117100

ENGINEERING
ENCYCLOPEDIA
A Condensed Encyclopedia and Mechanical
Dictionary for Engineers, Mechanics, Tech-
nical Schools, Industrial Plants, and Public
Libraries, Giving the Most Essential Facts
about 4500 Important Engineering Subjects

Edited by

FRANKLIN D. JONES

VOLUME 11
SECOND EDITION
1954 REVISIONS

THE INDUSTRIAL PRESS

ST. NEW YORK 13, NL
148 LAFAYETTE f Y.
MACHINERY PUBLISHING CO., LTD.
National House, West Street
Brighton, 1, England
Copyright, 1941, 1943, 1954
THE INDUSTRIAL, PRESS
New York 13, N, Y,

THE IWITEI> STATES OK AMERICA

 Lacquer. Lacquer is the general name used for colored and
frequently opaque varnishes used for applying a protective finish
to metallic objects. Lacquer is applied to polished metal surfaces,
such as brass, pewter, and tin, in order to give them a golden,
bronze-like, or other lustrous surface. The main constituents of
lacquer are shellac and alcohol, to which are added a number of
other substances to give the required tint.

Lag Angle. When two sinusoidal quantities, such as alternat-

ing current or voltage, have the same period but are displaced in
phase, the angle of lag of the first quantity with respect to the
second is the angular phase difference by which the second quan-
tity must be assumed to be retarded to coincide with the first
quantity.
Lag Screw. A
large form of wood-screw having a square head
(instead of the slotted form) so that it can be turned with a
wrench. (See Wood-screws.)
Lame's Formula. Lame's formula is the generally accepted
formula for calculating the strength of cylinders subjected to
high internal pressure. By means of this formula, the thickness
of the metal of the cylinder can be determined when the inside
radius, the maximum allowable fiber stress per square inch, and
the pressure within the cylinder in pounds per square inch, are
known. It is one of the more important engineering formulas,
and will be found in engineering handbooks.
Lamp Base and Socket Shell Threads. The "American
Standard" threads for lamp base and socket shells are sponsored
by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the National
Electrical Manufacturers' Association and by most of the large
manufacturers of products requiring rolled threads on sheet
metal shells or parts, such as lamp bases, fuse plugs, attachment
plugs, etc. There are five sizes, designated as the "miniature
size," the "candelabra size," the "intermediate size," the "medium
size" and the "mogul size." For table of dimensions see
MACHINERY'S Handbook.
Lampblack. Lampblack is made by burning oils and is a very
pure form of carbon. It has a specific gravity of 1.82, grinds in
75 per cent of oil, and has unusual tinting power, and is, there-
fore, used in large quantities for this purpose. Other charac-
teristics are its great stability, its very slow rate of drying, and

788
L-734
a preserving action on the oil with which it is combined. It

resembles graphite in its property as a conductor of electricity.

Lancashire Process. The Lancashire process for producing

of
wrought iron consists in melting pig iron between two layers
charcoal, the molten metal collecting in a pasty mass at the bot-
tom of the furnace. In dropping to the bottom of the furnace,
the molten iron passes through an air blast and is decarburized.
The molten mass is permitted to remain at the bottom of the
furnace for from 20 to 25 minutes, after which it is mixed with
slag, remelted, and, while in a pasty state,, formed into balls,
removed from the furnace, and hammered or rolled. The process
resembles the so-called "Walloon" process.

Land. The term "land" as applied to metal-cutting tools such

as taps, reamers, milling cutters, etc., refers to the top surface
of a tooth. In the case of a tap, the land is the surface between
two flutes, the land width being measured along the outer cir-
cumference from the front face of the tooth to the heel. The
land of a reamer or milling cutter tooth is the top or clearance
surface back of the cutting edge, but does not include the steeper
slope at the rear which forms the back of the tooth and part of
the flute or chip clearance space.

"Lands" of Gearing. The bottom land is the surface of the

gear body between adjacent teeth. The top land is the surface of
the tooth which is farthest from its supporting body.

Lang's Lay Rope. In the regular type of wire rope, the wires
of the strands are twisted in one direction and the strands them-
selves are laid into the rope in the other direction. In the Lang's
lay rope, both the wires in the strands and the strands in the rope
are twisted in the same direction. Such a rope is more easily
untwisted than one made in the ordinary or "regular-lay" man-
ner, and it is more difficult to tuck the strands securely in a splice,
but the Lang's lay rope is, nevertheless, used to some extent, be-
cause it resists external wear and grip action much better than
the regular-lay rope. This type of rope, however, should not be
used unless assurance has been given by the rope manufacturers
that it is adapted for the service for which it is intended. No
universal rule can be given regarding its application, but its use
is limited as compared with the regular-lay
rope.
Lantern Pinions. Lantern pinions are formed of two disks
between which are "rounds" of steel wire or rod to serve as
teeth or "leaves." This type of pinion has been used extensively
in clock mechanisms, and formerly was employed in connection
with primitive millwright work. Lantern pinions are not adapted
to driving, and in clock mechanisms they are the driven members.
 735 -L
An accumulation of dirt that would stop the action of an ordinary
cut pinion is simply pushed through between the rounds of a
lantern pinion, which, therefore, continues to function. This is
an important advantage of this type of pinion as applied par-
ticularly to low-priced clocks which frequently operate under
unfavorable conditions.

Lap, Diamond. See Diamond Lap.

Lap of Slide Valve. The outside lap of a slide valve is the

amount that the valve overlaps the outer edge of the steam port
when the valve is in the central position over the ports. (See
illustration.) If a valve did not have outside lap, steam would
be admitted for the full length of the piston stroke; hence, the

.OUTSIDE LAP

Steam Engine Slide Valve In Central Position

over Steam and Exhaust Ports

point of cut-off in the case of a single slide valve depends upon the
amount of outside lap, the greater the lap, the earlier the cut-off,
and the greater the expansion of the steam. The inside lap is the
amount that the valve overlaps the inner edge of the steam port
when in mid-position. Increasing the inside lap increases com-
pression and delays the point at which the steam is released from
the cylinder, whereas diminishing the inside lap decreases
compression and hastens the point of release.

Lapping. Lapping is a refined abrading process generally

employed for correcting errors in hardened steel parts and secur-
ing a smooth surface, or for reducing the size a very small
amount. The lap is made of some soft metal, such as cast iron
or brass, and it is "charged" with an abrasive which is imbedded
into its surface. The grade or coarseness of the abrasive depends
L-736
upon the finish required and the amount that must be
removed
The form of the lap naturally depends upon the shape,
by lapping.
size, and location of the surfaces upon which it
is used.

of lapping ma-
Lapping Machines. There are several types
chines. One special design used for lapping precision gage blocks
has two flat laps of circular form. The lower lap is attached to
the base of the machine, and the upper lap is secured to an arm
by a connection which permits the lap to move freely in any direc-
tion but not to revolve. This arm is pivoted at one end so that
the upper lap can be swung to one side to expose the lower lap and
the work. When a machine is in use, one lap is above the other,
and the gage blocks are between them, so that both the upper and
lower surfaces of the blocks are lapped simultaneously. When the
blocks are to be removed or inserted in the machine, the upper
lap is swung out of the way. Between these two cast-iron laps,
there is a steel plate or "spider" which contains holes into which
the blocks to be lapped are inserted. The upper and lower laps
remain stationary, while the spider receives a planetary motion
which brings each block into contact with the entire surface of
each lap.
Lapping Machine for Cylindrical Parts: A machine designed
for lapping cylindrical parts is equipped with two lapping wheels
between which there is a spider for holding a number of pins in
position. In operation, the upper lap is lowered on the parts to
be lapped, and the variation in the lapping wheel speeds causes
the parts to rotate and creep slowly in a circular path. There are,
in fact, three movements which insure accurate results.

Lard Oil Compounds. Lard oil compounds for use as cutting

lubricants, should be stable blends of lard oil with other oils which
will give to the compound the properties undiluted lard oil lacks.
The diluent must be a liquid (rather, an oil) which can be added
to the lard oil in any proportion that experience shows to be the
most effective for the particular work the compound is to perform.
The source of such diluents is the petroleums, the mineral oil
distillates of which can be obtained in numerous varieties. The
proportions of mineral and lard oils vary, of course, as does also
the viscosity of the mineral oil constituent, depending upon the
nature and the severity of the work to be done. The mineral oil
may be one of the pale amber mineral oils of medium viscosity,
as used in the lard oil compounds suitable for high-speed opera-
tions, where a constant and abundant stream of cutting oil is
required, or it may be a heavy-bodied viscous oil which is com-
pounded with the lard oil for use in heavy, coarse work.
Classification of lard oil compounds has been carried out by
certain leading producers of cutting lubricants. For instance,
there are lard oil compounds designated by number, the number
 737 -L

indicating the percentage of lard oil contained in the compound.

With such an index as a guide, and the nature of the work to be
performed known, a lard oil compound may be selected for any
particular operation, embodying the qualities that experience has
shown to be required.
Latent Heat. Latent heat is the heat which disappears when
a solid is changed to a liquid, or a liquid to a gas, the former

being called the latent heat of fusion, and the latter, the latent
heat of evaporation. The heat which disappears in this manner
is converted into mechanical work, and is used in tearing apart
the molecules, and, hence, produces no change in the temperature
of the substance. When the gas changes back to a liquid, or the
liquid to a solid, the latent heat is again given out. The action
described may be illustrated by the melting of ice into water, and
the evaporation of the water into steam. When heat is applied
to a piece of ice in an open vessel, it gradually melts, but the
temperature of the water remains at 32 degrees until all of the
ice has been melted, the heat having been used in the process of
changing the ice into water. If heat is still applied, the tem-
perature of the water will rise until it reaches 212 degrees F., at
which point evaporation takes place, and although heat is con-
stantly applied, the temperature of the water remains constant
until it is all evaporated into steam. If the steam were collected
and condensed, and the water cooled to 32 degrees F. and frozen,
all of the heat which had been supplied would again be given out.
Latent heat plays an important part in the operation of a boiler
and the generation of steam. When it is said that the latent heat
of evaporation of water is 966.6, this means that it takes 966,6
heat units to evaporate one pound of water after it has been
raised to the boiling point, 212 degrees F.

Lathe Center Point Angle. In the United States the standard

included angle for the work-supporting ends of lathe centers is 60
degrees. This angle is increased to 75 degrees for some axle
turning or other heavy-duty lathes. British standard lathe cen-
ters have an angle of either 60 or 75 degrees as specified by the
purchaser. For lathes engaged in turning axles for railway roll-
ing stock, the angle of 75 degrees has been adopted by the British
Railway Companies.
Lathe Classification. As lathes in general are used for a
great variety of operations, naturally there are many different
designs and sizes. The various types are usually classified, either
with respect to some characteristic constructional feature, or with
reference to the general class of work for which the lathe was
designed. The most common type of lathe is usually known by
manufacturers as an engine lathe. The term "engine," as used
L-738
in this connection, simply means a machine, and it serves to desig-
nate that particular class of lathe which is hand manipulated and
used by machinists for general work. In ordinary shop usage,
the word "lathe" is commonly used to indicate a lathe of this
class. Lathes having gears which are changed for cutting threads
of different pitch are sometimes known as plain or standard
engine lathes, whereas those having a gear-box by means of which
the necessary gear combination may be obtained by simply shift-
ing one or two levers are usually known as the "quick change-
gear" type. The tool-room or toolmaker's lathe is classified accord-
ing to the general class of work for which the lathe is designed.
It is similar in appearance to an ordinary engine lathe, but has
extra attachments and is generally considered a very accurate
machine.
Other types of lathes which have some distinguishing char-
acteristic are: The turret lathe, which is so named because tools
for performing successive operations are held in a revolvable tur-
ret; the bench lathe, which is so small that it is mounted on a
bench, and intended for delicate work usually requiring consider-
able accuracy; the precision lathe, which is usually a bench type
that is capable of very accurate work and is more expensive than
an ordinary bench lathe; the gap lathe, which has a gap formed
in the bed in front of the faceplate in order to increase the
"swing" or maximum diameter that may be revolved ; the exten-
sion gap lathe, which has a double form of bed, the upper section
of which may be extended in order to form a gap for increasing
the swing, and also the distance between the centers ; the crank-
shaft lathe, which is especially arranged for turning crankshafts;
the wheel lathe, which is a large design intended especially for
turning locomotive driving wheels; the axle lathe, which is a
powerful design for turning car axles; the foot-power lathe,
which is driven by a foot-treadle and is intended for small work;
the speed lathe, which is without back-gears and is used for ro-
tating parts rapidly for polishing, hand turning, or filing; the
chucking lathe, which is especially adapted for parts that must
be held in a chuck while being operated upon ; and the automatic
lathe, which is designed for the duplicate production. See Auto-
matic Lathe; Bench Lathe; Blanchard Lathe; Burnishing Lathe;
Capstan Lathe; Turret Lathes.

Lathe Development. An early treatise by Moxon, published

in 1680, in England, shows that at that time the lathe had devel-
oped to a point where it was possible to turn out high-class orna-
mental woodwork, including oval shapes, but anything more than
this was beyond its capacity until the slide-rest was invented.
(See Slide-rest Development.) About 1800, Maudslay provided
his lathe, having a slide-rest, with lead-screw and
change-gears.
 739 -L

and from then onward the development of the modern machine

tool has been continuous and rapid. This combination is dis-
tinctly Maudslay's, and deserves to be classed as one of the great-
est inventions of history. In the South Kensington Museum
(London) are three lathes which show how rapidly the idea de-
veloped. The first is an old wooden pole lathe, with two dead
centers set in wooden blocks. A string or strap went from a foot-
treadle below, around the piece to be turned, and up to a wooden
spring-pole attached to the ceiling. By working the treadle, the
piece was rotated alternately backwards and forwards, the cut
being made with a hand tool during the forward movement. This
lathe fairly represents the state of the art in 1800. The second
is one of Maudslay's first screw-cutting lathes. It has two tri-
angular bars for a bed, cast-iron head- and tail-stocks, and a
lower spindle in the headstock between the bars connected to the
live spindle by a single pair of gears. This lower spindle carried
on the end toward the slide-rest a forked clutch into which was
fitted a lead-screw of the desired pitch, which controlled the longi-
tudinal movement of the tool. When a screw of another pitch
was desired, the lead-screw was changed for one of the required
pitch. This machine was built about 1797. The third machine
was built in 1800. It has a well-designed cast-iron bed, a single
lead-screw with 30 threads to the inch, change-gears, and a
strong, well-built carriage with a back-rest to prevent the spring-
ing of the work. There are 28 change-gears with teeth varying
in number from 15 to 50. With the machine are sample screws,
about 2 leet long, which were cut on it, with threads varying from
16 to 100 threads per inch. Shortly before his death in 1831,
Maudslay built a lathe having a faceplate 9 feet in diameter, ca-
pable of turning flywheels 20 feet in diameter and boring steam
cylinders up to 10 feet in diameter.
Lathe Sile. The size of an engine lathe, according to the
practice followed in the United States, is based upon the "swing"
or the maximum diameter that can be rotated over the ways or
shears of the bed. The nominal sizes listed by lathe manufacturers,
however, ordinarily do not represent the maximum swing, but a
diameter which is somewhat less. For instance, a lathe which
is listed as a 24-inch size may actually swing 24% or 25 inches.
The variations between the nominal and actual sizes range from
about % to % inch up to 1%, or even 2 inches. According to the
English practice, the size of a lathe is defined by the height of
the centers above the top of the bed.
Lathe Tools, Right- and Left-Hand. The tools used on lathes
may be either right-hand or left-hand, depending upon the loca-
tion of the cutting end. According to common usage, lathe tools
are classed as "right-hand" when the tool is adapted for cutting
 L-740
from right to left, the cutting edge being on the left-hand side
as the tool is seen from above. Thus, a right-hand side tool, for
example, is adapted for facing the right-hand side of a collar or
the right-hand end of a shaft, and vice versa for left-hand side
tools. The "hand" of a lathe tool, therefore, seems to be related
to the location of the surfaces the tool is adapted for cutting,
rather than to the position of the cutting edge, since a right-hand
tool has its edge on the left-hand side, as seen from the top, and
the the reverse is true for a left-hand side tool. See also Planer
Tools, Right- and Left-hand.

Latimer-CIark Cell. This is a primary cell or battery having

a zinc anode, a mercury cathode, a zinc sulphate electrolyte, and
a paste of mercurous sulphate and zinc sulphate for a depolarizer.
This is a so-called "standard cell" producing 1.43 volts at 15 de-
grees C.

Latten Alloy. Latten is an alloy of copper and zinc, and be-

longs, therefore, to the class of alloys generally known as brasses.
Latten is made in thin sheets and used especially for monumental
brasses and figures. It is made in three commercial forms black
:

latten,which is rolled but unpolished; shaven latten, which is

unpolished, but of extreme thinness; and rolled latten, which may
be similar to either black or shaven latten in thickness, but which
has both sides polished.

Lavite, "Lavite" is a trade name for certain salt baths used in

heat-treating steel. These salt-bath heating mediums may be
used for a wide range of temperatures, varying from 500 degrees
F. for tempering up to 2300 degrees F. for heating high-speed
steel for hardening. A Lavite bath transmits heat to steel in a
manner quite different from a lead bath or an oven furnace. When
the steel is introduced into a bath of carbon steel Lavite, which
has a melting point of 1300 degrees F., the Lavite freezes around
the steel, and forms an insulating jacket which prevents too rapid
transfer of heat in the initial stages of the heating period. This
jacket is also slow in melting, and the composition of "Lavite" is
such that the melting of the jacket proceeds at a rate that permits
of a uniform transmission of heat to the metal. The
high specific
heat of "Lavite" and its high heat of fusion account for the slow
rate at which the insulating jacket melts. When the
temperature
of the steel has reached 1300 degrees P., the jacket has
entirely
disappeared, and at this point also, there is a favorable condition
for heat transfer, because the temperature difference between
the steel and the bath is comparatively small.
Beyond 1300 de-
grees F., the full heating effect of the bath is obtained, and this
effect is enhanced by the low viscosity of the salt
bath, which per-
mits free circulation of the heated salt around the steel.
 741 -L
With lead, no insulating jacket or at best a very thin jacket-
is formed.
Law of Charles. See Charles' Law.
of Conservation of Mass. This is a chemical law, apply-
Law
ing to chemical reactions, which states that whenever a change
all

in the composition of substances takes place, the amount of mat-

ter after the change is the same as before the change.

Law of Multiple Proportion. Same as Dalton's law.

of Sines and Cosines. In a triangle, any side is to any

Law
other side as the sine of the angle opposite the first side is to the
sine of the angle opposite the other side; or, if a and b be the
sides, and and B the angles opposite them:
A
a sin A
"'
i i. .
'
" "

b sinB
In a triangle, the square of any side is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides minus twice their product times
the cosine of the included angle; or if a, &, and c be the sides and
the angle opposite side a be denoted A, then:
g2E=&2 +c 2 2&ccosA
and a
These two laws, together with the proposition that the sum of
the three angles equals 180 degrees, are the basis of all formulas
relating to the solution of triangles.
are sometimes formed of
Laying-Out Plate. Surface plates
large castings which are mounted
on a special bed. Large plates
of this kind are commonly used to provide a flat surface
for lay-
out machine parts rather than for testing the accuracy of flat
ing
surfaces and they are commonly known as laying-out plates.

Lay of Wire Rope. The lay of wire rope is the distance par-
to the axis of the rope in which a strand makes one complete
allel
turn about the axis of the rope. The lay of the strand, similarly,
isthe distance in which a wire makes one complete turn
about the
axis of the strand. According to U. S. Government specifications,
wire rope shall be regular lay; that is, the strands shall form
a

helix about the axis of the rope similar to the threads

of a right-
hand screw and the wires form a left-hand helix about the axis
of the strand. The lay of the wires in
the strand should make
them approximately parallel to the axis of the rope where they
contact with a cylindrical surface which inclosed
would come into
that is, the wires
the rope. Seizing strand shall be standard lay;
forma helix about the axis of the strand similar to the
shall
threads of a left-hand screw. The lay of
wire rope shall be ob-
L-742
tained by measuring, parallel to the axis of the rope, the distance
in which a strand makes five or more complete turns around the
rope. This distance divided by the number of turns is the lay of
the rope. When measuring the lay, there shall be no axial load on
the rope, and the measured distance shall not be within 10 feet
of the end of the rope.

Lay-Out Lines, Coatings. See Coatings for Laying-out Lines,

Laytex. A high-flexible, high-strength, compression-resistant
rubber with a high dielectric strength. It has a stretch of 750 per
cent and a tensile strength of 5000 pounds per square inch and is
especially suitable as an electrical insulation material, both because
of its high dielectric strength and because it is not susceptible
to moisture.

Lead and Its Properties. Lead rarely occurs free in nature,

and then only in minute quantities, but it is found abundantly in
combination with other elements. Its strength in both compres-
sion and tension is very small, so that it cannot be drawn into
fine wire, although it can be rolled into very thin sheets. The
most important lead mines are in Nevada and Colorado, and in
England, Wales, Germany, Spain, Mexico, and Brazil. As lead
unites readily with almost all other metals, it is used in many
alloys for bearing metals, electrotype metal, type metal, "white
metal," etc. Alloys composed of lead, bismuth, and tin are noted
for their low melting points. The chief uses for lead, except in
alloys, are for service pipes in water piping, as a base for a num-
ber of paints, and for shot and bullets. Lead is easily dissolved
in nitric acid; it is dissolved in acetic acid only when in contact
with air; and is scarcely affected by sulphuric acid lower than
66 degrees Baume. Hydrochloric acid attacks it very slowly,
because of the layer of insoluble chloride formed. The chemical
symbol of lead is Pb; atomic weight, 207.1; melting point, 827 de-
grees C. (621 degrees F.) ; linear expansion per unit of length,
per degree F., 0.0000157; specific heat, 0.031; and conductivity
for both heat and electricity (silver = 100), 8.5. The ultimate
tensile strength of cast lead is about 2000 pounds
per square
inch; and the ultimate tensile strength of lead pipe, about
2200 pounds per square inch. The specific gravity of lead varies
from 11.35 to 11.37, and, hence, its weight per cubic inch
equals
0.41 pound. It vaporizes at a bright-red heat and burns at from
1480 to 1540 degrees C. (about from 2700 to 2800
degrees P.).
Lead in Bearings; Lead flows more easily under
pressure than
any of the common metals, and it has great anti-frictional proper-
ties. A number of metals exceed lead in this
property, but their
cost or some other factor renders them unavailable. As the amount
of lead that is used in a given bearing is
increased, the lower the
 743-L
frictional resistance; the bearing also becomes softer and less
expensive. Lead, however, is too soft to be used alone, as it can-
not be retained in the recesses of the bearing even when used
simply as a liner and run into a shell of brass, bronze, gun-metal,
or some other alloy. Hence, various other metals are alloyed with
it, such as tin, antimony, copper, zinc, iron, and a number of non-
metallic compounds, such as sodium, phosphorus, and carbon. If
antimony is added to lead, the hardness and brittleness is in-
creased and if tin is added as well, it makes a tougher alloy than
lead or antimony alone. Nearly all of the various babbitt metals
are alloys of lead, tin, and antimony in various proportions, with
or without other ingredients. In such babbitts, the wear in-
creases with the amount of antimony and the price with the
amount of tin. The higher antimony babbitts are used in heavy
machinery, as they are harder, while those low in antimony are
used in high-speed machinery.
Lead Angle. When two sinusoidal quantities, such as alter-
nating current or voltage, have the same period but are displaced
in phase, the angle of lead of first quantity with respect to the
second is the angular phase difference by which the second
quantity must be assumed to be advanced to coincide with the
first quantity.
Lead Angle of Screw Thread. The helix angle of a screw
thread, according to customary practice, is not measured relative
to the axis but from a plane perpendicular to the axis, and it is
known as the "lead angle." The helix angle of a helical gear is
measured from the axis. The helix angle in each case and for
any given diameter of screw thread or gear, depends upon the
lead of the thread or gear tooth. The term "lead angle," how-
ever, is applied only to screw threads, worms, etc., to indicate
that the angle is measured from a plane perpendicular to the axis.
This angle is more useful in connection with screw threads, and
the angle relative to the axis is more useful in designing helical
gears,
Lead Angle of Turning Tool. The term "lead angle" is some-
times applied to the angle of the side or leading cutting edge of
a turning tool. The angle thus designated is the same as the one
known as "side cutting-edge angle" in the American Standard for
single-point tools.
Lead Bath$. The lead bath is extensively used in connection
with the heat-treatment of steel, but is not adapted to the high
temperatures required for hardening high-speed steel, as it begins
to vaporize at about 1190 degrees P., and, if heated much above
that point, rapidly volatilizes and gives off poisonous vapors.
Lead furnaces should be equipped with hoods to carry away the
 L-744
fumes. Lead baths are especially adapted for heating small pieces
that must be hardened in quantities. Gas is a satisfactory fuel
for heating the crucible. It is important to use pure lead that
is free from sulphur. Melting pots for molten lead baths, etc.,
should preferably be made from seamless drawn steel rather
than from cast iron. Cast-steel melting pots, if properly made,
are as durable as those made of seamless drawn steel.

Lead Burning. Lead burning may be defined as a form of

autogenous welding, by means of which the parts to be united are
joined by melting metal between them. This molten metal is ob-
tained by heating the end of a strip of lead of the same composi-
tion as that of the lead plates to be united. The addition of metal
at the joint is not actually necessary, but it serves to replace the
material that is usually cut away before welding. The term "lead
burning" is really a misnomer, because the lead is not burned so
long as the welder does the work properly. The operation is essen-
tially one of welding the lead with heat furnished by the com-
bustion of hydrogen, and the technique of the operation is almost
exactly the same as that of ordinary oxy-acetylene welding. Lead
burning may be effectively performed with an oxy-acetylene weld-
ing torch, but great care must be taken, because the temperature
of the oxy-acetylene flame is really too high for working on lead.

Leaded Bronze. This is an alloy containing 80 per cent of

copper, 10 per cent of tin, and 10 per cent of lead, which melts
at 945 degrees C. (1735 degrees F.).

Leaded Gun-Metal. This is an alloy consisting chiefly of

copper and tin. The S. A. E. composition No. 63 follows: Cop-
per, 86-89; tin, 9-11; lead, 1-2.5; zinc and other impurities,
0.50 max. ; phosphorus, 0.25 max. This is a general utility bronze
especially useful for bushings subjected to heavy loads,

Lead Foil. See Tin Foil and Lead Foil.

Lead Joint. This is a term generally used to signify the con-
nection between pipes which is made by pouring molten lead into
the annular space between a bell and spigot, and then making the
lead tight by calking. The term is rarely used to mean the joint
made by pressing the lead between adjacent pieces, as when a
lead gasket is used between flanges.

Lead Monoxide. See Litharge.

Lead of Milling Machine. The lead of a helix (or "spiral" as
it is commonly called) that would be
generated in a milling ma-
chine during one revolution of the dividing-head, when the divid-
ing-head is connected to the table feed-screw by gearing giving a
speed ratio of 1 to 1, is known as the lead of the machine, Sup-
Dose the table feed-screw has 4 fhrpn/ik nor iWfe ffcof Af\ +n*a *t
 745 -L

the indexing crank or worm-shaft are required for one revolution

of the dividing-head spindle, and that the worm-shaft and feed-
screw are connected by gearing which causes them to rotate at
the same speed; then, 40 turns of the feed-screw will be required
for one complete revolution of the dividing-head spindle, and, as
the feed-screw has 4 threads per inch, the total lengthwise move-
ment of the table for one revolution of the dividing-head spindle
will equal 40 -=- 4= 10 inches therefore, the lead of the spiral
;

generated during one revolution of the dividing-head spindle will

equal 10 inches, which is the lead of this particular milling
machine.

Lead of Screw Threads. The lead of a screw thread is the

distance the screw will travel forward in the nut if revolved one
complete revolution. The lead of a screw thread should be dis-
tinguished from the pitch of the thread, which is the distance
from center to center of two adjacent threads. In a single-
threaded screw, the pitch and the lead are equal. If the screw is
provided with a double thread, then the lead equals two times the
pitch. In a triple thread, the lead equals three times the pitch.
In designating a single-threaded screw thread, it is sufficient to
give either the pitch or lead of the thread, but, in designating
multiple-threaded screws, it is advisable to give both the lead
and the pitch in order to fully describe the thread. For example,
a screw may be described as having "double thread, %-inch lead,
^-inch pitch." When so described, misunderstanding as to the
meaning of lead and pitch is impossible, and mistakes in the shop
are avoided.

Lead of Slide-Valve. The lead of a slide-valve is the amount

of port opening when the piston is at the end of its stroke and
the engine is on the dead center. This is the condition in the
illustration, for the piston P is ready to start on its forward
stroke, as indicated by the arrow. With the piston in this posi-
tion the valve has already opened a distance equal to the lead, and
the steam has had an opportunity to enter and fill the clearance
space before the beginning of the stroke, thus giving the piston
full steam pressure at this point. The lead ordinarily varies on
engines of different size, from to about 3/16 inch, 1/16 inch
being a fair average for ordinary slide-valves. The amount of
lead is sometimes determined by experiment after the engine is
erected. When there is little or no lead, the tendency is for the
piston to move under reduced pressure through part of its stroke,
especially if the ports are small and the clearance space large.
In some cases, however, a small amount of lead gives good re-
sults, especially when the compression is sufficient to produce a
pressure at the beginning of the stroke nearly equal to the boiler
L-746
pressure. Naturally a quick-acting valve requires less lead than
one that opens more slowly.
Lead Pipe. Lead pipe is used to a very large extent for water
systems for domestic purposes. It has been used for this purpose
for centuries with entire satisfaction. Lead pipe for water sys-
tems, made from pure lead, is considered harmless as regards its
influence on health, but mixtures with other metals, such as zinc,
antimony, or tin, are dangerous and objectionable. The ultimate
tensile strength of lead may be assumed to vary from 1600 to
2400 pounds per square inch. It is difficult to give the strength
of lead with any certainty, because lead produced in Missouri,
for example, is very much harder and stronger than so-called
"desilverized" lead, and pipe made from the harder lead will stand
a greater pressure.

Lead or Steam Port Opening of Steam Engine

Slide Valve at Beginning of Stroke

Lead-Proof. Aterm applied to a method of testing the impres-

sion in a drop-forging die. See Drop-forging Dies, Lead-proof.

Lead-Screw. The lead-screw of an engine lathe is used for

feeding the carriage when cutting threads. The carriage is en-
gaged with this screw by means of two half-nuts that are free to
slide vertically and are closed around the screw by operating a
lever. Any screw which performs a similar function on other
machine tools may properly be classed as a lead-screw.
Lead-Screw Steel. Lead-screw steel is a better grade than
machine steel, and contains from 0.60 to 0.70 per cent carbon.
WTiere machine parts are subjected to strain and shock such as
shafts, studs, arbors, etc., which require a tough steel without
hardening, lead-screw steel is commonly used.
 747-1
Properties: Weight, 0.283 pound per cubic inch; 485 pounds
per cubic foot. Specific gravity, 7.75. Strength: tension, 90,000
pounds per square inch; shear, 60,000 pounds per square inch.
Melting point, 2600 degrees F,
Lead Wool. Lead wool is made of lead which has been
shredded to about the size of heavy thread. After being shredded,
the lead fibers are either collected in bundles and twisted together
somewhat, or they are supplied in continuous strands coiled on
reels. Lead wool is used principally for calking pipes, the lead
being forced into the joint cold against a backing of hemp or
tarred yarn. It is considered a good substitute for molten lead
in calking joints for gas mains. The use of lead wool decreases
the cost as compared with the use of molten lead. Very uniform
results are obtained by the use of lead wool, especially when
calked with pneumatic hammers.

Leaf-Springs. See under Springs.

Leather, Effect of Humidity. The strength and elasticity of
leather are greater in moist air than in dry, and for that reason
it is important in making comparative tests of leather to be sure
that they are made under the same humidity conditions. A
given
piece of leather tested in a dry atmosphere might appear to be
weaker than a much poorer piece of leather tested in moist air.
Experiments have shown that an increase of from 35 to 55 pet
cent in relative humidity increases the strength of leather 13 per
cent and the stretch 16 per cent. When the humidity was raised
from 35 to 75 per cent, the average increase in strength was
42 per cent and in stretch 53 per cent.
Leclanche Cell. This is a primary cell or battery having a
zinc anode and a carbon cathode, with a solution of ammonium
chloride (NH 4 C1) for the electrolyte, with a manganese dioxide
depolarizer. The used for open circuits, and gives a voltage
cell is
of from 1.4 to 1.7 volts. The carbon cathode is placed in a porous
cup which is filled with the manganese dioxide in the form of
a coarse powder.

Ledloy. A steel in which lead is uniformly distributed

throughout in such a fine state of dispersion that it cannot be
seen under a microscope. In this form it has no effect on the
physical properties of the steel, but makes it much more free-
cutting. Ledloy 1120, for example, is said to machine from 30 to
60 per cent more easily than standard S A E 1120. Lead is added
in amounts of 0.15 to 0.30 per cent. Important savings can be
effected in the machining time of a large variety of parts such
as gears, crankshafts, spindles, spline shafts, etc. The steel is
available in all hot-rolled forms, and is, also cold-finished by
leading producers of cold-drawn st eel.
(
L-748
Led rite Brass Rod. Ledrite brass rod is a free-cutting ma-
terial which is especially adapted for high-speed machining opera-
tions in connection with screw machine practice. It has long been
known that the addition of a small amount of lead imparts free-
cutting qualities to brass, as indicated by the fact that the chips
have a tendency to break up into short pieces and thus prevent
fouling the tools. This free-cutting action depends upon the fact
that the lead is distributed as fine globules throughout the mass
of the metal. The more thoroughly the molten metal in the melt-
ing furnace is stirred, the more finely will the lead be divided
and the more evenly will it be distributed through the metal;

Tension Roller or Idler for Short-center or

Lenlx Belt Drive

thus greater uniformity of cutting properties results. Ledrite

brass rod is one of the products of the electric furnace.

Length Standards. See Standards of Length; also Light

Wave as Length Standard.
Lenix Belt Drive. The Lenix type of short-center belt drive
is an arrangement whereby a resilient tension roller A (see dia-
gram) pivoted either concentric or eccentric to the axis of the
smaller pulley (driving or driven) swings around this pulley,
thus increasing or decreasing the arc of contact, depending on the
increasing or decreasing of the load, and thereby maintaining the
same stress in the slack side, regardless of the elongation of the
belt. The adjustable weight B provides means of varying the
tension. This belt drive was invented about 1900 by a French
 749-1
engineer-officer named Leneveu, but the credit for developing the
short-center belt drive in a scientific way, undoubtedly belongs
to the Berlin-Anhaltische Maschinenbau A. G., in Dessau, Ger-
many, through whose efforts the drive has become well known
under the name of "Lenix."

