process free electrons from n side
will diffuse (spread) into the p side and recombine with holes present
there, leaving positive immobile (not movable) ions in n side and
creating negative immobile ions in p side of the diode. Hence, there will
be uncovered positive donor ions in n - type side near the junction edge.
Similarly, there will be uncovered negative acceptor ions in p - type side
near the junction edge. Due to this, numbers of positive ions and
negative ions will accumulate on n - side and p - side respectively. This
region so formed is called as depletion region due to the depletion of
free carriers in the region. Due to the presence of these positive and
negative ions a static electric field called as "barrier potential" is created
across the p n junction of the diode. It is called as "barrier potential"
because it acts as a barrier and opposes the further migration of holes
46

and electrons across the junction.
Forward Biased Diode
1. In a PN junction diode when the forward voltage is applied i.e. positive

terminal of a source is connected to the p-type side, and the negative
terminal of the source is connected to the n-type side, the diode is said to
be in forward biased condition. We know that there is a barrier potential
across the junction. This barrier potential is directed in the opposite of
the forward applied voltage. So a diode can only allow current to flow in
the forward direction when forward applied voltage is more than barrier
potential of the junction. This voltage is called forward biased voltage.
For silicon diode, it is 0.7 volts. For germanium diode, it is 0.3 volts.
When forward applied voltage is more than this forward biased voltage,
there will be forward current in the diode, and the diode will become
short circuited. Hence, there will be no more voltage drop across the
diode beyond this forward biased voltage, and forward current is only
limited by the external47 resistance connected in series with the diode.
Thus, if forward applied voltage increases from zero, the diode will start
conducting only after this voltage reaches just above the barrier potential
or forward biased voltage of the junction. The time, taken by this input

voltage to reach that value or in other words, the time, taken by this
input voltage to overcome the forward biased voltage is called recovery
time
R
everse Biased Diode
Now if the diode is reverse biased i.e. positive terminal of the source is
connected to the n-type end, and the negative terminal of the source is
connected to the p-type end of the diode, there will be no current through
the diode except reverse saturation current. This is because at the reverse
biased condition the depilation layer of the junction becomes wider with
increasing reverse biased voltage. Although there is a tiny current
flowing from n-type end to p-type end in the diode due to minority
carriers. This tiny current is called reverse saturation current. Minority
carriers are mainly thermally generated electrons and holes in p-type
semiconductor and n-type semiconductor respectively. Now if reverse
applied voltage across the diode is continually increased, then after
certain applied voltage48the depletion layer will destroy which will cause
a huge reverse current to flow through the diode. If this current is not
externally limited and it reaches beyond the safe value, the diode may be
permanently destroyed. This is because, as the magnitude of the reverse

voltage increases, the kinetic energy of the minority charge carriers also
increase. These fast moving electrons collide with the other atoms in the
device to knock-off some more electrons from them. The electrons so
released further release much more electrons from the atoms by breaking
the covalent bonds. This process is termed as carrier multiplication and
leads to a considerable increase in the flow of current through the p-n
junctionThe associated phenomenon is called Avalanche Breakdown.
Capacitor
This article is about the electrical component. For the physical phenomenon,
see capacitance. For an overview of various kinds of capacitors, see types of
capacitor.
"Capacitive" redirects here. For the term used when referring to touchscreens,
see capacitive sensing. 49
Capacitor

Type Passive
Invente
Ewald Georg von Kleist
d
Electronic symbol
A capacitor is a passivetwo-terminalelectrical component that stores electrical

energy in an electric field.[1] The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance.
While capacitance exists between any two electrical conductors of a circuit in
sufficiently close proximity, a capacitor is specifically designed to provide and
enhance this effect for a variety of practical applications by consideration of
size, shape, and positioning of closely spaced conductors, and the intervening
dielectric material. A capacitor was therefore historically first known as an
electric condenser.
The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and
many capacitor types are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two
electrical conductors often in the form of metallic plates or surfaces separated
by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film, sintered bead of
metal, or an electrolyte. The50 nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the
capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include
glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are

widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy.
When two conductors experience a potential difference, for example, when a

capacitor is attached across a battery, an electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing a net positive charge to collect on one plate and net negative
charge to collect on the other plate. No current actually flows through the
dielectric, however, there is a flow of charge through the source circuit. If the
condition is maintained sufficiently long, the current through the source circuit
ceases. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the
capacitor, the source experiences an ongoing current due to the charging and
discharging cycles of the capacitor.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to

the potential difference between them. The unit of capacitance in the
International System of Units (SI) is the farad (F), defined as one coulomb per
volt (1 C/V). Capacitance values of typical capacitors for use in general
electronics range from about 1 pF (1012 F) to about 1 mF (103 F).
The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the surface area of the plates

