Asian American Journal of Psychology

Parenting Variables Associated With Growth Mindset: An

Examination of Three Chinese-Heritage Samples
Joanna J. Kim, Joey Fung, Qiaobing Wu, Chao Fang, and Anna S. Lau
Online First Publication, February 2, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/aap0000064

CITATION
Kim, J. J., Fung, J., Wu, Q., Fang, C., & Lau, A. S. (2017, February 2). Parenting Variables Associated
With Growth Mindset: An Examination of Three Chinese-Heritage Samples. Asian American
Journal of Psychology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/aap0000064
 Asian American Journal of Psychology 2017 American Psychological Association
2017, Vol. 8, No. 1, 000 1948-1985/17/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/aap0000064

Parenting Variables Associated With Growth Mindset: An Examination of

Three Chinese-Heritage Samples

Joanna J. Kim Joey Fung

University of California, Los Angeles Fuller Theological Seminary

Qiaobing Wu Chao Fang

Chinese University of Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Beijing
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Anna S. Lau
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

University of California, Los Angeles

An incremental theory of intelligence (TOI), the belief that intelligence is malleable and can be improved
through effort, is associated with childrens academic achievement, mastery goals, and overall psycho-
logical well-being. Although the positive impact of TOI is well established, less is known about
socialization factors such as parenting that foster these orientations. We posited that both autonomy
support (AS) and psychological control (PC) may promote incremental TOI among Chinese heritage
fourth- to fifth-grade children and their mothers where socialization has largely been characterized as low
in AS and high in PC. However, we examined the possibility that these associations may differ across
contexts within the Chinese Diaspora (Beijing, Hong Kong, and Los Angeles) as child rearing evolves
as a function of rapid social change and immigration. A multiple-group structural equation model
revealed a positive association between child-report of maternal PC and child incremental TOI across all
three samples (BJ .37, p .001; HK .17, p .05; LA .26, p .01) and a positive association
between child-report of maternal AS and incremental TOI in Hong Kong only (HK .41, p .001).
Consistent with past studies, childrens perceptions of parenting were more proximal to child beliefs than
mothers reports of their own behaviors. These results are discussed in connection with the literature on
the dynamic role of culture in shaping parenting and associated developmental outcomes in Asian and
Asian American contexts.

What is the public significance of this article?

The present study suggests that psychological control is associated with growth mindset among
Chinese-heritage children in Beijing, Hong Kong, and Los Angeles while autonomy supportive
parenting is linked to growth mindset only in Hong Kong. This is in contrast to past research with
Western samples characterizing psychological control as detrimental and autonomy support as
tantamount to adjustment. Our findings suggest the dynamic role of social context in shaping
parenting and associated developmental outcomes.

Keywords: theories of intelligence, psychological control, autonomy support, Chinese parenting

Implicit theories of intelligence (TOIs), underlying beliefs re-
garding the malleability or permanence of ones intelligence, are
thought to influence childrens motivation, goals, achievement,
and psychological well-being (Dweck, 1999). Children with entity
TOIs believe intellectual abilities are fixed, typically hold perfor-
mance goals aiming to showcase their abilities, often act helpless
in the face of perceived failure, and avoid challenges that might
mar their sense of self. In contrast, children with an incremental
TOI hold a growth mindset marked by the belief that ability is
malleable. These children tend to prioritize learning, persevere
through challenge, and be more invested in the process of gaining
competence than demonstrating ability (Dweck & Leggett, 1988).

Anna S. Lau, Department of Psychology, University of California, Los

Joanna J. Kim, Department of Psychology, University of California,
Los Angeles; Joey Fung, School of Psychology, Department of Clinical
Psychology, Fuller Theological Seminary; Qiaobing Wu, Department of
Social Work, Chinese University of Hong Kong; Chao Fang, Depart-
ment of Psychology, University of Science and Technology Beijing;
Angeles.
Chao Fang is now at School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Joanna J.
Kim, Department of Psychology, University of California, 1193 Franz
Hall, Box 951563, Los Angeles, CA 90095. E-mail: joanna.kim@ucla.edu

