The transfer of heat is a major factor in fires and has an effect on ignition, growth, spread, decay

(reduction in energy output), and extinction. Heat transfer is also responsible for much of the physical
evidence used by investigators in attempting to establish a fire's origin and cause.

It is important to distinguish between heat and temperature. Temperature is a measure that expresses
the degree of molecular activity of a material compared to a reference point such as the freezing point
of water. Heat is the energy that is needed to maintain or change the temperature of an object. When
heat energy is transferred to an object, the temperature increases. When heat is transferred away, the
temperature decreases.

In a fire situation, heat is always transferred from the high-temperature mass to the low-temperature
mass. Heat transfer is measured in terms of energy flow per unit of time (kilowatts). The greater the
temperature difference between the objects, the more energy is transferred per unit of time and the
higher the heat transfer rate is. Temperature can be compared to the pressure in a fire hose and heat or
energy transfer to the waterflow in gallons per minute.

Heat transfer is accomplished by three mechanisms which is conduction, convection, and radiation.
All three play a role in the investigation of a fire, and an understanding of each is necessary. Firstly,
let go through with the conduction. Conduction is the form of heat transfer that takes place within
solids when one portion of an object is heated. Energy is transferred from the heated area to the
unheated area at a rate dependent on the difference in temperature and the physical properties of the
material. The properties are the thermal conductivity (k), the density (p), and the heat capacity (c).
The heat capacity (specific heat) of a material is a measure of the amount of heat necessary to raise its
temperature (degree of temperature rise).

If thermal conductivity (k) is high, the rate of heat transfer through the material is high. Metals have
high thermal conductivities (k), while plastics or glass have low thermal conductivity (k) values.
Other properties (k and c) being equal, high-density (p) materials conduct heat faster than low-density
materials. This is why low-density materials make good insulators. Similarly, materials with a high
heat capacity (c) require more energy to raise the temperature than materials with low heat capacity
values.

Generally, conduction heat transfer is considered between two points with the energy source at a
constant temperature. The other point will increase to some steady temperature lower than that of the
source. This condition is known as steady state. Once steady state is reached, thermal conductivity (k)
is the dominant heat transfer property. In the growing stages of a fire, temperatures are continuously
changing, resulting in changing rates of heat transfer. During this period, all three properties thermal
conductivity (k), density (p), and heat capacity (c) play a role.

The impact of the thermal inertia on the rise in temperature in a space or on the material in it is not
constant through the duration of a fire. Eventually, as the materials involved reach a constant
temperature, the effects of density (p) and heat capacity (c) become insignificant relative to thermal
conductivity. Therefore, thermal inertia of a material is most important at the initiation and early
stages of a fire (pre-flashover).

Conduction of heat into a material as it affects its surface temperature is an important aspect of
ignition. Thermal inertia is an important factor in how fast the surface temperature will rise. The lower
the thermal inertia of the material, the faster the surface temperature will rise. Conduction is also a
mechanism of fire spread. Heat conducted through a metal wall or along a pipe or metal beam can
cause ignition of combustibles in contact with the heated metals. Conduction through metal fasteners
such as nails, nail plates, or bolts can result in fire spread or structural failure.

Second is the fire spread by convection. Convection is the transfer of heat energy by the movement of
heated liquids or gases from the source of heat to a cooler part of the environment. Heat is transferred
by convection to a solid when hot gases pass over cooler surfaces. The rate of heat transfer to the solid
is a function of the temperature difference, the surface area exposed to the hot gas, and the velocity of
the hot gas. The higher the velocity of the gas, the greater the rate of convective transfer.

In the early history of a fire, convection plays a major role in moving the hot gases from the fire to the
upper portions of the room of origin and throughout the building. As the room temperatures rise with
the approach of flashover, convection continues, but the role of radiation increases rapidly and
becomes the dominant heat transfer mechanism. Even after flashover, convection can be an important
mechanism in the spread of smoke, hot gases, and unburned fuels throughout a building. This can
spread the fire or toxic or damaging products of combustion to remote areas.

Lastly is radiation. Radiation is the transfer of heat energy from a hot surface to a cooler surface by
electromagnetic waves without an intervening medium. For example, the heat energy from the sun is
radiated to earth through the vacuum of space. Radiant energy can be transferred only by line-of-sight
and will be reduced or blocked by intervening materials. Intervening materials do not necessarily
block all radiant heat. For example, radiant heat is reduced on the order of 50 percent by some glazing
materials.
The rate of radiant heat transfer is strongly related to a difference in the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of the radiator and the target. At high temperatures, small increases in the temperature
difference result in a massive increase in the radiant energy transfer. The rate of heat transfer is also
strongly affected by the distance between the radiator and the target. As the distance increases, the
amount of energy falling on a unit of area falls off in a manner that is related to both the size of the
radiating source and the distance to the target.