(conductors) and inversely related to the gap between them. In practice, the
dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. It has
an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current
while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they
smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to
particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they stabilize
voltage and power flow.[3] The property of energy storage in capacitors was
exploited as dynamic memory in early digital computers.
51
TYERS

Four Tyers are used in this project, so that the car model can move freely from
one place to another in a direction . It is placed below the surface of the car as
you can see in the model.
Rack pinion
A rack-and-piniongearset is enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the
rack protruding from the tube. A rod, called a tie rod, connects to each end of
the rack. The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn the
steering wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack.
52

A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a pair of gears
which convert rotational motion into linear motion. A circular gear called "the
pinion" engages teeth on a linear "gear" bar called "the rack"; rotational motion
applied to the pinion causes the rack to move relative to the pinion, thereby
translating the rotational motion of the pinion into linear motion.
For example, in a rack railway, the rotation of a pinion mounted on a

locomotive or a railcar engages a rack between the rails and forces a train up a
steep slope.
For every pair of conjugate involute profile, there is a basic rack. This basic
rack is the profile of the conjugate gear of infinite pitch radius (i.e. a toothed
straight edge).
A generating rack is a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and

dimensions for the design of a generating tool, such as a hob or a gear shaper
cutter.
Speaker 53

The term "loudspeaker" may refer to individual transducers (known as

"drivers") or to complete speaker systems consisting of an enclosure including
one or more drivers.
To adequately reproduce a wide range of frequencies with even coverage, most

loudspeaker systems employ more than one driver, particularly for higher
sound pressure level or maximum accuracy. Individual drivers are used to
reproduce different frequency ranges. The drivers are named subwoofers (for
very low frequencies); woofers (low frequencies); mid-range speakers (middle
frequencies); tweeters (high frequencies); and sometimes supertweeters,
optimized for the highest audible frequencies. The terms for different speaker
drivers differ, depending on the application. In two-way systems there is no
mid-range driver, so the task of reproducing the mid-range sounds falls upon
the woofer and tweeter. Home stereos use the designation "tweeter" for the
high frequency driver, while professional concert systems may designate them
as "HF" or "highs". When multiple drivers are used in a system, a "filter
network", called a crossover, separates the incoming signal into different
frequency ranges and routes them to the appropriate driver. A loudspeaker
system with n separate frequency bands is described as "n-way speakers": a
two-way system will have a woofer
54 and a tweeter; a three-way system employs
a woofer, a mid-range, and a tweeter. Loudspeaker driver of the type pictured
are termed "dynamic" (short for electrodynamic) to distinguish them from

earlier drivers (i.e., moving iron speaker), or speakers using piezoelectric or

electrostatic systems, or any of several other sorts.
Speakers are typically housed in a speaker enclosure or speaker cabinet which

is often a rectangular or square box made of wood or sometimes plastic. The
enclosure's materials and design play an important role in the quality of the
sound. Where high fidelity reproduction of sound is required, multiple
loudspeaker transducers are often mounted in the same enclosure, each
reproducing a part of the audible frequency range (picture at right). In this case
the individual speakers are referred to as "drivers" and the entire unit is called a
loudspeaker. Drivers made for reproducing high audio frequencies are called
tweeters, those for middle frequencies are called mid-range drivers, and those
for low frequencies are called woofers. Smaller loudspeakers are found in
devices such as radios, televisions, portable audio players, computers, and
electronic musical instruments . Larger loudspeaker systems are used for
music, sound reinforcement in theatres and concerts, and in public address
systems.
Wind turbine
This article is about wind-powered electrical generators. For wind-powered

machinery used to grind grain or pump water, see Windmill and Windpump.
55

Offshore wind farm, using 5 MW turbines REpower 5M in the North Sea off
the coast of Belgium.
A wind turbine is a device that converts the wind's kinetic energy into
electrical power.
Wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis
types. The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging
for auxiliary power for boats or caravans or to power traffic warning signs.
Slightly larger turbines can be used for making contributions to a domestic
power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the
electrical grid. Arrays of large turbines, known as wind farms, are becoming an
increasingly important source of intermittent renewable energy and are used by
many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels.
Wind turbines were used in Persia (present-day Iran) about 500900 A.D. [1]
The windwheel of Hero of Alexandria marks one of the first known instances
of wind powering a machine56in history.[2][3] However, the first known practical
wind turbines were built in Sistan, an Eastern province of Iran, from the 7th
century. These "Panemone" were vertical axle wind turbines, which had long
vertical drive shafts with rectangular blades. Made of six to twelve sails

covered in reed matting or cloth material, these wind turbines were used to
grind grain or draw up water, and were used in the gristmilling and sugarcane
industries.
Battery (electricity)
For other uses, see Battery (disambiguation).
Battery
Various cells and batteries (top-left to

bottom-right): two AA, one D, one
handheld ham radio battery, two 9-volt
(PP3), two AAA, one C, one camcorder
battery, one cordless phone battery
Type Power source
Electrochemical
Working
reactions, Electromotive
principle
force
First
1800s
production
Electronic symbol
57