1
 2 KIM, FUNG, WU, FANG, AND LAU
Furthermore, teaching students incremental TOI promoted positive
changes in class motivation and an upward trajectory in grades
(Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007) and appears to buffer
the effects of stereotype threat, leading to increased academic
engagement and performance (Aronson, Fried, & Good, 2002).
Interestingly, the belief in incremental TOI is largely consistent
with what has been described as a valued goal of child socializa-
tion in East Asian cultures. Not only do Confucian teachings
emphasize the responsibility of children to learn through effort, but
they also underline the duty of parents to teach children to value
hard work (Kim & Wong, 2002; Park, Coello, & Lau, 2014).
Indeed, Asian American students more often attribute success and
failure to effort compared to their European American counterparts
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(Mizokawa & Ryckman, 1990). Compared to European Ameri-
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cans, individuals of Asian descent are more likely to manifest a
self-improving orientation (i.e., tendency to focus on ones relative
weaknesses in order to improve the self) rather than self-enhancing
orientation (i.e., tendency to focus on ones talents and successes
to maintain a positive view of the self; Heine et al., 2001).
Autonomy Support and Psychological Control
Although the impact of TOI on academic achievement and
motivation, performance, and resilience is well established, less is
known about naturalistic socialization factors that foster these
orientations. Emerging evidence suggests that TOI can be fostered
(Blackwell et al., 2007). For instance, mothers use of person-
centered praise appears to lead to increases in child entity TOI and
avoidance of challenge over time (Pomerantz & Kempner, 2013).
These findings reflect beliefs described by Asian-heritage parents
that liberal praise may spoil children by inflating esteem in ways
that lead to reduced persistence and efforts to improve (Lau, 2012;
Lau, Fung, & Yung, 2010). Aside from praise, the role of other
parenting behaviors in shaping TOI remains unclear. Autonomy
support (AS) involves parents promoting childrens independence
in ways that may foster a sense of agency and self-efficacy. AS is
linked to developmental outcomes such as intrinsic motivation,
achievement, social competence, and well-being (e.g., Ryan &
Deci, 2000), which, in turn, are associated with incremental TOI in
children (Grolnick & Ryan, 1989). These indirect links suggest
that autonomy supportive parenting may lead to outcomes, includ-
ing growth mindset and perseverance. It stands to reason that
encouraging children to explore independently and validating their
perspectives may engender a sense control and mastery, which
may translate into beliefs that their efforts can foster ability.
Conversely, parental reliance on psychological control (PC) has
been associated with child anxiety (Pettit, Laird, Dodge, Bates, &
Criss, 2001), aggression (Loukas, Paulos, & Robinson, 2005), and
other indicators of poor adjustment in children (e.g., Barber, 1996).
PC tactics aim to control childrens behavior by constraining their
emotional expression, invalidating complaints, and inducing guilt
for transgressions. Within self-determination theory (SDT), PC is
thought to jeopardize the specific needs of child autonomy, relat-
edness, and competence, which are believed to be crucial to
motivation and subsequent achievement and well-being (Deci &
Ryan, 2008; Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT posits that PC acts to
thwart children in their development of a sense of personal agency,
mastery, and competence, which may help explain why PC is
robustly linked to increased child distress and behavior problems
(Barber, Olsen, & Shagle, 1994; Pettit et al., 2001). Relatedly, it
could be argued that PC behaviors such as invalidating childrens
feelings, criticizing their behavior, or making upward social com-
parisons may lead children to feel ineffective and helpless, thereby
thwarting their motivation to improve themselvesa psychologi-
cal state associated with entity orientations.
Yet, these premises about the implications of PC for child
developmental outcomes are based largely on SDT, which emerges
from a Western, independent cultural point of view. East Asian
parenting has been globally characterized as lower in AS and
higher in PC than Western parenting (Lin & Fu, 1990; Wang &
Phinney, 1998). For example, compared to European Americans,
Chinese and Chinese American parents exert more control over
child conduct, granting less autonomy and expecting more obedi-
ence (Fung & Lau, 2012; Wu, 1996). Based on the reasoning
above, one might expect Chinese children to have poorer adjust-
ment, have lower achievement, and prescribe to an entity TOI. Yet,
some data suggest that East Asian youth are more likely than
European American youth to hold incremental theories and persist
in the face of academic challenge (Li, 2003; Stevenson & Stigler,
1992). Given the general characterization of traditional Chinese
parenting as high on PC and low on AS, it may suggest a paradox
if Chinese youth were also more likely to hold growth mindsets.
In particular, such a pattern might suggest that the effects of PC
on child adjustment may be shaped by the broader cultural context.
For instance, Fung and Lau (2012) found that parent reliance on
PC was associated with internalizing and externalizing behavior
problems among European American children but not among
Hong Kong children. Although PC can be viewed as invalidating
and detrimental to child well-being in Western contexts where the
development of autonomy is prized, these strategies may carry
different meanings and implications in a more interdependent
cultural context such as Hong Kong. PC may be congruent with
more interdependent socialization goals of interpersonal attun-
ement and sensitivity to relational role demands and social rules in
Asian-origin families.
Although studies have associated specific styles of parenting
with child academic and psychological adjustment across cultural
groups (e.g., Chao, 2001; Eamon, 2005; Hill, 2001; Spera, 2005),
few studies have investigated the associations between perceived
parenting and childrens implicit TOI. Work in this domain has
focused primarily on the downstream effects of types of praise on
childrens attribution of success and failure. Conventional under-
standing derived from research on Western parenting styles might
suggest that parents PC is detrimental and AS beneficial for the
development of growth mindset, but this may not necessarily be
the case in Asian-origin families. Among Chinese-heritage fami-
lies, PC may in fact prompt children to increase effort toward
mastery goals. Likewise, instead of providing opportunities for
children to fail and then learn from missteps, AS may allow
children to make choices that avoid challenge and ultimately foster
an entity TOI.
Different Social Contexts for Three Chinese Samples
Furthermore, it is crucial to keep in mind the vast social changes
that have occurred in East Asian in recent decades. The Peoples
Republic of China, in particular, has experienced unprecedented
economic growth accompanied by massive social change and
 PARENTING AND GROWTH MINDSET
rapidly shifting values toward individualism and child rearing that
emphasizes child-centered autonomy and personal choice (Chen,
Cen, Li, & He, 2005; Park, Coello, & Lau, 2014; Pearson, & Rao,
2003; Sun & Ryder, 2016). Some of this change in parenting
orientation may be attributed to Chinas one-child family plan-
ning policy (Arnold & Zhaoxiang, 1986). With social and eco-
nomic changes, traditional characterizations of Chinese parenting
as high in PC and low in AS may no longer hold (Lai, Zhang, &
Wang, 2000). In urban Mainland China, traditions in child social-
ization appear to be shifting toward independent developmental
competencies favored in a competitive market economy, such as
fostering assertiveness and self-esteem through child-centered par-
enting (Chen et al., 2005; Way et al., 2013). In contrast, a more
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traditional focus on parental authority is observed among cohorts
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of Chinese parents who migrated prior to economic reform or who
have resided in more stable economies, such as Hong Kong (Lai et
al., 2000; Luo, Tamis-LeMonda, & Song, 2013). Confucian tradi-
tions on child socialization may be more stable in places like Hong
Kong and Taiwan that have not made a recent, rapid transition to
market economies. Hong Kong in particular has been host to a
much more static and stable Chinese society (Yau & Smetana,
2003). Hong Kong families appear to be largely emphasizing
parenting goals such filial piety and family hierarchy, as well as
parenting marked by high demandingness and PC (Chan, Bowes,
& Wyver, 2009; Fung & Lau, 2012; Pearson & Rao, 2003).
In the discussion of Chinese parenting and differing social
contexts, it is crucial to consider the experiences of immigrant
Chinese families, specifically that of Chinese American families
for whom the immigrant experience often influences the parents
own prioritization of socialization and values. Much prior research
has illuminated differences between Chinese American parenting
and European American parenting styles with particular attention
on Chinese-heritage parents use of control and expectations to
train children (Chao, 2000, 2001). Comparisons of Chinese
American immigrant and Chinese families remaining in distinctive
sending countries provide a lens to understand shifts in values and
parenting practices related to social change and migration. For
instance, Chinese American parents raising bicultural children may
experience an explicit tension in rearing their children to value
parental authority and family interdependence in a context that
largely promotes child independence and autonomy (Cheah,
Leung, & Zhou, 2013; Lau, 2010). The struggle to find balance
between heritage and host cultural values in parenting may be
unique to the immigrant experience (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2008)