Leveling Rod. One of the instruments used in surveying is

the leveling rod. It consists of a wooden rod, usually 6y2 feet
high, graduated to hundredths of a foot, and provided with a
sliding target. The rod is made in two parts, so arranged that
its length can be extended to 12 feet. The target is provided with
a vernier for accurate work, reading to thousandths of a foot. In
using, the rod is held in a vertical position with its lower end
resting upon the point, the elevation of which is desired, and
the target moved up or down until its center coincides with the
cross-wires of the telescope of the level. The reading of the ele-
vation is made from the rod on a line corresponding with the
center line of the target. There are several forms of rods in
common use, some of which are read by the rodman, while others
are read through the telescope of the level.

Levels. The accuracy of a spirit level depends entirely upon

the curvature of the glass tube. This tube is ground on the in-
side to a barrel shape, except in cheap levels which simply have a
glass tube bent to the approximate curve. The bent-tube type is
not to be recommended except for work which does not require
great accuracy. The tube is nearly filled with spirits of wine,
ether, or some similar fluid, and is hermetically sealed at each
end. The larger radius of curvature the glass has, the more
sensitive will be the level. The air space in a ground glass is
much longer than in a bent one, being ordinarily from one-fourth
to one-third the length of the tube. Modern levels are graduated
to tenths and twentieths of an inch, except when they are divided
according to the metric system.
Level Glass Mounting: The leveling glass or "bubble" of a
level is generally fixed in a brass tube with plaster-of-paris. This
method has been found to be satisfactory for all levels having an
accuracy of about five seconds angular measurement to each one-
tenth inch graduation. For finer levels, it is better to fix one
end only with plaster-of-paris and the other with cork, because,
if the glass is fixed rigidly at both ends with plaster-of-paris,
there will be a strain on the level due to temperature changes,
and, as the expansion of glass and brass is different, a slight
inaccuracy is liable to result. It is also advisable to have an
extra glass tube surrounding the leveling tube for very accurate
levels, in order to provide insulation from the heat of the hand.
A level of one minute angular measurement to one-tenth inch
graduation is the most serviceable for general use. One having
L-750
an accuracy of 30 seconds to one-tenth inch should be used on a
floor free from vibration. Finer levels are used mostly on
surveying and astronomical instruments.
Lever. A
lever is the simplest element of a machine and may
be defined as a bar used to exert a pressure or sustain a weight
at one point in its length, by the application of a force at a sec-
ond, and turning at a third on a fixed point called a fulcrum.
The rotating effect of a force about a fulcrum is termed the
moment of the force and equals the product obtained by multiply-
ing the force by the perpendicular distance to the fulcrum. If
the force is measured in pounds and the distance in feet, the
moment is measured in pounds-feet; if the force is measured in
pounds and the distance in inches, the moment is measured in
pounds-inches. The most importantprinciple to be observed
with regard to moments that the distance from the fulcrum
is
to the force, generally called the "lever arm," must be measured

A.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

on a line at right angles to the direction of the force, as shown

in Fig. 1.
The principle of moments is applied to a lever by the follow-
ing rule: When two or more forces act upon a rigid body and tend
to turn or rotate it about a fulcrum or axis, then, in order that
equilibrium may exist, the sum of the moments of the forces
which tend to turn the body in one direction must equal the sum
of the moments of the forces which tend to turn it in the op-
posite direction about the same fulcrum. Thus, in Fig. 2, in order
that the lever A shall be in equilibrium, it is necessary that the
weight W times itsdistance from F
shall equal the force times P
its distance from F, or that the moment of the force P equals
the moment of the weight W:
P X * *=* WX b.

If the weight sustained by the lever equals 20 pounds, the dig*

tance 6 equals 5 inches, and the force P equals 2 pounds* then
 751 -L
the distance a must equal 50 inches in order that equilibrium
may exist,
2 X 50 = 20 X 5.

See also Compound Levers ; and Rolling Levers.

Lewis Formulas The Lewis formula is used extensively in

determining the allowable power transmitting capacity of spur
gears. It was introduced by Wilfred Lewis in 1892. In designing
gears, the allowable tooth load may be based either upon tooth
strength or tooth wear. If gearing is only used intermittently
and for short periods, the allowable load would be based upon
tooth strength (Lewis formula). However, tooth wear often is
an important consideration in that case, the power transmitting
;

capacity both for strength and wear should be determined, and

the smaller of the two values used. The Lewis formula, and also
the formulas based upon tooth wear, will be found in engineering
handbooks.

Leyden Jar. The Leyden jar or condenser is an electrical ap-

pliance devised for storing up small amounts of electrical energy
in the early researches into the nature of electricity. It consists
in its simplest form of a thin glass jar partly coated inside and
outside with tin foil. When the two metal surfaces are connected
for a short time with the terminals of some source of electromo-
tive force, the electrical energy is stored up in the condenser and
can be removed in the form of an electrical discharge.

Liang. This is a Chinese measure of weight, legalized in 1908,

equal to 37.30 grams or 576 grains.

Lifting Magnets. See Magnets, Lifting.

Lift of Water Pumps. The atmospheric pressure, as shown

by a barometer, is changing constantly. The normal pressure at
sea level is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch. A column
of water approximately 2.31 feet high exerts a pressure of one
pound per square inch. Hence, with a normal atmospheric pres-
sure of 14,7 pounds per square inch and a perfect vacuum in a
pump chamber (assuming that a perfect vacuum were possible)
the height of the lift would equal 147 2 -31 <= 33.95 feet,
X
which is the maximum theoretical lift at sea level. The theoretical
lift diminishes with an increase in altitude above sea level, be-
cause the higher the altitude, the less the atmospheric pressure.
The theoretical lift for any altitude may be determined by multi-
plying the barometric reading in inches by 1.182. For liquids
other than water, first find the theoretical lift for water, and
then divide it by the specific gravity of the liquid.
L-752
As it is not possible to obtain a perfect vacuum in the cylinder
of a pump, because of mechanical imperfections and also because
of air contained in the water and vapor given off by the water,
the actual maximum height to which water can be lifted is less
than the theoretical height of 33.95 feet; furthermore, if it were
possible to produce a perfect vacuum, a pump would not lift water
to the maximum theoretical height, because some energy is re-
quired to overcome frictional resistance in the pipe, lift the
suction valves, and maintain a supply of water in the pump cylin-
der equal to the rate of displacement or discharge. With good
pump construction, the actual lift for water is only about 0.82 of
the maximum theoretical height, and the average pump when in
good working order will lift water about 0.75 of the theoretical
lift, or from 25 to 26 feet at sea level. As a general rule, it is
advisable to limit the height of lift to about 0.60 per cent of the
maximum theoretical lift, or to about 20 feet at sea level.
Light Intensity Standard. See Candlepower; also Hefner
Standard.

Lightning Arrester. A lightning arrester is a device designed

to protect an electric system against excessive voltages caused by
abnormal atmospheric conditions. A lightning arrester should
not be expected to protect against direct lightning strokes, as it
would be impossible for the arrester to dissipate the enormous
amount of power accompanying such discharges. There are many
different types of lightning arresters, the selection of the proper
type depending not only upon the voltage of the system but also
on its capacity.

Lightning Conductor. A
lightning conductor is a metal rod
or wire intended to provide means by which a lightning discharge
may enter or leave the earth without passing through a non-
conducting part of the structure to which it is attached.
According to the Safety Code for Protection Against Lightning
prepared under the sponsorship of the National Bureau of Stand-
ards and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the
following principles should be observed:
1. Structures should be examined and all
points or parts
most likely to be struck by lightning noted with the view of
erecting air terminals thereon for the reception of the discharge.
2. Conductors should be installed with the view to
offering
the least possible obstruction to the passage of a discharge,
avoiding sharp loops, bends, etc.
3. Ground connections should be distributed more or less

symmetrically about the circumference of the structure, and at

least two ground connections should be made at
opposite ex-
tremities of the structure to avoid the passage of heavy ground
 753 -L
currents beneath its foundations. A rod driven 6 to 10 feet
into the earth will ordinarily provide a satisfactory ground
connection. A water-pipe connection is also satisfactory.
4. Metallic objects within a building which are liable to a

dangerous rise of potential due to a lightning flash should,

under some circumstances, be independently grounded.
5. The mechanical construction of the lightning conductor
should be strong and, where possible, corrosion-resisting
materials utilized.
6. The maximum permissible weight of copper conductor for
all ordinary buildings is 187% pounds
per thousand feet
Power plant chimneys should be provided with lightning con-
ductors having copper points %
inch in diameter, 8 feet long,
and with 1%-inch platinum tips. Two points should be used for
chimneys less than 5 feet inside diameter and for larger chim-
neys one point should be added for every 2 feet increase in
diameter,

Wave as Length Standard. In 1907 the wave length

Light
of cadmium light, as determined by Benoit, Fabry, and Perot,
was adopted by the International Union for Cooperation in Solar
Research (now the International Astronomical Union) as the in-
ternational standard for all spectroscopic work. Since that time
many other wave lengths have been determined, so that there
are now available a very great number of secondary wave length
standards accurately known in terms of cadmium waves.
The idea of using the wave length of light as a standard of
length has been proposed by metrologists from time to time be-
ginning even before Michelson's work. Michelson saw clearly the
possibility of establishing the length of a meter bar at any future
time by reference to light waves, if once the value of the wave
length were determined, and pointed out the possibility of restor-
ing the prototype meter if it should suffer loss or damage, and
also the possibility of detecting any change in the standard meter
bars. The possibility of such a control was also emphasized by
Pabry, Perot, and Benoit who pointed out that the earlier pro-
posals and laws for using a seconds pendulum or the earth's
quadrant for these purposes do not fulfill modern requirements.
The relation between the meter and the wave length of cadmium
light, as determined by Benoit, Fabry, and Perot, is as follows:
1 meter equals 1,553,164.13 wave lengths of red cadmium light.
This wave length is based on standard conditions of temperature,
pressure and humidity, and the number of waves per meter as
given is probably correct to one part in 10,000,000, which means
that the meter may be defined in terms of light waves with an
accuracy of one part in 10,000,000.
L-754
is a form of wave
Light-Wave Measuring Method, Light
motion. Different colors of light have different wave lengths
ranging from 0.0000169 inch (the average length of violet waves)
to 0.0000268 inch for red waves. Daylight contains all the colors
and has an average wave length of approximately 0.00002 inch.
Monochromatic light is light in which one wave length or
color predominates. The following explanations assume a mono-
chromatic light having a wave length of 0.00002 inch.
An optical flat is a practically flat transparent test surface.
Unlike a lens, it has no magnifying power. Interference bands,
which occur between the contacting surface of an optical flat and
a flat or nearly flat reflecting surface, appear as merging colored
bands or fringes in daylight; and as alternate in monochromatic
light.
When a series of straight interference bands occurs between
two flat contacting surfaces, there is always a wedge of air be-
tween them, contact being at one side only. The bands take a
direction at right angles to the slope or direction of the wedge.
The number of bands per inch indicates the steepness of the
wedge, which increases in thickness from the point or side of
contact at the rate of one-half wave length (0.00001 inch) per
dark band. The pronounced light spot indicates the point of con-
tact. The dark interference bands are not light waves, but simply
show the points or spaces where the light waves reflected from
one surface interfere with the waves reflected from the other
surface. The light spaces show the point of reinforcement. It is
the dark interference bands that indicate the useful measuring
unit of 0.00001 inch.
Straight parallel and evenly spaced bands indicate a flat sur-
face, and curved and irregular bands indicate a curved or irregu-
lar surface. One of the earliest devices to be used in mechanics
was the wedge. It is this elementary mechanical principle that
is employed in comparing the length of two flat gage blocks, and
also for measuring diameters of cylindrical plugs and balls. Two
optical flats are used to form the wedge. The thickness of the
wedge is fixed at one point by the thickness or length of a known
standard gage block, and at another point by the diameter of the
ball or cylindrical plug being measured. From the position, direc-
tion,and spacing of the interference bands, the slope of the
wedge is found and, consequently, the exact amount that the ball
or plug is larger or smaller than the standard is easily determined.

Light- Weight Metals. See Electron Metal; also Magnalium.

Lignite or Brown Coal. Lignite, also known as "brown coal,"
contains less than 50 per cent of carbon and over 50 per cent of
volatile matter, and has a heating power per pound of combustible
of from 11,000 to 13,500 B.T.U. Lignite may be divided into two
 755 -L

classes: (1) Sub-bituminous coal, also known as lignite, black

lignite, brown coal, lignitic coal, etc.; this kind resembles bitu-
minous and shiny, but disintegrates more rapidly
coal, is black
when exposed and its heating value is not as high as
to the air,
that of bituminous coal; (2) lignite, also known as brown lignite
or brown coal, is distinctly brown in color and has a woody struc-
ture. It contains from 30 to 40 per cent of moisture, and has a
lower heating value than any of the other coals. It is, in fact,
intermediate between coal and peat, and is fragile, splitting into
small pieces when exposed to the air.

Lime Set. In blast-furnace operation a lime set is caused by

a slip allowing a large amount of limestone to drop into the molten
mass of metal, so that the slag becomes too thick to flow out of
the furnace.

Limit. In every interchangeable mechanism there are certain

maximum and minimum sizes for each part, between which the
parts will function properly in conjunction with each other and
outside of which they will not These sizes are the absolute limits
of the parts. The established limits are the maximum and mini-
mum dimensions specified on the drawings. The words limit and
tolerance are often used interchangeably but tolerance represents
the difference between the minimum and maximum limits. See
Tolerance.
Limit Gages. With the modern system of interchangeable
manufacture, machine parts are made to a definite size within
certain limits which are varied according to the accuracy re-
quired, which, in turn, depends upon the nature of the work.
In order to insure having all parts of a given size or class within
the prescribed limit, so that they can readily be assembled with-
out extra and unnecessary fitting, what are known as limit gages
are used. One form of limit gage for external measurement is
double-ended and has a "go" end and a "not go" end; that is,
when the work is reduced to the correct size, one end of the
gage will pass over it, but not the other end. Limit gages are
very generally used for the final inspection of machine parts, as
well as for testing sizes during the machining process. They are
superior to the micrometer for many classes of inspection work,
because the adjustment and reading necessary with a micrometer
not only requires more time but often results in slight variations
of measurement, especially when the readings are taken by
different workmen.
Lincoln Type Milling Machine. See Milling Machines,
Lincoln Type.
Line of Action in Gearing. The term "line of action" as ap-
plied to gearing means the line that would be described by
the
L-756
point of contact of two gear teeth from the time they
come into
contact until they separate. Gear teeth having a form based on
a system of curves such as the involute and cycloidal systems
have a fixed line of action and the point of contact of any two
gears of an interchangeable system, that mesh correctly, must
follow this fixed line,

Line-Shafting. Long continuous lines of shafting for trans-

mitting and distributing power in shops and factories are known
as line-shafting. In general, shafting up to three inches in diam-
eter is almost always made from cold-rolled steel. This shafting
is true and straight and needs no turning, but if several keyways
are cut in the shaft, it must, as a rule, be straightened after-
wards, as the cutting of the keyways relieves the tension on the
surface of the shaft due to the cold-rolling process. Sizes of
shafting from three to five inches in diameter may either be cold-
rolled or turned, although turning is more common and is always
employed for sizes of shafting larger than five inches. In calcu-
lating line-shafts, the strength to resist torsion, as well as the
stiffness to resist angular deflection and deflection between bear-
ings, must be considered. Large diameter shafts of no consider-
able length need be calculated for strength only; long, slender
shafts must also be calculated for stiffness.

Link. A link is a surveyor's length measure, equal to

7.92 inches.

Link-Belt. The chain known as a "detachable link-belt" or

link-chain was invented by Wm. D. Ewart, in 1873. This type of
chain was applied originally to harvesting machinery but IB now
used for many different classes of transmission service, and espe-
cially for all kinds of elevating and conveying machinery. The
chain is made of refined malleable iron, and the links arc con-
nected directly by hook-shaped ends, each link having a hook at
one end which engages the plain end of the adjacent hook. The
sizes of detachable link-belting are designated by numbers. Those
chains are made in a number of different types or patterns suit-
able for different purposes. Some of these patterns are adapted
for conveyor chains but are not suitable for power transmission,
and vice versa.
Whenever possible, a link-belt should run with the back of the
coupling hook to the sprocket wheel. The action is considered
good when all of the bending takes place at the joint of the chain,
as shown at A. (See illustration.) The dotted lines show the
position of the link after bending, and the action is such that
all of the wear is internal or on the inside of the hook.
The
action is considered bad when in bending the link rubs on the
sprocket, thus wearing both the sprocket and the hook, as
indicated at B.
 757 -L

Link-Belt Sprockets. See Sprockets, Link-chain.

Linotype Metal. Linotype metal, used for casting the slugs

of type on linotype machines, is composed of an alloy of lead, tin,
and antimony. The proportions vary somewhat, but, as a general
average, the composition consists of 85 per cent of lead, 3 per
cent of tin, and 12 per cent of antimony. Antimony is used in
this metal because it has the quality of making the alloy expand
upon cooling, thus filling the mold completely and making the
type sharp and distinct. An alloy consisting of 82 per cent of
lead, 5 per cent of tin, and 13 per cent of antimony is used to
a great extent for newspaper work, and is said to work equally
well for linotype, monotype, and stereotype.

(A) Link so Applied that all Wear Is Internal or Inside of the Hook.
(B) With Link In this Position there Is Wear on the Outside
and Inside of the Hook and on the Sprocket

Liquid Air. See Liquid Oxygen.

Liquid Controller, This is an electric motor controller which

may be either of the hand-operated non-automatic type or power
operated. The hand-operated controller is used for small motors
and consists simply of electrodes immersed in a solution of soda
and water, the resistance being changed by elevating or lowering
the plates in the solution, thus changing the immersed area of the
plates. This controller is seldom used. The power-operated type
is based upon the same principle of action, but is semi-automatic
in its action and has been extensively used for large motors,
400 horsepower and above.

Liquid Glue. See Glues for Wood.

 L-758
Liquid Measure. 1 U. S. gallon
=0.1337 cubic foot =
231 cubic inches = 4 quarts = 8 pints; 1 quart =
2 pints =
8 gills; 1 pint= 4 gills; 1 British Imperial gallon e= 1.2009 U, S.
=
gallons = 277.42 cubic inches; 1 cubic foot 7.48 U. S. gallons.
the French sci-
Liquid Oxygen. Oxygen was first liquefied by
entist, Louis-Paul Cailletet. Liquid oxygen is air reduced to
liquid form, from which, in the process of powerful compression,
the nitrogen is distilled off. In the alternating process of com-
pression and expansion through which it is produced, it reaches
a temperature of 312.7 degrees Fahrenheit, below Zero. In its
quiescent form liquid oxygen instantly freezes all substances
immersed in it. Poured on ice, it vigorously boils, so much colder
than the ice itself.
is it

Liquid Oxygen Explosive. Liquid oxygen explosive, or L.O.X.

as it has become known, is made by mixing very finely divided

carbon, in the form of lampblack or carbon black, with the liquid

oxygen which is highly concentrated oxygen. The association of
the carbon and the oxygen is so intimate that when combustion
is started due to a fuse or detonator, the carbon instantaneously
burns and creates a large volume of high temperature carbon
dioxide gas. At the moment of combustion, or explosion, the
temperature of liquid oxygen jumps from 269.5 degrees below
Zero to 5,603 degrees above, a variation of 5,872 degrees. The
shattering force of this combustion is sufficient to rend huge
strata of deeply imbedded rock. The practicability of liquid
oxygen as an explosive has been put to test by the United States
Bureau of Mines, in collaboration with scientists engaged in its
development. It has been found particularly advantageous in
blasting rock in quarries or in other open rock formations. One
pound of liquid oxygen, together with one-fifth of a pound of
carbon, with which it is packed in the cartridge, will do the work
of one pound of 40 per cent dynamite. The safety of blasting
with L.O.X. is one of its characteristics, recognized officially by
the Bureau of Mines. Danger from accidental explosion is much
reduced. Its cartridges cannot be set off except by a very severe
shock such as the impact of a bullet.

Liquid Rheostat. Same as Liquid Controller.

Litharge. Litharge, or lead monoxide, is formed by heating

lead intensely for several hours. It is yellowish red, very heavy,
and grinds in 9 per cent of oil. A
strong cement which is oil-
proof, waterproof, and acid-proof, consists of a stiff paste of
glycerin and litharge. These form a chemical combination which
sets in a few minutes. If a little water is added, it sets more
slowly, which is often an advantage. This cement is mixed when
required for use. A handy cement for stopping leaks, etc. f and
 759 -L

which can be used for cementing glass, brass, etc., is made by

mixing equal parts of litharge, commercial glycerin and Port-
land cement. This cement will harden under water and will
withstand hydrocarbon vapors.

Lithopone. Lithopone is produced by mixing a solution of zinc

sulphate with one of barium sulphide, and is used for the mak-
ing of paints for the protection of iron and steel against corro-
sion. It is the whitest pigment known, and is widely used in
high-grade enamel. It has a specific gravity of 4.25 and grinds
in 13 per cent of oil.
Live Center. A live center is a center on which work is held
in a machine tool and which revolves with the work. In a lathe,
the center mounted in the revolving or headstock spindle is the
live center.

Live Wire. The term "live wire" is commonly applied to an

electrical conductor charged with electricity.
Lloyd & Lloyd Thread. The Lloyd & Lloyd screw thread is
the same as the regular Whitworth screw thread in which the
sides of the thread form an angle of 55 degrees with one another.
The top and bottom of the thread are rounded.
Load-and-Fire Mechanism. When a reversal of motion of a
machine member depends upon the action of a clutch which may
be shifted from one gear to another revolving in an opposite
direction, it is essential to operate the clutch rapidly and to secure
a full engagement of the clutch teeth. One form of control may
be defined as the swinging-latch type and another as the beveled-
plunger type. The general principle of operation is the same in
each case, and is as follows: When the work table, or whatever
part is to be reversed, approaches the end of its stroke, a spring
is compressed, and then a latch or trip allows this compressed
spring to suddenly and rapidly throw the reversing clutch from
one gear to the other. Reversing mechanisms of this general
design are often called the "load-and-fire" type, because the spring
is first loaded or compressed and then tripped to secure a rapid
movement of the clutch and a reversal of motion at a prede-
termined point within close limits. Provision should also be made
against disengagement of the clutch as the result of vibrations
incident to the operation of the machine.
Loaded Grinding Wheel. A grinding wheel is "loaded" when
the pores or interstices between the cutting particles are partly
or entirely clogged with the material being ground. Loading pre-
vents the wheel from cutting and causes excessive heat to be gen-
erated. If a wheel becomes loaded, the bond may be too hard ot
the speed too slow. The remedy for loading is to increase the
speed or use a softer wheel.
L-760
Load Factor. The load factor of a machine, plant, or system
is the ratio of the average power to the maximum power during
a certain period of time. The average power is taken over a cer-
tain period of time, such as a day, a month, or a year, and the
maximum is taken as the average over a short interval of maxi-
mum load within that period. In each case, the interval of maxi-
mum load and the period over which the average is taken should
be definitely specified, such as a "half-hour monthly" load factor.
The proper interval and period are usually dependent upon local
conditions and upon the purpose for which the load factor is to be
used.
Loam Core. A
loam core is a large core for castings made
from loam on a cast-iron core-barrel so that the core is hollow.
If made solid, it would be very heavy and difficult to handle. In
making a loam core, the core-barrel is first wound with rope and
a loam mixture is applied in a comparatively soft state and
smoothed out over the surface, the barrel being turned during
this process, so that the core is formed to a circular section at
all points.
Local Hardening. Steel parts may be hardened locally, instead
of throughout, in order to provide a hard wear-resisting surface
for one section and at the same time secure greater strength or
toughness of the part as a whole, by leaving the remainder soft.
Local hardening may also be done primarily, to prevent excessive
distortion which might result from complete hardening. The local
hardening of tool steel requires some method of preventing the
sudden cooling of the parts that are to remain soft, and local
hardening of case-hardened steel requires some method of pre-
venting carburization wherever the surfaces are to remain soft.
A compound having the trade name "Localhard" provides a chill-
resisting coating for tool steel for protecting the part that is to
remain soft from the sudden cooling action of the quenching bath,
This preparation liberates hydrogen gas (the greatest known non-
conductor) when the hot steel is plunged into water so that the
steel thus protected retains its heat long enough to prevent sud-
den cooling and consequently remains soft. This protective coat-
ing automatically separates from the steel which is left clean.
Local Carburizing: In carburizing parts preparatory to case-
hardening there are several ways of preventing portions of the
work from being exposed to the carbon-carrying gases. Asatis-
factory method of local carburizing, when the volume of the work
warrants it, is the copper-plating method. It is well known that
it is impossible to harden copper by heat-treatment, because car-
bon the chief hardening element in metals, and there is no
is

affinity between copper and carbon. The copper is plated on the

work by the electroplating process. Acoating of copper sulphate
 761 -L
is unsatisfactory, as there is no bond between the steel and the

copper. In order to eliminate mechanical removal of the copper,

japanning of the surface desired to be carburized is often resorted
to before copper-plating. After baking the japan on, the work is
plated, but the copper does not adhere to the japanned portion.
The japan burns off in the carburizing process, and the steel
formerly covered by the japan becomes carburized.
Localcase is a substitute for copper plating in local caseharden-
ing. The surface or surfaces that are to resist carburization and
remain soft are covered with Localcase. This compound is also
used to resist the oxidation of metals while heating.
Another method is to cover the sections that are to be kept
free from an increase in carbon with fireclay mixed with water
t<y the consistency of putty, then dried by moderately slow heat,

and finally packed in the pots with a carburizer in the ordinary

manner.
A metal protecting sleeve is practical where the form of the
work warrants its use. This method consists of slipping a sleeve
or collar over the part required to be free from an increase of
carbon. The sleeve is either a push or loose fit, and if the latter,
it can be wired in place.
Asbestos is often used in local carburizing by wrapping it
around the section desired to be kept free from an increase in
carbon and binding it in place with bundling wire.
A thin paste of water glass (sodium silicate) and kaolin (a
fine grade of clay) may be painted on sections of the work that
are to be kept free from an increase in carbon. Used sand-blast
sand in a finely divided state is often mixed with this. This mix-
ture is dried on the work by air, after which the work is packed
in pots in the regular way. See also Tocco Hardening Process.

Lock-Joint, Converse. See Converse Lock-joint.

Lock-Nut. A lock-nut, also known as a check-nut, is a sup-

plementary nut screwed down upon another in order to prevent
it from becoming loose, due to the vibration of the machinery
onto which the nut is attached. A nut-lock is a device for fasten-
ing a nut in place so that it will not become loose. A great variety
of means have been devised for locking a nut in place so as to
prevent accidental loosening of the parts held together by the
nut on its bolt.

Lock-Nut Pipe Thread. The lock-nut pipe thread is a straight

thread of the largest diameter which can be cut on a pipe. Its
form is identical with that of the American or Briggs standard
taper pipe thread. In general, "Go" gages only are required.
These consist of a straight-threaded plug representing the mini-
mum female lock-nut thread, and a straight-threaded ring repre-
L-762
senting the maximum male lock-nut thread. This thread is used
only to hold parts together, or to retain a collar on the pipe. It is
never used where a tight threaded joint is required.
Locomotive Booster. See Booster on Locomotive.
Locomotive Crane. This is a pillar crane mounted upon
wheels and arranged to travel longitudinally upon rails. It is pro-
vided with a steam engine capable of propelling it along the rails
and with steam power for hoisting and moving the load.
Locomotive Development. The first steam locomotive which
ever ran on rails was built in 1804 by Richard Trevithick, an
Englishman, and the first one to be used on a commercial basis
was built by Matthew Murray, another Englishman. In 1811,
Blenkinsop of Leeds, had several locomotives built by Murray in
order to operate a railway extending from Middletown Colliers
to Leeds, a distance of three and one-half miles. Trevithick's im-
practicable design had a single cylinder only, but Murray used
two cylinders which were utilized in driving the same shaft on
which cranks were set at right angles an important arrange-
ment common to all modern locomotives. A cog-wheel, or gear,
meshing with a continuous rack laid along the road-bed was
employed. These locomotives were used daily for years and were
examined by George Stephenson when he began his work on loco-
motive development. Several years after the construction of
Murray's locomotives Hedley and Stephenson demonstrated that
the gear and rack method of propulsion was unnecessary, and
that the frictional resistance of smooth drivers would
supply ade-
quate tractive power. Stephenson's name will always be associ-
ated with locomotive development owing to his accomplishments
in perfecting the locomotive and in establishing it on a commer-
cial basis. His first locomotive was tried on the Killingworth
Railway in 1814. The first locomotive to be used in the United
States was imported from England in 1829.

Locomotive Taper Reamers. Taper reamers for locomotive

work are generally made in two styles, with square and with taper
shanks. The taper of these reamers, as used in different railroad
shops, varies, but the commonly accepted standard is
1/16 inch
per foot The fluted part of taper-shank reamers is made the
same as for reamers with square shank, the over-all
length
depending upon the Morse taper shank used.
Locomotive Tractive Force. See Tractive Force,
Lodestone. The most highly magnetic substances are Iron
and steel. Nickel and cobalt are also magnetic, but in a less de-
gree. The name "magnet" has been derived from that of
Mag-
nesia, a town in Asia Minor, where an iron ore was found in early
 763 -L
days which had the power of attracting iron. This ore is known
as magnetite and consists of about 72 per cent, by weight, of iron
and 28 per cent of oxygen, the chemical formula being Fe 8 4 .
The ore possessing this magnetic property is also known as lode-
stone. If a bar of hardened steel is rubbed with a piece of lode-
stone, it will acquire magnetic properties similar to those of the
lodestone itself.

Log e . This is an abbreviation designating natural, hyperbolic

or Napierian logarithms.

Logarithmic Charts. Logarithms are a valuable aid to engi-

neers and draftsmen in facilitating lengthy calculations both by
hand and by the slide-rule which has logarithmic scales. They
are of further use in the construction of nomographic or align-
ment charts which make possible the rapid completion of a num-
ber of computations based on the same formula. Thus, a problem
containing a number of factors can be drawn into chart form so
that anyone can obtain correct results even though the mathe-
matical processes may not be fully understood.
In their simplest form, logarithmic alignment charts permit
the rapid multiplication or division of two factors to get a third.
Thus, in the equation B A X =
C, A, B and C are represented
by vertical lines on which are laid out logarithmic scales with
suitable values. By placing a straight-edge across the vertical
line representing factor A
and the vertical line representing fac-
tor B so that it coincides with the proper number indicated on
the logarithmic scale of each, the answer or correct value of C
may be read as a number at the point where the straight-edge
crosses the logarithmic scale on vertical line C.
Probably the one thing that tends to discourage a more gen-
eral use of these charts is the fact that they appear difficult to
draw. Actually, the chart for simple multiplication or division
just mentioned may be constructed quite easily. Thus, the scale
representing factor A and the scale representing factor B may
be any convenient length and distance apart. To lay out suitable
logarithmic scales on each of the two vertical lines representing
factors A and B, a piece of logarithmic cross-section paper is, in
each case, placed at such an angle with one of the vertical lines,
that the two extreme divisions desired just coincide with the
horizontal extension of the ends of the line. The intermediate
divisions can then be marked off by the intersection of parallel
horizontal lines drawn from the intermediate divisions of the
cross-section paper. The numbers or scale values can then be
placed against each division.
Next comes the problem of placing the vertical line to represent
the factor C at the proper horizontal distance from lines A and B.
This can be accomplished by drawing two lines, each connecting
L-764
two numbers on the A and B scales, the products of which are
equal, such as point 2 on line A and point 100 on line B
and
point 10 on line Aand point 20 on line B. The point at which
these two lines intersect marks one point through which the ver-
tical line C must pass. This point will also be given the numerical
value of the product of the two sets of numbers used on scales A
and B which would be 200 in this case. The vertical line C is now
drawn and several of the points on it can be numbered simply by
placing a straight-edge across lines A and B indicating the inter-
section on line C and placing a ti umber on this point which equals
the product of the corresponding numbers on A and B, With
these points established and numbered, the logarithmic scale can
be laid out, again with the aid of a piece of logarithmic cross-
section paper placed at a suitable angle with line C. The remain-
ing numbers can now be placed against the intermediate divisions.
The chart is then ready for use. When the ruler is laid across any
two numbers on scales A and B, their product can be read directly
on scale C. When the ruler is laid across any two values on the
A and C scales, the quotient of C divided by A can be read directly
on the B scale.

Logarithmic Paper. Logarithmic paper is a cross-section

ruled paper used for plotting diagrams, in which the spacing be-
tween the lines is arranged according to the logarithmic scale,
the object of this being to obtain greater simplicity in the plot-
ting of equations containing exponents, in diagrammatical form.
The cross-section paper on the market is ruled in the following
ways: 1. Divided horizontally and vertically into centimeters and
millimeters. 2. Divided horizontally and vertically into inches and
eighths or tenths of an inch. 3. Divided horizontally into inches
and tenths, and vertically, logarithmic, from 1 to 10. 4. Divided
both ways, logarithmic, from 1 to 10. 5. Divided both ways,
logarithmic, from 1 to 100.
In science and engineering, the law of variation in
quantities
is usually expressed as an
equation. When this equation is of the
first degree, it is graphically
plotted on cross-section paper as a
straight line. When the variable enters in any other power or root
than the first, a curve results. On ordinary square-sectioned
paper, plotting a curve is very laborious, as a great many points
must be found in order to obtain the shape of the curve, In
tracing a curve through the plotted points, it is difficult to obtain
a draftsman's irregular curve which will "fit,"
and, as a result,
the curve as drawn is only correct at the
plotted points. When
the equation has the form $ n ay m, in which the exponent m
is
of any power or any root, logarithmic paper has a distinct ad-
vantage over ordinary square-sectioned paper. As its name im-
plies, it is divided logarithmically, that is, the distance of the
 765 -L

abscissas and the ordinates from the origin are proportional to

the logarithms of the numbers instead of to the numbers them-
selves. Where a great many diagrams are to be made, logarithmic
paper is a time-saver. It may be used for purposes of calcula-
tion in many ways which will suggest themselves to the engi-
neer. Among the more common uses to which it may be put are
the following: Powers and roots of any and all indices; bending
moment, shearing stress, or deflection of beams in terms of span
or load moments of inertia and radii of gyration in terms of a
;

linear dimension circumferences and areas of circles in terms of

;

their diameters; sizes of bars, struts, shafts, etc., in terms of a

linear dimension ; hydraulic equations, etc.