The symbol for a battery in a circuit

diagram. It originated as a schematic
drawing of the earliest type of battery, a
voltaic pile.
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells

with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as
flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars.[1] When a battery is supplying
electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is
the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when
connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an external
device. When a battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes are able
to move as ions within, allowing the chemical reactions to be completed at the
separate terminals and so deliver energy to the external circuit. It is the
movement of those ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of
the battery to perform work.[3] Historically the term "battery" specifically
referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved
to additionally include devices composed of a single cell.
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the
electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common
examples are the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of
portable electronic devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be
discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall
58
socket; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse
current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-
ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power
hearing aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large
lead acid batteries used in cars and trucks, and at the largest extreme, huge
battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power for
telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48

billion in sales each year, with 6% annual growth.
Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the higher
efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work, compared to
combustion engines.
Transformer
59

Pole-mounted distribution transformer with center-tapped secondary winding

used to provide "split-phase" power for residential and light commercial
service, which in North America is typically rated 120/240 V.
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between

two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in
one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn
induces a voltage in a second coil. Power can be transferred between the two
coils through the magnetic field, without a metallic connection between the
two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described this
effect. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in
electric power applications.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885,

transformers have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and
utilization of alternating current electrical energy. A wide range of transformer
designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications.
Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter
in volume to units interconnecting
60 the power grid weighing hundreds of tons.
Car structure sun pad sheet

Sun pad sheets are used to make the model of the car which is then sprayed
with grey colour to make the model more colorful.
sensor
61

asensor is an electronic component, module, or subsystem whose purpose is to

detect events or changes in its environment and send the information to other
electronics, frequently a computer processor. A sensor is always used with
other electronics, whether as simple as a light or as complex as a computer.
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons

(tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, besides
innumerable applications of which most people are never aware. With
advances in micromachinery and easy-to-use microcontroller platforms, the
uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of temperature,
pressure or flow measurement,[1] for example into MARG sensors. Moreover,
analog sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still
widely used. Applications include
62
manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and
aerospace, cars, medicine, robotics and many other aspects of our day-to-day
life.

A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the
input quantity being measured changes. For instance, if the mercury in a
thermometer moves 1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 C, the
sensitivity is 1 cm/C (it is basically the slope Dy/Dx assuming a linear
characteristic). Some sensors can also affect what they measure; for instance, a
room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid
while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors are usually designed to have a
small effect on what is measured; making the sensor smaller often improves
this and may introduce other advantages.[citation needed] Technological progress
allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic scale as
microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a
significantly higher speed and sensitivity compared with macroscopic
approaches.
BUMPER
We have installed a Bumper along with a sensor, which will automatically
sense an object in 6 centimeter distance and the Bumper will automatically
open to protect the car and also the object. The bumper is installed in the front
side below the bonet of the car and is not visible when the car stands at safe
distance from any object or the footpaths. Therefore it acts as a protection
device for the car.
DISADVANTAGES
There are disadvantages to owning a hybrid car, but they are probably not what
you think. Contrary to popular myth, hybrid cars have just as much power as
regular cars and have no issue with mountain driving or towing. The
disadvantages will depend on the type of hybrid fuel that your car uses.
Here are few of the disadvantages of a hybrid car :-

63
1. Less Power: Hybrid cars are twin powered engine. The gasoline engine
which is primary source of power is much smaller as compared to what you get
in single engine powered car and electric motor is low power. The combined

power of both is often less than that of gas powered engine. It is therefore
suited for city driving and not for speed and acceleration.
2. Can be Expensive: The biggest drawback of having a hybrid car is that it
can burn a hole in your pocket. Hybrid cars are comparatively expensive than a
regular petrol car and can cost $5000 to $10000 more than a standard version.
However, that extra amount can be offset with lower running cost and tax
exemptions.
3. Poorer Handling: A hybrid car houses an gasoline powered engine, a lighter
electric engine and a pack of powerful batteries. This adds weight and eats up
the extra space in the car. Extra weight results in fuel inefficiency and
manufacturers cut down weight which has resulted in motor and battery
downsizing and less support in the suspension and body.
4. Higher Maintenance Costs: The presence of dual engine, continuous
improvement in technology, and higher maintenance cost can make it difficult
for mechanics to repair the car. It is also difficult to find a mechanic with such
an expertise.
5. Presence of High Voltage in Batteries: In case of an accident, the high
voltage present inside the batteries can prove lethal for you. There is a high
chance of you getting electrocuted in such cases which can also make the task
difficult for rescuers to get other passengers and driver out of the car.
Making Your Decision
Deciding whether or not a hybrid car is right for you involves more than just a
desire to be environmentally friendly. You have to look at the resources in your
area that can help you maintain and sustain the car. Depending on the type of
car you purchase you may need mechanics that are familiar with it or an
alternate fuel source. You should also look into any credits or discounts that
may be available to help you lower the cost of the purchase of the car.
Changing Your Driving Habits