and may actually evoke more parental control than in nonimmi-
grant families (Nguyen, Kim, Ngo, Weiss, & Lau, 2017). How-
ever, while the immigrant context may shape levels of parental
control observed in families, it is unclear how the immigrant
family context may shape the associations between parental con-
trol and child developmental outcomes. Although some studies
have shown associations between facets of PC with poor youth
outcomes such as dampened emotional functioning, deviant be-
havior, lower academic competence, and behavioral symptoms
(e.g., Chao & Aque, 2009; Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Steinberg,
1996), emerging evidence also points to benefits of parental con-
trol among Asian Americans. For instance, perceived maternal
control has been shown to enhance the impact of parental accep-
tance on youth academic achievement (Kim & Rohner, 2002).
3
The Present Study
The present study aims to address the question of how maternal
PC and AS may be associated with incremental TOI among
Chinese-heritage children. Additionally, we aim to examine if and
how these associations may vary within the Chinese Diaspora.
Given differences in social, political, and economic contexts, there
is large diversity in language, cultural traditions, and values among
Chinese-heritage individuals, and it has become increasingly more
important to examine the impact of such heterogeneity (Fiske,
2002; Ho, Peng, Lai, & Chan, 2001; Tardif & Miao, 2000).
Although past studies have focused on comparisons between im-
migrant Chinese and Mainland Chinese samples or between im-
migrant Chinese and Hong Kong Chinese samples, this study is a
novel study that examines the heterogeneity of Chinese-heritage
parenting across three different social contexts. As mothers per-
ceptions of their own parenting style may shape childrens per-
ceptions of parenting, we examine the associations of both moth-
ers and childrens perceived maternal parenting behaviors with
incremental TOI. Past research has often focused on the effects of
parenting on adolescents social cognitions (e.g., Molden &
Dweck, 2006). However, social cognitions have already begun to
develop by as early as kindergarten, and childrens beliefs, goals,
and motivations appear to change developmentally (Kinlaw &
Kurtz-Costes, 2007). Thus, in the present study, fourth- to fifth-
grade elementary schoolchildren were targeted so as to capture the
preadolescent development of childrens theories of intelligence at
an age where maternal socialization is likely to influence children
and their still developing self-theories (Pomerantz & Kempner,
2013).
We hypothesized that PC would be related to greater incremen-
tal TOI given elements of PC that may prompt children to strive to
do better and improve upon themselves but that AS would be
associated with lower incremental TOI within Hong Kong children
who live in a context of parenting traditions of training for im-
provement. However, we predicted that in Beijing, a dynamic
context of Mainland urban China affected by rapid social change,
we may see converse relationships such that PC may constrain
incremental TOI while AS may facilitate it. Chinese American
families are in a unique position with immigrant parents largely
raised within traditional Chinese child-rearing values, but with
immigration introducing new priorities toward child autonomy. As
such, we did not pose directional hypotheses for Chinese American
families but explored whether relations between parenting and TOI
would conform to those predicted within the context of social
change toward independence promotion (as in Beijing) or tradi-
tional orientations toward interdependence (as in Hong Kong). To
our knowledge, these relations have not yet been examined in
literature and have not been examined with elementary-age chil-
dren whose implicit TOIs are likely continuing to form.
Method
Participants
Participants were 424 fourth- and fifth-grade children and their
mothers (166 dyads from Beijing, 150 dyads from Hong Kong, and
132 dyads from Los Angeles). Mothers age in the original sample
ranged from 29 65 years. However, only mother-child dyads in
 4 KIM, FUNG, WU, FANG, AND LAU
which maternal age was 50 years old or younger were included in
the analyses. In order to try to capture the socialization goals and
strategies of a singular cohort of mothers, we elected to exclude
respondents in the baby boomer generation of mothers born
between 1946 and 1964. This criterion resulted in removing from
the analytic sample two participants from the Beijing sample, eight
from Hong Kong, and seven from Los Angeles, for a total of 17
observations. For the Beijing (BJ) sample, maternal age ranged
from 3250 years (M 39.54, SD 3.21) and child age ranged
from 8 12 years (M 9.87, SD .79). For the Hong Kong (HK)
sample, maternal age ranged from 29 50 years (M 40.41, SD
5.39) and child age ranged from 8 11 years (M 9.65, SD .68).
In the Los Angeles (LA) sample, maternal age ranged from 3250
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years (M 42.43; SD 4.16) and child age ranged from 712
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years (M 9.61; SD .99). Table 1 presents demographic
information on the three samples. Approximately half of the child
participants were female (49.66% in BJ, 50.34% in HK, and
46.02% in LA).
All participants were of Chinese heritage, and the majority of
child were born in their area of residence (95.70% in BJ, 95.24%
in HK, and 80.56% in LA). In addition to Mainland China (n 16,
14.81%), HK (n 1, 0.93%), and the United States (n 87,
80.56%), LA children were also born in Europe (n 2, 1.85%)
and other countries in Asia (n 2, 1.85%). Among those who
mothers who reported their birthplace, 85.71% of BJ mothers were
born in Mainland China and 77.45% of HK mothers were born in
HK. Among LA mothers who reported their birthplace, 51
(40.48%) were born in Mainland China, 13 (10.32%) in HK, 29
(23.02%) in Taiwan, 18 (14.29%) in other Asian countries, and 15
(11.90%) in the United States. Among LA children for whom we
had both child and mother birthplace, 21 (19.44%) were first-
generation Chinese Americans and 87 (80.56%) were at least
second-generation Chinese American. Less than half of LA fam-
ilies lived in historical ethnic enclaves with high Asian- and
Latino- immigrant family density (n 54, 40.91%), and the
remaining LA families hailed from other diverse neighborhoods
around greater Los Angeles that were not particularly known for
high Chinese American representation (Tseng, 1994).
Procedure
Participants were recruited through one local elementary school
in BJ, one local elementary school in HK, and one local elemen-
Table 1
Sample Demographics by City
Characteristic Beijing (n 166), n (%)
Gender (female) 73 (49.66), nmissing 19
Children born in area of residencea 89 (95.70), nmissing 73
Mothers born in area of residencea 116 (85.92), nmissing 31
Child first-generation Chinese American
Residing in high-density Chinese ethnic enclave
Maternal education (total years)
Elementary school (15 years) 5 (3.29)
Middle school (68 years) 3 (1.97)
High school (912 years) 25 (16.45)
Some college (1316 years) 69 (45.39)
Advanced degree (17 years) 50 (32.89)
Missing 14
a
Mainland China and United States included as area of residence for Beijing and Los Angeles families, respectively.
tary school and two local weekend Chinese-heritage language
schools in LA with the permission and administrative help of
school officials. Students and parents were informed that the study
was an international collaboration studying parenting among
Chinese-descent families and child adjustment. Although only one
elementary school per city was targeted, in each of the cities, the
selected elementary schools were considered typical schools. That
is, none were reputed to be particularly high- or low-achieving and
enrolled residents generally representative of their surrounding
neighborhoods. Children were given study packets, which in-
cluded consent and questionnaires to take home to discuss with
their parents and complete the questionnaires if they decided to
participate in the study. HK children and parents were provided
questionnaires in traditional Chinese while BJ children and parents
were provided questionnaires in simplified Chinese. One hundred
percent of invited students in the HK and BJ elementary schools
participated in the study, but the participation rate information is
not available for the LA sample as we were unable to estimate the
total number of eligible children approached through the LA
elementary school and Chinese-language schools. LA children
completed their surveys in English while mothers completed the
surveys in their preferred language (English, simplified Chinese,
or traditional Chinese). All children and their mothers completed
questionnaires independently from one another. All data for the
three samples were collected during the 20122013 academic year.
Measures
Implicit TOIs. Child participants were given the six-item
Implicit Theories of Intelligence Scale (Dweck, 1999) and indi-
cated level of agreement on a 5-point Likert scale (0 strongly
disagree to 4 strongly agree). Three statements were designed
to tap into participants entity TOI, indicating participants belief
that intelligence is fixed and cannot be changed (e.g., You can
learn new things, but you cant really change your basic intelli-
gence.). Cronbach alphas are .80 for BJ, .76 for HK, and .62 for
LA. The remaining three statements in the scale were designed to
measure participants incremental TOI or the belief that intelli-
gence is malleable and can be changed with effort and time (e.g.,
No matter who you are, you can change your intelligence a lot.).
Cronbach alphas are .87 for BJ, .79 for HK, and .82 for LA.
Childrens incremental theory orientation was significantly corre-
lated with childrens entity orientation at r .29 (p .01) for BJ
Hong Kong (n 150), n (%) Los Angeles (n 132), n (%)
74 (50.34), nmissing 3 52 (46.02), nmissing 19
120 (95.24), nmissing 24 7 (80.56), nmissing 28
79 (77.45), nmissing 48 15 (11.90), nmissing 6
21 (19.44), nmissing 24
54 (40.91), nmissing 0
6 (4.51) 5 (4.07)
27 (20.30) 3 (2.44)
58 (43.61) 19 (15.45)
31 (23.31) 31 (25.20)
11 (8.27) 65 (52.85)
17 9
 PARENTING AND GROWTH MINDSET 5