Logarithmic Scale. A
logarithmic scale is constructed so
that the distance is the same between all division numbers of the
same multiple. Thus, the distance on such a scale between divi-
sion numbers such, for example, as 3 and 9, 9 and 27, 30 and 90,
and 100 and 300 is exactly the same. Upon looking at a piece of
logarithmic cross-section paper, it will be observed that the pat-
tern of lines seems to repeat itself. Thus, as one progresses from
one end of the paper to the other, he finds at first that the lines
are quite far apart but each succeeding line is closer to the pre-
ceding one until the end of a "cycle" is treached and the same
pattern is repeated with lines at first far apart but getting closer
to each succeeding line. The points at which each pattern begins
are customarily given a value of some multiple of ten. Having
established the value of one of these major divisions (as 0.001; 1;
100; 10,000, etc.) then each succeeding main division or start of
a new "cycle" will have a value of ten times that of the one pre-
ceding. Thus, the major divisions of a logarithmic scale might
read 0.001; 0.01; 0.1; 1, etc., or 1000; 10,000; 100,000;
1,000,000 with corresponding intermediate values between the
major divisions.

Logarithms. The purpose of logarithms is to facilitate and

shorten calculations involving multiplication, division, the ex-
traction of roots, and the obtaining of powers of numbers. In the
common or Briggs system of logarithms, the base of the loga-
rithms is 10 that is, the logarithm is the exponent that would
;

be affixed to 10 in order to give the number corresponding to the

logarithm. For example log 20 e= 1.30103, which is the same as
to say that 10 1 30103 -
20. =
Log 100 2 =
2, and 10 *= 100. As
10 1 c=3 10, the logarithm of 10 t= 1. It is known from algebra
that 10 =
1 hence the logarithm of 1 t= 0. While most of the
;

tables of logarithms are given to five decimals, it should be under-

stood that the logarithm of a number can be calculated with any
degree of accuracy; hence, there are tables giving the logarithms
with as many as seven decimal places, and some, used for very
L-766
accurate scientific investigations, giving as many as ten or more
decimals. Tables of logarithms and information about their
application will be found in MACHINERY'S Handbook.

Lohmannizing. The protection of iron and steel has gener-

allybeen effected by means of zinc-coating processes. The process
of "Lohmannizing," invented by H. J. Lohmann, differs in that it
is not restricted to the application of zinc coatings, but may be
used for coatings of zinc, lead, and tin in varying proportions to
suit the requirements of each case.

Loom Bolt. This is a bolt having an oval head beneath which

the bolt is square for a short distance. The other end of the bolt
is threaded for a distance equal to about twice its diameter, for
a square nut.

Low Brass. So-called "low" brasses which are especially suit-

able for hot rolling, contain from 37 to 45 per cent of zinc, the
remainder being copper. Other low brasses contain as little as
20 per cent of zinc.

Low-Carbon Steel, This term is applied to steel containing

generally from 0.10 to 0.25 per cent of carbon, but it sometimes
includes all steels up to about 0.60 per cent of carbon. Low-carbon
steel is used for structural purposes and for machine building. It
does not contain enough carbon to harden appreciably if heated
and quenched, but may be case-hardened by first carburizing- the
surface.

Lowenherz Thread. The Lowenherz thread is intended for

the fine screws of instruments and is based on the metric system.
It has been adopted by the Bureau of Standards as there has been
a lack of uniformity in the screws applied to American-made in-
struments. The Lowenherz thread has flats at the top and bottom
the same as the U. S. standard form, but the angle is 53
degrees
8 minutes. The depth equals 0.75 X the pitch, and the width of
the fiats at the top and bottom is equal to 0.125
screw thread
X the This
pitch.
used extensively for the fine threads of measuring
is
instruments, optical apparatus, etc,, especially in Germany.
Lowmoor Iron. Lowxnoor iron is the name used for the best
grade of wrought iron made in England, Its chief characteristics
are as follows: Wrought-iron bars, 1 square inch in cross-section
and less, have a tensile strength of 50,000 pounds
per square inch
and an elongation in ten inches of 26 per cent For bars
having
a cross-section up to 8 square inches, the tensile
strength is about
48,000 pounds per square inch, with an elongation of from 22 to
24 per cent in ten inches. For bars
larger than 8 square inches
in cross-section, the tensile strength
may be assumed as 46,000
pounds per square inch, with an elongation of 21 per cent In tea
 767 -L

inches. These tensile strengths relate to tests with the grain;

across the grain, the strength of Lowmoor iron may be taken as
42,000 pounds per square inch, and the elongation in eight inches
as 12 per cent.

Low-Voltage Trip. A low-voltage trip is an arrangement used

in connection with a circuit-breaker for tripping when the voltage
of the circuit falls off to a predetermined amount; in practice,
this is usually about one-half of the full line-voltage. It may be
used in connection with a time-delay mechanism so that the cir-
cuit is not opened for voltage fluctuations of extremely short
duration or an instantaneous closing device may be incorporated
;

to automatically reclose the circuit three separate times in case

the low voltage is only momentary. After the third reclosure, the
breaker will remain open if the low voltage is still present.
Lozenge Chisel. Same as Diamond Chisel.
Lubricants. Proper lubrication is so very important that it
is advisable to obtain information from a specialist experienced
in the selection of lubricants for different classes of service. The
method of applying the lubricant is also very important. In select-
ing an oil for a definite application, determine first just what the
oil has to do to provide proper lubrication. The size of the bear-

ings, pressure, speed of the shaft, and the clearance are essential
factors. Bearings subject to high speeds and a low pressure re-
quire fairly light oil. Slow speeds and high pressures require
sufficient body in the lubricant to prevent metal-to-metal contact
in starting. At the same time, the lubricant should not be so
viscous that undue loss of power will result from the internal
friction of the lubricant itself; but too light an oil will not keep
the metal surfaces apart and undue wear will result.
In order to facilitate starting machines subjected to cold
weather, the oil should have a low pour-test. It is possible for
bearings to wear as much during the first few minutes of a warm-
ing-up period, as in weeks under normal operating conditions. As
the oil becomes warmer, the viscosity becomes lower and, in a
measure, adjusts itself, assuming, of course, that it has been
chosen to provide the correct body at normal operating tempera-
tures. In this connection, attention may be called to the fact that
a reduction in bearing temperatures may be obtained through
the use of an oil that has the right viscosity at operating
temperatures.
Most oils offered for industrial lubrication are straight refined
petroleum products. However, in some instances, it is desirable
to blend mineral oils with animal or vegetable oils. Cylinder oils,
for instance, are often compounded with from 4 to 6 per cent of
acidless tallow to make them adhere to metal surfaces. It is
erroneous to assume that any grade of oil or grease that has
L-768
proved satisfactory on certain types of equipment will serve
equally well on any other, especially where the operating condi-
tions are different In many plants perhaps a single grade of
steam-cylinder oil, a medium-viscosity machine oil, and a medium-
or light-consistency cup grease may suffice. Normally, however,
in the modern industrial plant, the equipment involved is so de-
signed as to include a considerable number of wearing elements
of widely differing construction. Just as this construction dif-
fers, so may it be expected that the lubricating requirements will
differ. In many cases, similar lubricants can be used; on the
other hand, every case should receive individual attention in de-
ciding upon the lubricants that will promote most efficient opera-
tion. In this way, production can be most surely maintained at
minimum cost.

Viscosity and Load-carrying Capacity: Viscosity is to some ex-

tent indicative of load-carrying capacity. In fact, before the
advent of "extreme pressure lubricants/' it used to bo regarded
as the predominating characteristic of an oil for such service, on
the assumption that the heavier-bodied products would better re-
sist the squeezing-out effect of heavy journal or gear-tooth loads.
Later, however, resistance to shear and film strength were proved
to be more related to the chemical nature of the lubricant, a defi-
nite chemical reaction between the lubricant and the metallic sur-
faces under load being required. Research has further proved
that the greater the smoothness or polish of the metallic sur-
faces to be lubricated, the more tenacious and resistant to pres-
sure will be a film of straight mineral oil; hence, the trend in
machine manufacture to use more care in the machining of
journal bearings and gear-tooth surfaces.
Grease Lubricants: The term "grease" is applied to a mixture
of mineral oil with fats that have been saponified with an alkali.
To this mixture, fillers may or may not be added. Grease lubri-
cant is available in three general classes known as hard grease,
soft grease, and non-fiuid oil Suppliers usually classify greases
as hard, medium-hard, medium, soft, and semi-fluid. The con-
sistency may be indicated by numbers as, for example, No, 1, No, 2,
and No. 3. In comparison with oil, grease occupies a minor yet im-

portant place in the field of lubrication. It provides a solid lubri-

cant for use where a fluid is not practicable, or at kast not
economical, as in certain types of vertical and horizontal motors
having ball or roller bearings; in cases where the motor operates
at an angle; in instances where the moving parts are so worn
that oil will run away and be wasted ; and in other places where
oil will not "stay put."

Lubricating Systems. Machine bearings are lubricated by

various devices ranging from simple oil holes or cups to elaborate
 769 -L

systems. The selection of a method depends upon such factors

as speed, bearing pressure, and the importance of safeguarding
against lubrication failure.
Lubrication by Felt Pads: Felt pads for distribution of lubri-
cant may either be used alone, or in combination with grooves in
the bushing or on the shaft. The felt not only insures a supply
of oil on every part of the journal that it touches, but it filters the
oil as well, and prevents the passing of grit or particles of metal.
The pads are fitted into slots cut in boxes or bushings, and either
dip into a well, or are simply fed through holes by a cam, or from
some type of lubricator.
Use of Wicking: When wicking is used to supply bearings the
piece of wick leads from the oil reservoir to the bearing surface;
and the oil feeds up due to capillary attraction. This is a very
elastic principle, and possesses two main advantages. One is
that the oil is filtered and, consequently, no dirt is transmitted
by the wick; the other, that a feed can be procured from a well
or gear-box not necessarily situated close to the bearing.
Ring Oiling; A system most extensively employed for spindles
and shafts is the ring-oiling method, which insures a larger flow
than is caused by the pad device. It is used in conjunction with
a reservoir for each bearing, or with a reservoir or box common
to several bearings. The ring (or an endless chain) is hung
loosely on the spindle, and revolves at a slow rate, thus bringing
up oil from a well below the bearing. Large rings have a smaller
area in contact with the shaft than have smaller rings and they
also have a tendency to assume a position oblique to the shaft and
to swing laterally; consequently, the diameter of the ring should
not be too large. See also Oil-ring Design.
Oil Circulated by Pumps: Pump systems embody many ar-
rangements of a varied character for the thorough distribution
of the lubricant. In some machines, the same supply is utilized
to flood the gears and bearings, being pumped up from the well
at the base and falling from a perforated pipe in cascades onto
the gears, while suitably arranged pipes conduct it into the
bearings.
Gravity Lubrication Systems: Gravity systems of lubrication
usually consist of a small number of distributing centers or
manifolds from which oil is taken by piping as directly as possible
to the various surfaces to be lubricated, each bearing point hav-
ing its own independent pipe and set of connections. The aim of
the gravity system, as of all lubrication systems, is to provide a
reliable means of supplying the bearing surfaces with the proper
amount of lubricating oil. The means employed to maintain this
steady supply of oil include drip feeds, wick feeds, and the wiping
type of oiler. Most manifolds are adapted to use either or both
L-770
drip and wick feeds. A drip feed consists of a simple cup or
manifold mounted in a convenient position for filling and con-
nected by a pipe or duct to each bearing to be oiled. For a wick
feed, the siphoning effect of strands of worsted yarn is employed.
The worsted wicks give a regular and reliable supply of oil and
at the same time act as filters and strainers,
Forced-feed Lubrication: If bearing pressures and speeds are
high it may be desirable, if not necessary, to force the lubricant
into the bearing under pressure. The pressures for horizontal
bearings ordinarily range from 15 to 30 pounds per square inch
but higher pressures are required for certain thrust and step
bearings and in connection with some other force-feed systems
of lubrication.
Flooded Lubrication: The difference between flooded lubrica-
tion and forced lubrication is that, in the former case, the oil is
supplied to the bearing under a low pressure which insures that
the journal is always flooded at the point where the oil is ap-
plied, but the lubricant is not forced between the surfaces rub-
bing against each other. In the forced-lubrication system, the
oil is supplied at a pressure which it* greater than the pressure
between the rubbing surfaces at the point of application of the
oil, and hence, the oil is forced in between the surfaces,

Splash Lubrication for Gears: There arc two methods for sup-
plying and distributing lubrication in gear drives the splash and
the pressure systems. The splash system depends on the action
of the teeth in the gear as they pass through a reservoir of lubri-
cant in the base of the housing. To avoid excessive churning and
foaming, the gear should dip only a comparatively small amount
into the reservoir. Just how deep depends on the tooth velocity,
the pitch, the design of the gear, and the type of lubricant. Usu-
ally the teeth dip in a little more than their own depth. There
should be a large amount of lubricant in the reservoir. This
requires a large trough, which should be of almost rectangular
section and at no point close to the rotating gear teeth. Special
gages are available to show the depth of lubricant. Where the
splash from the gear teeth is to lubricate the bearings, often the
lubricant which is splashed on the inside of the cover is collected
in troughs which are cast as a part of the housing or cover, from
which it flows to the bearings through passages or ducts, The
return to the reservoir is through draining canals. Suitable
seals are provided to prevent leakage along the shafts. Some-
times baffle plates and drip fins are used to further direct the
lubricant.
Pressure System for Gears: The positive circulating or pres-
sure system supplies the lubricant under pump or gravity
pressure, through feed pipes, directly to the point of tooth en-
 771 -L

gagement and to the individual bearings. It is used where the

tooth velocities and bearing speeds are so high that the lubricant
churns and heats excessively from the action of the gear teeth if
they are allowed to dip into it. Also, at very high speeds the
lubricants are thrown off from the gear teeth by centrifugal force
and must be applied to the point of tooth engagement through
specially designed spray nozzles. A pump is required, usually of
the gear or rotary type, driven directly from the gear unit itself
through gears or chains, or by a separate motor. It is customary
as a safeguard to include "tell-tales" or relays in the electrical
hook-up, to insure a warning or shutdown if the pressure in the
feed pipes becomes too low.
Centralized Lubrication Systems: Various forms of centralized
lubrication systems are used to simplify and render more efficient
the task of lubricating machines. In general, a central reservoir
provides the supply of oil, which is conveyed to each bearing
either through individual lines of tubing or through a single line
of tubing that has branches extending to each of the different
bearings. Oil is pumped into the lines either manually by a
single movement of a lever or handle, or automatically by me-
chanical drive from some revolving shaft or other part of the
machine. In either case, all bearings in the central system are
lubricated simultaneously.

Lubrication with Metals and Metal Compounds. The use

of metal and metal-compound films in bearings where organic
lubricants are undesirable has been found to result in consid-
erable reduced friction in many instances. Barium, chromium,
aluminum, magnesium, zinc and molybdenum disulphide have all
proved effective in varying degrees when applied as thin films
to bearing surfaces.
Molybdenum disulphide may be applied as a dry powder to clean
metal surfaces by rubbing or tumbling but it may also be mixed
with certain carriers such as oil, grease, resin, and silicone. It
is effective as a lubricant at both low ( 40 degrees F.) and
high (+ 600 degrees F.) temperatures. At temperatures above
600 degrees F. it must be protected from oxidation. Molybdenum
disulphide is an especially effective lubricant under high pres-
sures. The lubricating action of this material does not seem to
depend on an adsorbed film of moisture which means that it is
effective under conditions where moisture is absent, as in a
vacuum. At ordinary temperatures it is a dielectric and is
relatively wet chemically. It is well suited for the prevention
of galling and seizing even of the softest metals. In addition
its main uses are: as an aid in the assembly and disassembly
of close fitting parts as a lubricant in the hot and cold working
;

and forming of metals; and as a dielectric lubricant.

L-772
Lumber. Lumber is the product of the saw and planing mill
not further manufactured than by sawing, resawing, and passing
lengthwise through a standard planing machine, cross-cutting to
length and working. When not in excess of one-quarter inch
thickness and intended for use as veneering it is classified as
veneer. According to the Simplified Practice Recommendations
promulgated by the National Bureau of Standards, lumber is
classified by its principal use as yard lumber, factory and shop
:

lumber, and structural lumber,

Yard lumber is defined as lumber of all sizes and patterns
which is intended for general building purposes. Its grading is
based on intended use and is applied to each piece without refer-
ence to size and length when graded and without consideration to
further manufacture. As classified by size it includes: strips,
which are yard lumber less than 2 inches thick and less than
8 inches wide; boards, which are yard lumber less than 2 inches
thick but 8 inches or more wide; dimension, which includes all
yard lumber except strips, boards and timbers; and timbers,
which are yard lumber of 5 or more inches in the least dimension.
Factory and shop lumber is defined as lumber intended to be
cut up for use in further manufacture. It is graded on the basis
of the percentage of the area which will produce a limited number
of cuttings of a specified, or of a given minimum, size and
quality.
Structural lumber is defined as lumber that is 2 or more inches
thick and 4 or more inches wide, intended for use where working
stresses are required. The grading of structural lumber is based
on the strength of the piece and the use of the entire piece. As
classified by size and use it includes foists and planks lumber
from 2 inches to but not including 5 inches thick, and 4 or more
inches wide, of rectangular cross section and graded with respect
to its strength in bending, when loaded either on the narrow face
as joist or on the wide face as plank; beams and stringers
lumber of rectangular cross section 5 or more inches thick and
8 or more inches wide and graded with respect to its strength
in bending when loaded on the narrow face; and posts and
timbers pieces of square or approximately square cross section
5 by 5 inches and larger and graded primarily for use as posts
or columns carrying longitudinal load, but adapted to miscellane-
ous uses in which strength in bending is not especially important.

Lumber, Manufactured, According to the Simplified Practice

Recommendations promulgated by the National Bureau of Stand-
ards, lumber may be classified according to the extent which it is
manufactured as:
Rough lumber which is lumber that is undressed as it comes
from the saw,
 773-L
Surfaced lumber which is lumber that is dressed by running it
through a planer and may be surfaced on one or more sizes and
edges.
Worked lumber which is lumber that has been run through a
matching machine, sticker or molder and includes: matched
lumber which has been worked to provide a close
tongue-
and-groove joint at the edges or, in the case of end-matched
lumber, at the ends also; shiplapped lumber which has been
worked to provide a close rabbetted or lapped joint at the edges;
and patterned lumber which has been shaped to a patterned or
molded form.

Lumber Water Content. The origin of lumber has a notice-

able effect on its water content. Lumber
or veneer (thin lumber
produced usually by rotary cutting or flat slicing, sometimes by
sawing) , when produced from the log, contains a large proportion
of water, ranging from 25 to 75 per cent of the total weight. One
square foot (board measure, one inch thick) of gum lumber,
weighing approximately five pounds when sawed, will be reduced
to about three pounds when its water content of approximately
one quart has been evaporated. Oak grown on a hillside may
contain only a pint (approximately 1 Ib.) and swamp gum may
have from 2 to 4 pints of water per square foot, board measure.
This water content of wood exists in two forms free moisture
and cell moisture. The former is readily evaporable in ordinary
air drying, but the latter requires extensive air drying (several
years) or artificial treatment in kilns. It is possible to use arti-
ficial means to remove the free moisture, but a simple air
exposure
is usually more economical.

Lumen Bronze. Lumen bronze is a bearing metal which com-

bines in a marked degree the wearing qualities of babbitt With
the strength and rigidity of phosphor-bronze. It is an alloy of
zinc, copper, and aluminum, which, strictly speaking, therefore,
is not a bronze at all, but a brass composition. It is from 20 to
25 per cent lighter in weight than ordinary bronze, is non-
magnetic, is easily worked by machine tools, and is softer than
machine steel, so that it will not score or cut the journal of the
shaft. The weight per cubic inch is about 0.25 pound; the specific
gravity, 6.93 ; the tensile strength, 33,000 pounds per square inch.

Lumnite. An aluminum cement having the trade name of

"lumnite," consists essentially of 40 per cent alumina, 40 per
cent lime, 15 per cent iron oxide, and 5 per cent silica, magnesia,
etc. This material reaches its full strength in 24 hours as com-
with 28 days for Portland cement. It has been found that it
pared
is unaffected by sea water or by sulphate-bearing ground waters.
 M
Maag Gearing. In the design of the Maag system of gearing,
a 15-degree pressure angle is maintained for large gears, but for
relatively small gears the angles and also the blank diameters or
positions of the teeth relative to the pitch circles, are varied with
the idea of obtaining the most satisfactory operation for gearing
of a given ratio. This is a departure from standardisation and
the use of gears which are interchangeable at standard center
distances. Those advocating this system, however, believe that
what is lost more than gained by so forming
in this respect is
the teeth of a gear and pinion of given ratio as to obtain more
rolling and less sliding action combined with stronger teeth with-
out under-cutting, even when the gears are very small. When
necessary or desirable to use gears having possibly not more than
five or six teeth, a practical tooth form may be obtained by chang*

ing the pressure angle and the relation of the tooth to its pitch
circle, to suit the conditions. It has long been the practice to
obtain an improvement of tooth shape by the enlargement of
small spur and bevel pinions but with the Maag system, the plan
is to so modify the relations between addenda, dedenda, and pres-
sure angle as to secure what is considered the best tooth form for
each particular ratio.

Machinability of Metal. The term "machinability" indicates

the degree of resistance encountered in cutting a metal. If a
metal is machinable, this implies cutting it under practical condi-
tions or by the application of practical shop equipment Ahard
metal that is machinable with a carbide too! may not be machin-
able with a steel tool. Even though the steel tool will cut the
metal, if it will not continue cutting a reasonable length of time
before sharpening is necessary, then we have an example of ma*
chinability that is impractical It is evident, then, that the hard-
ness of steel does not always show whether it is machinable or
not, because we must consider the kind of cutting too! to be
used and also such factors as the cutting speed, the kind and
quantity of cutting fluid, if any, and the rigidity of the tool sup-
port. The maximum hardness of a machinable steel or other ma-
terial, because of these variable factors, extends over a wide range
which has been increased greatly since the introduction of carbide
tools. The maximum hardness of a machinable material under one
set of conditions, for example, might not exceed 200 Brinell, and
under other conditions, it might range from 400 to 600 Brineli
or even higher.

774
 775 -M
Machinability and Hardness: In cutting steels, the allowable
cutting speed for a given tool life between grindings is, as a
general rule, inversely proportional to the hardness of a given
steel To illustrate, tests in turning an alloy steel with a high-
speed steel tool showed a cutting speed of 70 feet per minute
when the hardness of the steel was 180 Brinell; the cutting
speed had to be reduced to about 35 feet per minute when the
hardness was increased to 360 Brinell, the life between tool
grindings for these tests being 20 minutes in each case. The
machinability of other steels of the same hardness might vary.
For example, the tests just referred to showed more or less
variation in the cutting speeds for steels of the same hardness,
but having different compositions or properties. Thus, while
there is a constant relationship between the hardness of a steel
and its tensile strength, there is not the same constant rela-
tionship between steel hardness and machinability as applied to
different steels.

"Machine-Hour" Overhead Distribution. See Overhead Ex-

pense Distribution.
Machine Nut Taps. A
machine nut tap (or machine tap, as it is
also generally called) is used for nut tapping in tapping machines,
the same as the tapper tag. The names of these two taps are often
confused. From a manufacturing point of view, however, there
is distinct difference between the two kinds of taps. The tapper

tap is a very simple design, but for some classes of work the
machine tap is more satisfactory. The machine tap is threaded
and relieved in a different manner, and is adapted for use in
tough material and for heavy duty.
Machine Screws, The term "machine screw" is generally
understood tomean a screw which enters a tapped hole in a
machine part and one having a head that is slotted to receive
a screw driver. Screws of this class are designated by numbers
instead of the actual sizes (the numbers increasing with the
a
diameter), excepting American Standard sizes /4-inch and
larger. See table. The basic form of thread is the American
Standard.
The American Standard is very generally used in the United
States, although there is still considerable demand for certain
sizes or pitches conforming to the older A.S.M.E. standard. This
continued use of the A.S.M.E. standard applies particularly to
the No. 4 size with 36 threads per inch. While the No. 4-36
machine screw may eventually be superseded largely or entirely
by the American Standard, at the present time, this No. 4-36
combination is used either largely or exclusively in many shops
and usually is found in hardware stores. Manufacturers of taps
M-776
Machine Screw Sizes and Standard Pitches

and dies continue to supply No, 4-86 tools chiefly, In response to

the demand of the The A.S.fcLE. No, 14-20 and No. 14-24
trade.
also continue in use more or less, but present indications are
that this No. 14 size is gradually being replaced by the *4-inch
size of the American Standard.
There are two series of pitches for American Standard ma-
chine screws* These are designated as the Coarse-thread Series
and the Fine-thread Series. Approximately 80% of the machine
screw production has the Coarse-thread Series and the remaining
20% the Pine-thread Series.
The nominal length of a machine screw depends upon the form
1
of the head. The length of a "round head' or "flHIster-head"
 777 -M
machine screw is measured under or up to the head. With the
"flat-head" and "oval-head" forms, the length includes the
countersunk or conical portion.
Machine Screw Taps. The regular (standard) machine
screw taps are similar to the regular (standard) hand taps ex-
cept that they are made in so-called numbered or machine screw
sizes.
Spiral Pointed Machine Screw Taps: A regular (standard)
machine screw tap having a fewer number of flutes and wider
lands and having the cutting face of the first few threads ground
at an angle to force the chips ahead to prevent clogging in the
flutes.
Stub Machine Screw Taps: A machine screw tap having three
and with a thread considerably shorter than
flutes for all sizes
a regular (standard) machine screw tap. For use in tapping
thin metal, and to overcome breakage.
Spiral Pointed Stub Machine Screw Taps: A stub machine
screw tap having two flutes with the cutting face of the first
few threads ground at an angle to force the chips ahead and
prevent clogging of the flutes.
Machine Machine steel is a black stock of a better
Steel.
grade of than cold-rolled steel and requires machining. It
steel
contains from 0.25 to 0.45 per cent carbon. It is the most com-
monly used steel, and is adapted for all machine parts that are
not subject to strain or shock. For short shafts, studs, arbors,
give long service and withstand considerable strain
etc., it will
if casehardened.

Machine Tool. A
machine tool is a power-driven machine
that used in building other machinery. However, there are
is
many other power-driven machines used for this purpose which
are not classed as machine tools. In order to obtain a more
specific definition, machine tools have been defined as machines
which, when taken as a group, will reproduce themselves. But
this definition also is quite general and does not clearly indi-
cate the proper classification for certain border-line machines.
A more specific definition follows:
Definition Based Upon Common Usage: A machine tool is
any power-driven non-portable machine designed primarily for
shaping and sizing metal parts, by the progressive removal of
chips or by abrasion, from raw materials in the form of cast-
ings, forgings, bars, tubes, plates, and stampings. The ma-
chines for producing such raw materials are not machine tools
according to the general usage of the term in the machine tool
and machine-building industries. For example, rolling mills,
forging machines, power presses, die-casting machines, molding
 M-778
machines, brakes or other metal-bending machines, and power-
driven hammers are not classed as machine tools. Metal-cutting
machines, such as punching and shearing machines, are also
excluded from the machine tool classification.
Definition for Census: The Department of Commerce, in con-
nection with the Census of Manufactures, classifies the machine
tool industry for census purposes as follows: This industry "in-
cludes establishments primarily engaged in the manufacture of
power-driven complete metal-working machines not portable by
hand, having one or more tool and work-holding devices, used
for progressively removing the metal in the form of chips. It
also includes honing machines, lapping machines, and grinders.
Rolling mill machinery, presses, brakes, shears, punches, etc.,
and accessories for machine tools and other metal-working
machines are classified in other industries."
Definition for Custom Duties: The United States Treasury
Department, in the collection of custom duties, defines machine
tools as any machines operated by other than hand power, which
employ a tool for working on metal. This is a very broad defini-
tion and includes many machines which are not classified as
machine tools by the builders and users of such machines.
Single-Purpose Machine Tools: Many modern developments
in the machine tool field pertain to designs that are more or less
special.These machines range from 'manufacturing types," re-
*

sembling simplified standard designs of unusual rigidity and

power, to "single purpose" machines built specifically for one
operation. The semi-single-purpose type of machine, while de-
signed for a given part, is arranged to accommodate different
sizes, the idea, in some instances, being to care for possible
future changes in the design of a product.

Machine Tool History. The development of simple tools into

more complex designs to replace manual labor is comparatively
recent, and may generally be considered as having begun near
the end of the eighteenth century. The
history of civilization
since that time has been so profoundly affected
by the work of
the engineer and the mechanic that the
past and the present
century may well be called the "age of machinery." The facili-
ties for cutting metal in 1780 were little better than
those of the
middle ages. The mechanics or millwrights of that
day worked
almost wholly with the hammer, chisel, and file. Without
doubt,
the best mechanics during the eighteenth
century were the
French, and their work contained suggestions of a number of the
modern machine tools; but their tendency was toward refined
handicraft and ingenious novelties, and they showed little in-
clination toward commercial production on a
large scale. The
real development of the modern machine tool has
taken* place
 779 -M
almost wholly in England and in the United States. The gen-
eral machine tools, such as the lathe, planer, shaper, drill press,
and steam hammer, and the small tools, such as taps and dies,
were developed in England from about 1800 to 1850. In Amer-
ica, partially overlapping this period, but in the main in the
latter part of the nineteenth century, were developed the auto-
matic lathe, the universal milling machine, drop-hammers, spe-
cial machine tools of various kinds, and the interchangeable
system of manufacture, the last involving the use of jigs, fixtures,
and limit-gages.
Machine Tool Motors. The load demand upon a motor driv-
ing a machine tool of the rotary type, such as a lathe, boring mill,
or drilling machine, is made up of machine friction plus the power
required to remove the metal. The relative values of these two
items vary. The load demand of a reciprocating tool such as a
planer or shaper, involves the same items and, in addition, the
power required to start, stop, and reverse the reciprocating parts.
The load of a rotary machine may be quite constant, as in the
case of a lathe making a continuous cut. If the cut is not con-
tinuous, the load may fluctuate considerably. The load of a
reciprocating machine is inherently of a fluctuating nature, and
the reversing peaks may be an important or determining factor.
The frictional load of a machine tool depends upon its design,
and cannot be determined by formula. It may be best found by
test. The power required to remove metal depends upon the char-
acter of the metal, rate of removal, average thickness of chip
before distortion, and type and condition of tool. The following
figures are widely used for lathes, shapers, boring mills, and
planers :
Horsepower Required to Remove
Material 1 Cubic Inch per Minute

Brass - 0.2 to 0.3

Cast iron 0.3 to 0.5
Wrought iron 0.6
Mild steel (0.30 to 0.40carbon) 0.6
Hard steel (0.50 carbon) 1.00 to 1.25
Very hard tire steel 1.6

The power required for drilling is about double that given, due
largely to friction between the drill and the side of the hole.
Heavy cuts requiring high torques are usually taken at rela-
tively low speeds, while lighter cuts are taken at higher speeds.
Thus the load tends toward a constant horsepower characteristic.
Motor Characteristics: Machine tools are sufficiently varied in
their requirements so that several types of motors find applica-
tion in individual cases. A
considerable portion of the total field
requires a constant-speed drive with no unusual features. Here
M-780
the direct-current, shunt motor or the alternating-current, squir-
success. Either
rel-cage induction motor may be used with equal
belt drive from a
type will effect some gain over constant-speed
line-shaft.
Many machine tools require adjustment of speeds over varied
ranges, some as high as 30 to 1. Adjustable-speed direct-current
motors are inherently best suited to such machine tools. Some
machines, such as punches and shears, particularly when equipped
with flywheels, require high starting and pull-out torque, together
with drooping speed regulation. Here the compound-wound,
direct-current motor or the high-slip induction motor is applicable.
Owing to the fact that alternating current is more commonly
available, particularly in the smaller shops, the manufacturers of
machine tools have adopted extensively the use of the gear-box
for speed changes, thus adapting their tools for induction motor
drive. For reasons of standardization, the same tools are then
offered for use with constant-speed, direct-current motors, where
the latter current is available. From the viewpoint of the ma-
chine tool builder, this standardization is desirable. In many
cases, particularly for small machines, the practice is commend-
able. Where direct current is available, however, it will often
benefit the user toemploy adjustable-speed motors and eliminate
the gear-box, or greatly reduce the number of change-gears
required.
Adjustable-speed Direct-current Motors: The adjustable-speed
direct-current motor is excellently suited to the requirements of
many machine tools. Owing to varying diameters, materials, and
cuts, it is necessary to operate over a wide range of speeds. A
selection of speeds can be had by the use of cone pulleys, while
a greater number is available by the use of a gear-box. The ad-
justable-speed motor provides a finely graduated selection of
speeds over a range up to 4 to 1. If a wider range is desired,
a simple set of change-gears will suffice to extend the range.
The great advantage to be derived from the use of the adjust-
able-speed, direct-current motor lies in the fact that maximum
permissible cutting speeds may be maintained and the speed may
be readily manipulated. When speed changes must be made in
sizable increments, it is necessary to use a speed lower than but
approaching the desired rate. The margin represents a direct
loss of production. Increased production has the double aspect of
lower unit cost and less time required, lowering the overhead and
facilitating good deliveries and quick repairs.
Use of Induction Motors: It is not to be inferred that adjust-
able-speed, direct-current motors should be universally applied.
When speed control features are unnecessary and a constant speed
is satisfactory, the induction motor can be used to
advantage*
 781 -M
Records indicate that induction motors are somewhat more free
from troubles and require less repairs than direct-current motors.
It is perfectly possible to have an equipment of direct-current
motors and control, if properly selected and applied and properly
maintained, that will require a few repairs. An induction motor,
improperly applied or neglected, will stand up better than a direct-
current motor under like conditions. It must also be considered
that more is usually expected of the direct-current motor and
control in the way of starting, stopping, reversing, and speed
control, and the machine itself is thereby simplified.
In some cases, both alternating- and direct-current power sup-
plies are available. In other cases, alternating current only or
direct current only is available. Under the latter conditions,
direct-current motors will be used exclusively. In a small shop
where alternating current only is available, it is ordinarily best
to use constant-speed, induction motors, foregoing the advantage
of adjustable speed to avoid conversion. For larger shops, it may
be advisable to install a converter or a motor-generator to supply
direct current for all or a portion of the machines. The use of
both alternating-current and direct-current motors in the same
shop may or may not be advisable. When a number of large,
constant-speed drives are required, alternating current should be
used if available, even if a mixed installation results. If there
are but a few constant-speed drives, direct-current motors may
well be used for the sake of uniformity and to avoid two systems
of current distribution. In some cases, direct-current motors have
advantages in controllability even for constant-speed drives.
Mackenzie Alloy. A white metal composition containing either
68 per cent of lead, 16 per cent of antimony, and 16 per cent of
bismuth, or 70 per cent of lead, 17 per cent of antimony, and
13 per cent of tin, is known as Mackenzie alloy. This alloy is
a good stereotype metal.

Magaluma. This aluminum alloy is used for light alloy parts.

Its composition is as follows: magnesium, 3.4; manganese, 0.15
per cent; and aluminum, the balance. This alloy may exhibit a
tensile strength ranging from 29,000 to 50,000 pounds per square
inch, a yield strength ranging from 10,000 to 42,500 pounds per
square inch and an elongation ranging from 20 to 2 per cent
depending upon whether it is in the soft or most hardened
condition.