Even if you do purchase a hybrid car there is more you can do to lessen your
effect on the environment. One64 of the most important considerations is how
you drive. You can replace many of your car trips with using public
transportation, carpooling or even riding a bicycle.

ADVANTAGES
Here are few of the top advantages of having a hybrid car :-
1. Environmentally Friendly: One of the biggest advantage of hybrid car over
gasoline powered car is that it runs cleaner and has better gas mileage which
makes it environmentally friendly. A hybrid vehicle runs on twin powered
engine (gasoline engine and electric motor) that cuts fuel consumption and
conserves energy.
2. Financial Benefits: Hybrid cars are supported by many credits and
incentives that help to make them affordable. Lower annual tax bills and
exemption from congestion charges comes in the form of less amount of
money spent on the fuel.
3. Less dependence on Fossil Fuels: A Hybrid car is much cleaner and
requires less fuel to run which means less emissions and less dependence on
fossil fuels. This in turn also helps to reduce the price of gasoline in domestic
market.
4. Regenerative Braking System: Each time you apply brake while driving a
hybrid vehicle helps you to recharge your battery a little. An internal
mechanism kicks in that captures the energy released and uses it to charge the
battery which in turn eliminates the amount of time and need for stopping to
recharge the battery periodically.
5. Built From Light Materials: Hybrid vehicles are made up of lighter
materials which means less energy is required to run. The engine is also
smaller and lighter which also saves much energy.
6. Higher Resale Value: With continuous increase in price of gasoline, more
and more people are turning towards hybrid cars. The result is that these green
vehicles have started commanding higher than average resale values. So, in
case you are not satisfied with your vehicle, you can always sell it at a
premium price to buyers looking for it.
There are many advantages to owning a hybrid car. The one you will like the
best is how it helps you to control your budget as gas prices continue to get
higher. The other benefit that65is not seen directly is how owning and driving a
hybrid car impacts the environment. It reduces the dependence on fossil fuels
and lowers your carbon imprint on the environment.

66

Hybrid Car Major

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hybrid Car Major

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hybrid car using renewable energy sources 1

(VIJAY LAKSHMI KHAJURIA)

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

VIJYA LAKSHMI KHAJURIA (640540108005),

SAIMA YOUSUF (640540108006)

The project here is all about Power-Generating Shocker The Power-Generating

An electromagnetic linear generator and regenerative shocker is

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

generating capacity. As a regenerative shocker , the disclosed device is

.Dc gear motor .Diode . solar panel

.Rack $Pinion .Speaker

.Wind turbine .Battery

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

The project we are doing on the topic "hybrid car", consisting of

The circuit is design using various components as required,solar panel

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

Part of a series about

Efficient energy use

Passive solar building design

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

Fossil fuel phase-out

Sustainable development portal

Compressed or liquefied natural gas

Petrol (gasoline) or Diesel fuel

Electromagnetic fields, Radio waves

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

A biodiesel hybrid bus in Montreal, Canada

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

The first published prototype of an SHB is by Augustus Kinzel (US Patent

Bus Rapid Transit of Metz, a diesel-electric hybrid driving system by Van

which powers electric/hydraulic motor(s) - strictly an electric/hydraulic

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

through wires or pipes rather than mechanical elements become more

East Japan Railway Company HB-E300 series

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

Road transport, commercial vehicles

2008 GMC Yukon hybrid version

Military off-road vehicles

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

Hybrid New Flyer Metrobus

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

Hybrid Optare Solo

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has

Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid with aflexible fuel capability to run

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

Chrysler minivan, petro-hydraulic hybrid

French MDI petro-air hybrid car developed with Tata

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air/hydraulic concept car

Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air/hydraulic cutaway

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

experiment proved the viability of small petro-hydraulic hybrid road vehicles

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

Current vehicle bodies are designed around the mechanicals of existing

Electric-human power hybrid vehicle

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology

Another form of hybrid vehicle are human power-electric vehicles. These

Honda Insight, Mild Parallel Hybrid

Toyota Prius, series-parallel hybrid

Ford Escape Hybrid, a series-parallel drivetrain

BEEHIVE college of engineering and technology