and at r .24 (p .05) for LA and marginally significantly
correlated at r .16 (p .06) for HK.
Although some studies in the past using this measure have
reversed-scored the entity or incremental items and then calculated
a mean from the full six items (e.g., Dweck, 1999), other studies
have calculated separate incremental and entity scores from their
respective three items often due to co-occurrence of incremental
and entity orientations (e.g., Brten & Strms, 2005; Dupeyrat &
Marin, 2005; Hong, Chiu, Dweck, Lin, & Wan, 1999; Pomerantz
& Kempner, 2013). Additionally, Dweck and colleagues acknowl-
edge the potential for individuals to hold varying degrees of
different orientations simultaneously (Dweck, Chiu, & Hong,
1995). To correct for the co-occurrence of entity and incremental
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Support Scale (Wang et al., 2007). Six items tapped into opinion
exchange (e.g., She listens to my opinion or perspective when
Ive got a problem.) and six items tapped into choice making
(e.g., She allows me to decide things for myself.). For mothers,
the items were modified such that they answered about their own
autonomy supportive practices (e.g., I am usually willing to
consider things from my childs point of view.). Each participant
responded with his or her level of agreement for each statement on
a 5-point Likert scale (0 not at all true to 4 very true). The
overall scale yielded good internal consistency with alphas of .84
and .89 in BJ, .92 and .93 in HK, and .87 and .88 in LA for children
and mothers, respectively.