Magazine Feeding Mechanisms, Machines which operate on

large numbers of duplicate parts which are separate or in the
form of individual pieces are often equipped with a mechanism
for automatically transferring the parts from a magazine or
other retaining device, to the tools that perform the necessary
operations. The magazine used in conjunction with mechanisms
 M-782
of this kind is arranged for holding enough parts to supply the
machine for a certain period, and it is equipped with a mechan-
ical device for removing the parts separately from the magazine
and placing them in the correct position wherever the operations
are to be performed. The magazine may be in the form of a
hopper, or the supply of parts to be operated upon by the machine
may be held in some other way. The transfer of the parts from
the hopper or main source of supply to the operating tools may
be through a chute or passageway leading directly to the tools,
or it may be necessary to convey the parts to the tools by an
auxiliary transferring mechanism which acts in unison with the
magazine feeding attachment. These automatic feeding mechan-
isms are usually designed especially for handling a certain
product, although some types are capable of application to a
limited range of work. See also Power Press Magazine Feeds.

Magnaflux Inspection. Magnaflux inspection exposes fatigue

cracks, grinding checks, seams developed by the rolling mill, and
so on. Flaws as deep as 2 inches below the surface that would
defy detection even under a 20-power microscope are made
readily apparent to the human eye. Surface cracks Q.0002 inch
deep can be detected. Briefly, the Magnaflux principle as applied
in the aircraft industry consists of magnetizing the parts to be
inspected, so as to set up a polarity between any cracks or breaks
either on the surface of the metal or below it for approximately
2 inches. The part is then immersed in an oil in which finely
powdered black magnetic iron oxide is held in suspension or else
it is sprayed or flooded with the oil Particles of the iron oxide
will adhere to the surface of the work wherever the
polarity of a
flaw attracts them, and these particles form a black line that is
immediately observed by the inspector. Although the Magna-
flux method of inspection has been
universally adopted through-
out the aircraft industry it is by no means confined to it.

Magnaglo Inspection. This method of inspection is similar

to the Magnaflux method but differs in that fluorescent magnetic
particles are used which can be seen more easily. This feature
makes this method of inspection more sensitive than the
Magna-
flux method and enables the close
inspection of parts with nharp
corners and irregular surfaces.

Magnalium,, Magnalium is a light-weight alloy composed of

aluminum and a small percentage of magnesium. The
composi-
tion varies, but the alloy generally contains from 1.6 to 2
per cent
of magnesium. It also contains small
percentages of copper,
nickel, tin, and lead, the last-mentioned metal probably being an
impurity. The specific gravity of this alloy varies from 2.5 to
 783 -M
2.57. The tensile strength of magnalium sand castings contain-
ing 2 per cent of magnesium is 17,900 pounds per square inch,
while with 10 per cent of magnesium the tensile strength is in-
creased to 21,400 pounds per square inch. Wire drawn from one
quality of the alloy has a tensile strength of 41,000 pounds and
10 per cent reduction of area, while it will stand 53,000 pounds,
if the raw material has been forged before drawing. Soft rolled
sheets have a tensile strength of 42,000 pounds and 15 per cent
reduction of area hard rolled sheets, a tensile strength of about
;

52,000 pounds and 3 per cent reduction of area. Magnalium con-

taining less than a certain percentage of aluminum cannot be
rolled, but can readily be drawn. The tensile strength of a drawn
bar when tested was 60,000 pounds, and that of a tube, 74,000
pounds per square inch. Magnalium can be cast in a manner
similar to that employed for aluminum,

Magnesium Alloys. These alloys all contain over 85 per cent

of magnesium. Pure magnesium is a relatively soft silver-white
metal and does not possess the strength required for structural
uses; but when alloyed with certain other metals, a wide range
of properties may be obtained. Some alloys are characterized by
their strength, others by their toughness, and still others by their
thermal conductivity. The chief characteristic is extreme light-
ness, the average specific gravity being only 1.80. These mag-
nesium alloys are designated by the trade name "Dowmetal."
Dowmetal alloys are available for sand and permanent mold cast-
ings, die-castings, forgings, extruded shapes, plates, sheets and
strips.
Compositions: The compositions vary more or less for differ-
ent applications. For example, the aluminum content may range
from 2.5 to 12 per cent; manganese, from 0.1 to 1.5 per cent;
and some of the alloys have zinc varying from 0.5 to 3 per cent.
The remainder of the composition in each case is magnesium.
Some typical compositions for specific applications follow.
Sand Castings: The most commonly used alloys for sand cast-
ing are Dowmetals C and H. In addition to magnesium Dowmetal
C contains about 9 per cent aluminum, 2 per cent zinc and 0.1
manganese, whereas Dowmetal H contains about 6 per cent
aluminum, 3 per cent zinc and 0.2 manganese.
The normal unhindered shrinkage of magnesium alloys during
casting is approximately 11/64 inch per foot. This shrinkage
factor may be reduced to as low as % inch per foot on large
castings or where shrinkage is restrained by cores. Thin walls
should be kept relatively small in area. Thickness limitations,
however, are approximately the same as for other non-ferrous
metals.
M-784
Die-Castings: Dowmetal K is the most widely used alloy for
die-castings. It combines good casting characteristics with
desirable mechanical properties. This alloy contains about 9 per
cent aluminum, 0.13 manganese, 0.6 zinc, and .3 silicon.
Forgings: The most widely used magnesium alloys for forgings
are 0-1 where maximum strength is required, and J-l when
greater formability and weldability are desired, Dowmetal 0-1
contains about 8% per cent aluminum, 0.2 manganese, and 0.6
zinc. Dowmetal J-l contains about 6.5 aluminum, 0.2 manganese,
and 1 zinc. Forgingg are used for applications requiring higher
properties than are obtainable in castings.
Extruded Shapes: Magnesium alloys may be extruded readily
into a large variety of bars, rods, structural and special shapes.
These extruded forms are held to close dimensional limits.
Mechanical Properties: The typical strength figures which fol-
low are in pounds per square inch. Different casting alloys have
ultimate tensile strengths varying from 22,000 to 40,000 with
yield strengths from 12,000 to 23,000. Forgings vary in tensile
strength from 35,000 to 50,000 and yield strengths from 23,000
to 34,000. Extrusions vary in tensile strength from 33,000 to
50,000 and in yield strength from 21,000 to 34,000.
The modulus of elasticity of magnesium alloys is 6,500,000
pounds per square inch. At temperatures as low as 100 degrees
F., the mechanical properties of magnesium alloys differ only
slightly from those at 70 degrees F. At elevated temperatures,
there is a slight change in properties up to about 200 degrees F.,
but at higher temperatures there is a gradual reduction in tensile
and yield strengths and an increase in elongation.

Magnesium Carbonate. Magnesium carbonate, commonly

known as magnesia, is an impurity often found in boiler feed
water. It is soluble in pure water. It is held in solution, if
sufficient carbonic acid gas is present, the same as calcium car-
bonate, and is precipitated if this gas is driven off.

Magnesium Chloride. This is a compound which, when

present in boiler feed water, has a corrosive effect and which is
one of the causes of "pitting" in boilers. The corrosive effect of
magnesium and calcium chlorides comes from the chlorine which
is liberated by certain chemical changes*
Magnesium chloride is
very soluble in water, and evolves heat when In solution*

Magnesium Sulphate. Magnesium sulphate (sulphate of

magnesia or Epsom salts) dissolves very slowly in cold water,
but dissolves easily in warm water. When present with calcium
 785 -M
carbonate, a chemical reaction takes place which produces hydrate
of magnesia and calcium sulphate, resulting in the formation of
a very hard scale in boiler feed water.

Magnet. A magnet is a body which possesses the property of

attracting pieces of iron and steel with a force in excess of the
gravitational force and which, when freely suspended, takes up a
definite position north and south. Amagnetic substance is one
which, when placed in the proximity of a magnet or a conductor
carrying an electric current, will acquire the properties of a
magnet. The most highly magnetic substances are iron and steel.

Magnetic Attraction. The law governing the attractive or

repulsive force of magnetism is the same as that which applies
to gravity. When the distance between two magnetic poles is
doubled, the intensity of the magnetic field is diminished to one-
fourth; if tripled, the intensity of the field is reduced to one-
ninth, etc. In other words, the attractive or repulsive force
varies inversely as the square of the distance between the poles,
it also varies proportionately as the product of the strength of
the poles.

Magnetic Chucks. Magnetic chucks are devices by means of

which objects of iron or steel may be held in position during ma-
chining operations, the holding power being the magnetism cre-
ated by electromagnets in the chuck; hence, jaws, clamps, or bolts
are not required. These chucks are made in rectangular, circular,
and special forms and they are used on different types of machine
tools such as surface grinders and planers.

Magnetic Clutches. Magnetic clutches may be obtained hav-

ing horsepower ratings varying from one to two horsepower up
to several hundred horsepower. Such clutches are adapted par-
ticularly for high-speed drives, for heavy duty, and for use when
there is difficulty in starting a heavy load with a motor. Mag-
netic clutches are also useful when machinery must be stopped
quickly, a brake being used in such cases in combination with
the clutch. One design of magnetic clutch has the field or driv-
ing member and the armature or driven member each carried by
a flexible spring-steel plate so that when current passes through
the field winding, the armature is attracted to it and friction
surfaces come into engagement. The magnetizing winding of the
field receives current through two collector rings and graphite

brushes, and direct current is used. The clutch driving capacity

depends upon the friction surfaces which are held together by the
magnetic attraction.
Magnetic Degree. The 360th part of the angle subtended, at
an electrical machine, by a pair of its field poles,
the axis of is
M-786
designated as a "magnetic degree." One mechanical degree ia
thus equal to as many magnetic* degrees as there are pairs of
poles in the machine.

Magnetic Inspection. An improved method of inspecting ma-

chine parts for hidden flaws without destruction of the parts has
been developed by the General Electric Co. A
constant magnetic
field is produced, so that it penetrates through the entire thick-
ness of a small area of the part to be inspected. The part is
slowly revolved, in order to change continuously the section within
the field, until the whole part is magnetically explored. Imper-
fections, such as blow-holes, hidden flaws, or non-homogeneous
areas in the interior betray themselves by producing disturbances
in the magnetic field at the surface of the inspected part, which
are recorded by the testing instrument.

Magnetic Materials. All substances may be classified in one

of three groups according to their behavior in the presence of a
magnetic field :

Ferromagnetic materials are those which are strongly at-

tracted or magnetized by a magnet or magnetic field and in-
clude iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, and such alloys as Permalloy,
Hypernik, and Alnico.
Paramagnetic materials exhibit virtually no properties of
attraction, repulsion, or magnetization when placed near a
magnet or in a magnetic field. Most materials fall into this
class.
Diamagnetic materials are those which are slightly repelled
when placed near a magnet. Bismuth exhibits the strongest
property of magnetic repulsion. Antimony, copper and silver
also belong in this class.
From a commercial standpoint, those materials which are fer-
romagnetic may be divided into two classes :

Non-retentive materials are those which have a high perme-

ability, low hysteresis loss, and require a relatively low coercive
force. They may, therefore, be easily magnetized and demag-
netized. Included in this class are cast iron, ingot iron, and
electrical silicon sheet steel.
Retentive materials are those which have a comparatively
high hysteresis loss, low permeability, and require a large coer-
cive force. They are hard to magnetize but retain their mag-
netization to a high degree, and, therefore, make good per-
manent magnets. Included in this class are 0.85 per cent
carbon steel, 2.00 per cent chromium steel, 5.00 per cent
tungsten steel, cobalt steel, and nickel-aluminum steel.
Other magnetic materials not properly classified in either of
these groups are used for special conditions, such as eensi-
 787 -M
tivity to temperature changes, satisfactory operation at high
frequencies, etc.
Magnetic-Mechanical Analysis. Research work done abroad
and at the U. S. Bureau of Standards has shown that the mag*
netic properties of iron and steel afford a valuable index to the
structural conditions existing in such materials, which is of par-
ticular importance for those materials the strength or cutting
properties of which are the essential factors. Not only do the
initial processes of manufacture affect the magnetic character-
istics, but subsequent heat-treatment also. Therefore, the mag-
netic test offers means of examining materials, tools, etc., during
and after manufacture, without injuring or marring them, with
a view to predetermining their mechanical performance. It also
presents a method ojf investigating the "exceptional tool" or
product, looking toward its routine duplication.
The method of "magnetic-mechanical analysis" is based upon
the fundamental fact that "there is one, and only one, set of
mechanical characteristics corresponding to a given set of mag-
netic characteristics, and conversely there is one, and only one,
set of magnetic characteristics corresponding to a given set of
mechanical characteristics." Consequently, the magnetic proper-
ties of iron and steel give valuable information concerning struc-
tural conditions existing in the material. Apparatus for investi-
gation of mechanical properties by determination of their
correlated magnetic characteristics is known as a "permeameter."
This instrument may be used for testing milling cutters, reamers,
twist drills, files, etc., and also for testing such products as wire,
wire rope, drill rod, etc. An advantage of the method is that the
entire piece is tested instead of a sample, and the test is made
without in any way damaging the product, so that this method is
equally applicable for use on raw materials and finished work.
Magnetism. Fundamentally, magnetism is explained by the
electronic theory in terms of the behavior of the electron, which
is considered to be the basic magnetic particle. Because the
electron is an electric charge in motion, it constitutes, in effect,
a minute electric current which, like all electric currents, pro-
duces a magnetic field. Where an atom is composed of several
moving electrons whose magnetic fields do not completely neu-
tralize each other, the atom itself may be considered to act as a
magnet. In some cases, groups of such atoms are aligned in
stable combinations with their magnetic fields in parallel with
each other and when so aligned they tend to act together as a
magnet.
For the purpose of simple explanation, all magnetic substances
may be considered to be made up of these minute magnets which
are either atoms or groups of atoms with magnetic fields. Now
M-788
in a bar of iron, for example, if these minute magnets are ar-
ranged so that their magnetic fields are pointing in every direc-
tion, they will neutralize each other and the bar as a whole will
not be a magnet. If, however, these minute magnets are arranged
so that their magnetic fields are lined up more in one direction
than in another, the bar will be found to have magnetic poles and,
in fact, has become a magnet. If these minute magnets are all
lined up in the same direction, the bar becomes fully magnetized
or saturated. The application of heat tends, by thermal agitation,
to disarrange the position of these minute magnets and thus to
remove the magnet property of the bar. A mechanical shock has
the same tendency.
Any source of magnetism, such as a permanent magnet or an
electromagnet, produces a magnetic field. This field may be con-
sidered to be made up of lines of magnetic flux, which form closed
loops, passing out of the North pole of the magnet and around
through the surrounding medium and back into the magnet at
the South pole. In a simple magnetic circuit the relationships
are mathematically similar to that of a simple electrical current.
The magnetomotive force may be compared to electromotive force,
the magnetic flux to electric current, and the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit to the resistance of the electrical circuit. Then
(using the proper magnetic units) the magnetic flux is equal to
the magnetomotive force divided by the reluctance just as (using
the proper electrical units) the electric current is equal to the
electromotive force divided by the resistance. The physical
analogy is not exact, however, for unchanging flux is thought of
as a static condition in contrast to current, which is thought of
as electricity in motion.
The kind of material in a magnetic circuit influences the amount
of fluxwhich passes through it per unit area. Thus, when an iron
bar isplaced in a magnetic field, it becomes magnetized that
is the minute magnets making up the bar are lined
up in the
direction of the field so that their individual magnetic fields en-
hance or increase the strength of the magnetic field passing
through the bar. Materials which tend to greatly increase the
density of magnetic fields passing through them as compared
with the density in air are said to be ferromagnetic. Iron, cobalt,
nickel and some of their alloys are materials of this kind* Such
materials are used extensively in transformers, motors, genera-
tors and other electrical equipment where strong magnetic fields
are required.
A magnetic needle, or compass needle, is a magnetized piece of
iron or steel, which being free to turn, always tends to point north
and south, owing to the earth's own magnetic field. See also
Diamagnetism.
 789 -M
Magnetite. Magnetite is the purest form of iron ore found in
nature, and contains the largest percentage of iron obtainable in
any ore. It is also known as "magnetic oxide of iron," or "black
oxide of iron." Magnetite is strongly attracted by a magnet;
hence, its name. Magnetite sometimes possesses magnetic
polarity, thus forming a natural magnet. The mineral is, in that
case, known as "lodestone."
Iron ispresent in magnetite ores as a magnetic oxide, Fe 8 4 ,

which, when pure, contains 72.4 per cent of iron. Many of the
commercial magnetite ores contain, as impurities, sulphur, phos-
phorus, and titanium, and sometimes the ore is mixed with an
excess of rock, making the actual percentage of iron for a given
weight comparatively small. Magnetite ore, when pure, is almost
black, but the commercial ore varies in color from black to blue
black, steel gray, or slightly green, having a hardness of from
5 to 6.5 on the Mohs hardness scale. See Iron in Iron Ore;
1

also Hematite.

Magneto. A magneto or magneto-generator may be defined

as a small and compact form of electric-current generator in
which field excitation is produced by permanent magnets rather
than by field coils. It is used for generating the small currents
required for ignition purposes in internal combustion engines,
for bell signals in telephone systems, etc. Where a high voltage
is required for ignition purposes, primary and secondary wind-
ings are used on the armature which may be fixed, while the
magnets rotate, or vice versa.

Magnets, Lifting. Lifting magnets are used in connection

with power-operated cranes and hoists, for lifting magnetic ma-
terial, especially where such material must be handled in bulk.
They are especially useful in and around foundries, steel mills,
etc., for lifting such materials as pig iron, metal plates, billets,
scrap iron, steel castings, rails, "skull crackers," and, in fact,
practically anything except non-magnetic metals, such as brass
and copper. The magnet is energized by a direct-current and it
greatly facilitates handling material of the classes mentioned,
because the parts to be lifted are gripped or released by the mag-
net instantly and quite a number of pieces can be lifted at one
time, especially in the case of small billets, plates, etc. Pig
magnets are designed to handle material of irregular shape that
is piled indiscriminately. Plate magnets are especially adapted
for lifting straight shapes from orderly piles. Bipolar magnets
are designed for handling both of the classes of materials men-
tioned in the foregoing. There are also magnets of special form
which are designed particularly for handling a certain class of
material. All lifting magnets require direct current. Where
M-790
direct current is not available, it may be obtained by installing a
motor-generator or engine-generator set.

Magnet Steel. Alloy steels are used for making permanent

magnets. The composition of the steel depends to a large extent
upofc the class of service for which the magnets are to be used.
Some magnets, for instance, are made from 0.50 to 0.60 per cent
carbon steel, containing a fairly high percentage of manganese.
When a stronger magnet is required, a 0.50 to 0.60 per cent car-
bon steel, with from 8 to 7 per cent of tungsten, is used. Steel
containing 5% per cent of tungsten makes excellent permanent
magnets. Chromium steels are also used for magnets.
Magnolia Metal. A bearing metal composed of lead, tin, and
antimony in somewhat varying proportions, but generally con-
sisting of from 78 to 80 per cent of lead, from 15 to 16 per cent
of antimony, and from 4.75 to 6 per cent of tin, is known as
magnolia metal. In some samples, 0.25 per cent of bismuth and
a trace of copper is present.

Major Diameter. The largest diameter of the thread on a

screw or nut is the "major diameter," This term has been used
to replace the term "outside diameter" as applied to the thread
of a screw and also the term "full diameter" as applied to the
thread of a nut. See also Minor Diameter.
Malleable Castings. Malleable-iron castings are produced by
subjecting ordinary white iron castings to a special heat-
treatment, in order to make the castings tougher and to some
extent malleable. Hard, brittle, white iron castings that have
been cast in the usual manner are first cleaned to remove any
sand which may adhere to them, and then are packed in cast-iron
or malleable-iron boxes or pots, with powdered hematite ore or
iron scale. It is customary to arrange these pots three high in
an annealing furnace or oven. In sets of three high the cold oven
is filled to capacity, the doors are closed and sealed with
fire-clay,
and the fire is started. The purpose of the scale is to keep the
fire from direct contact with the
castings. The temperature is
raised to between 1400 and 1700 degrees P. and is maintained
there for forty-eight hours or longer; then the fire is allowed to
die out and the oven cools slowly. As it ordinarily takes two
days
to obtain the required temperature, the whole
process may require
eight days from the time the fires are started until the castings
are removed. It is essential that the oven be cooled
very slowly
from its high temperature, as this is a determining factor in the
quality of the product
^
Physical Properties: Malleable iron possesses physical proper-
ties closelyresembling those of wrought iron, and as it is pri~
marily a cast metal, odd shapes, housings, etc., be made
may
 791 -M
which possess, to a marked degree, the properties of forged metal.
Malleable iron is much stronger than cast
iron, but weaker than
steel castings, and can be bent and worked to some extent. Malle-
able iron can be hardened, and when so treated is especially
adapted to the hardware class of castings. Malleable castings
have a tensile strength commonly varying from 35,000 to 55,000
pounds per square inch with from 3 to 8 per cent elongation in
two inches. Some castings have shown a tensile strength of from
60,000 to 63,000 pounds per square inch, and even stronger cast-
ings have been produced. Castings made of malleable iron may
be subjected to repeated shocks for long periods without crystalli-
zation they will withstand considerable distortion without break-
;

ing, and malleable iron has greater rust-resisting properties than

any of the other ferrous metals. Therefore, malleable castings
are extensively used on railway equipment, agricultural imple-
ments, and machinery and various other classes of work subjected
to corrosion and shocks. Malleable iron is less susceptible to
fatigue failure than steel castings.
Malleable Iron Brittleness: Numerous tests on samples of com-
mercial malleable iron, mostly impact tests on specimens heat-
treated at relatively low temperatures, show that the embrittle-
ment of malleable iron sometimes noted in hot-dip galvanizing is
due chiefly to the incidental heat-treatment. Quenching malleable
iron from temperatures between 400 and 500 degrees C. (750 and
930 degrees P.) makes it brittle to a greater or lesser degree,
depending on the iron. The rate of heating and the time the
metal is held at this temperature exert but little influence. Aging
after treatment has no apparent effect. On the other hand, sub-
stituting slower rates of cooling for the quenching treatment pro-
duces a metal of higher impact resistance. Heating to 650 de-
grees C. (1200 degrees F.) for a few minutes, followed by quench-
ing (in water at room temperature) eliminates the embrittlement,
,

even if the metal is subsequently galvanized.

Malleable Copper. Malleable copper, also known as virgin
copper and native copper, is a metallic copper found in nature
practically pure, having all the properties of refined metal. It is
mined extensively in the Lake Superior district in the United
States and in Bolivia.

Malleable Pig Iron. This is an American trade name for the

pig iron suitable for converting into malleable castings through
the process of melting, treating when molten, casting in a brittle
state, and then making malleable without remelting.

Malleablizing. Malleablizing is a kind of annealing operation

with slow cooling, resulting in the combined carbon in white cast
iron being transformed to temper carbon; in some cases the car-
M-792
bon is entirely removed from the cast iron. Temper carbon is free
carbon in the form of rounded nodules made up of an aggregate
of minute crystals.

Mallory 3. Copper alloy possessing high strength. Elastic

limit of rods, 50,000 pounds per square inch ; ultimate strength,
70,000 pounds per square inch. Elastic limit of castings, 25,000
pounds per square inch; ultimate strength, 50,000 pounds per
square inch. Castings have a high impact strength, retained at
high temperatures. At about 775 degrees F., impact strength does
not fall below 50 foot-pounds. Forgings and drawn rods have an
electrical conductivity of 80 to 85 per cent that of copper, and
sand castings 75 to 85 per cent that of forged copper, Brinell
hardness of bars and rods, 150 or greater; of sand castings,
116 to 125. Used extensively for spot-welding tips, flash-welding
dies, and seam-welding wheels, and for any other applications
where a high-strength metal of high electrical conductivity is
required. Obtainable in rods, bars, dies, drop-forgings, regular
forgings, and sand castings; and in cold-drawn, swaged, cold-
headed, or extruded parts.
Maltha. Maltha is a material obtained from Californian petro-
leum as a residue when the more volatile ingredients have been
distilled off. It is used as a protective covering for sheet-steel
riveted pipe. The maltha is thinned with mineral oils, heated, and
the pipe dipped in it, the coating being allowed to dry in the air.
Manchester Pitch, The term "Manchester pitch" formerly
was used to designate a pitch system for gearing, and it was
originated by John George Bodmer in his plant at Manchester,
England. Originally the pitch was obtained by dividing the
pitch diameter by the number of teeth, thus obtaining a value
similar to the module or metric pitch. The present diametral
pitch obtained by dividing the number of teeth by the pitch diam-
eter, is equivalent to the reciprocal of the old Manchester pitch
system. See Diametral Pitch.
Mandrel. See Arbor and Mandrel.

Manganese. Manganese is one of the most important of the

minor metals. The ores are obtained from many parts of the
world, including the United States, Brazil, France, Germany, and
India. Manganese is used extensively in the iron industries in
the manufacture of iron-manganese alloys, such as spiegeleisen,
ferromanganese, silver spiegel, and silicomanganese, Spie-
geleisen and ferromanganese are used largely in the manufacture
of steel, as reducing agents and recarburizers. A consider*
able quantity of high-grade manganese ore is also used as a
depolarizer in the manufacture of dry-cell electric batteries.
Manganese steels have many important qualities not found in
 793-M
other steels. Manganese-bronze is produced by alloying man*
ganese with copper, while so-called "silver-bronze" is obtained by
alloying manganese with aluminum, zinc, and copper. Oxides
of manganese are used in glass manufacture, and as dryers of
varnishes and paints. Manganese is also used as a coloring
material for staining glass, tiles, and bricks, as well as in calico
printing and dyeing. The specific gravity of manganese is 7.42,
making the weight per cubic inch, 0.268 pound. The specific heat
at 32 degrees F. is 0.122; the melting point of manganese is
1225 degrees C. (2237 degrees F.). Its electrical conductivity is
15.75, that of silver being taken as 100. Manganese is a metal
having a close resemblance to iron in many respects.
Manganese-Bronze. There are a number of different man-
ganese-bronzes which give satisfactory results. They generally
contain from 56 to 60 per cent of copper, from 37 to 42 per cent
of zinc, with small percentages of iron, tin, and manganese. The
manganese content may not be more than 0.3 per cent, and some-
times less ; nevertheless, it has a considerable influence upon the
character of the alloy. Tests made indicate that the ultimate
tensile strength of castings made from manganese-bronze of the
composition mentioned is about 60,000 pounds per square inch,
with an elastic limit of 30,000 pounds per square inch. Boiled
manganese-bronze has a tensile strength up to 100,000 pounds
per square inch, with an elastic limit of about 80,000 pounds per
square inch. The elongation in rolled samples varies from 12 to
15 per cent, and in sand castings, from 8 to 10 per cent. The
compressive strength of cast manganese-bronze varies from
125,000 to 135,000 pounds per square inch. Wrought manganese-
bronze differs chiefly from the casting grade in being free from
aluminum. The addition of aluminum enables the alloy to be cast
satisfactorily in sand molds. In order to secure ductility as well
as high tensile strength, extreme purity of the materials used is
absolutely essential. Manganese-bronze is stronger and tougher
than phosphor-bronze, and has a high corrosion resistance. It is
adapted for use in parts such as screw propellers, large gears,
bearings, brake-shoes, etc. This material is preferable to alu-
minum-bronze, as it is more easily handled in the foundry and
produces better castings.
Mcwganese-Bronze Castings S.A.E. Standard No. 43: This
alloy is intended for castings requiring strength and toughness.
It is used for such automotive parts as gear-shifter forks; coun-
ters, spiders; brackets and similar fittings; parts for starting
motors; landing-gear and tail-skid castings for airplanes.
Composition of No. 48: Copper, 55 to 60; zinc, 38 to 42; tin,
max., 1.50; manganese, max., 3.50; aluminum, max., 1.50; iron,
max., 2; lead, max., 0.40 per cent.
M-794
Physical Properties: Tensile strength, 65,000 pounds per square
inch; elongation in 2 inches (or proportionate gage length),
25
per cent.
Manganese Silver-Bronze. A so-called "manganese silver-
bronze" which can be rolled into sheets and rods and drawn
alloy,
into wire, is composed of 18 per cent of manganese, 1.2 per cent
of aluminum, 13 per cent of zinc, 67.3 per cent of copper, and 0.5
per cent of silicon. This alloy has a tensile strength of about
57,000 pounds per square inch with 20 per cent elongation. It
can be drawn into wires as small as 0.008 inch in diameter. This
alloy is useful as a resistance wire in electrical devices, because
its conductivity for the electrical current is only 1/40 of that of

pure copper; in fact, it has a much lower conductivity than that

of German silver.

Manganese Steel. Manganese steel was first successfully pro-

duced by the Hadfields in England, about thirty years ago, and
was known as "Hadfield steel." It was first made in the United
States by the Taylor Iron & Steel Co,, of High Bridge, N. J.
Manganese steel is used for castings subjected to heavy strains,
shocks, and excessive wear, such as the wearing parts of steam
shovels, ore and rock crushers, mining machinery, etc. It is also
used to a considerable extent for safes. When rolled and forged,
it is used for rails, frogs, and crossings. The usual compositions
for such applications lie between the following limits: carbon,
1.0 to 1.3 per cent; silicon, 0.3 to 0.8 per cent; manganese, 11.0
to 14.0 per cent; phosphorus, 0.05 to 0.08 per cent Manganese
steel is a hard self-hardening steel. It cannot be softened by
heating followed by slow cooling, and, for a metal, is a poor con-
ductor of electricity. Manganese steel has a high coefficient of
expansion, small patterns being made with a shrinkage of 5/16
inch to the foot, which sometimes is not quite enough. A shrink-
age of 5/16 inch to the foot gives a mean coefficient of expansion
of about 0.000024 per degree C.
Perhaps the most remarkable property of manganese steel is
its almost total lack of magnetic permeability and susceptibility.
This metal, containing 85 per cent of iron in a metallic form, is
so slightly attracted by a magnet that the pull cannot be felt by
the hand, whereas magnetic oxide of iron, containing about 70
per cent of iron in a non-metallic form, is strongly attracted. The
average commercial steel has a tensile strength of from 82,000 to
90,000 pounds per square inch, an elastic limit of from 45,000 to
60,000 pounds, and an elongation of about 30 per cent Other
approximate values are, compression, 168,000 pounds per square
inch; shear, 80,000 pounds per square inch; melting point, 2450
degrees F. ; weight, 0.284 pound per cubic inch (490 pounds per
cubic foot), specific gravity, 7.88,
 795-M
S.A.E. Manganese Steels: The S.A.E. manganese alloy steels
for certain applications in the automotive industry may be used
interchangeably with other medium alloy steels of similar carbon
content. There are four standard compositions with a carbon
range of from 0.18-0.23 up to 0.38-0.43. The manganese range
in all cases is 1.60 to 1.90 per cent. The manganese alloy steels
having carbon ranges from 0.33 to 0.43 are primarily oil-harden-
ing steels, and great care should be exercised in water quenching.

Manganin. Manganin is an alloy containing manganese, cop-

per, and nickel, which
used for electrical purposes; it possesses
is
the peculiar property of not altering its electrical resistance with
a change in temperature. This alloy, therefore, is used for wires
in the construction of resistance boxes, electrical instruments,
and standards. The composition which has proved most suitable
for ordinary purposes consists of 85 per cent of copper, 12 per
cent of manganese, and 3 per cent of nickel.

Manhes Process. The Manhes process is a method of refin-

ing copper, which is similar to the Bessemer process for making
steel. In the "bessemerizing of matte" by the Manhes or con-
verter process, a blast is forced through the molten matte. In
about 25 minutes this blast oxidizes all but a small quantity of
iron and some sulphur, and has raised the product to white metal.
The slag is poured and the blast again turned on for 30 or 40 min-
utes, when the sulphur is rapidly oxidized and the charge is re-
duced to metal containing 99 per cent of copper. Little or no slag
results from the second blow; that from the first blow contains
from one to two per cent of copper and is put into the reverbera-
tory or blast furnace.
Manhole Dimensions. In a steam boiler, a manhole is an
opening large enough to permit a man to enter the boiler for
inspection or repairs. Elliptical manhole openings must not be
less than 11 by 15 or 10 by 16 inches in size. Circular manhole
openings must not be less than 15 inches in diameter.
"Man-Hour" Overhead Distribution. See Overhead Expense
Distribution.

Manifold. (1) A fitting with numerous branches used to con-

vey fluids between a large pipe and several smaller pipes. (2) A
header for a coil.
Manila Rope Strength. Manila rope is made from fiber or
hemp obtained from a plant that is a native of the Philippines.
not only with the quality of the
Its strength varies considerably,
fiberand the method by which the rope has been made, but also
with the weather conditions under which it is used and the size
and mounting of the sheaves over which it is run. Deterioration
M-796
and wear is generally due to defective sheaves, excessive load,
and exposure to outdoor atmospheric conditions. Manila rope in
fairly good condition, % inch in diameter, should safely support
250 pounds; % inch in diameter, 750 pounds; 1 inch in diameter,
1500 pounds; 1%, inches in diameter, 2000 pounds; 1% inches in
diameter, 2500 pounds; 1% inches in diameter, 4000 pounds;
2 inches in diameter, 5000 pounds; 2% inches in diameter, 7000
pounds; and 2 /2 inches in diameter, 9000 pounds* When the load
l

is supported by two or four parts of the rope, it is advisable not

to multiply the load by two or four directly, but to make the load
on several parts of rope slightly less than the theoretical safe
load would be, figured from the safe load on a single rope, espe-

Mannesmann Process of Making Seam leas Tubes

cially for large ropes. For example, when the safe load for a
2-inch rope is 5000 pounds, the safe load on two parts of rope
may be 9000 pounds, and the safe load on four parts, 18,000
pounds.

Mannesmann Process* The piercing process used in the pro-

duction of seamless tubes, commonly called the "Mannesmann
process/' is based upon the fact that the cross-rolling of a heated
round bar of steel produces a rupturing of the material along its
center line, and a tendency to form a hole along its longitudinal
axis. The diagram illustrates the principle of the MannesmaBn
piercing process. A round solid billet is passed between two rolls
the axes of which are at an angle, as the illustration indicates.
These rolls impart to the billet a high rotative speed and a slow
 797-M
advancing movement, forcing the billet over a pointed mandrel
and thus increasing its length and changing it from the solid to
the tubular form. The forward motion of the billet is caused by
the inclination of the axes of the conical rolls relative to each
other. A satisfactory explanation for the remarkable results ob-
tained by this method is difficult to give. It seems that the ma-
terial, instead of flowing in a longitudinal direction, as in ordinary
rolling, has a tendency to flow outward toward the circumference,
owing to the rotary motion, and a distinct displacement of the
fiber takes place. This method of piercing billets can be applied
in a number of ways,

Mannheim Gold. Mannheim gold is the name of an alloy con-

taining, according to one authority, 89.44 per cent of copper and
9.14 per cent of zinc, the remainder being impurities; another
authority gives the composition as 75 per cent of copper and
25 per cent of zinc, or 80 per cent of copper and 20 per cent of
zinc.