TOI in the current sample (the two variables were correlated at r Results
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.14, p .05 for the full sample; see above for correlations by city),
we calculated separate childrens entity and incremental TOI ori-
entations to calculate our variable of interest: residualized incre-
mental TOI scores. Childrens self-reports of incremental TOI raw
scores were regressed on their entity TOI raw scores. The residu-
alized scores were used to measure the unique variance in child
incremental TOI in the sample, controlling for entity TOI. Unless
otherwise indicated, the residualized scores were used as the
measured dependent variable in all data analyses for this study.
Psychological control. Children and mothers reported on
mothers PC by responding to the 18-item Psychological Control
Scale (Wang, Pomerantz, & Chen, 2007). Children were asked to
rate their level of agreement with 10 statements that measured guilt
induction (e.g., She tells me that I should feel guilty when I do not
meet her expectations.), 5 statements that measured love with-
drawal (e.g., She acts cold and unfriendly if I do something she
doesnt like.), and 3 statements that measured authority assertion
(e.g., She answers my arguments by saying things like, Youll
know better when you grow up.). For mothers, each statement
was modified to ask about mothers own practices (e.g., I tell my
child that he/she should feel ashamed when he/she does not behave
as I wish.). Participants indicated level of agreement with each
statement on a 5-point Likert scale (0 not at all true to 4 very
true). The overall scale yielded good internal consistency with
Cronbach alphas of .89 and .92 in BJ, .88 and .94 in HK, and .92
and .90 in LA for children and mothers, respectively.
Autonomy support. Mothers use of autonomy supportive
parenting practices was measured using the 12-item Autonomy
Preliminary Analyses
Descriptive statistics for the study variables are listed in Table 2.
One-way analyses of variance revealed significant group mean
differences on raw incremental TOI, incremental TOI controlling
for entity theory, and all reports of parenting behaviors among the
three groups. LA childrens report of raw incremental theory was
significantly greater than that reported in BJ, t 3.57, p .001,
and HK, t 3.17, p .001. Likewise, we found that when
controlling for entity theory orientation, children in LA reported
significantly higher incremental TOI than children in BJ,
t 3.30, p .001, and HK, t 3.17, p .001. Maternal use
of PC was significantly higher in HK compared with BJ
(tchild 3.69, p .001; tmother 3.38, p .001) and LA
(tchild 4.30, p .001; tmother 5.47, p .001) based on both
child- and mother-report. Children reported significantly lower
autonomy supportive behaviors in LA compared to BJ, t 3.01,
p .01, and HK, t 2.66, p .01. However, per mother-report,
autonomy supportive behaviors are significantly less utilized in
HK than both BJ, t 3.01, p .01, and LA, t 1.87, p .05.
Correlations are presented for all study variables in Table 3.
Child-report of AS was positively correlated with mother-report of
AS for all groups, whereas child-report of PC was only positively
correlated with mother-report of PC for BJ and LA dyads. Mother-
report of PC and AS was negatively correlated in BJ, positively
correlated in HK, and not significantly correlated in LA. Incre-
mental TOI was positively correlated with child-report of mothers