Manograph. The manograph is the name of an instrument

used for indicating engines of very high speed. It consists princi-
pally of a small mirror moved or tilted upward and downward by
a diaphragm actuated by the pressure variations in the cylinder.
The mirror is also rocked from side to side by a mechanism geared
to the engine, in order to reproduce the reciprocating motion of
the engine piston on a smaller scale. The principle of action of
the device is based upon the fact that a beam of light is reflected
by the mirror on a ground-glass screen, and this beam, by the
movement of the mirror, traverses a path corresponding to that
of the pencil point of an ordinary indicator. The diagram is
traced by the beam of light on the ground-glass screen, and varies
with the varying conditions in the cylinder. Aphotographic dry
plate in a plate-holder may be substituted for the ground-glass
screen, and the diagram may thus be photographed. The exposure
varies from one-half to three seconds. The instrument is espe-
cially used on gas engines, where the speed is too high for the
ordinary type of indicator. See also Indicator, Engine.
Manometer. The manometer is an instrument for measuring
the pressures exerted by gases or vapors; hence, the manometer is
simply a pressure gage, although the term "pressure gage" is
generally restricted to that type of manometer which is used in
connection with steam boilers, air tanks, etc. The principle of the
simplest form of manometer is based upon that law of hydro-
statics according to which a liquid contained in a U-tube will
show the surfaces at the same height in both vertical legs, if the
pressures on the surfaces of the liquid in both are equal; but,
if the pressure in one leg is greater than that in the other, the
M-798
surfaces will be at different heights, the difference being propor-
tional to the difference in pressure, and inversely proportional
to the specific gravity of the liquid.

"Man-Rate" Overhead Distribution. See Overhead Expense

Distribution.

Marble. Any limestone which is sufficiently compact to admit

of being polished is known as "marble." Pure marble is white,
but the presence of iron oxides or other impurities changes "the
color. Marble is of importance in electrical engineering, because
of its insulating qualities, and is the material principally used
for switchboard work, in which case it should contain no metallic
veins, as these reduce its insulating qualities. The dielectric
strength of marble is estimated at 6500 volts per millimeter
(0.0394 inch). There is some difficulty in drilling or otherwise
shaping marble. In drilling marble, the operation is greatly
facilitated by grinding or filing a narrow slot in the point of the
drill. This slot should be about % to % deep, according to the
size of the drill, and should form an angle of a little less than
90 degrees with the cutting edges. Marble is a difficult material
to turn. When turning is necessary, it should be cut with a tool
such as is used for brass, but at a speed suitable for cast iron.
It must be handled very carefully in order to prevent flaws in
the surface.

Marine Glue. Marine glue, proof against the action of salt

water, consists of 1 part of crude rubber, 2 parts of shellac, and
3 parts of pitch. The rubber is first dissolved in carbon disulphide
or turpentine, and is then mixed with the heated combination of
the two other ingredients,

Mariotte's Law. See Boyle's or Mariotte's Law.

Marking Machines. Marking machines are used for imprint*

ing trade marks, firm names, etc., on either flat or round surfaces
of metal parts or products such as cutlery, files, fire-arms, drills,
taps, reamers, etc. There are various designs of marking ma-
chines, some of which are operated by hand and others by power.
One general type is provided with either a round steel stamp for
flat work, or a flat stamp for round work, and means of traversing
either the die or work while both are held in contact with suffi-
cient pressure to transfer the lettering or design from the steel
stamp to the parts being marked. The necessary traversing move-
ment on small machines may be obtained by a crank or a haadf
lever, and on the larger machines by power derived either fronr
a belt or motor drive. One type of power-marking machine 1$
operated by placing a blank in position and starting the machine
by foot treadle control; a cam then releases a weighted aim
 799 -M
thereby raising the work-table and bringing the work into contact
with the die which traverses across the work. When the stroke is
completed the table drops, the work is released, the die returns
to the first position, and the machine stops. During the return
stroke, the imprinted blank can be removed and a new one in-
serted. Another marking machine especially intended for such
parts as bushings, tool handle ferrules, light sockets, spark plug
parts, etc., has a horizontal revolving dial which carries the work
across the face of the marking die. If thin tubular pieces require
internal support they are placed on mandrels. Parts can be
marked very rapidly with a machine of this type.

Martensite. Martensite is one of the molecular states of steel,

into which the metal changes when heated to the hardening tem-
perature and quenched; martensite consists mostly of iron with
2 per cent or less of carbon; it forms the chief constituent of
hardened steel. It is hard, brittle, and non-magnetic. When its
composition corresponds with that of pearlite, and it contains
0.9 per cent of carbon, it is known as hardenite. See also Steel,
Constituents or Structure.

Mass and Weight. The mass of a given body is a constant

value by means of which the quantity of matter the body contains
may be compared with that of another body. Mass is a ratio ob-
tained by dividing the weight of the body by the acceleration due
to gravity. According to the law of gravitation the attractive
force by which one body tends to draw another body towards it,
is directly proportional to its mass and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between the centers of the bodies. This
attractive force is greatest at the earth's surface; above the sur-
face it decreases as the square of the distance, and below the
surface it decreases as the distance to the center decreases. With
these fundamental laws in mind the meaning of weight and the
distinction between it and mass will be more apparent.
If the weight of a body is determined by scales of the beam
or lever-balance type, a measure of the quantity of matter is ob-
tained because the body balances a standard weight unit and both
body and weight unit are equally affected by gravity changes
which would result either from a change of altitude or latitude;
hence, weight determined in this way is constant regardless of
locality. When a scale of the spring type is used, weight becomes
a measure of the force of gravity and variations will occur, as-
suming that changes of altitude or latitude are sufficient to cause
observable changes in the scale reading; hence the weight read-
ing obtained with a spring type of scale might not be a true
indication of the amount of matter, because with such a scale
the force of gravity acts upon the body being weighed but does
M-800
not appreciably aifect the spring resistance. If the weight ob-
tained with the spring type of scale is divided by the accelera-
tion due to gravity for a given locality, the ratio obtained, which
represents mass, will remain constant* To illustrate this point by
using an extreme example, if the force of gravity is 82.16 (value
commonly used in engineering) and the weight is 100 pounds,
then mass equals 100 ~- 32.16 == 3.11. On the surface of the
sun, where the force of gravity is twenty-eight times greater than
on the earth, the same body would weigh 2800 pounds, but its

mass would equal 00 v V\oi g

AO XoZ.Io
= 3.11. In this instance, there

would be an extreme variation in the apparent weight in pounds

(assuming that the spring type of scale were used) but the ratio
representing mass is the same in each case. The quantity of mat-
ter represented by a body weighing 100 pounds on the earth,
would not be altered in any way by a change of locality hence,
;

it is evident that the value representing mass is an indication of

the quantity of matter that a body contains and this is also true
of the weight as determined by a scale of the beam-balancing
type. Mass is used in many calculations, such as those involving
the motion of bodies, when "weight" means the attraction due
to the force of gravity, which is the common meaning in theoreti-
cal mechanics. Sometimes mass is expressed in pounds, but since
it does not mean an equivalent number of standard weight units,
but is a ratio between weight and acceleration due to gravity, the
use of pounds in connection with mass is confusing, if not
misleading*
Master Gages, Master gages are used only for verifying in-
spection gages, or for checking the product in case a disagree-
ment arises between the manufacturer and the purchaser* Under
the heading "master gages" are included various gages known as
"checks," "masters/' and "reference gages/' Master gages should,
if possible, be of the same design and construction as the inspec-
tion gages, but should have practically no allowance for wear. In
some cases, checks or masters are made which are complements
or the reverse of the inspection and working gages, as, for exam-
ple, thread ring gages which are used for plug thread gages, AH
snap gages gaging below % inch, and those so designed that they
cannot be checked by ordinary measurements, should be provided
with checks that are the reverse of the inspection gage itself.
Master gages are of double importance to the manufacturer who
has part of his product made outside of his plant, because occa-
sions will arise when his own inspectors will reject work that
the outside manufacturer claims to be correct. One set of masters
should be kept at the outside manufacturer's plant and one at the
home plant.
 801-M
Master-Plate Locating Method. When it is necessary to
machine two or more plates so that they are duplicates as to the
location of holes, circular recesses, etc., what is known as a "mas-
ter plate" is often used for locating the work on the lathe face-
plate. This master plate contains holes which correspond to those
required in the work, and which accurately fit a central plug in
the lathe spindle, so that, by engaging first one hole and then
another with the plug, the work, which is attached to the master
plate, is accurately positioned for the various drilling, boring or
turning operations.
Match-Plate Patterns. To expedite the molding, small pat-
terns are often mounted on plates with the cope side of the pat-
tern on one side of the plate and the drag on the other. Thus
there is a series of patterns on one side of the match plate cor-
responding to half sections of the pieces to be cast. A
second
series of patterns, corresponding to the other half sections of
the pieces is located on the other side of the match plate. The
match plate is provided with eye-holes at each end to receive the
guide pins on the flask.
In using a double-faced match plate for molding, the method
of procedure is to put the match plate between the two halves of
the flask. Sand is then rammed into the drag side of the flask,
after which bottom boards are placed over the sand to prevent it
from shifting when the mold is turned over. Sand is next rammed
into the cope side of the flask.A cope board provided with a cup
or button at the point of sprue is then placed on the sand, and
the cope and drag are squeezed together. The cope is next lifted
off the match plate after which the match plate is lifted off the
drag. After the necessary hand work has been done in finishing
the two halves of the mold, the cope side is placed on the drag,
and the mold is ready to have the molten metal poured into it.
For many classes of work there is no better form of pattern
than the double-faced match plate. Apattern of this type has all
the advantages possessed by the so-called "gate of patterns" in
that it allows a number of castings to be poured simultaneously,
and in addition it provides a simpler means of making the molds.
Double-faced match plates can be used either where the sand is
rammed in the flask by hand, where a manually operated squeezer
is employed, or where a power-driven jolt squeezer is used in the

foundry. This type of pattern will usually be found to give the

maximum results obtainable with any of these methods.
Mathematical Symbols. The symbols used in formulas, as
well as in algebra in general, are mainly the letters in the alpha-
bet. Letters from the Greek alphabet are frequently used to
designate angles, and the Greek letter ^ (pi) is always used to
indicate the ratio between the circumference and the diameter of
 M-802
a circle; ?r, therefore, is always, in mathematical expressions,
equal to 3.1416. The Greek letters most generally used, besides
TT, are a (alpha), p (beta), 7 (gamma), 8 (delta), (theta),
p (mu), < (phi), and w (omega). In general, any letter may be
used as a symbol for any quantity. Ordinarily, however, the let-
ters at the beginning of the alphabet are used as symbols for
known quantities, and letters at the end of the alphabet as sym-
bols for unknown quantities ; thus, in general, a, b, c, etc*, would
be known, and x, y, z, t, u, etc,, unknown quantities. There are,
however, a few symbols that are almost universally used to desig-
nate, at all times, certain fixed quantities. The most common of
these follow: n, any number in general (thus an nth power =
of a) ; d, differential (in calculus) e, base of hyperbolic loga-
;

rithms (2.71828) ; g, acceleration due to gravity (32.16 feet per

second); i, imaginary quantity (V 1) ; t, time; v, velocity;
A (delta), difference; 8 (delta), differential; /* (mu), coefficient
of friction; s (sigma), sign of summation; <* (omega), angles
measured in radians. There are also a number of expressions in
the form of symbols generally used in mathematics, as follows:
a2 s= a squared (2d power of a) a8 =
a cubed (3d power of a)
=
a4 4th power of a; sin-* a = ;

arc, the sine of which is a; arc sin

;

a ess arc, the sine of which is a; (sin a)-1 ass reciprocal of sin a
= 1 -4- sin a.

Matheson Joint. The pipe joint known as the "Matheson

joint," used for wrought-Jron pipe, is made by enlarging one end
of the pipe to form a suitable recess for lead, similar to the bell*
end of a cast-iron pipe. This recess then receives the spigot end
of the next pipe. The joint is practically of the same style as the
joint generally used for cast-iron pipe.

Matte. Matte, also known as coarse metal, is a mixture of

copper and iron sulphide obtained in the smelting of copper ore
in a blast or reverberatory furnace.

Matter. Matter may be defined as anything that occupies

space and possesses mass, or is acted upon by gravity. According
to the atomic theory, matter is made up of molecules and atom?,
The molecule is the basic unit of any element or compound, which
retains the chemical properties of the substance in the mass. It
is also the smallest division that can be conceived of as made by
mechanical means, and is, therefore, taken as the physical unit.
Molecules are, however, supposed to be made up of other particles
called atoms, which, in turn, are thought to be composed of ex-
ceedingly small particles called protons and electrons. See Elec-
tron Theory.
Forms of Matter: When the molecules of a substance are of
the same kind, the force that holds them together is termed
 803 -M
"cohesion"; when the molecules are unlike, the binding force is
termed "adhesion." The accepted theory is that the molecules of
every substance are in a state of constant motion and the amount
of this motion determines the form of the substance. When the
motion is so great that the attractive force is almost entirely
overcome, the molecules appear to repel one another, and fly
apart, filling every portion of the space within which they are
contained; the matter is then said to be a gas. It has been cal-
culated that at ordinary temperatures the average velocity of the
molecules in the air is about that of a rifle bullet as it leaves the
gun. Ordinary gases, such as oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, are
invisible. Although the term "vapor" is frequently given to all
gases, it is usually restricted to the gaseous form of substances
that at ordinary temperatures and pressures are liquids or solids.
When there is less motion, the attractive force holds the molecules
loosely together and the body is said to be a liquid. In this state,
the molecules readily change their relative positions, and, there-
fore, retain no definite form except that determined by the con-
taining receptacle. When the motion is very small, the attractive
force is so strong that the molecules are held quite closely to-
gether and the substance is said to be a solid.
Although it is common to classify each substance as a solid, a
liquid or a gas according to that state in which we usually find
it, this "natural" form will change under the proper conditions
of temperature and pressure. Thus, everyone is familiar with
water changing to ice or steam. Dry packed ice cream has ac-
quainted many people with the solid form (dry ice) of the gas,
carbon dioxide. Hypersensitization of photographic films has
made others aware that the metal, mercury, vaporizes. More un-
usual and difficult changes of state are accomplished in the labor-
atory where extreme temperatures and pressures can be produced.
Matter was formerly thought to be indestructible, but energy
and matter are now considered to be interconvertible. That is,
under certain conditions, matter may disintegrate and lose some
of its mass as energy and under other conditions energy may
actually be formed into matter.
Maximum Shear Theory. This theory states that the cause
of an elastic limit and the criterion for the beginning of failure
is the sliding of particles past each other due to shear, and that
failure in ductile materials is due to this sliding and not to direct
tension. Hence, any case of direct tension or compression pro-
duces a tendency to slide and the failure is due to this. Accord-
ing to some investigators, the maximum shear theory should be
adopted to the exclusion of the maximum strain and maxi-
mum stress theories since it shows that failure by tension
failure by compression are really only different aspects
M-804
of failure by shear. Failure means the beginning of sliding
which is not recovered when the stress is removed and gives
permanent set, thus indicating the "elastic limit." It follows,
therefore, that the elastic limit will be the same for tension as
for compression. This is true for steel and other ductile materials
and is in itself a point of evidence in favor of the maximum shear
theory. Cast iron has no elastic limit and the actions referred to
do not occur, so that elastic failure does not exist in cast iron as
called for by the maximum shear theory. See Stress Theories,

Maximum Strain Theory. According to the maximum strain

theory of St. Venant, failure occurs when the maximum unit de-
formation or strain in the piece reaches a certain critical value;
hence, the stresses as measured by deformation or the "true
stresses" should be considered. In other words, this theory sup-
poses that the thing which causes failure and which must be used
as a criterion for safety is the amount of deformation or strain.
See Stress Theories.
Maximum Stress Theory. The maximum stress theory sup-
poses that failure and elastic limit are purely matters of stress
in a given direction regardless of the existence of stresses in
other directions. That is to say, if a stress of 30,000 pounds is
the elastic limit for a simple stress in a testing machine, it will
also be the elastic limit in any case of compound stresses if the
stress in one direction is 80,000 pounds and regardless of the
existence of lesser stresses, whether tension or compression, in
directions at right angles. See Stress Theories.
Maxwell. The "maxwell" is the unit of magnetic flux and is
sometimes called a "field line/'

As an electromagnetic unit, it is defined as -7- times the elec-

4r
tromagnetic unit of magnetic Quantity. This latter is defined
as that magnetic quantity, which, when concentrated at a point
and placed at a distance of one centimeter from an equal mag-
netic quantity also concentrated at a point, will experience a
mechanical force of one dyne in free space.
As an electrodynamic unit, a maxwell is defined as the mag-
netic flux represented by a uniform magnetic induction of one
gauss over an area of one square centimeter perpendicular to the
direction of magnetic induction.

Mayari R. Low-alloy structural steel developed with a view

to combining strength, good hot- and cold-working properties,
good welding characteristics, little tendency to harden on rapid
cooling, and high resistance to atmospheric corrosion. Has a
minimum tensile strength of 65,000 pounds per square inch, and
a minimum yield point of 50,000 pounds per square inch. Is about
 805 -M
six times as corrosion-resistant as ordinary structural steel. Con-
tains small percentages of chromium, nickel, and copper. Suit-
able for any purpose where ordinary structural steel is employed,
but where the increased strength, better welding characteristics,
and higher resistance to corrosion are especially desirable.
Mean Effective Pressure. The effective pressure acting
against the piston of a steam engine, is the difference between
the pressure on the steam side of the piston and that on the ex-
haust side, or, in other words, the difference between the working
pressure and the back pressure. This value varies throughout the
stroke with the expansion of the steam. The mean effective or
average pressure (M.E.P.) is obtained from an indicator card
and is used to determine the indicated horsepower of an engine.

Measurement, Absolute System. See Absolute System of

Measurement.
Measuring Machines, The measuring machine is an instru-
ment of great precision that is used for measuring standard
lengths and for verifying the accuracy of reference gages. The
ordinary type of measuring machine is provided with a rigid
cast-iron bed upon which is mounted two heads, each of which
contains a spindle that is placed in contact with the part to be
measured. One head is equipped with a micrometer screw and a
large graduated wheel or dial which indicates length variations
within a limited range. For greater lengths, one head is moved
along the bed the required distance. This movable head may be
set by simply placing a standard end-measuring gage of known
length between the contact points, or it may be set by reference
to a standard bar forming part of the machine. Such a bar has
extremely fine division lines which are equally spaced and enable
the head to be accurately set by observing the lines through a
suitable microscope. Another feature common to high-grade
measuring machines is some form of mechanism for indicating
the pressure of the contact or measuring points against the work,
in order that slight errors will not be introduced in the measure-
ments of duplicate parts, on account of minute variations in the
pressure. Pressure indicating devices are made in several forms,
such as a plug which drops from between points when a certain
pressure is reached; a level which is inclined at an angle when
acted upon by the moving contact point; and a spring-operated
plunger which is used in conjunction with a scale and hair-line
microscope.
Mechanical Draft Mechanical draft is often employed as a
substitute for a tall chimney, and also in case a boiler plant is
increased beyond the capacity of the original chimney. Again,
certain kinds of low-grade fuels require a stronger draft than is
M-806
provided by a chimney of ordinary height. Forced draft is also
necessary for mechanical stokers of the under-feed type. In a
general way, the advantages of mechanical draft are as follows:
Increase of boiler capacity, as well as efficiency, which is due to
the more intimate mixture of the air with the fuel, when under
pressure, thus making it possible to carry deeper fires; ease of
regulation, and the ability to provide just the right amount of
air for complete combustion; the use of poorer grades of fuel
than can be burned with a natural draft; and the possibility of
forcing the boilers, if necessary, without regard to outside
weather conditions. Forced draft also permits the use of feed-
water heaters in the smoke flues, which cool the chimney gases to a
comparatively low temperature, and which would interfere with
the natural draft of a chimney. The cost of the equipment for
mechanical draft is also considerably less than for a chimney.
Mechanical Drawing Principle, See Projection*
Mechanical Efficiency. See Efficiency of Mechanism.
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat This is an expression used
to designate the number of foot-pounds of mechanical energy
equivalent to one British thermal unit. The mechanical equiva-
lent of heat equals 778 foot-pounds.

Mechanical Mixture. A mechanical mixture is a substance

composed of two or more other substances which are not com-
bined chemically with each other the particles of each ingredient
;

can be identified and separated by mechanical means. See also

Compound.
Mechanical Powers, The five "mechanical powers" were de-
fined in the old books on mechanics as the lever, the screw, the
wedge, the inclined plane and the pulley. The wedge, the inclined
plane and the screw are the same in principle, A screw is simply
a cylinder with an inclined plane wrapped around it and, of
course, an inclined plane and a wedge are the same. The pulley
is but another form of the lever; hence, there are really only two
so-called mechanical powers : the lever and the wedge or inclined
plane.

Mechanical Stokers, A material saving in labor can usually

be effected by the installation of mechanical stokers In large and
medium-sized power plants, as compared with hand firing. The
cost of maintenance and initial cost of grates for hand firing is
less than for mechanical stokers, but the coal is fed uniformly by
mechanical stokers, which insures constant temperature and
steaming. With hand-fired boilers, the furnace doors are opened
frequently, which tends to chill both the fire and the furnace set-
ting and is conducive to the production of smoke. Unless skilled
 807 -M
firemen are employed, the efficiency of the hand-fired boiler will
be lower, because of the greater heat content in the ash, holes in
the fire bed, etc. Skilled firemen are also essential for mechanical
stokers but there are not so many required, and the men have
;

more time to use efficient firing methods. Mechanical stokers may

be divided into three general classes: The chain-grate stoker,
which carries the green coal in the combustion chamber on a
horizontal surface and depends upon the reflected heat from the
brick arch above it to ignite it; the inclined-grate or over-feed
stoker, which depends on the green coal feeding down over the
fire bed, and the under-feed stoker, which forces the green coal
in under the fire bed and utilizes forced draft. There are numer-
ous designs of each of these classes.

Medium Pressure. The expression "medium pressure," when

applied to valves and fittings, means suitable for a working pres-
sure of from 125 to 175 pounds per square inch.

Meehanite Metal. The special cast iron known as "Meehan-

ite"has a number of important physical properties. The basic
methods of manufacture are similar to those used for cast iron
and semi-steel in that the basic materials employed are pig iron,
foundry scrap, steel scrap, coke, and limestone. The cupola, how-
ever, is of different design, and the method of melting is under
strict metallurgical control.
Physical Properties: For general engineering applications,
Meehanite metal is made in different types, designated as A, B,
C, D, E, Super A and Super WH. These types vary in tensile
strength from 30,000 pounds for the E grade to 50,000 pounds
per square inch for the A grade. By heat-treating the A grade,
a tensile strength of 75,000 pounds per square inch can be ob-
tained.
Meehanite metal known as Super A, provides a great increase
in hardness and wearing qualities, accompanied by an actual im-
provement in machinability. For example, Super A Meehanite
with a hardness of 269 Brinell machines 20 per cent faster than
alloy cast iron of 207 Brinell. The metal has a high modulus of
elasticity, a good degree of toughness, and a tensile strength in
excess of 50,000 pounds per square inch.
Meehanite alloy Super WH is unusually wear resistant and

possesses a good combination of physical properties. It can be

produced with a hardness up to 578 Brinell.
In addition to improved tensile strength, Meehanite metal has
many other unusual physical characteristics. It is "non-growing"
at high temperatures, and offers a high resistance to abrasion,
erosion, and corrosion. Its soundness and reliability are marked,
and Meehanite castings are uniform and freely machined.
 M-808
Applications: Meehanite has been applied in the automobile in*
dustry for cast camshafts and crankshafts, as well as for other
castings. The density of the metal, or its pressure tightness, has
made it of value in laundry machinery for steam drying and
pressing machines where castings must be impervious to high-
pressure steam. The metal acquires a high degree of polish, and
can be readily chromium-plated, as well as finished by other pro-
tective surface finishes.
One application in which the metal has been found of particular
value has been for the cylinders and rams of hydraulic presses
used in forging, pressing, or deep drawing work. Because of the
occasional overloads to which they are subjected, castings for
these services are severely tested. The combination of high-
pressure resistance and the ability to take a mirror-like finish in
the bore of cylinder castings has made this material well suited
for hydraulic cylinders used in the operation of modern machine
tools.

Super A is an alloyed Meehanite, in which copper is used large-

ly as the base alloy. It has been found particularly well adapted
to the construction of internal combustion engines, marine
cylin-
ders, and machinery of the type in which smooth running quali-
ties are of primary importance. It is also used in the manufacture
of large gears, piston-rings, and other parts that operate under
severe wearing conditions. Super WHhas been found practical
for castings subjected to extremely severe wear, such as ball-mill
liners, muller tires, and pan bottoms.

^The resistance to growth of Meehanite under either continuous

high temperatures or alternating high and low temperatures has
established it as an essential material in many industrial furnace
and high-temperature applications.
In pumping machinery in gravel, cement,
mining, crude oil, and
chemical plants, the resistance of this metal to abrasion and cor-
rosion is one of its most valuable characteristics. It is also used
for conveyor chains, dredger bucket
lips, and similar applications.
Application to Dies: The wear resisting property of Mee-
hanite has given it an important place in the
making of dies for
forming, pressing, drawing, and stamping metal. By virtue of
its hard, tough, and dense
structure, the metal does not crush* at
its edges nor deform or
gall, but, on the contrary, work-hardens
on the surface, acquiring a glazed skin which
greatly increases
the life of the die.

Megadyne. Megadyne is a unit of force in the absolute sys-

tem of measurement, equal to 1,000,000 dynes.

Meltomatic. A
paste solder that can be brushed on any
metal and heated by any means to its
melting temperature, which
 809 -M
is slightly above 400 degrees F. No preliminary cleaning or
tinning operations are necessary. Especially applicable where
soldering irons are difficult to use, as in inaccessible spaces and
on small parts.

M.E.P. An abbreviation commonly used for Mean Effective

Pressure.

Mercury. Mercury, also known as quicksilver, is used mainly

in the manufacture of fulminate for explosive caps, of drugs,
of electric appliances, of alloys or amalgams, and of scientific
apparatus, and, to a diminishing degree, in the recovery of
precious metals, especially gold. Mercuric oxide (red oxide of
mercury) is the active poison in antifouling paint used on ship's
bottoms. Mercury dissolves a great many of the metals, forming
with them alloys which are known as amalgams. Mercury oc-
curs in nature mainly in the form of a red sulphide called "cinna-
bar" (HgS). Mercury is one of the metallic chemical elements,
the symbol of which is Hg, and the atomic weight, 200.6. This
metal is fluid at ordinary temperatures. It becomes a solid at
39 degrees C. ( 38 degrees F)y and boils at 357 degrees C.
(675 degrees F.). Mercury is one of the heavier metals, its
specific gravity being 13.6, making the weight per cubic inch
close to one-half pound. Its electric conductivity is low, being
only about 1.75 (silver e= 100) . Its specific heat at 32 degrees F.
equals 0.033, and its heat conductivity, 1.48 (silver t= 100).

Mercury Deposits. The largest and richest known deposits of

mercury in the world are located in central Spain, and there are
large deposits in California and Texas. Deposits are also found
iri Russia, Bavaria, Hungary, Italy, Mexico, and Peru. The Span-

ish deposits have been mined almost continuously since the early
Roman Empire, and have been owned and worked by the Spanish
Government since 1645.

Mercury Vapor Lamps. See Vapor Lamps.

Mercury-Vapor Power Generation. In the Emmet mercury-

vapor process mercury is vaporized in a boiler at temperatures
which can be much higher than those which are practicable with
steam. It is then carried through a turbine and does useful
work, exhausting into a surface condenser where its latent heat
is used to make steam at pressures desirable for use. The con-
densed liquid is carried back to the boiler preferably by gravity.
The characteristics of mercury are such that high temperature
can be used without excessive pressure, and the heat of condensa-
tion can be delivered at a convenient degree of vacuum and at a
temperature suited to making steam at pressures desirable for
power uses. The process thus affords means by which the tern-
M-810
perature ranges practicable with steam are greatly increased
under conditions which afford large gains in efficiency of con-
version of the heat energy of fuel into work.
The most difficult and novel part of this process is the boiler.
While mercury is a good heat conductor, it does not wet steel and
considerable temperature differences are required to deliver heat
to it at a high rate. When it begins to produce vapor on the
heating surfaces this condition becomes rapidly worse. Success-
ful mercury boilers are dependent upon a rapid circulation of the
liquid and the large difference of pressure between the top and
the bottom which prevents boiling of the circulating liquid until
it is well started on its upward course. That is, the rapid heat

delivery must be confined to the part of the surface which is not

much disturbed by boiling. Rapid circulation is essential and
the spaces for discharging vapor must be so proportioned that
the circulation will not be checked by the escape of the vapor.
If these spaces are too small the liquid will be given motion like
a charge of shot, and prohibitive back pressure will result which
will check circulation. The vapor must slip by the liquid, impelling
it but not giving it too much velocity. Probably the most eco-
nomical method of operating this process is to get as much heat
as possible into the feedwater by bleeding the steam turbines as
in modern steam practice,
Mesotron. See Electron Theory,

Messenger Strand. A
messenger wire or strand Is a wire or
cable strung along with and supporting wires, cables, or other
conductors for electric current A seven-wire galvanized strand
is used for supporting lead-covered telephone cables* The heavy
lead-encased telephone wire cables are not, in themselves, suffi-
ciently strong to withstand the strain incidental to stringing
those cables between poles a considerable distance apart. wire A
rope of 5/16, %, or 7/16 inch diameter, known as "messenger
strand/' is, therefore, strung between the poles, and the heavy
telephone cable is suspended from this by means of clips, wire, or
cord at short intervals.
Extra-galvanized cables of Siemens-Martin steel strand, high-
strength crucible steel strand and extra-high-strength plow steel
strand are also used for the catenary suspension of electrical
conductors.

Metacenter See Buoyancy,

Metal. A metal is a chemical element which generally had a
peculiar luster, known
as "metallic" luster, is electropositive, is
a conductor of heat and electricity, and usually occurs In nature
in the form of compounds called ores. There is no very definite
line drawn between the metals and non-metals. The elements
 811 -M
which are not definitely classified as either the one or the other
are known as "metalloids/'

Metal Coating by Spraying Process. A process of coating

metals or other materials by spraying molten metal against the
surface to be coated, makes it possible by means of a simple ap-
paratus to apply a durable coating of any commercial metal upon
any other metallic or non-metallic surface. Thus, any of the non-
ferrous metals can be applied to ferrous metals, or this order may
be reversed. Metallic coatings may also be applied to non-metallic
materials, such as wood, stone, brick, glass, porcelain, concrete,
leather, and fabrics. The thickness of the coating may be varied,
according to requirements, from 0.001 inch up.
The metal to be deposited upon a surface usually comes in
theform of ordinary commercial wire, however, a metal dust or
powder may also be used with some types of equipment. When
using wire, the wire is made to enter the tool at the rear. It is
fed automatically from a reel through the nozzle and into contact
with a flame which melts the wire and, in combination with
compressed air, blows the atomized metal against the surface
being coated at a high velocity. The metal, as it impinges against
the surface at this high velocity, solidifies and practically becomes
an integral part of the surface, as indicated by the fact that it
cannot be separated from it either by severe hammering or
bending. Some of the gases used for atomizing the metal are
oxygen, acetylene, natural gas, butane and coal gas.
One type of tool or torch, known as "Metalayer" is connected
by a rubber hose to standard acetylene and oxygen cylinders and
also to a supply of compressed air. The tool contains a compact
wire-feeding mechanism, which is rotated by a small air turbine
through suitable reduction gearing. This feed mechanism pulls
the wire from the reel and feeds it through the nozzle at a rate
varying usually from twelve to twenty-four feet per minute, de-
pending upon the kind of metal used in coating. The wire re-
mains unaltered and nearly cold until it reaches a point about
3/32 inch beyond the nozzle. At this point the wire enters a
reducing flame, and the minute particles of the molten spray are
protected against oxidation so that layer after layer may be de-
posited, if desired, the entire coating forming a coherent and ad-
herent mass. About 15 cubic feet of each gas is consumed per
hour and approximately 50 cubic feet of compressed air per min-
ute, the pressure of the latter being about 50 pounds per square
inch.

Metallic Packing. Metallic packing is extensively used on

steam engines to prevent any leakage of steam past the piston
M-812
and valve stem, as it is much more durable than any fibrous pack-
ing, if the composition of the packing rings is correct and it is
properly applied.

Metallography. The science or study of the microstructure of

metal is known by most metallurgists as "metallography." The
name "crystallography" is also used to some extent. The examina-
tion of metals and metal alloys by the aid of the microscope has
become one of the most effective methods of studying their proper-
ties, and it is also a valuable means of controlling the quality of
manufactured metallic articles and of testing the finished product
In preparing the specimen to be examined, a flat surface is first
formed by filing or grinding, and this surface is then given a
high polish, which is later subjected to the action of a suitable
acid or etching reagent, in order to reveal clearly the internal
structure of the metal when the specimen is examined under the
microscope. This process shows clearly to an experienced observer
the effect of variation in composition, heat-treatment, etc,, and
in many cases it has proved a correct means of determining cer-
tain properties of industrial products that a chemical analysis has
failed to reveal.
Preparing Hardened Steel for Microscopic Study: To cause the
constituents of the specimen to contrast with one another as seen
through the microscope is the desired end, and a reagent is used
which acts differently towards these elements; generally this
reagent acts on one element more than on another so that the one
least affected reflects the light from the faces of its crystals while
the etched part absorbs the light, and, therefore, appears dark
when photographed.
In etching specimens to develop the constituents of hardened
and tempered steels, very good results are obtained with sulphur-
ous acid that is composed of 4 parts of sulphur dioxide to 98 parts
of distilled water. The specimens are immersed in this, face up-
ward, and removed as soon as the polished surface is frosted.
This takes from 7 seconds to 1 minute. They are then rinsed with
water and dried with alcohol. Very thin layers of iron sulphide
are deposited on the different constituents in different thick-
nesses, and this gives them different colors* Austenite remains a
pale brown; martensite is given a pale blue and deep blue and
brown color; troostite is made very dark; sorbite is uncolored;
cementite exhibits a brilliant white; and ferrite is made dark
brown. When the etching has proceeded to the desired extent, the
specimen is at once washed thoroughly in order to remove all trace
of the etching reagent. Usually it is simply rinsed with water,
but frequently the washing is done with absolute alcohol, while
ether and chloroform are also sometimes used.
The apparatus used for examining the etched surfaces of metals
 813 -M
is composed of a microscope and camera combined with an arc

lamp or other means of illumination.