Table 2
Descriptives for Predictor and Outcome Variables by City

Beijing Hong Kong Los Angeles

Variable M SD Range M SD Range M SD Range F

Child entity TOI 1.44 1.12 0 to 4 1.52 1.02 0 to 4 1.75 .86 0 to 4 2.65
Child incremental TOI 1.74a 1.21 0 to 4 1.87a 1.06 0 to 4 2.30b 1.01 0 to 4 7.42
Incremental TOI controlling
for entity orientation .20a 1.17 2.27 to 2.28 .08a 1.05 2.12 to 2.28 .31b 1.05 2.32 to 2.28 6.39
Child-report PC 1.43a .81 0 to 3.56 1.78b .78 0 to 4 1.33c .87 0 to 3.71 10.88
Child-report AS 2.32a .75 0 to 4 2.33a .98 0 to 4 2.01b .83 0 to 3.75 4.99
Mother-report PC 1.42a .59 0 to 3.53 1.68b .67 0 to 4 1.23a .64 0 to 3.5 16.22
Mother-report AS 2.65a .57 1 to 4 2.43b .64 0 to 4 2.57a .59 0 to 4 4.70
Note. Means with different superscripts denote significantly different means. TOI theory of intelligence; PC psychological control; AS autonomy
support.

p .10. p .01. p .001.
 6 KIM, FUNG, WU, FANG, AND LAU

Table 3
Pairwise Correlations for Predictors and Outcomes Variables

Variable 1 2 3 4 5

Beijing sample
1. Childs incremental theory orientation
2. Child-report mothers psychological control .23
3. Child-report mothers autonomy support .15 .08
4. Mother-report mothers psychological control .02 .36 .07
5. Mother-report mothers autonomy support .15 .12 .21 .30
Hong Kong sample
1. Childs incremental theory orientation
2. Child-report mothers psychological control .31
3. Child-report mothers autonomy support .41 .26
4. Mother-report mothers psychological control .02 .04 .05
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5. Mother-report mothers autonomy support .07 .12 .22 .28

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Los Angeles sample

1. Childs incremental theory orientation
2. Child-report mothers psychological control .25
3. Child-report mothers autonomy support .07 .01
4. Mother-report mothers psychological control .08 .41 .25
5. Mother-report mothers autonomy support .09 .09 .29 .01
Note. In all analyses, incremental theory orientation is correcting for reported entity theory orientation.

p .05. p .01. p .001.

PC and AS for the HK sample but only correlated with child-report
of PC for BJ and LA cohorts. Incremental TOI was not correlated
with mother-report of either PC or AS.
Multiple-Group Structural Equation Model
The statistical package Mplus 7.0 was used for all analyses
(Muthn & Muthn, 1998 2012). Analyses investigated the asso-
ciation between incremental TOI and multi-informant variables of
parenting: child and mother-report of PC and AS. Structural equa-
tion modeling (SEM) was used to create a multiple-group model
(Brown, 2012). The Mplus default of Full Information Maximum
Likelihood was used in which all available data, including obser-
vations with missing data on one or more variables, are included in
analyses of parameter estimates.
A multiple-group SEM was used to test if the hypothesized
relationships among the reported parenting behaviors and child
TOI were equivalent across cities (see Figure 1). Child sex, child
age, and mothers education were considered control variables.

Figure 1. Multiple-group structural equation model of parenting variables and associations with incre-
mental theory of intelligence (TOI). Note: Each path and factor loading is labeled with three coefficients
indicating Beijing/Hong Kong/Los Angeles. Standardized coefficients depicted. Dashed line indicates path
where all group coefficients have p .05. PC psychological control; AS autonomy support; C
child-report; M mother-report. p .05. p .01. p .001.
 PARENTING AND GROWTH MINDSET
However, child sex was not significantly correlated with any study
variables and therefore was not included as a covariate in the final
model. Child age was significantly correlated with child-report of
AS and PC, and mothers education was significantly correlated
with both informants reports of PC. As such, both were included
in the final model as covariates.
The multiple-group model displayed good fit with Root Mean
Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) .069, Comparative
Fit Index (CFI) .924, Tucker Lewis Index (TLI) .913, and
Square Root Mean Residual (SRMR) .080. A joint Wald test of
structural paths was significant, indicating that it is most appro-
priate to examine data within a multiple-group model, 2(12)
26.85, p .01. Factor loadings on latent factors ranged from
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.71.94. A joint Wald test of all measurement paths demonstrated
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
metric noninvariance, 2(24) 85.69, p .001. Following the
Byrne, Shavelson, and Muthn (1989) framework for assessing
measurement invariance, we tested individual measurement paths
to find that 3 of the 12 measurement paths in the model were
noninvariant across groups but at least one factor was invariant for
each latent construct, thus meeting criteria for partial invariance.
Given partial invariance, we are able to make inferences about
group differences within the full model (Byrne et al., 1989; van de
Schoot, Lugtig, & Hox, 2012).
Contrary to predictions that PC would be negatively related to
incremental TOI in BJ and positively related in HK, child-report of
maternal PC was significantly positively associated with child
incremental TOI for all three groups (BJ .37, p .001; HK
.17, p .05; LA .26, p .01). The magnitude of associations
between child TOI and child-reported PC was not significantly
different across the three groups, 2(2) 1.85, p .05. Child-
report of maternal AS was significantly associated with child
incremental TOI for HK children (HK .41, p .001), margin-
ally associated in BJ (BJ .19, p .10), and not significantly
associated for LA (LA .08, p .05). The magnitude of
associations between child-reported AS and child TOI was mar-
ginally significantly different between the three groups, 2(2)
4.95, p .10. This was inconsistent with our expectation that AS
would be negatively related to incremental TOI specifically for
HK children.
Mother-report of their own PC was significantly associated with
child-report of maternal PC for BJ and LA dyads (BJ .38, p
.01; LA .40, p .001) but not for HK (HK .01, p .05). tence in interdependent cultural contexts where relational esteem is
The magnitude of these associations did not differ significantly
between BJ and LA samples, 2(1) .01, p .05. For AS,
mother-report of parenting was significantly associated with child-
report for all groups (BJ .28, p .05; HK .25, p .01; from decisions made for them by trusted authority figures as often
LA .31, p .01). The strength of this relationship did not differ
significantly between the three groups, 2(2) .17, p .05. To
examine how PC and AS may be associated with one another, we
also examined structural paths from mother-report of PC and AS to
child-report of AS and PC, respectively. Mother-report of AS was
not significantly associated with child-report of PC in any of the
three groups. Mother-report of PC was significantly associated
with child-report of AS only in LA (LA .32, p .01). The TOI for any of the three samples. However, this is consistent with
multiple-group SEM also revealed that mother-report of PC and
AS was significantly negatively correlated for BJ dyads but sig-
nificantly positively correlated for HK families (BJ .36, p Barry, Frick, & Grafeman, 2008; Paulson & Sputa, 1996). Never-
.001; HK .22, p .01). Additionally, child-report of PC and
7
AS was only significantly correlated for HK children (HK .23,
p .05).
Discussion
We examined perceptions of maternal parenting and their rela-
tion to child incremental TOI among families in BJ, HK, and LA.
Contrary to the general notion that AS and PC have opposing
influences on child development, we found that childrens reported
experience of maternal PC was positively associated with chil-
drens incremental TOI orientations in BJ, HK, and LA. Childrens
perceptions of AS were positively associated with childrens in-
cremental TOI in HK and marginally associated in BJ, but there
was no association between incremental TOI and child-reported
AS in LA. Chinese American children reported that their mothers
used less AS compared to their BJ and HK counterparts. Given the
relatively low endorsement of child-report of AS among the LA
sample, a floor effect may have impeded our ability to detect a
significant association between child-perceived AS and incremen-
tal TOI.
Contrary to the general notion that PC is harmful (e.g., Barber,
1996) and AS is beneficial (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 2008; Ryan & Deci,
2000) to children, our study found evidence that both maternal PC
and AS were linked to incremental TOI in Chinese-heritage chil-
dren in HK and that PC was associated with incremental TOI in the
BJ and LA samples. Although studies have generally documented
the deleterious effects of PC on child outcomes, we found that
maternal PC contributed to a theoretically beneficial type of social
cognition for Chinese-heritage children across all three cities.
Findings echo recent research calling into question the deleterious
effects of parental PC and child emotional and behavior outcomes
in Asian interdependent cultural contexts (e.g., Fung & Lau, 2012;
Olsen et al., 2002; Pomerantz & Wang, 2009). PC includes be-
haviors meant to control child behavior through disapproval as
well as behaviors that communicate high expectations. In cultural
contexts that are more interdependent, stressing the impact of the
childs actions or efforts on others or placing the childs behavior
in comparison to peers may spur a growth mindset. There is also
a focus on attuning the child to the threat of bringing shame or
embarrassment to the mother or the family or alerting the child to
how his or her conduct may make the parent feel. Such parenting
practices may be a salient determinant of child effort and persis-
often valued over personal esteem. Although autonomy granting
enhances intrinsic motivation among children from independent
cultures, youth from interdependent cultures may benefit more
occurs in high-PC households (Iyengar & Lepper, 1999). Future
research with other cultural groups is needed to understand the
implications of PC for TOI in contexts that lean toward indepen-
dent developmental pathways.
Despite the significant associations between child-report of par-
enting and incremental TOI, mother-reports of their own PC and
AS behaviors were not significantly correlated with incremental
previous findings that child perceptions of socialization and other
experiences are most proximally related to child outcomes (e.g.,
theless, mothers intentions and reports of their own parenting
 8 KIM, FUNG, WU, FANG, AND LAU