Microscopic Study of Steel: Steel, in particular, shows many
changes of structure due to the mechanical and thermal treat-
ment, so that the microscope has become a very valuable instru-
ment with which to inspect steel. To one who understands what
the different formations of crystalline structure denote, the mag-
nified surface reveals the temperature at which the steel was
hardened, or at which it was drawn, and the depth to which the
hardness penetrated. It also shows whether the steel was an-
nealed or casehardened, as well as the depth to which the carbon
penetrated. The carbon content can be closely judged, when the
steel is annealed, and also how much of it is in the graphitic state
in the high carbon steels. The quantity of special elements that
is added to steel, such as nickel, chromium, tungsten, etc., can
also be estimated, when the alloy to be examined has been put
through its prescribed heat-treatment. Likewise, the impurities
that may be present are clearly seen, regardless of whether they
are of solid or gaseous origin.
Metalloids. Metalloids are chemical elements on the border-
line between the two main classes of elements metals and non-
metals. The metalloids as a rule resemble metals in their physical
properties and non-metals in their chemical properties.
Metallurgy. The art of extracting metals from their ores is,
in general, known as metallurgy, but the term has, by custom,
been restricted to the commercial methods used, as opposed to
those which are employed only in the laboratory. When the metals
are extracted from their ores by means of electrical processes,
the art is known as electrometallurgy. Briefly stated, the metals
are obtained from their ores by one of three methods: 1. By
being exposed to the action of fire in the presence of a flux, so
as to burn away certain components of the ore, or deoxidize ("re-
duce") it. 2. The ore may be amalgamated by mercury, so that the
metal is obtained as an amalgam, which can be separated mechan-
ically from the dross. The purified amalgam is distilled and the
mercury is recovered as a distillate, while the metal remains.
3. The wet process, in which the metal is extracted either from
the natural ore or from the ore after it has been roasted, by
means of an acid or salt solution, and precipitated from this solu-
tion by some suitable reagent. AH of these methods generally
yield an impure product, which must be refined before it
becomes
a commercial market product.
Metaseal 494. A protective, invisible, transparent coating
that can be applied by dipping, spraying, or brushing without
special equipment Useful as a rust-preventive for sted, brass,
and other metals.
M-814
Meter Equivalent in Light Waves. See Light Wave as Length
Standard.

Meter-Kilogram. This is a unit of work in the metric sys-

tem, designating the work required to raise one kilogram to a
height of one meter; 1 meter-kilogram =7.283 foot-pounds.

Meters, Ampere-Hour. See Ampere-hour Meters,

Meters and Instruments. Although the terms "instruments"

and "meters" are frequently used synonymously in referring to
electrical measuring devices, the meter departments of manufac-
turing and operating companies commonly use the word "meters"
in the collective sense to designate only those devices which reg-
ister the total energy or quantity of electricity consumed in or
supplied to a circuit, and reserve the term "instruments/' in the
collective sense, for all other electrical measuring or indicating
devices.

Metric Horsepower. The unit of power adopted for engineer-

ing work, as defined in the English system of measurement, is
equal to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or 550 foot-pounds per
second. The metric horsepower, used in countries where the
metric system is employed, is equal to 75 kilogram-meters per
second, which is only 82,550 foot-pounds per minute, or 542,5 foot-
pounds per second. Hence, it is evident that the metric horse-
power is about 1.5 per cent smaller than the horsepower employed
in the countries using the English system of measurements.

Metric System, In the metric system of measurements, the

principal unit for length is the meter; the principal unit for
capacity, the liter; and the principal unit for weight, the gram.
The following prefixes are used for subdivisions and multiples:
milli= 1/1000; centi = 1/100; deci 1/10; deca 10; hecto
ss 100; kilo ess 1000. In abbreviations, the subdivisions are fre-
quently used with a small letter and the multiples with a capital
letter, although this practice is not universally followed every-
where where the metric system Is used. AH the multiples and
subdivisions are not used commercially. Those ordinarily used
for length are kilometer, meter, centimeter, and millimeter; for
capacity, square meter, square centimeter, and square millimeter;
for cubic measures, cubic meter, cubic decimeter (liter )> cubic
centimeter, and cubic millimeter. The most commonly used weights
are the kilogram and gram. The metric system was legalized in
the United States by an Act of Congress In 1866.
Metric Measures of Length: 10 millimeters (mm.) as 1 centi-
meter (cm.) ; 10 centimeters =
1 decimeter (dm,) ; 10 decimeter*
H? 1 meter (m) ; JppO meter* 1 kilometer (Km,).
 815 -M
Metric Measures of Weight: 10 milligrams (mg.) == 1 centi-
gram (eg.) 10 centigrams s= 1 decigram
; (dg.) 10 decigrams
== 1 gram (g.) 10 grams
; =
1 decagram (Dg.)
;

10 decagrams
ss 1 hectogram (Hg.) 10 hectograms = ;

1 kilogram
1000 kilograms = ;

1 (metric) ton (T.).

(Kg.);

Metric Weight Equivalents: 1 metric ton =

0.9842 ton (of
2240 pounds) =
2204.6 pounds; 1 kilogram s= 2.2046 pounds
= 35.274 ounces avoirdupois; 1 gram =
0.03215 ounce troy
= 0.03527 ounce avoirdupois ; 1 gram =
15.432 grains.

Metric Translating Gears. See Translating Gears.

Meyer Valve. This form of engine slide valve is commonly

known as the riding cut-off type; it is used for producing a sharp
cut-off which shall be independent of the other events of the
stroke. An ordinary slide valve A (see illustration), has two
ports a. On top of this main valve are two cut-off valves B at-

Meyer Valve for Steam Engines

tached to a common rod. The main valve and the cut-off valves
are driven by independent eccentrics. The latter are set so that,
at the time of cut-off, the rider valves are traveling in a direction
opposite to that of the main valve, thus producing a sharp cut-off
with but little "wire drawing." One of the other advantages of
this type of valve is the ease of regulation, the governor being
attached to the rider valves which are light weight and very
responsive, therefore requiring but little power to operate them.

Mica, There are two industrial varieties of mica. One Is

"muscovite" (commercially known as rum, ruby, smoked, or green,
according to its color) and the other "phlogopite" (amber).
Only muscovite is mined on an extensive scale in the United
States. Phlogopite comes from Canada and India, large quanti-
ties being imported into the United States. The chief mines in
the United States are in North Carolina. The most extensive ap-
plication of mica is for electrical purposes, because it is one of
the best insulators available. The fact that it is able to with-
M-816
stand high temperatures also makes it valuable as an insulating
material for electrical machinery. The laminas of mica are gen-
erally separated and sorted into various grades of purity, and
are then cemented together to form plate or flexible reconstructed
mica of any required thickness or purity. Mica is extremely com-
plex and variable in composition. It generally consists of an
anhydrous silicate of aluminum together with potash or sodium.
Mica is characterized by a very easy cleavage in a single direc-

tion, and by a high degree of flexibility elasticity, and toughness.

r

Mica Insulation of Commutators. See Commutator

Insulation.

Micarta* Micarta a non-metallic laminated product of spe-

is
cially treated woven By means of the various processes
fabric*
through which it is passed, it becomes a homogenous structure
with physical properties which make it especially adapted for use
as gears and pinions. Micarta can be supplied either in plate
form or cut into blanks. It may also be molded into rings or
on metal hubs for applications such as timing gears, where
quantity production is attained.
Micarta gears do not require shrouds or end plates except
where it is desired to provide additional strength for keyway
support or to protect the keyway and bore against rough usage
in mounting drive fits and the like. When end plates for hub sup-
port are employed they should extend only to the root of the tooth
or slightly less.
Properties: The physical and mechanical properties of Micarta
are as follows: Weight per cubic inch, 0*05 pound; specific grav-
ity, 1.4; oilabsorption, practically none; shrinkage, swelling or
warping, practically none up to 100 degrees C. ; coefficient of ex-
pansion per inch per degree Centigrade, 0*00002 inch in the direc-
tion parallel to the laminations (edgewise), 0.00009 inch !n the
direction perpendicular to the laminations (flatwise) ; tensile
strength, edgewise, 10,000 pounds per square inch; compressive
strength, flatwise, 40,000 pounds per square inch; compressive
strength, edgewise, 20,000 pounds per square inch; bending
strength, flatwise, 22,000 pounds per square inch; bending
strength, edgewise, 20,000 pounds per square inch, Micarta may
be machined in the ordinary manner with standard tools and
equipment,
Micarta Machining. In cutting blanks from sheets of 4 *ial*
carta" a band saw running at a speed of 850 revolutions per
minute has been found suitable. The saw should be of the bevel-
tooth type, seven teeth to the inch. For large quantities a trepan-
ning tool should be used. In trepanning blanks, the tool should
be fed so as to cut part way through all of the "layouts"; then
 817 -M
the micarta plate should be turned over, and the cutting com-
pleted from the reverse side.
Turning tools should be of high-speed steel cutting at speeds
similar to those used for bronze or cast iron. If two cuts are
taken, about 0.010 inch of stock should be left for the finishing cut*
Drilling at right angles to the layers is done with a standard
drill, which should be backed off sufficiently to provide plenty of
clearance. When drilling parallel to layers, a "flat" or "bottom"
drill should be used. In rough-drilling, the hole should preferably
be drilled partly through the material from each side to prevent
possible splitting as the tool protrudes. If this is impracticable,
the hole can be drilled all the way through the material, provided
the material is "backed up" with wood, stiff cardboard, or any
other material that is sufficiently rigid to support the under
surface at the point where the drill comes through.
The methods described for drilling apply as well to tapping,
except that when the tapping is done parallel to the layers, it is
advisable to clamp the material to equalize the stress on the layers
and prevent possible splitting.
In milling, a standard tool may be used at a speed and feed
corresponding to that used in working bronze or soft steel. The
cutting angle of the cutter will give better results if ground with
a slight rake.
While there a wide range of practice as to feeds and speeds
is
in cutting gearson hobbing machines, a hob speed of not less than
140 revolutions per minute, has given satisfaction. In machin-
ing gear teeth on a gear shaper, a speed of about 100 to 130
strokes per minute with a fairly fine feed has given good results.
Backing-up plates should be used in machining micarta gears.
Micro-inch. One millionth inch or 0.000001 inch.

Micron. One millionth meter (0.00003937 inch).

Mico-lron. Mico-iron is an iron of close grain and uniform

texture. It can be machined readily, and surfaces requiring long
life can be chilled without affecting the machinability of other
surfaces. The tensile strength of "Mico" cast iron is from
32,000 to 35,000 pounds per square inch.

Micrometer. Micrometer calipers are precision measuring in-

struments that are equipped with a screw of fine pitch and grad-
uations which show slight movements of the screw so that
accurate measurements can be taken. The pitch of the thread on
the spindle of an ordinary micrometer is 1/40 of an inch. Along
the frame at e (see diagram .A), there are graduations which are
1/40 inch apart; therefore, when thimble c and the measuring
spindle are turned one complete revolution, they move in or out
M-818
a distance equal to one of the graduations, or 1/40 inch, which
equals 25/1000 inch. If, instead of turning one complete revolu-
tion, the thimble is turned, say, 1/25 of a revolution, the distance
between the anvil and the end of the spindle will be increased or
diminished 1/25 of 25/1000 of an inch, or one thousandth inch;
therefore, the beveled edge of a micrometer spindle has twenty-
five graduations, each of which represents 0.001 inch. Some
micrometers have a vernier scale v on the frame, as shown at JB,
in addition to the regular graduations, so that measurements
within 0.0001 inch can be taken. Micrometers of this type are
read as follows First determine the number of thousandths, as
:

with an ordinary micrometer, and then find a line on the vernier

scale that exactly coincides with one on the thimble the number
;

of this line represents the number of ten-thousandths to be added

Micrometer Graduations

to number of thousandths obtained by the regular gradua-

the
tions* The relation between the graduations of the vernier and
those on the thimble is more clearly shown by diagram C.

Micrometer Callper's Origin- Evidence which is now avail-

able shows that credit for the origin of the micrometer caliper
must be largely accorded to a French inventor and machinist by
the name of Jean Laurent Palmer, who was working at the time
in Paris. Palmer's "screw caliper," as he called it, was patented
in France on September 7, 1848, and was manufactured under
the name of the "Systeme Palmer/* There did not seem to be any
general appreciation of the importance of this tool until the year
1867, when it was seen by Joseph K. Brown and Lucian Sharpe,
while on a visit to the Paris Exposition of that year. They were
impressed with the possibilities of such a tool when properly
made, and brought one back with them on their return to Amer-
ica, Soon after, they commenced the manufacture of & small-
 819 -M
sized micrometer, suitable for measuring sheet metal and wire,
placing it on the market in 1869 under the name of the "pocket
sheet-metal gage." The introduction of the 1-inch micrometer
caliper followed that of the pocket sheet-metal gage, and it was
shown in the Brown & Sharpe catalogue of 1877, and for the first
time, the name "micrometer caliper" was used.

Micro-Photography. See Photomicrography and also Metal-

lography.

Microscope, Toolmaker's. See Toolxnaker's Microscope.

Microscopic Examination of Steel. See Metallography.

Mil and Circular Mil. The mil is used in the measurement of
the diameters and areas of electric wires, and the thicknesses of
electrical insulating materials. A
mil equals 0.001 inch. A ctrcw-
lar mil is the area of a circle 0.001 inch in diameter. See also
Circular Mil.

One mile = 1760 yards = 5280

Mile. = feet 1.609 kilometers
= 1609 meters. As a surveyor's length measure, one mile e=
8furlongs = 80 chains c= 1760 yards s= 5280 feet. A nautical
mile, sometimes incorrectly called "knot," equals 1.1516 statute
miles or 6080.26 feet. A knot is a measure of speed, and is equal
to a speed of one nautical mile per hour.

Mill File. Mill files are parallel in thickness from the heel to
the point and usually tapered so that the width at the end equals
about three-fourths the width of the stock. The mill file is also
made "blunt" or of equal width and thickness throughout its
length. Quite a number of mill files having one round edge are
used, and some are provided with two round edges. The teeth are
ordinarily single-cut, bastard. This file is used in machine shops
for lathe work, draw-filing, and, to some extent, for filing brass
and bronze. It is also employed for sharpening metal saws, etc.
The mill files of the round edge type are used for filing the gullet
or space between saw teeth.

Milling, Continuous. See Continuous Milling.

Milling Cutters. As the processes of milling can be applied

toan almost unlimited range of work, the cutters used on milling
machines are made in a great variety of forms. Some of the dif-
ferent types can be used for general work of a certain class,
whereas other cutters are made especially for milling one particu-
lar part. A
cylindrical or plain cutter is used for producing flat
surfaces and it is made in various diameters and lengths. Cut-
ters having helical teeth are generally used in preference to the
type with straight or parallel teeth, especially for milling com-
paratively wide surfaces, because the former cut more smoothly.
M-820
Helical cutters also require less power for driving and produce
smoother surfaces. Face mills which have cutters on the side or
face are also used for milling flat surfaces.
A side milling cutter has teeth on both sides, as well as on the
periphery, and it is used for cutting grooves
or slots and for other
later* Two side mills
operations, examples of which will be shown
are often mounted on the same arbor and used in pairs for milling
both sides of a part at the same time. This type of cutter is also
employed in conjunction with other forms for milling special
shapes. The inserted-tooth construction is used ordinarily for
large cutters, in preference to the solid form, because it is
cheaper, and the inserted teeth can readily be replaced when
necessary. When solid cutters are made in large sizes, there is
danger of their cracking while being hardened, but with the
inserted-tooth type, this is eliminated.
End mills have teeth on the end as well as on the periphery or
body; hence, they can cut in an endwise as well as a sidewise
direction. These mills have taper shanks which are driven into
a hole of corresponding taper in the machine spindle. The shanks
have a flat end or tang which engages a slot in the spindle and
prevents the mill from slipping when taking a cut. The larger
sizes of end mills do not have solid taper shanks, but are made in
the form of shells which are fastened to an arbor that serves as a
shank. This type of cutter can often be used when a long arbor
with an outboard support would be in the way. Formed milling
cutters are made to the same shape as the profile of the piece to
be milled.

Milling Cutters, Hand of. A cutter which rotates to the

right (clockwise), as viewed from the spindle or rear side, is said
to be right-hand, and, inversely, a left-hand cutter is one that
turns to the left (counter-clockwise) when viewed from the
spindle of the machine,

Milling Machine Lead. See Lead of Milling Machine,

Milling Machine Origin* The first practical machine for plain

milling operations is said to have been built by Eli Whitney, well-
known inventor of the cotton gin, about 1818. This machine, now
in the possession of Yale University, is a small bench type, A
solid wooden block forms the base of the Whitney milling ma-
chine and the supporting legs are made of wrought iron. The
main spindle is driven directly by a belt pulley, and between the
two main spindle bearings there is a double-grooved wooden pul-
ley connecting with a smaller pulley on a worm-gear shaft of the
feed mechanism. The worm of this shaft engages a worm wheel
mounted upon the table feed-screw. This worm is held in engage-
ment by a spring latch which permits disengagement for hand
 821 -,M
feeding. The worm shaft is pivoted at one end so that the worm
could readily drop out of engagement.

Milling Machine, Standard Spindle. Standard spindle ends

for milling machines have been adopted by the milling machine
manufacturers of the National Machine Tool Builders' Associa-
tion. The tapering bore for receiving arbors or cutter shanks has
a taper of 3% inches per foot, this steep angle taper having been
adopted to insure instant release of the arbor and eliminate stick-
ing in the spindle. The large ends of the arbor holes have the
following diameters: No. 30 taper, 1*4 inches; No. 40 taper,
1% inches; No. 50 taper, 2% inches; No. 60 taper, 4%
inches.
Arbors have also been standardized. This spindle-nose and arbor
construction is covered by U. S. patents.

Milling Machines, Attachments. The range of a milling

machine, or the variety of work it is capable of doing, can be
greatly extended by the use of special attachments. Many of
these are designed to enable a certain class of milling machines to
perform operations that ordinarily would be done on a different
machine; in other words, the attachment temporarily converts
one type of machine into another. There are many different at-
tachments for milling machines, some of which are very common,
whereas others are rarely used in the average shop.
Vertical-spindle Attachments: Vertical attachments are used
in connection with horizontal machines of the column-and-knee
types, whenever it is desirable to have the cutter in a vertical or
angular position. There are several types of vertical attachments
designed for various classes of work. The principal difference
between these designs, aside from minor details, is in the adjust-
ment of the cutter spindle.
Compound Vertical-spindle Attachment: There is a compound
type of vertical spindle attachment which is adjustable in two
vertical planes, one being parallel with the axis of the spindle,
and the other being at right angles to the spindle.
Universal Milling Attachment: The universal milling attach-
ment is so named because the spindle can be set at any angle in
both horizontal and vertical planes.
Spiral Milling Attachment: When milling a spiral, it is not
always possible to align the cutter with the angle of the spiral by
swinging the machine table around. The tables of most universal
milling machines cannot be adjusted to an angle greater than
about 45 or 50 degrees ; hence, for greater angles it is common
practice to leave the table in its normal position at right angles
to the spindle of the machine, and to use an attachment for hold-
ing the cutter at the proper angle. What are known as spiral
milling attachments are often used for this work, and they are
M-822
so arranged that the cutter spindle may be swiveled to any angle
in a horizontal plane.
High-speed Attachment: For some milling operations on such
work as diemaking, etc,, it is necessary to use a small cutter
which should be run more rapidly than the fastest spindle speed
available, and, in order to obtain these high speeds, special at-
tachments are sometimes used. These attachments consist princi-
pally of an auxiliary spindle that holds and drives the cutter, wad
suitable gearing connecting with the main spindle and so propor-
tioned as to give the necessary increase of speed. The gearing
and spindle are carried by a housing which is attached to the
machine. High-speed attachments are used on both horizontal-
and vertical-spindle machines.
Circular Attachment: A circular milling attachment has a
round work table which can be rotated for milling circular sur-
faces or slots. This attachment, which is placed upon the main
table of the machine, is either used on a vertical-spindle ma-
chine or in connection with a vertical-spindle attachment on a
horizontal-spindle machine.

Milling Machines, Classification. The names used to desig-

nate different classes of milling machines may indicate some con-
structional feature that is characteristic, or they may relate to
the nature of the work for which the machine is intended. There
are a few exceptions to this method of classification, however, as
special names are used to some extent; moreover, in some cases,
manufacturers of milling machines do not use the same name for
similar types of machines. The constructional features which are
generally indicated by the name are the position of the spindle,
the design of the bed or frame, and the arrangement of the work
table. A great many milling machines have horizontal spindles,
and some of them are known as horizontal types, but, in most
cases, the name indicates some other constructional feature in
order to distinguish between different classes having horizontal
spindles. For instance, there are plain machines and universal
machines; both of these types have horizontal spindles, but one
is simpler in construction than the other and is not adapted to
such a wide range of work A vertical milling machine has a
vertical spindle; some special vertical milling machines, how-
ever, are named according to the class of work for which they
are intended, as, for example, die-sinking and profiling machines,
which are, in reality, special types of vertical spindle milling
machines.
The frames of milling machines are usually of two genera!
forms; the most common design is a vertical column which sup-
ports the horizontal cutter spindle, and has on the front face or
side an adjustable knee upon which the work-table is mounted.
 823 -M
This is known as the columi^and-knee construction; several dif-
ferent types of milling machines are designed in this way. Other
milling machines have beds or frames which extend horizontally
like the bed of a planer, instead of vertically. The design of the
bed in any case is governed partly by the position of the spindle,
and it is also affected largely by the general requirements of the
work for which it is intended; for instance, milling machines
which are used for milling long surfaces and for doing the same
general class of work which is done on planers must have a long
horizontal bed and work table, with the necessary feeding move-
ments. Such machines are often known as the horizontal or
planer type,

Milling Machines, Hand Type. The hand milling machine is

so named because the table or cutter is fed by hand instead of
by an automatic power feed. A typical design is so arranged
that the table can be fed in a lengthwise direction by a hand lever
or by turning the f eedshaft with a crank. The spindle head also
has a vertical lever feed. This type of milling machine is adapted
to short milling operations, especially when it is desirable to take
light cuts which are not of sufficient length to warrant using a
milling machine having an automatic feed. When the cuts are
comparatively short, the surfaces can be milled quickly and easily
by using a hand-operated machine. Quite a variety of milling
is done on machines of this type. For some operations, a weight
is suspended at the end of the feed lever and in this way an
automatic gravity feed is obtained.

Milling Machines, Lincoln Type. The well-known Lincoln

type of milling machine is named after George S. Lincoln of the
firm then known as George S. Lincoln & Co., Hartford, Conn. Mr.
Lincoln, however, did not originate this type but he introduced
an improved design. Milling machines constructed along the
same general lines had previously been built by the Phoenix Iron
Works of Hartford, Conn., and also by Bobbins & Lawrence Co.,
of Windsor, Vt. Milling machines of this class are intended espe-
cially for manufacturing and are not adapted to a great variety
of milling operations, but are designed for machining large num-
bers of duplicate parts. Some milling machines which are de-
signed along the same lines as the Lincoln type are referred to as
the manufacturing type. The distinguishing features of the Lin-
coln type are as follows: The work table, instead of being car-
ried by an adjustable knee, is mounted on the solid bed of the
machine and the outer arbor support is also attached directly to
the bed. This construction gives a very rigid support both for
the work and the cutter. The work is usually held in a fixture or
vise attached to the table, and the milling is done as the table
M-824
feeds longitudinally. The table is not adjustable vertically but the
spindle head and spindles can be raised or lowered as may be
required.

Milling Machines, Plain Type. This type of milling machine

has a horizontal cutter spindle and is of the column-and-knee con-
struction, which means that there is a vertical column, and a knee
which is fitted to guiding ways on the face of the column, to
provide vertical adjustment for the work table. The "plain" type
differs from what is termed the "universal" type, in that the work
table cannot be set at an angle relative to the spindle. Plain
milling machines are commonly used for milling operations which
can be performed by feeding the work in a straight line, either
vertically or in a horizontal plane, although in modern practice
there are many exceptions to this rule. In general, plain milling
machines are adapted to a smaller range of work than the uni-
versal type, although many modern plain machines have attach-
ments which greatly increase their working range. Ordinarily,
plain machines are more rigid and heavier in construction than
universal designs for a given size of machine, and are intended
for heavier milling operations. The plain type is used principally
for manufacturing operations, whereas the universal machine is
intended more for tool-rooms and for a diversified line of work.

Milling Machines, Universal Type, The universal type of

milling machine is so named because it is adapted to a very
wide range of milling operations. The general construction
is similar to that of a plain milling machine, although the uni-
versal type has certain attachments which plain machines do not
ordinarily have, and which make it possible to mill a compara-
tively large variety of work. The universal machine has a knee
which can be moved vertically on the column and a table with
both cross and longitudinal movements, the same as a machine
of the plain type; there is a difference, however, in the method
of mounting the table on the knee. The table of a plain machine
is carried by a saddle which is free to move in a crosswise direc-

tion, whereas the table's line of motion is at right angles to the

spindle. The table of a universal machine also has these move-
ments, and, in addition, it can be automatically fed at an angle
to the spindle by swiveling the saddle on a lower base or "clamp-
bed" which is interposed between the saddle and the knee. The
circular swiveling base of the saddle has degree graduations
which show the angular position of the table. This angular ad-
justment makes it possible to do work, such as helical milling,
which could not be done on a plain machine unless a spiral mill-
ing attachment were used that provided the required angular
adjustment for the cutter. Practically all universal machines are
 825 -M
equipped with auxiliary appliances, such as the dividing or in-
dexing head, vertical milling attachments, etc. Many of these
same attachments are also used on plain milling machines which
are thus converted, to some extent, into universal types. The first
universal milling machine was designed and built at the works
of the J. K. Brown & Sharpe Co., in 1861-62.

Milling Screw Threads. See Thread Milling.

Mineral Black, This material is made by grinding certain

kinds of slate. It is employed by the paint industry for use as
a filler in the making of paints that are to be used for protecting
iron and steel against corrosion.

Minerallac. Minerallac is the name of an electrial insulating

compound made in different forms, either fluid, having the con-

sistency of molasses, or semi-solid, resembling hard rubber, or
as a heavy impregnating liquid. Still another form of minerallac,
used as a capping compound for sealing apparatus after im-
pregnation, is available. The softening point of semi-solid min-
erallac is about 120 degrees F. ; the melting point, about 145
degrees F.; the flash point, 395 degrees F.; and the fire point,
425 degrees F. The dielectric strength is approximately 1000
volts per 0.001 inch.

Mineral Lard Oil. For automatic screw machine work some

manufacturers use pure lard oil, but here the need of a large
volume of oil causes the question of economy to play an impor-
tant part; as the so-called "mineral lard oil" mixtures, ranging
from 30 per cent of lard oil and 70 per cent of medium petroleum
oil up to equal parts of lard oil and petroleum oil, have been
found to give practically as good results as pure lard oil, it seems
desirable to use these mixtures. Furthermore, mineral lard oil
has an advantage over pure lard oil in that it is more fluid and
thus runs more freely to the tool and work; also, this mixed oil
is not so likely to give trouble from gumming.

Mineral Wool. Mineral wool is a fibrous substance made from

blast-furnace slag by sending a blast of steam through the molten
slag. This substance, sometimes known as "silicate of cotton,"
is used as a heat insulator and also as a fireproofing material.
In the latter case, it is packed between the wall and floor spaces
of fireproof buildings. Mineral wool may also be made by send-
ing a blast of steam through molten rock. This "rock wool"
should be used when the heat-insulating material is in contact
with metal, as the sulphur in the slag wool is likely to cause cor-
rosion. The best grades have a fine fibrous structure, and are
fairly free from lumps. Variations in the character of the slag
affect the grade of the wool, and there is usually a difference in
M-826
the density of the wool at every cast The method of producing
mineral wool is briefly as follows; Blast-furnace slag and coke
are charged into a cupola. The molten slag, at the moment when
it flows through the slag hole, is then divided into fine threads

by streams of steam. These fine threads are blown into a long

narrow building, where the material is stored and packed.
Miner's Inch. The term "miner's inch," used in western
United States for measuring the flow of a stream of water, is
more or less indefinite, because different values have been as-
signed to it; thus, the amount of water corresponding to a min-
er's inch varies from 1,86 to 1.78 cubic feet per minute, accord-
ing to the method used for the measurement. The California
Legislature, by an Act of 1901, prescribed that the miner's inch
should be equivalent to 1.5 cubic feet of water per minute, meas-
ured through any aperture or orifice. The most common measure-
ment is through an aperture 2 inches high and through a plank
1% inches thick, the width of the aperture being whatever length
is required. The lower edge of the aperture is placed 2 inches
above the bottom of the measuring box and the plank is 5 inches
high above the aperture, so that the head will be 6 inches above
the center of the stream through the orifice. Each square inch
of the opening represents a miner's inch, and the amount of water
that will flow through it equals about 1% cubic feet per minute.

Minofor Metal, Minofor metal is a tin-antimony-copper alloy

containing a large percentage of zinc* It belongs to the brftan-
nia metal class, and contains, on an average, 88,5 per cent of tin,
18.2 per cent of antimony, 8.3 per cent of copper, and 10 per cent
of zinc.

Minor Diameter. The smallest diameter of the thread on the

screw or nut is the "minor diameter." This term has been used
to replace the term "core diameter" as applied to the thread of a
screw and also the term "inside diameter" as applied to the thread
of a nut. See also Major Diameter*

Miter Gears. If the number of teeth in two bevel gears is

alike,the gears are equal, the pitch-cone angle of each being 45
degrees, and the gears are commonly referred to as miter gears*
All dimensions in the two gears are the same, and the gears are
interchangeable.

Module System for Gear Teeth. The module of a gear

equals the pitch diameter divided by the number of teeth, where-
as diametral pitch equals the number of teeth divided by the pitch
diameter. The module system is in general use in countries which
have adopted the metric system; hence the term module is usu-
ally understood to mean the pitch diameter in millimeter* divided
 827 -M
by the number of teeth. The module system may, however, also
be based upon inch measurements and then it is known as English
module to avoid confusion with the metric module. Module is an
actual dimension, whereas diametral pitch is only a ratio. Thus,
if the pitch diameter of a gear is 50 millimeters and the number
of teeth 25, the module is 2, which means that there are 2 milli-
meters of pitch diameter for each tooth.

Basic Rack of German Standard Tooth Form for Spur

and Bevel Gears

German Standard: The illustration shows the basic rack of

the German Standard (DIN 867). The flanks or sides are
straight (involute system) and the pressure angle is 20 degrees.
The shape of the root clearance space and the amount of clear-
ance depend upon the method of cutting and special requirements.
The amount of clearance may vary from 0.1 X
module to 0.3 X
module. It is the common practice among American cutter man-
ufacturers to make the clearance of metric or module cutters
equal to 0.157 X module.

Modulus of Elasticity. When a structural material such as

steel,for example is subjected to a load, there is a certain amount
of deformation or change in form due to the elasticity of the
material. When a load is applied, there is an internal resisting
force or reaction called a stress, and the amount of deformation
due to the load is called a strain. The ratio of unit stress to unit
strain is known as the modulus of elasticity, and this may be used
for determining the strain or deformation resulting from a given
load. If the stress in pounds per square inch is divided by the
strain or deformation in 1 inch caused by this stress, the ratio
thus obtained will equal the modulus of elasticity for that ma-
M-828
teriaL This modulus is generally denoted by E. If an elongation
of 0,030 inch is produced in an alloy steel bar, 10 inches long, by
a load of 90,000 pounds per each square inch of cross-section of
the bar, then the modulus of elasticity is:

~ 10 =
:= 9Q 000
'
tf 30,000,000.
0.030
The elongation is assumed to be proportional to the load up to
the elastic limit; hence, the modulus of elasticity of a material
may be used for finding the elongation e produced by any load
per square inch, S, by the formula: e S -r- E. =
The modulus of elasticity for steel is usually 29,000,000 to
30,000,000. While steels vary greatly in regard to tensile strength,
the modulus of elasticity is about the same in all cases. Since
modulus of elasticity is an indication of stiffness or rigidity, it
is evident that the strength of steel is not a measure of rigidity,
In other words, a part made of low-carbon steel having an ulti-
mate strength of, say, 60,000 pounds per square inch, may be
just as rigid as a part made of alloy steel and having double this
strength, assuming that the stresses in both cases are below the
elastic limit of the material. The modulus of elasticity in tension
and in compression is practically the same for most metals. The
term "modulus of elasticity" is generally understood to mean the
tension modulus.
Modulus of Elasticity in Shear; The modulus of elasticity in
shear, or shear modulus, is also known as the modulus of rigidity
and as the modulus of transverse elasticity. The shear modulus
(G) is about 0,40 times the modulus of elasticity (E) In tension
E
or G = in which m equals Poisson's Ratio.
2(l + m)
Modulus, Section. See Section Modulus,
Mohs's Hardness Scale. Hardness, !n general, is determined
by what is known as Mohs's scale, a standard for hardness which
is mainly applied to non-metallic elements and minerals. In this
hardness scale there are ten degrees or steps, each designated by
a mineral, the difference in hardness of the different steps being
determined by the fact that any member in the series will scratch
any of the preceding members. This scale, which was devised in
1820 by P. Mohs, for the purpose of expressing the hardness of
minerals by numbers, is as follows :

1. Talc; 2, gypsum; 8. calcite; 4. fluor spar; 5- apatite; 6. or-

thoclase; 7. quartz; 8, topaz; 9. sapphire or corundum;

10, diamond.
These minerals, arbitrarily selected as standards, are succes-
sively harder, from talc, the softest of all minerals, to diamond,
the hardest* This scale, which is now universally used for non-
 829-M
metallic minerals, is, however, not applied to metals as entirely
different and more precise methods are employed.
Moisture in Compressed Air. See Compressed Air, Moisture in.
Moisture in Lumber. See Lumber Water Content.

Mol. The term "mol" is used as a designation of quantity in

electro-chemistry, and indicates the number of grams of a sub-
stance equal to its molecular weight. For example, one mol of
sillver-nitrate equals 169.89 grams, the molecular weight of
silver-nitrate being 169.89.