behavior are important in that they are systematically related to
child perceptions of parenting experiences and thus generate sig-
nificant indirect effects on child TOI. These findings emphasize
the need for multiple informants when examining the effects of
parenting on child development (Bgels & van Melick, 2004;
Bgels, van Oosten, Muris, & Smulders, 2001).
Beyond the main effects of parenting behaviors on child incre-
mental TOI, we observed a variety of differences across cities in
the variables of interest. Notably, child-report of PC was lower in
LA than in BJ, which was lower than PC in HK. Similarly,
mother-report of PC was lower in LA and BJ compared to HK. In
terms of AS, LA childrens reported AS levels were lower than
that of BJ and HK children while HK mothers endorsed signifi-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
cantly less AS than their BJ and LA counterparts. Our results are
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
consistent with studies that found HK mothers to be more author-
itarian and controlling than BJ mothers (e.g., Lai et al., 2000) and
conceptually in line with data indicating that HK Chinese are
significantly less individualistic than European Americans (Oyser-
man, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002). The observed higher levels of
reported PC in HK compared to BJ are consistent with our pre-
diction that interdependent socialization via maternal use of PC
has been more stably maintained outside the mainland than in the
context of rapid social change in urban China. Recall that prior to
the sweeping social and economic shifts in Mainland China, tra-
ditional Chinese parenting was characterized by an emphasis on
parental respect, unquestioning obedience, and training children
about the impact of their interpersonal interactions (Chao, 1995; Ho,
1989). Although seminal studies comparing Chinese and Western
parenting have shown Chinese parenting to be more authoritarian
and emphasizing one-way parent-to-child communication over
that of Chinese American and Anglo American families (Chao,
1994; Chiu, 1987), emerging evidence points us to shifts away
from PC within Mainland China (Way et al., 2013). Another
reason that may account for the observed group differences in
child perceptions of parenting may involve the bicultural con-
text of the LA sample. Socialization experiences of Chinese
American children in school and society may shape frame-of-
reference effects in reports of mothering. For example, chil-
drens perceptions of their mothers use of control may be
impacted by their observations of school culture, peer family
dynamics, and media depictions of family process. Finally, LA
mothers endorsing the lowest levels of PC may suggest either
acculturative effects as mothers adopt U.S. parenting values
while relinquishing more traditional Chinese child-rearing
styles of control or selection effects of more individualistic
Chinese mothers having chosen to immigrate west.
In terms of covariation among parenting constructs, our data
showed that mother-report of AS and PC was negatively correlated
in BJ but positively correlated in HK and not correlated in LA.
This pattern of an inverse relationship between PC and AS found
only in our BJ sample is generally observed in Western indepen-
dent cultural settings (Silk, Morris, Kanaya, & Steinberg, 2003).
The positive correlation observed in BJ is thus consistent with
theories on the impact of social change on shifts toward indepen-
dent cultural orientations in Mainland China (Greenfield, 2009;
Sun & Ryder, 2016). In contrast, within the HK sample, the two
parenting dimensions may coexist in a dialectical fashion wherein
maternal socialization practices can be simultaneously fostering of
child autonomy and opinion formation with facets of PC (Silk et
al., 2003). Kagitibasi (2005) argues that in the context of devel-
opment and modernization as independence orientations rise, we
may not observe a corresponding decrease in relatedness. The HK
sample suggests this autonomy-relatedness complex of socializa-
tion. In contrast, within the LA Chinese American sample, there
was no association between maternal reliance on AS and PC,
suggesting an orthogonal relationship between PC and AS, where
reliance on one strategy may not be systematically associated with
use of the other.
The findings of the study should be considered in light of its
limitations. First, the cross-sectional design precludes us draw-
ing conclusions about directionality of influence between par-
enting and child growth mindset. Although parenting behaviors
may foster incremental or entity TOI in children, it is equally
possible that children with incremental orientations may prompt
parents to engage in more PC and AS. Indeed, it is plausible that
there may be either child perception differences shaped by TOI
or actual child evocative effects at play. For example, children
who perceive themselves as more agentic and/or have a stronger
growth orientation may be more likely to perceive their parents
as being more psychologically controlling (perhaps than is
warranted). Alternatively, highly agentic children with growth
mindset may exhibit signs of drive that prompt parents to push
them toward achievement harder. Longitudinal investigation will
allow for illumination on the directionality of the socialization-growth
mindset relationship. Future prospective research would allow us to
draw conclusions to the development of family-based interventions to
facilitate the development of childrens growth mindset.
Another limitation is the relatively low endorsement of in-
cremental and entity TOI among children in our sample. Mean
absolute ratings of incremental TOI were 1.74 for BJ, 1.87 for
HK, and 2.30 for LA (range: 0 4). Compared to previous
studies, this represents relatively low endorsement of incremen-
tal TOI orientations in the case of BJ and HK. In a study of
student teachers and business students, mean incremental TOI
was reported as 2.44 and 2.15, respectively (means adjusted to
match the scale of the current study; Brten & Strms, 2005).
Although Chinese children are traditionally thought to hold
more incremental theories of intelligence (Stevenson & Stigler,
1992), our data suggest that there may be a developmental trend
with implicit theory orientations starting relatively low in
Grades 4 5 and increasing with age through increased educa-
tion and socialization.
Notwithstanding these concerns, our findings reveal preliminary
evidence that childrens perceptions of maternal parenting were
robustly associated with growth mindset in Chinese-heritage chil-
dren across three distinct social contexts. Our findings provide
evidence to support the association of PC with one positive child
characteristic within an interdependent social context. Despite the
commonly accepted convention, our study provides one data point
suggesting that PC may have a redeeming benefit. However, this
finding has to be considered alongside multiple studies showing
untoward effects of PC on childrens emotional and behavioral
development even within Chinese-heritage samples. Additionally,
while AS is touted as paramount for optimal child adjustment, our
findings provide more limited support for associations with this
aspect of social cognition. Given the limitations of this initial
study, replication and prospective inquiry are needed to defini-
 PARENTING AND GROWTH MINDSET
tively inform family-based interventions to foster growth mindset
in elementary-age children.
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Received April 26, 2016
Revision received November 29, 2016
Accepted November 30, 2016