Molding. Molding is a process by which an impression or

mold is formed in damp sand or other plastic material in such
a way that it can be used as a form into which molten metal is
poured to produce a casting corresponding to the shape of the
impression or mold. Ordinarily a pattern is used to form the
mold, and when the pattern is removed it leaves a cavity of the
required shape, into which molten metal is poured. The sand or
other material for making molds for small and medium-sized
castings is usually confined in molding boxes called flasks, while
the molds for large pieces are made directly on the foundry floor
which is provided with pits filled with molding sand to a depth
of several feet.
Green Sand Molding: The green sand method of making molds
isthe most important branch of the molder's work, as the major-
ity of castings are made by this method. The term "green sand"
means that the mold is used at once or while in a green or damp
condition. The interior surfaces of the mold are "skin-dried" in
some cases.
Dry Sand Molding: This branch of molding differs from green
sand molding in that molds, after being made from damp sand,
are dried or baked in an oven or by special apparatus, to make
the body of the mold comparatively hard and firm. This method
is used for the more intricate castings or when a fine surface is
desired. The dry condition of these molds permits a higher de-
gree of surface finishing, and, owing to the absence of moisture,
but little gas is generated, and this finds easy exit through the
dry sand.
Loam Molding: When castings are made in molds that are
composed of brickwork and loam, the process is termed loam
molding. The loam used for the inner surface or face of the mold
is a natural mixture of loam and clay, and the brickwork fonmag
the outer support is laid up in courses to conform approximately
to the shape required for the mold. Loam molds can be made by
the use of spindle and sweep, strickle, or pattern; many loam
molds require the use of all three means. Cylindrical molds are
M-830
usually formed by spindle and sweep, while patterns are used to
form branches, hubs, etc,, that are fitted to the outside. This is
the most expensive method of molding, but in many cases the
cost of a large portion of the pattern work is eliminated, and for
many jobs it is the most economical.
Molding Machines. Molding machines are extensively used
in modern foundries, especially where duplicate castings are re-
quired in large numbers. The function of these machines varies
with different types. Some molding machines are designed for
ramming or packing the sand in the molds, whereas other types
are intended primarily for turning or rolling over the flask or
mold, and withdrawing the pattern after ramming. Molding ma-
chines were designed originally for withdrawing the pattern
from the sand by a steady mechanical action, in order to avoid
breaking away parts of the mold, which often occurs when a pat-
tern is removed by hand. Withdrawing the pattern is still the
most important function of certain types of molding machines,
but many of the designs now in use are also arranged for ram-
ming or packing the sand by mechanical means. There are three
general classes of molding machines: (1) Those that withdraw
the pattern after the mold has been rammed by hand; (2) those
that ram or pack the sand into the mold, but are not designed to
withdraw the pattern; and (8) those that serve both to ram or
pack the sand and withdraw the pattern from the mold. These
three classes include many designs and types that differ in re-
gard to the source of power for operating them and the mechani-
cal action either for packing the sand or for withdrawing the
pattern. For instance, some machines, especially those used for
small work, are manually operated, whereas others are actuated
either partially or entirely by power. There are several methods
of packing or ramming sand around patterns in molds. The terms
applied to the different methods indicate the general nature of
the ramming operation ; thus, there is the "jarring" or "jolting"
method, the "squeezing" or "pressing" method, the "gravity"
method, and the "roller" method.

Molding Machines, Cear. There are two general methods

of making cast gears. One is to use a pattern which is a dupli-
cate of the gear required, and the other is to form a mold by
using a special machine designed for this purpose. Patterns are
liable to warp and twist out of shape and it is difficult for a pat-
ternmaker to make all of the teeth uniform in size, shape, and
pitch. These patterns are also expensive to construct When a
molding machine of the ordinary type Is used, the molding is
done either by a single tooth or a segment containing two or
three teeth. This segment is located at the required radial posi*
 831 -M
tion and the impressions or teeth are formed in the side of the
mold progressively, by indexing either the arm which carries the
tooth segments or the mold itself.
Floor Type of Gear Molding Machine; There are two general
classes of machines for molding gears which are the floor and
table types, respectively. The floor type has a vertical column
carrying a horizontal slide to the end of which a vertical arm is
attached. A hard-wood gear-tooth segment is attached to the end
of this vertical arm which is adjusted to the required radius by
the horizontal slide. The tooth impressions in the mold are
rammed up one or two at a time, and the segment block is indexed
around the mold in accordance with the circular pitch of the gear
teeth, by means of an indexing mechanism forming part of the
machine. Some machines of this type have a worm-wheel and
worm which are rotated through change-gears selected to give
the required indexing movement. Another method of indexing is
by means of a cylindrical drum attached to the top of the vertical
column and provided with annular rows of accurately-spaced holes
which vary in number. In order to control the indexing move-
ment, these holes are engaged by a plunger carried by an arm
that is connected with the horizontal arm of the machine.
Table Type of Gear Molding Machine: With the table type of
gear molding machine, the flask for the mold is mounted upon a
table which is given the necessary indexing movement. One de-
sign is quite similar in appearance to a large vertical boring mill.
There is a circular table upon which the mold is mounted and two
housings which support a cross-rail This cross-rail carries a
vertical slide to the lower end of which a one-tooth pattern block
is attached. This pattern block is made of hard wood, and, when
molding a gear, no draft whatever is required, because the block
isremoved from the mold horizontally. The table of the machine
isequipped with an indexing mechanism of the change-gear and
worm-wheel type. While these molding machines produce very
accurate gear molds, the finished cast gear is liable to be some-
what out of round, owing to uneven shrinkage of the arms. These
defects, however, may be so slight as not to affect the use of the
gears for many purposes, but, when greater accuracy is desired,
the rim is cast separately and is fastened to a gear center or
spider. These machine-molded gears can be strengthened, if
necessary, by shrouding the teeth, and they possess considerable
surface hardness due to the quick cooling of the casting in the
mold. Very large cast gears are produced in this way and give
good results for many purposes, especially when the peripheral
speeds are low and a slight amount of backlash is not ob-
jectionable. When molding a spur gear on this machine, the ring
of sand inside of the cast-iron flask is first formed by means of
M-832
a sweep. a core-box for forming
It is also necessary to provide
the arms of the gear.Geared-tooth molding machines have been
applied to the molding of spur gears, bevel gears, helical gears,
and worm gears.

Molding Sand. Molding sands, which are used in the foundry

for the making of molds for castings, are of two classes: (1) "Pac-
ing sand/' which comes into actual contact with the pattern, and (2)
"floor" or "black sand" which is used as a support for the facing
sand, and fills up the remainder of the molding box or flask. The
floor or black sand is the sand that has already been used as a
facing sand. Molding sand is practically a mixture composed of
silica and clay, with various proportions of lime, magnesia, iron
oxide, organic matter, and water, the essential qualities being
porosity, plasticity, and refractoriness. The amount of silica de-
termines, to a large extent, the last of these qualities. The shape
and size of the grains of silica and the quality of the clay bond
also have an effect upon the heat-resisting qualities of the sand.
The less iron, lime, and magnesia the sand contains, the better
it is suited for molding purposes, because these substances com-
bined with the silica form the more or less fusible slags called
"silicates." The higher the melting point of the metal to be cast,
the more refractory should be the sand from which the molds are
made. A very refractory sand is required for nickel, which melts
at a temperature of 2650 degrees P., and also for steel, which
fuses at about the same heat There are few natural sands that
will withstand a temperature of 2500 degrees P. without fusing;
therefore, in casting steel, the molds are invariably faced with a
very refractory facing of pure silica bonded with fireclay, as
ordinary molding sand would produce a pitted surface on the
casting.
Molds, Metal. Metal "long-life" or permanent molds, for cast-
ing molten metal of comparatively high melting temperature, are
designed so that a mold may be used continuously, replacing sand
molds which are destroyed after being used once. More than
40,000 castings have been made from a single metal mold. Iron,
unless of very high silicon content, if poured into a chilled mold,
will be hard and white, but a process developed for casting iron
in metal molds provides a heat barrier between the mold and the
casting. The mold is thinly covered with a coating which checks
the heat flow sufficiently to prevent the formation of chilled iron.
This coating is further protected by a thick coating of lampblack,
and the carbon, uniting with the skin of the casting, lowers its
melting point, and thereby retards the cooling rate of the casting.
This process of molding is applicable to the largest as well as to
the smallest type of casting. Aluminum and brass have also been
poured in these molds. See Casting in Permanent Molds.
 833 -M
Molds, Plaster. See Plaster Molds.

Molds, Water-Cooled In brass foundries, cast-iron chilled

molds have long been used for casting the plates used in pro-
ducing sheet brass by the rolling process. In many foundries,
especially in Europe, chilled molds of the water-cooled type are
being used. A relatively thin metal wall is in contact with the
molten metal on one side and with cooling water on the other.
Such molds may be used continuously, castings being made every
five or ten minutes, whereas with the older cast-iron chill type a
comparatively large stock of molds is required to allow sufficient
time for cooling before making another casting. With the water-
cooled mold the rate of cooling may be varied by regulating the
water supply. These water-cooled molds have proved very durable.
Plates cast in them are said to be improved in their physical
structure and less liable to impair the quality of the rolled sheets
as the result of surface cracks and blistering of the castings.

Molecular Weight. The smallest mass of a chemical combina-

tion which can be conceived of as existing and yet preserving its
chemical properties is known as a molecule. The molecular weight
of a chemical compound is equal to the sum of the atomic weights
of the atoms contained in the molecule, and are calculated from
the atomic weights, when the symbol of the compound is known.
The atomic weight of silver is 107.88; of nitrogen, 14.01; and of
oxygen, 16; hence, the molecular weight of silver-nitrate, the
chemical formula of which is AgN0 8 equals 107.88
, + 14.01 -f
(3 X 16) 169.89.

Molten-Metal Explosions. Accidents which occur in foundries

are often due mainly to the handling of molten metal. With proper
precautions, a number of these accidents could be reduced. Molten
metal will produce serious explosions when it comes in contact
with damp ground, or with any cold, damp surface. Ladles should
be free from moisture before metal is poured into them, and
molds should be dry. Ladles should always be heated before
pouring metal into them. In foundries making small castings,
double-handled ladles holding about 100 pounds of metal, or
single-handled ladles holding from 25 to 40 pounds, are employed.
The greatest number of accidents due to burns, in proportion to
the number of men employed, occur in foundries where hand
ladles are used. Many are caused by the metal splashing from
the ladles as it is poured from the cupola spout. Dangers of this
kind may be eliminated by placing the hand ladle inside of a
larger stationary ladle, located so that it will catch the splash.
A stand may also be used on which the handle ladle rests while
the metal is poured, so that the workmen fiaay step back, out of
range of the splash.
M-834
is one of the metallic chemical
Molybdenum. Molybdenum
elements, the symbol of which is Mo, and the atomic weight, 96,
The metal is related to chromium, tungsten, and uranium, and is
obtained in the form of a powder of gray color. Pure molyb-
denum, in its powder form, has a specific gravity of 9.01, It is
malleable, but of great hardness, although not so hard as glass.
Molybdenum is found in nature chiefly in the mineral molybdenite,
and is also present in many iron ores. It is used in the making
of alloy steels, chemical reagents, dyes, glazes and molybdenum
disulphide, a dry film lubricant (See Lubrication with Metals
and Metal Compounds).

Molybdenum Steel. Molybdenum steels have properties sim-

ilar totungsten steels, except that a smaller quantity of molyb-
denum than of tungsten is required to secure the same results;
hence, the main use of molybdenum is in the manufacture of
high-speed steel Molybdenum increases the elongation of steel
considerably; hence, it is also used in steel which is to be manu-
factured into wire, because the increase of elongation necessary
for wire drawing can be obtained at a comparatively small cost
A molybdenum steel for structural purposes is also made by
adding a molybdenum-nickel alloy to steel This alloy contains
about 75 per cent of molybdenum and 25 per cent of nickel, or
about 50 per cent of molybdenum and 50 per cent of nickel Be-
sides these constituents, the alloy contains small percentages of
iron, carbon, and silicon, usually from 2 to 2.5 per cent of iron,
from 1 to 1.5 per cent of carbon, and from 0.25 to 0.60 per cent
of silicon. The molybdenum steel made by an addition of these
alloys is adapted for large crankshafts and propeller shafts, for
large guns, rifle barrels, and boiler plates.
The S.A.E. molybdenum steels have carbon ranging from 0.17
to 0.67, manganese ranging from 0.40 to 1.00, chromium ranging
from 0.40 to 1.10, and molybdenum ranging from 0.15 to 0.80.
Mo-Max. A steel containing 8 per cent molybdenum, 2 per
cent tungsten, 4 per cent chromium, and 1 per cent vanadium.
Comparable to high-tungsten steel without containing a high per-
centage of tungsten. Tools made from Mo-Max generally have
greater hardness than those made from 18-4-1 high-speed steel,
and equal or greater toughness* Can be used for all types of tools
for which regular tungsten high-speed steel is used; presents spe-
cial advantages in machining work where difficulties have been
encountered in using regular highspeed steel tools,

Moment of a Force. The action of a force upon a lever

causes a tendency on the part of the lever to turn about Its
fulcrum. The magnitude of this tendency depends, first, upon
the magnitude of the force acting, and, second, upon the per-
 835 -M
pendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the
fulcrum. If the force is increased, or its perpendicular distance
from the fulcrum is made greater, the tendency to turn the lever
about its fulcrum will increase. This rotating effect of a force
about a fulcrum is termed the "moment of the force" and is
equal to the product obtained by multiplying the force by the
perpendicular distance from the fulcrum. If the force is meas-
ured in pounds and the distance in feet, the moment is measured
in foot-pounds or preferably as pound-feet (see Pound-foot), if
the force is measured in pounds and the distance in inches, the
moment is measured in inch-pounds or pound-inches. The most

important principle to be observed with regard to moments is

that the distance from the fulcrum to the force, generally called
the 'lever arm," must be measured on a line at right angles to
the direction of the force.

Moment of Inertia. The moment of inertia of a body, with

respect to an axis, is the sum of the products obtained by multi-
plying the mass of each elementary particle by the square of
its distance from the axis; hence, the moment of inertia of the
same body varies according to the position of the axis. It has its
minimum value when the axis passes through the center of grav-
ity. The moment of inertia is numerically equal to the mass of
a body which, if it could be conceived of as concentrated at a
distance of unity from the axis of rotation, would, if actuated by
the same forces, rotate with the same angular velocity as that of
the actual body. IF other words, the moment of inertia bears the
same relation to angular acceleration as mass does to linear ac-
celeration. When the term "moment of inertia" is used in regard
to areas, it is equal to the sum of the products obtained by multi-
plying each elementary area by the square of its distance from
the axis. The moments of inertia of surfaces are especially useful
in calculating the strength of beams.

Momentum. The momentum of a moving body is the intensity

of that constant force which, resisting its movement, would bring
it to rest in one second; hence, the momentum is equal to the
mass multiplied by the velocity in feet per second, or:
welg v
Momentum t=
82.16
^ velocity in feet per second.

Momme. This is a Japanese measure of weight, equal to

3.75 grams or 57.86 grains. One momme is divided into 10 funs.

Monel Metal. Monel is a nickel-copper alloy that is exten-

sively used especially where a combination of high strength,
toughness and corrosion resistance are essential. There are vari-
ous grades or types of Monel, depending upon the application and
properties required. The nickel content varies from 66 to 67;
copper, 29 to 30; iron, 0.9 to 1.5; silicon, 0.25 to 3; manganese, 0.3
to 1; carbon, 0.15 to 0.2 per cent The composition known as
K-Monel is practically the same as the other grades excepting
that it contains about 2.75 per cent aluminum, X-Monel is ordi-
narily used when, in addition to high corrosion resistance, it is
essential to have higher hardness and even greater strength than
obtainable with the other alloys.
As Monel metal possesses excellent resistance to corrosion either
by natural waters (hard and soft) or salt water, it has been
widely used for parts of water meters, pumps, propeller shafts,
propellers, pump shafts and pump impellers, condenser tubes and
bolts, domestic hot-water storage tanks and heaters, etc. Monel
offers good resistance to corrosion by all acids except those of a
highly oxidizing character. It also oifers useful resistance to
corrosion by all the common organic acids and is practically free
from corrosion by neutral and alkaline organic compounds. Monel
is practically completely resistant to most alkaline solutions. The
tensile strength of cold-drawn rods may vary from 85,000 to
125,000 pounds per square inch.

Monitor Lathes. Turret lathes which are intended principally

for brass work are often referredto as monitor lathes, the name
"monitor" in this connection indicating a revolving turret. This
name is not applied to the same design of turret lathe by dif-
ferent manufacturers, although, in general, it indicates a com-
paratively small turret lathe which, in many cases, is provided
with a thread-chasing attachment of the Fox lathe type and is
designed principally for turning, boring, and threading parts
made of brass. Some lathes which are listed as the monitor type
have a stock-feeding mechanism, whereas others do not have this
feature. The turret may or may not have power feed, and some
monitor lathes have a cross-feed for the turret, whereas others
only have the longitudinal feeding movement. The thread-chasing
attachment is one of the important features of the monitor or
Fox lathe, as it enables parts to be threaded rapidly, and is
used on many classes of work in preference to a die held in the
turret.

Monovalent. Monovalent, also known as univalent, is a term

used to designate that an atom of an element (like hydrogen)
combines with but one atom of another element.

Moore & Beeman Rule. This a rule employed for finding

is
the board measure of Deduct 4 inches from the
logs, as follows:
diameter of the log, square one-fourth of the remainder, and
multiply the result by the length of the log in feet Usually the
diameter is measured Jnsi<Je of the bark at the small end.
 837 -M
Morse Taper. Dimensions relating to Morse standard taper
shanks and sockets may be found in tabular form in engineering
handbooks. The taper for different numbers of Morse tapers is
slightly different, but is approximately % inch per foot. The
figures accurate to four decimal places are as follows: No.
taper, 0.6246 inch per foot; No. 1, 0.5986; No. 2, 0.5994; No. 3,
0.6023; No. 4, 0.6233; No. 5, 0.6315; No. 6, 0.6256; No. 7, 0.6240.
Morse taper shanks are used on a variety of tools and exclusively
on twist drills.
Mortise-and-Tenon. The joining of two pieces of wood by
what is termed a mortise-and-tenon joint is effected by first cut-
ting a rectangular hole or slot (called the mortise) in one mem-
ber. The end of the other member is then cut to form the tenon
which fits into the mortise. The mortise-and-tenon joint may be
either "through" or "blind." If through, the tenon fits a mortise
cut completely through the first member; if blind, the tenon fits
a mortise cut part way through. In joining two pieces of equal
thicknesses, with this type of joint, the mortise-and-tenon are
generally cut symmetrically so that when the two members are
put together their sides will be in the same plane.
Motor, Electric. A motor is a machine for transforming elec-
trical energy into mechanical energy. It usually consists of a
stationary element called a stator or field which is made up of
two or more electromagnetic poles fastened equidistantly around
the inside periphery of an iron frame and a rotating element
mounted on a shaft called a rotor, or armature, which usually con-
sists of a steel or iron core supporting a number of parallel
conductors in the form of bars, straps, or coils. One variation
from this usual construction is the alternating-current synchron-
ous motor wherein the pole pieces are attached to the rotor, in
this case called the field, and the parallel conductors are fastened
around the inside periphery of the stator, called the armature.
Rotation in a motor is produced by an interaction between
electric current in the armature conductors and the interlinking
magnetic flux produced by the field poles. This rotation is ex-
plained by the well-known principle that when a conductor carry-
ing an electric current is placed in a magnetic field, the con-
ductor will tend to move, the direction of motion depending upon
the direction of the current in the conductor and the direction
of the flux in the magnetic field.
When current is supplied to the armature or rotor windings
(i.e., where it is not set up by induction from the field windings
as in a squirrel-cage induction motor) it passes through brushes
which bear upon either a set of slip rings or a commutator. The
commutator is used where direct current must be converted into
alternating current in the armature windings.
M-838
By varying the number, distribution, and type of conductors
in the armature and by changing the electromagnetic field ar-
rangement and energizing electric circuit, motors of widely dif-
ferent characteristics may be designed for practically any type of
application where mechanical power is needed and electrical
energy is available. See Motor Selection, Alternating Current
and Motor Selection, Direct Current.
Alternating-current motors are designed to operate on alter-
nating-current circuits, although some types, such as the widely
used universal series-wound fractional horsepower motors, may
also be operated by direct current. Alternating-current motors
may be grouped into three classes: (1) Synchronous motors,
(2) polyphase induction motors, and (3) single-phase motors.
1. Synchronous motors are so called because they operate at

synchronous speeds determined by the frequency of the current

and the number of poles for which they are wound. See also
Synchronous Motors.
2. Polyphase induction motors might be considered as essen-

tially transformers with a secondary which is free to move or

rotate. There are two main types: The squirrel-cage induction
motor has for rotor or secondary conductors simply a set of bars
which are laid in slots around the rotor and which are connected
at each end by a continuous ring, thus virtually forming a "squir-
rel cage" from which the motor takes its name. This squirrel
cage is not electrically connected to the power supply, and the
only currents which flow in it are those which result from the
electromotive forces induced by the alternating flux of the stator
field; hence, the term induction motor. The wound-rotor induc-
tion motor has, in addition to a squirrel cage, a series of wire-
wound coils which constitute an auxiliary winding, and these are
connected to collector rings* Thus, an external resistance may
be connected in series with it for control purposes. See also
Induction Motors, Polyphase.
3. Single-phase motors find especially wide usage in the small
fractional horsepower sizes. There are several types, among
which may be mentioned the repulsion type with a winding on
the rotor which is connected to a commutator to aid in starting
and which may also have a squirrel-cage winding for running;
the split-phase type which has two windings on the stator, only
one of which is used for running, the other being provided in
combination with the first to afford starting torque the capacitor
;

type which is really a modification of the split-phase motor by

the addition of a fixed capacitor which may aid in starting and
running characteristics; the series-wound universal motor which
is similar in construction to a direct-current series
motor, except
that it has a laminated stator frame; and the adjustable-speed,
 839 -M
brush-shifting motor which is of the repulsion type with a pro-
vision for speed control by shifting of the brushes. See also
Single-Phase Motors.
Direct-current motors may be grouped into three main classes:
(1) Series-wound motors, (2) shunt-wound motors, and (3)
compound-wound motors.
1. The series-wound motor has its field windings in series with
the armature. It is essentially a variable-speed motor, the torque
of which increases with the load. A variation of this type, called
the series shunt-wound motor, has a light shunt winding in ad-
dition to the series winding to prevent excessive speed at light
load. See also Series-Wound Motor.
2. The shunt-wound motor has its field in parallel with the
armature providing practically constant excitation, and constant
speed and torque. Speed control may be effected by the introduc-
tion of a variable resistance into the armature or field circuits
or by some form of voltage control. See also Shunt-Wound Motor.
3. The compound-wound motor has both series and shunt wind-
ings in the field and partakes of the characteristics of both of
these other types of motors in varying degrees, depending upon
the relative strengths of its two fields. See also Compound-Wound
Motor.

Motor Converter. According to the American Standard, a

motor converter consists of an induction motor and a synchronous
converter with their rotors mounted on the same shaft and with
their rotor windings connected in series. Such a converter
operates synchronously at a speed corresponding to the sum of
the numbers of poles of the two machines. Voltage control with
a motor converter is obtained by the same methods as are used
with a synchronous converter.

Motor-Generator Sets. According to the American Standard

a motor-generator set is a machine which consists of one or more
motors mechanically coupled to one or more generators. They are
usually mounted on the same base and may have a common shaft
and bearings. For convenience, motor-generator sets may be
divided into three general classes, as follows: (1) Direct current
to direct current, including boosters and balancers; (2) Alternat-
ing current to direct current, or vice versa, including light, power
and railway service; (3) Alternating current to alternating
current, as in the case of frequency changers.

Motor History. The origin of the electric motor may be traced

back to the experiments of Faraday in 1821. These experiments
were followed by crude forms of magnetic apparatus which had
moving elements. In 1826, 1830 and 1831 crude magnetic devices
containing moving elements were made, and in 1832 and 1834
M-840
rotary motors were constructed which had electromagnets both in
the field and armature. All of these primitive designs were
operated by batteries and the practical development of the motor
did not begin until the dynamo was invented. The structural rela-
tionship between the dynamo and motor was discovered acci-
dentally in 1873, due to the fact that one dynamo was inadver-
tently connected to another in active operation. When it was
found that the dynamo revolved as the result of this connection
to the other machine, the subsequent development and wide ap-
plication of the electric motor was assured. This discovery was
made at an industrial exhibition in Vienna.
Motor Rotation Direction. According to the adopted stand-
ard of the National Electrical Manufacturers Association, the
standard direction of rotation for all non-reversing direct-current
motors, all alternating-current single-phase motors, all synchron-
ous motors, and all universal motors, is counter-clockwise when
facing that end of the motor opposite the drive.
This rule does not apply to two- and three-phase induction
motors, as most applications on which they are used are of such
a nature that either or both directions of rotation may be re-
quired, and the phase sequence of the power lines is rarely known.

Motors, Control Equipment. The control of electric motors

involves the use of suitable auxiliary equipment for their manual
or automatic starting, stopping, reversing, or speed variation. In
some cases, control equipment is designed as an integral unit to
perform all these functions, but more often it is limited to a
starting and stopping function.
Starting and Stopping: Many types of small motors, such as
those in the fractional horsepower range, can be connected
directly to the line for starting. For these, a relatively simple
device in the form of an enclosed push-button, toggle or knife
switch is used.
Larger motors, however, draw a heavy current on starting and
it is customary to insert a resistance in either stator or rotor
windings, according to the type of motor, and to cut out this
resistance either in a series of steps or in one operation when the
motor reaches some predetermined speed or speeds. For manual
step-by-step control, some form of rotary switch which has one
or more arms bearing on contacts in the form of a dial or a drum
may be used, or a series of single-pole switches may be closed in
sequence. The same result is obtained automatically by using a
series of relays which, after starting by push-button or some
other form of remote control, may be governed in their sequential
operation by some form of timing device, or by the actual flow
of current being controlled.
 841-M
Reduced voltage starting is used for synchronous and induction
motors, and for this purpose an auto-transformer is often util-
ized. In starting, connection is made to a tap on the transformer
which provides current at reduced voltage; and when the proper
motor speed has been reached, the full-line voltage is applied. A
reactance coil or resistance of suitable design serves the same
purpose. Thus, in the case of squirrel-cage induction motors, a
resistance is placed in series with each phase during starting
when the control is moved to the "start" position. At the proper
motor speed, the control is shifted to the "run" position and the
entire resistance is cut out. Synchronous motors require addi-
tional equipment to effect the changeover or connection to syn-
chronous windings when synchronous speed has been nearly
attained.
Speed Control: For those motors in which the speed of rota-
tion can be adjusted chiefly series-wound, shunt-wound, and
compound-wound direct-current motors, and series-wound uni-
versal motors a variable-resistance control is provided. In the
case of shunt-wound motors, the resistance may be placed either
in series with the armature, where it will serve to provide lower
motor speeds, or in series with the field, where it will serve to
provide higher motor speeds, or in both to effect a wide range of
speed variation. In the case of series and universal series-wound
motors, the resistance is inserted in series with the armature and
the field.
For shunt-wound motors another means of speed control is to
vary the voltage applied to the armature. A separate direct-
current generator is provided for this purpose and its armature
is connected in series with the motor armature. Speed control
is effected over a range as great as 12 to 1 by adjustment of the

generator field strength with a rheostat

The speed of induction motors may be changed by varying the
voltage applied to the primary or, in the case of the wound rotor
type, by inserting a resistance in series with the special winding
in the secondary.
The speed control may be a separate device from the starter
or it may be an integral part of it but having an additional set
of contacts for the variation of the separate resistance forming
the speed control. The basic difference between a starting re-
sistance and a speed-controlling resistance is in the design of the
latter to remain in constant operation without overheating.
Multi-speed motors, which operate at a number of different
fixed speeds, are of the squirrel-cage, wound-rotor or synchronous
type and have either two or more windings, each of which pro-
vides a different number of effective magnetic poles due to their
spatial arrangement around the stator, or a single winding, part
M-842
of which may be cut out to reduce the number of poles to one-
half, or a combination of these two arrangements. The change
in connection from one winding to another is usually effected by
some form of drum controller.
Mechanical control of motor speed is accomplished in the case
of a brush-shifting, adjustable-speed motor by a lever which
moves the position of the brushes on the commutator. Variable-
speed transmissions which may or may not be integral with the
motor are also used to secure a wide range of speeds.
Motor Selection. The first step taken in selecting a motor
for a specific drive is an analysis of the machine to be driven.
During this analysis, such questions are answered as: What
horsepower is required to drive the machine? Will the power
demand be greatest for starting, running, or acceleration? What
is the expected duration of the peak load? Is a constant or a
varying torque needed? Will a single constant speed be all that
is required or will several fixed speeds be needed at various times?
If a variable speed is needed, over how wide a range will it ex-
tend? What are the possible deleterious conditions to which the
motor may be subjected?
Then comes the task of selecting a motor to fit these require-
ments as closely as possible. A standard type of motor is de-
sirable and one that is quite close in capacity to the normal load
demand. It is no longer considered to be good practice to install
motors with capacities greatly in excess of that normally called
for by the machine which they are to drive. One reason is that
many types of motors operate at lower efficiencies, and in the case
of alternating-current types at lower power factors, when run-
ning on partial loads. Also to be considered is the possibility
that overpowering may result in damage to the machine to which
the motor is connected, should interference in machine operation
be experienced while the motor is driving. One exception to over-
powering, however, may be made in the case of the synchronous
motor. When a motor of this type which is larger than needed
is installed, the excess magnetizing current may be useful in

improving the power factor of the plant in which it is installed.

Speed: From the standpoint of speed, the motor selected may
be of the varying-speed type which varies with the load; an ad-
justable-speed type which can be controlled over a given range
with a reasonable degree of stability; an adjustable varying-speed
type which can be adjusted to certain speeds but which will,
nevertheless, vary from these speeds as the load changes ; a multi-
speed type which provides a choice of two, three, or four fixed
speeds; or a constant-speed type which will have very little, if
any, speed variation.
Load: From the standpoint of the load, the motor selected
 843 -M
may have to deliver practically constant horsepower at varying
speeds, in which case the torque will vary inversely as to speed;
practically constant torque with varying speeds, in which case the
horsepower will vary directly as to speed; or variable torque in
which both horsepower and torque vary with the speed.
In selecting motors for various applications, the following gen-
eral rules may serve as a guide:
For adjustable- or variable-speed control, use (1) direct-
current motors ; (2) wound-rotor induction motors or (3) multi-
;

speed alternating-current motors.

For high starting torque, use (1) cumulative compound-wound
or series-wound direct-current motors; (2) wound-rotor induc-
tion motors; (3) high torque squirrel-cage motors; (4) repulsion-
induction single-phase motors; or (5) special capacitor motors.
For a relatively constant speed with variations in the load, use
(1) shunt-wound direct-current motors; (2) general-purpose
squirrel-cage motors; or (3) repulsion-induction and split-phase
single-phase motors.
For very high speeds, use (1) universal motors; or (2) high-
frequency squirrel-cage motors.
Protective Enclosures: To meet the various kinds of condi-
tions imposed by different locations, the following types of motor
enclosures are provided: Semi-enclosed, usually for mechanical
protection only; totally enclosed, for added protection against
dirt, dust, or lint; totally enclosed fan-cooled, which not only
afford protection against dirt, dust or lint, but also provide
greater air circulation and higher heat-radiating capacity; splash-
proof, for added protection against liquids splashed or dripped on
them; ventilated, to provide fresh air circulation through the
windings, where the surrounding atmosphere is unstable for
ventilation ; and explosion-proof, for protection against explosion
from combustible vapors rising from gasoline, naphtha, petroleum,
benzol, alcohols, acetone, lacquer solvents, and natural gas.
Hazardous Conditions: Extreme care should be used in the
proper selection of apparatus in order that successful operation
and good service will result. Where the apparatus is subjected to
unusual risk, the manufacturer should be consulted; especially
where the apparatus is used under the following conditions (1) :

Exposed to chemical fumes; (2) operated in damp places; (3)

operated at speeds in excess of over-speed limitations specified;
(4) exposed to combustible or explosive dust; (5) exposed to
gritty or conducting dust; (6) exposed to lint; (7) exposed to
steam; (8) operated in poorly ventilated rooms (9) operated in
;

pits, or where entirely inclosed in boxes; (10) exposed to in-

flammable or explosive gases; (11) exposed to temperatures be-
low 10 degrees C.; (12) exposed to oil vapor; (13) exposed to salt
M-844
air; (14) exposed to abnormal shock or vibration from external
sources; (15) where the departure from rated voltage is exces-
sive; (16) where the alternating supply voltage is unbalanced.
Motor Selection, Alternating Current. For alternating-
current operation, the following general types of motors are
available :
Squirrel-cage motors which are characterized by practically con-
stant speed dependent upon the frequency. There are six main
types:
1. Normal starting torque normal starting current type which
has a starting torque of about 150 per cent of full load torque in
the case of two- and four-pole motors, but which requires a high
starting current.
2. Normal starting torque low starting current type which is
so designed as to require a relatively small starting current.
3. High starting torque low starting current type which has
added starting torque due to the provision of a special winding
of high resistance and low reactance.
4. High starting torque medium starting current high slip
type which provides for a higher amount of slip in case of over-
load than is customary in general-purpose motors and is similar
in operating characteristics to the compound direct-current motor.
5. Low starting torque normal starting current type which
has a large initial current requirement for starting but rather
low torque.
6. Low starting torque low starting current type which is
similar to the previous type except that a low initial current is
required to start it.
Wound rotor induction motors which are characterized by heavy
starting torque with relatively low starting current and smooth
acceleration. Speed control is effected by means of a variable
resistor in the secondary circuit which permits decreasing the
speed to about 50 per cent of synchronous speed. Beyond this
point, the motor becomes unstable.
High-frequency induction motors are used where fairly con-
stant high-speed is required. Some form of frequency changer
is also necessary when the power supply is at 60 cycles or less.

Synchronous motors which are characterized by exceptionally

constant speed under all loads within their capacity and starting
characteristics similar to those of squirrel-cage motors (where a
squirrel-cage winding is provided) They are often used to make
.

correction for the low power factors of other motors on the

system.
Repulsion-induction motors which are characterized by high
starting torque and low starting current with practically constant-
speed operation.
 845 -M
Split-phase motors which are characterized by comparatively
high starting current and low starting torque. They are usually
made in fractional horsepower sizes. In larger sizes, their
excessive starting current makes them undesirable.
Capacitor motors which are characterized by extremely quiet
operation and good starting torque. Speed control may be secured
through variation of the voltage applied to the motor terminals.
Usually, a transformer performs this function. They are useful
chiefly in applications which require motors up to 5 horsepower.
Adjustable-speed brush-shifting motors which are character-
ized by constant torque with a wide speed range at full load.
Speed control is effected by shifting the brush position.
Series-wound universal motors which are characterized by high
speed which varies with the load and ability to operate on either
alternating or direct current. They are used in fractional
horsepower sizes.
Multi-speed motors are also provided in the squirrel-cage,
wound-rotor, and synchronous types. These operate at two, three,
or four different fixed speeds with varying characteristics,
according to their construction.

Motor Selection, Direct Current. For direct-current opera-

tion,the following general types of motors are available:
Series motors that are characterized by heavy starting torque
and inverse variation of speed with load, often resulting in dan-
gerous speeds at light loads. Speed control is effected by in-
sertion of a rheostat in series with the armature, but this will
not prevent variation of speed with the load. Connection to the
driven machine is usually direct or through gears rather than
by belting.
Shunt motors which are characterized by practically constant
speed with a drop of only 10 to 12 per cent from no load to full
load. Speed control is effected by (1) armature control in which
a resistance is placed in the armature circuit for reducing the
speed down to about 50 per cent of that at full load with con-
stant torque, and (2) field regulation by introducing resistance in
the shunt field circuit which increases the speed up to 150 to
200 per cent of that at full load, with decreasing torque.
Compound motors which have characteristics similar to both
series and shunt motors, i.e., good starting capacity and fairly
constant speed. Speed control may be obtained by either field or
armature control. The customary range extends from about 75 to
200 per cent of normal full-load speed.

Motor Speed Classification. Electric motors may, for con-

venience, be classified with reference to their speed characteristics
as follows: (1) Constant-speed motors, the speed of which is
M-846
either constant or does not vary materially; such as synchronous
motors, induction motors with small slip, and ordinary direct-
current shunt motors. (2) Multi-speed motors (two-speed, three-
speed, etc.), which can be operated at any one of several distinct
speeds, these speeds being practically independent of the load,
such as motors with two armature windings, or induction motors
in which the number of poles is changed by external means. (3)
Adjustable-speed motors, in which the speed can be varied gradu-
ally over a considerable range, but when once adjusted remains
practically unaffected by the load, such as shunt motors designed
for a considerable range of speed variation. (4) Varying-speed
motors, or motors in which the speed varies with the load, ordi-
narily decreasing when the load increases, such as series motors,
compound-wound motors, and series-shunt motors. As a sub-class
of varying-speed motors may be cited adjustable varying-speed
motors, or motors in which the speed can be varied over a con-
siderable range at any given load, but, when once adjusted, varies
with the load, such as compound-wound motors arranged for ad-
justment of speed by varying the strength of the shunt field.

Motors, Protection Equipment. Protection of electric mo-

tors is accomplished by the use of various magnetically, thermally,
and mechanically operated relays which may either be separate
from or a part of the motor or starting or regulating equip-
ment Such protective devices fall under the headings of :

Low-voltage release devices which are magnetic relays that

cause interruption of the power feed when the line voltage falls
below a predetermined point but which do not prevent the re-
establishment of power connections to the motor; consequently,
they are used only where motors may be automatically re-started
without damage.
Low-voltage protective devices which not only cause interrup-
tion of the power feed, but prevent reconnection until some form
of starting mechanism is again manually actuated. To avoid un-
wanted disconnections on momentary circuit interruptions or
voltage dips, a delayed-time mechanism or holding device is
usually incorporated.
Overload protective devices which provide for circuit inter-
ruption when the overload exceeds a predetermined value as in
the case of a cartridge fuse, or when the overload exceeds such a
value for a predetermined length of time as in the case of certain
time-delay devices.
Phase protective devices which are particularly necessary on
polyphase motors of medium size and larger where the failure
of any phase may cause a reversal of rotation and
consequent
damage. But even if reversal should not occur, a phase failure
would cause an overload to be placed on the other
windings re-
 847 -M
rnaining in the circuit, and, hence, some protective device is
usually provided.
Thermal protective devices provide for circuit interruption
whenever overheating occurs, whether due to an overload or a
combination of heavy load and high ambient temperature.
Hazardous Location Protection: Both control equipment and
motors may need to be of special design when used in hazardous
locations (which see), and for this purpose special enclosures
are built which may be dust-tight, water-tight, waterproof, drip-
proof, splash-proof, weather-proof, gas-proof, or explosion-proof.
As used for such equipment, the suffix "tight** is applied to a
control or motor which is so constructed that its enclosure will
exclude the specific material guarded against from entrance. The
suffix "proof" applies to apparatus which is so constructed, pro-
tected or treated that its successful operation is not interfered
with when subjected to the specified injurious material or
condition of operation.

Motor Standards. To assist in the universal application and

interchangeable mounting of motors to all types of equipment,
the National Electrical Manufacturers Association have adopted
standard dimensions for mounting, which include the spacing of
bolt holes in the foot of the motor, the distance from the bottom
of the foot to the center line of the motor shaft, the size of the
foot, the size of the pulley, and other dimensions likely to be
required by designers or manufacturers of motor-driven equip-
ment. Also given are standard frame sizes and standard horse-
power and speed ratings for various types of motors. These
dimensions and speed ratings may be found in MACHINERY'S
Handbook.

Motors Under Automatic Control. For some motor appli-

cations, it is desirable to have the starting-box automatically
operated, or capable of being started by pushing a button or
closing a switch at some remote point. Automatically operated
control equipments are generally of the magnetic contactor type,
including interlocking devices and current limiting relays. Some
device, either hand or automatically operated, is used to close the
main switch connecting the motor to the line, all the resistance
being inserted in the secondary circuit. The current limiting re-
lays are held open by the sudden inrush of current, and none
of the secondary contactors can be energized until, at partial speed
of the motor, the current falls to some predetermined value. The
interlocks control the sequence at which the contactors are to
close, and thus short-circuit and cut out the resistance; thus with
this type of automatic control the acceleration is governed en-
tirely by the safe value of the current, and the equipment is,
 M-848
therefore, protected from abuse. The master controller or control
switch may be placed in any location remote from the motor and
the control panel. In connection with motor-driven pumps and
air compressors, the self-starter finds one of its widest fields of
usefulness. By means of a switch operated by a float in the tank,
the circuit to the motor is automatically opened and closed
through the self-starter whenever the water in the tank reaches a
predetermined high or low level. In compression tank systems,
and when used with air compressors, a pressure gage is sub-
stituted for the float switch, the circuit being made and broken as
the needle, or indicator, moves back and forth between two fixed
points.

Motor Types. See Compound-wound Motors; Commutator Mo-

tors,Alternating Current; Induction Motors, Polyphase; Series-
wound Motors; Shaftless Motors; Shunt-wound Motors; Single-
Phase Motors; Synchronous Motors; and Universal Motor.

Mottling. Mottling is a method for obtaining a mottled color-

ing effect on metal parts. On steel, such colors may be obtained
by heating the object to a cherry-red heat for several minutes in
cyanide of potassium and then dipping it in clear water, moving
it about in the bath vigorously.

Mu. A Chinese surface measure, legalized in 1908, equal to

6.144 ares or 0.15 acre.

Muff Coupling. A muff coupling is one that is split longitu-

dinally into two halves which are bolted together over the joint
of the two shafts. A key and keyway are provided in one half
of the coupling and in the shafts, to provide a positive drive.

Muffle Brazing. This is a method of brazing in which the

parts to be united are enclosed in a tube or muffle, insuring uni-
form heating and clean, smooth surfaces. This method is espe-
cially applicable to the brazing of alloys the melting temperatures
of which are nearly the same as that of the spelter solder. See
also Brazing.

Muffle Furnaces. The principle of muffle furnaces is to im-

prove the quality of the steel by keeping the heated work sepa-
rated from the combustion gases by the use of a "muffle" or
separate container into which the work is placed. There is no
doubt that this is advantageous under the usual conditions of
firing a furnace. However, with a properly designed furnace and
proper burning of fuel, the combustion gases may be made
prac-
tically harmless to the steel. The muffle type of furnace is
apt to
have more oxygen in contact with the metal than the
open heat-
ing-chamber type as the result of sealing the work. To prevent
 849 _M
oxidation, charcoal is often placed in the muffle to generate a
protective gas that will burn up the oxygen and thus prevent the
steel from scaling.

Mule Pulleys. This term is applied to the idler pulleys used

in conjunction with a right-angle belt drive which is so arranged
that the belt in passing from the driving pulley to the driven
pulley, must be guided or supported by idlers.

Mult-Au-Matic. a trade name applied to a vertical,

This is

multiple, automatic machine

tool of the station type. This ma-
chine has work-holding chucks with tool slides and tools above for
performing the necessary operations progressively as the chucks
and work index periodically from one station or tool position to
the next. Thus the tools of each position operate simultaneously
and every indexing movement brings a finished part to the first
position, where it is replaced with a rough casting or forging.

Multi-Ply. Liquid rubber which is applied in laminations to

the sides of metal tanks to be coated until the desired thickness
is obtained. These several coats coalesce during the vulcanizing

process into a single sheet, bonded or almost "welded" to the

walls of the tank. Especially applicable to plating and chemical
tanks. Provides a continuous, seamless, lap-free, and unbrokeri
lining.

Multi-Speed Winding. This type of winding consists of two

or more separate windings for alternating-current motors, which
can be so connected as to change the polar grouping. In this way,
a number of different speeds can be obtained in the motor.

Multiple-Crank Presses. Power presses having a multiple

crank drive are made in many different designs and sizes. The
double crank drive is applied to most presses included in this
class, although three- and four-crank presses, varying in width
between the housings from 3 to 10 feet, are used quite commonly.
The multiple-crank design is employed for operating large cut-
ting, bending, stamping, and forming dies or gangs of punches
and dies extending over a large area. This kind of press is alao
adapted for punching holes in wide sheets, when it is not desir-
able to use a press having a deep-throated frame. Multiple-crank
presses are used for the manufacture of sheet iron and steel
goods, such as steel and wrought-iron ranges, shingles, panelled
ceilings and sidings for buildings, cornice work, metal furniture,
automobile parts, metal radiators, etc. The larger sizes are em-
ployed for heavy stamping, cutting, perforating, forming, and
bending operations in connection with the manufacture of heavy
metal parts of automobiles and other lines of work.
M-850
Multiple-Plunger Press. The multiple-plunder press is de-
signed for producing by a series of simultaneous operations a
complete article at every revolution of the press. It is constructed
in various styles and sizes, the number of plungers varying from
3 to 8. A design most extensively used for the general run of
small work is a six-plunger machine. This press can be used for
such operations as blanking, cupping, piercing, forming, embos-
sing, stamping, curling, bending, redrawing, perforating, clip-
ping, etc., and, in fact, almost any like operation that is per-
formed on sheet metal. It can also be used when only three or
more operations are required, by having the remaining plungers
run idle. The multiple-plunger press was originated at the Water-
bury Brass Co., Waterbury, Conn., in the year 1860, its inventor
being Robert Cairns.

Muntz Metal. Muntz metal is a brass containing about 60

per cent of copper and 40 per cent of zinc. It is used in marine
work for bolts and nuts not subjected to the action of salt water,
and also for castings and fittings which are not subjected to salt
water. The tensile strength is 40,000 pounds per square inch, and
the elongation in two inches, 25 per cent. Experiments for de-
termining the effects of heat-treatment on Muntz metal indicate
that after annealing cold-drawn bars to 500 degrees C. (about
930 degrees F.) for 48 hours, the tensile strength is about 50,000
,

pounds. The metal is remarkably immune from oxidation during

heating. It is not advisable to anneal at a higher temperature
than that mentioned.

Muriatic Acid. Muriatic acid is an aqueous solution of hy-

drogen chloride, the chemical formula of which is HC1; chemically
known as hydrochloric acid.

Muscovite. See Mica.

Mushet Steel. Mushet steel is a tool steel discovered in 1868

by Robert F. Mushet. This steel is known as self-hardening, and
also as air-hardening, steel. Mushet steel contains a high per-
centage of tungsten and has the property of becoming hard, after
heating, without the usual quenching. It is an early type of high-
speed steel.

Music Wire. Music or piano wire is made from a high grade

of steel in diameters of from 0.004 to 0.180 inch. There are many
different gages to which this class of wire is made, but the piano
wire gage designated as the "American Steel & Wire Co.'s Music
Wire Gage" is adopted as standard for piano wire in the United
States, upon the recommendation of the U. S. Bureau of Stand-
ards, The smaller diameters of music wire have an ultimate
 851 -M
tensile strength of from 300,000 to 340,000 pounds per square
inch. The composition of this wire is as follows: Carbon, 0.67
per cent; silicon, 0.09 per cent; sulphur, 0.011 per cent; phos-
phorus, 0.018 per cent; manganese, 0.425 per cent.

Mycalex. "Mycalex," a composition of ground mica and lead

borate, is an insulating material used for radio high-frequency
insulators. It has better insulating properties than porcelain, is
light gray in color and has a metallic ring. It is used in the man-
ufacture of bases for radio transmitter tubes, for aerial insula-
tors in high frequency work, and for numerous similar applica-
tions.
 N
Nail-Holding Qualities of Woods. Tests made to determine
the nail-holding qualities of various woods, with various sizes of
nails from 8d to 60d, indicate that white pine has a very low hold-
ing resistance as compared with yellow pine, white oak, chestnut,
and laurel. As a general average, if the holding resistance of
wire nails in white oak is assumed to be 100 per cent, then the
holding resistance of wire nails in white pine is 18 per cent; in
yellow pine, 34 per cent; and in laurel, 69 per cent The holding
resistance of cut nails, compared with wire nails in white oak as
100 per cent, is as follows: Cut nails, in white pine, 43 per cent;
in yellow pine, 71 per cent; in white oak, 130 per cent; in chest-
nut, 73 per cent; and in laurel, 128 per cent. Experiments re-
lating to the holding resistance of 6d nails in different kinds of
woods, compared with the holding resistance in white oak as
100 per cent, gave the following results: White pine, 31 per cent;
yellow pine, 54 per cent; bass wood, 40 per cent; hemlock, 61 per
cent. In some kinds of wood, the holding resistance of cut nails
is twice that of wire nails. This is especially the case in the softer
woods. In the harder woods, the superiority of the cut nail over
the wire nail varies from 30 to 50 per cent In white pine, cut
nails driven with the taper across the grain show a superiority
over wire nails of as high as 135 per cent
Spike-gripping Power: Experiments show that generally twice
as much force is required to extract spikes from oak as from
white or yellow pine. The spikes in the experiments mentioned
were driven across the grain of the wood. When driven with the
grain, the holding power is reduced at least one-half. The condi-
tion of the wood affects the gripping power. For instance, ex-
periments have shown that the force required to draw spikes 9/16
by 9/16 inch, driven 4% inches into seasoned oak, is about
4280 pounds. The same spikes driven into unseasoned oak require
6500 pounds to draw.

Napier Formula. The Napier formula for the discharge of

saturated steam was proposed by S. D. Napier, an English engi-
neer, as a result of carefully conducted experiments, made by him
to test the accuracy of abstruse mathematical formulas of flow
that had previously been relied upon, which formulas he found
tobe in error. Napier's tests indicated that the more intricate
formulas modified to the simple formula, W
*= (P x
^) -3- 70,
would be nearly true in all cases where the initial pressure is

852
 853 -N
1 2/3 times the pressure of the gaseous medium into which steam
may be discharged, and the formula has been extensively verified
and is accepted as substantially correct for such conditions. In
the formula, W
is the number of pounds of steam discharged per
second from an aperture; P is absolute pressure (absolute pres-
sure is taken, because the physical properties of steam depend
upon absolute pressure and not upon gage pressure, which is
accidental and depends on the variable pressure of the atmos-
phere) ; Athe area in square inches of the aperture.
is

Napierian Logarithms. The Napierian or hyperbolic loga-

rithms differ from the common logarithms in that the base of the
hyperbolic logarithms is 2.71828, whereas the base of the common
logarithms is 10. The name "Napierian" logarithms is derived
from the inventor of this mathematical time-saver, John Napier,
a Scotchman, born in 1550. The work in which the logarithms
were first described appeared in 1614.
Napier Motion. When a gear or pinion is in mesh with a
single rack and rotates in one position, obviously both the gear
and rack must reverse their direction of motion at the end of
each stroke if a reciprocating motion is to be imparted to the
driven member to which the rack is attached. The gear, how-
ever, may rotate continuously in one direction if it is arranged to
engage the upper and lower sides of a rack designed especially to
permit such engagement. A mechanism of this type, known as
the Napier motion and also as "mangle gearing," has been used
for imparting a rectilinear motion to the tables of flat-bed
printing presses.
National Standard Screw Threads. See American Stand-
ard Screw Thread System.
National Wire Gage. See Steel Wire Gage.
Native Copper. Native copper, also known as malleable cop-
per and virgin copper, is practically pure natural copper, having
all the properties of refined metal. It is mined extensively in the
Lake Superior district, and in Bolivia.

Natural Alloy Steel. Natural alloy

steel is so designated be-
cause of the fact that this class of steel is manufactured from an
ore in which nickel and chromium are alloyed by nature. About
1900, this ore was discovered at Mayari and Moa in the Province
of Oriente, in the eastern part of Cuba. These ores show a re-
markable uniformity of composition and cover some 25,000 acres.
The various grades of steel into which this ore is manufactured
contain from 1.00 to 1.50 per cent of nickel; from 0.20 to 0.70 per
cent of chromium; from 0.15 to 1.50 per cent of carbon; and from
0.50 to 0.80 per cent of manganese; the silicon is kept below
0.20 per cent, and the phosphorus and sulphur, below 0.04 per
N-854
cent These two latter elements, however, seldom reach 0.035 per
cent, and a phosphorus content that is below 0.02 per cent is
often obtained. These natural alloy steels are made by the open-
hearth process and are, in the heat-treated condition, equal to
3% per cent nickel steel. In some ways, they are superior to this
steel and especially is this true of the grade that contains the
higher percentages of chromium, or when they are manufactured
into parts that have a comparatively large sectional area. They
are also cheaper than the nickel steels made by the same process.
Natural alloy steel can be hammered, rolled, drop-forged, pressed,
stamped, or machined with the same ease and at the same tem-
peratures as carbon steel; no special precautions are necessary.
Natural alloy steels are largely used in the manufacture of auto-
mobile parts. One grade containing as low as 0.15 per cent of
carbon is used for casehardened parts. Speed change-gears,
differential gears, etc., are made from steel containing 0.20 per
cent of carbon. The grades containing high percentages of carbon
are used for spindles, rear axles, crankshafts, and transmission
gears. Natural alloy steels, like all other steels, will attain the
highest strength only when properly heat-treated. In the un-
treated or annealed state, they show a tensile strength and elastic
limit that is from 8000 to 10,000 pounds per square inch higher
than carbon steels of the same carbon content, but, when properly
heat-treated, they compare favorably with other alloy steels.

Natural Cement. This cement is made by burning mixtures

of clay and carbonate of lime, or by calcination of a silicious lime-
stone containing magnesia, and may be considered as Portland
cement of inferior quality. Natural cement is a good building
material for ordinary purposes, but is not as suitable for heavy
and important concrete constructions as Portland cement Natural
cement does not develop its strength as quickly and is not as uni-
form in composition as Portland cement. It is satisfactory to use,
however, in massive masonry, where weight rather than strength
is the essential feature.

Nautical Measure. 1 league =

8 nautical miles; 1 nautical
mile (often called "knot") =6080.2 feet^= 1.1516 statute miles;
one degree at the equator tss 60 nautical miles e= 69.096 statute
miles; 860 degrees *= 21,600 nautical miles s= 24,874.5 statute
miles tss circumference of earth at the equator.

Naval Brass or Bronze. This alloy, which is also known as

"Tobin Bronze," is used for applications requiring a stronger,
tougher, and less corrodible material than commercial brass rod.
S.A.E. Composition No. 78: Copper, 59 to 62; tin, 0.50 to
1.50; iron, max., 0.10; lead, max., 0.30; other impurities, max.,
0.10 per cent; zinc, remainder.
 855 -N
Physical Properties: Minimum tensile strength in pounds per
square inch varies from 54,000 to 62,000, depending upon the
diameter of the rod; yield point, from 22,000 to 31,000; elonga-
tion, from 25 to 40 per cent. Hot-pressed forgings should have
an ultimate strength of 54,000, a yield point of 22,000 pounds per
square inch, with an elongation in 2 inches of 25 per cent.

Naxos Emery. This is an abrasive obtained from Naxos, an

island in the ^Egean Sea. It is considered the best natural emery
obtainable, containing about 63 per cent of crystalline alumina,
which is the cutting material.

Needle Valve. A
needle valve is provided with a long taper-
ing point in place of the ordinary valve disk. The tapering point
permits fine gradation of the opening. At times called a needle
point valve.

Negative Numbers. Ordinary numbers may be considered

positive and negative in the same way as the graduations on
a thermometer scale. When we count 1, 2, 3, etc., we refer to
the numbers that are larger than (corresponding to the degrees
above the zero point), and these numbers are called positive num-
bers. We can conceive, however, of numbers extending in the
other direction; numbers that are, in fact, less than (corre-
sponding to the degrees below the zero point on the thermometer
scale) As these numbers must be expressed by the same figures
.

as the positive numbers, they are designated by a minus sign

placed before them. For example, 3 means a number that is as
much less than, or beyond, in the negative direction as 3 (or,
as it might be written, -f-3) is larger than in the positive
direction.
A negative value should always be enclosed within a parenthesis
whenever it is written in line with other numbers; for example:
17 + (13) 3 X (0.76).
In this example ( 13) and ( 0.76) are negative numbers,
and, by enclosing the whole number, minus sign and all, in a
parenthesis, it is shown that the minus sign is part of the number
itself,indicating its negative value. It must be understood that
in the expression 7 4, the value 4 is not a negative number,
although it is preceded by a minus sign. In this case the minus
sign is simply the sign of subtraction, indicating that 4 is to be
subtracted from 7; but 4 is still a positive number or a number
that is larger than 0.
Negative numbers are most commonly met with in the use of
logarithms and natural trigonometric functions. The following
rules govern calculations with negative numbers.
N-856
(1) When adding two or more positive or two or more negative
numbers, their sum is equal to the sum of their absolute values
and has the same sign as that of the numbers being added.

Example: + 8 + 10 = 2 20
(3) + (6) + (4) =18
(2) When adding
a positive and a negative number, their sum
isequal to the difference of their absolute values and has the
same sign as the number having the larger absolute value, thus :

Example: +2= 6 4
9 + (3) =6
(3) When adding several positive and negative numbers, first
add the positive and negative numbers separately and then add
their respective sums. Follow Rule 2 for this last operation.

Example:
4 + (6) + 8 + (2) = 12 + (8) = 4

(4) When subtracting one positive number from another posi-

tive number or one negative number from another negative
number, the remainder is equal to the difference of their absolute
values and has the same sign as the numbers being subtracted
if the minuend has a larger absolute value than the subtrahend
but the opposite sign if the minuend has a smaller absolute value
than the subtrahend.
=
Examples:
(6)
-
8
(-4)
10
=2
=3
2

(-6) (-9)
(5) When subtracting a negative number from a positive num-
ber or vice versa, the remainder is equal to the sum of their
absolute values and has the same sign as the minuend.

Examples: 8 ( 2) =10
(2) 3 = 5

(6) When multiplying two positive or two negative numbers

together, their product is equal to the product of their absolute
values and is positive.

Examples: 18 X 16 = 288
(_9) X (27) = 243

(7) When multiplying a positive and a negative number to-

gether, their product is equal to the product of their absolute
values and is negative.

Example: 182 X ( 16) = 2912

 857 -N
(8) When dividing a positive number by a positive number,
or a negative number by a negative number, their quotient is
equal to the quotient of their absolute values and is positive.

Example:
196 -f-= 28 7
(1064) -j- (76) = 14

(9) When dividing a positive number by a negative number

or vice versa, their quotient is equal to the quotient of their
absolute values and is negative.

Example: 5190 -=-

(346) = 15
2698 ~ 19 = 142

Negative Rake. This term is sometimes applied to turning

or other metal-cutting tools which are so ground that the tool has
less keenness than one ground to a rake angle of zero. See Rake
of Metal-cutting Tools.

Neon. Neon is a gaseous chemical element, the symbol of

which isNe, and the atomic weight, 20.2. Neon occurs in very
small quantities in the earth's atmosphere, and was first discov-
ered in 1898. It is a colorless gas having a specific gravity
(compared with air as unity) of 0.674. It becomes liquid at a
temperature of 248 degrees C. ( 405 degrees F.), and solidifies
at a temperature of 253 degrees C. (423 degrees F.) .Neon
occurs in the air in greater proportions than any of the other rare
gases, except argon. The presence in air is to the extent of from
1 to 2 volumes in 100,000 volumes of air.

Neon Lamps. See Vapor Lamps.

Neoprene. A synthetic rubber with the elastic properties of

natural rubber, but impervious to alcohol, anti-freeze solutions,
automobile radiator cleaning compounds, oils, and chemicals in
general. Used for many purposes where natural rubber products
have failed to give satisfactory service, because of having less
tendency to crack when repeatedly stretched and bent at high
temperatures.

Neutral Axis. The neutral axis of a beam subjected to a bend-

ing stress is that line or plane in which the fiber stress equals
zero. Strictly speaking, the neutral axis should be simply a line,
and when considering the whole plane in which the fiber stress
equals zero, it should be referred to as the neutral plane; but this
is seldom done in engineering literature, the expression "neutral
axis" being very frequently used in place of "neutral plane." If
the beam is of a homogeneous material and subjected to bending
N-858
stresses only, the neutral axis passes through the center of grav-
ity of the cross-section. If the beam is subjected to combined
flexure and direct stress, then the neutral axis will not pass
through the center of gravity. All engineering materials may be
considered as homogeneous except beams made from reinforced
concrete, in which the neutral axis will not be located at the
center of gravity of the cross-sectional area.

Neutral Conductor. When a polyphase circuit has a neutral

conductor, it may be designated as that conductor which is in-
tended to carry a much smaller current than the other conductors,
provided these others are all expected to carry approximately
equal currents. In a polyphase circuit having a neutral con-
ductor, the potential differences between it and each of the other
conductors are intended to be equal. In a three-phase circuit, a
neutral conductor would be a fourth conductor.

Neutral Flame. Ordinarily in welding metals by the autoge-

nous process, it is essential to so regulate the gases used that
a neutral or non-oxidizing flame is obtained. If oxygen and acety-
lene are used complete combustion is effected when one volume
of acetylene burns with two and one-half volumes of oxygen.
According to one authority the highest flame temperature is pro-
duced by a mixture at the torch of one volume of acetylene with
one volume of oxygen, the surrounding air supplying the addi-
tional one and one-half volumes of oxygen necessary to complete
combustion. The flame produced from such a mixture is neutral
in that it does not produce chemical changes detrimental to the
metal with which it is in contact. To adjust a torch for a neutral
flame, first adjust so that the flame shows a secondary or middle
cone characteristic of excess acetylene; then reduce the amount
of the acetylene until this secondary cone just disappears.

Neutral Plane. A neutral plane is the plane in a beam sub-

jected to a load tending to bend it in which neither compression
nor tension will occur. See Neutral Axis*

Neutron. See Electron Theory,

Newton's Law of Motion. The first clear statement of the
fundamental relations existing between force and motion was
made in the seventeenth century by Sir Isaac Newton, the Eng-
lish mathematician and physicist. It was put in the form of three
laws, which are given as originally stated by Newton: I. Every
body continues in its state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight
line, except in so far as it may be compelled by force to change
that state; IL Change of motion is proportional to the force ap-
plied and takes place in the direction in which that force acts.
III. To every action there is always an equal reaction; or, the
 859 -N
mutual actions of two bodies are always equal and oppositely
directed.

Nib. The term nib is sometimes applied to the gaging end of

a plug gage consisting of a handle into which the nib or gaging
end is inserted. The nib may be of plain cylindrical form for
gaging the diameters of holes, or it may be a threaded form for
gaging screw thread sizes.

Nibbling Machine. The "nibbling machine*' is so named be-

cause it is used for cutting sheet metals to any desired outline,

by means of a rapidly reciprocating punch which takes numerous

small cuts. The punch is of small size and enters a die held in
the bedplate. Sheet steel can be cut out to the contour of lay-
out lines or superimposed templets. This machine is intended for
use where conditions do not warrant making a blanking punch
and die for use on a power press.
Nichrome. "Nichrome" is the trade name of an alloy com-
posed of nickel and chromium, which is practically non-corrosive
and far superior to nickel in its ability to withstand high tem-
peratures. Its melting point is about 1550 degrees C. (about
2800 degrees F.). Nichrome shows a remarkable resistance to
sulphuric and lactic acids. In general, nichrome is adapted for
annealing and carburizing boxes, heating retorts of various kinds,
conveyor chains subjected to high temperatures, valves and valve
seats of internal combustion engines, molds, plungers and con-
veyors for use in the working of glass, wire baskets or receptacles
of other form that must resist the action of acids, etc. Nichrome
may be used as a substitute for other materials, especially where
there is difficulty from oxidation, pitting of surfaces, corrosion,
change of form, or lack of strength at high temperatures. It can
be used in electrically-heated appliances and resistance elements.
Large plates of this alloy are used by some manufacturers for
containers and furnace parts, and when perforated, as screens for
use in chemical sifting and ore roasting apparatus, for services
where temperatures between 1700 degrees F. and 2200 degrees F.
are encountered.
Strength of Nichrome: The strength of a nichrome casting,
when cold, varies from 45,000 to 50,000 pounds per square inch.
The ultimate strength at 200 degrees F. is 94,000 pounds per
square inch; at 400 degrees F., 91,000 pounds per square inch;
at 600 degrees F., 59,000 pounds per square inch; and at 800 de-
grees F., 32,000 pounds per square inch. At a temperature of
1800 degrees F., nichrome has a tensile strength of about 30,000
pounds per square inch, and it is tough and will bend considerably
before breaking, even when heated red or white hot.
N-860
Nichrome in Cast Iron: Because of the irregularity of the cast-
ings, the numerous cores required, and the necessity for sound
castings, gray iron with a high silicon content has been the best
cast iron available to the automotive industry. Attempts have
been made to alloy this metal in such a way that the strength and
hardness would be increased, but considerable difficulty has been
experienced in obtaining uniform results. Nickel has been added
to the cupola with success, but in the case of automotive castings,
where a large quantity of silicon is present, the nickel has com-
bined with the silicon in forming large flakes of graphite, which,
of course, softens the product. To off set this, chromium has also
been added, but it has been uncertain just what the chromium
content of the poured mixture should be, as a considerable
amount of the chromium oxidizes.
Nichrome (Grande B) may be added to the ladle to obtain chro-
mium and nickel in definite controllable amounts. The analysis
of this nichrome is, approximately: Nickel, 60 per cent; chro-
mium, 12 per cent; and iron, 24 per cent. It is claimed that the
process produces castings of closer grain, greater hardness,
greater resistance to abrasion, increased durability, improved
machinability, and decreased brittleness. Nichrome-processed
iron is suitable for casting internal-combustion engine cylinders ;
electrical equipment, where a control of the magnetic properties
is desired; cast-iron cams; iron castings of thin sections where

machinability and durability are factors; electrical resistance

grids; pistons; piston-rings; and water, steam, gas, and other
valves.

Nickel. Nickel is a grayish-white, malleable, ductile metal.

In dry air, it remains unchanged, but oxidizes slowly in moisture
in which acids are present. It resists the action of caustic soda,
caustic potash, and concentrated nitric acid, but is readily dis-
solved by dilute nitric acid and aqua regia. Dilute hydrochloric
acid and dilute sulphuric acid attack it very slowly. Nickel is used
to a very large extent in the industries, especially in the manu-
facture of domestic utensils and for nickel-plating; it is also used
for coins, and a number of alloys. Steels containing a small per-
centage of nickel have properties far superior to those of ordinary
steel, while steels containing a very high percentage of nickel
have been manufactured for special purposes. Nickel is obtained
mainly from garnierite, the largest deposit of which is in New
Caledonia, and from pyrrhotite, which is found principally in
Canada, Germany, Sweden, and Norway. It is also secured from
the by-products obtained by treating many pyrite and chalco-
pyrite deposits for sulphur or copper. The method of extracting
the nickel depends upon the composition of the ore.
The specific gravity of nickel varies according to the method
 861 -N
used for obtaining the metal ; it has been found to be as low as
8.3 and as high as 9.25; an average commercial value is 8.8, giv-
ing a weight per cubic inch of 0.318 pound. Pure nickel melts at
1452 degrees C. (2646 degrees F.) . The melting point of com-
mercial nickel, however, varies anywhere from 1400 to 1600 de-
grees C. (from about 2550 to 2900 degrees P.) The specific heat
.

averages 0,108 between 60 and 212 degrees F., and increases with
an increase in the temperature. The thermal conductivity of
nickel equals 14.2 (silver = 100) and the electrical conductivity,
12.9 (silver = 100). The linear expansion per unit length, per
degree F., equals 0.00000695. Nickel is magnetic, but loses its
magnetism when heated, and becomes entirely non-magnetic at a
temperature of about 650 degrees F.
Nickel Alloy for Resisting Acids. The resistance of nickel to
acids is considerably increased by an addition of tantalum. Or-
dinarily from 5 to 10 per cent may be added, but the resistance
increases with an increasing percentage of tantalum. An alloy
of nickel with 30 per cent tantalum, for example, can be boiled in
aqua regia or any other acid without being affected. The alloy
is claimed to be tough, easily rolled, capable of being hammered
or drawn into wire. The nickel loses its magnetic quality when
alloyed with tantalum. The alloy can be heated in the open air at
a high temperature without oxidizing. The method of producing
the alloy consists in mixing the two metals in a powdered form,
compressing them at high pressure, and bringing them to a high
heat in a crucible or quartz tube in a vacuum. For general pur-
poses, the alloy is too expensive.
Nickel-Chromium Steel. Nickel-chromium steel has, by both
laboratory and practical tests, proved to be a very high grade
steel. It is used on various classes of machinery that require a
steel of high tensile strength, high elastic limit, and a great
resistance to shock and torsional stresses. The properties which
are given to steel by nickel and chromium, when used separately,
are accentuated when nickel and chromium are added at the same
time. A steel is then produced that possesses the very highest
qualities that can be obtained with regard to strength, hardness,
and ductility. The different combinations or percentages of the
components of nickel-chromium steels are as varied as their mak-
ers. Thus nickel is used in percentages of from 1 to 5; chromium,
from from 0.25 to 0.45; silicon, when used, from
0.5 to 5; carbon,
0.5 to 3manganese,
; from 0.25 to 1.
Nickel-chromium steel must always be heat-treated in order to
bring out the latent qualities of the annealed steel. It should be
annealed after it has been worked and before heat-treatment, in
order that it may return to its natural state of repose, as machin-
ing, forging, hammering, etc., is liable to throw it out of its
N-862
homogeneity. The well-known Krupp armor-plate steel is a nickel-
chromium steel containing about 3.25 per cent of nickel, 1.5 per
cent of chromium, and 0.4 per cent of carbon. The value of this
steel lies particularly in the fact that it does not crack even when
deeply penetrated by a projectile. It is also used, to a great ex-
tent, for gears, and is the highest grade of steel on the market
for this purpose. Another use is for automobile parts which re-
quire great strength and reliability.
S.A.E. Nickel-chromium Steels: Nickel-chromium steels repre-
sent an important class in the automotive industry. The S.A.E.
specifications include four different groups of compositions,
according to the nickel-chromium content.
Nickel in Cast Iron. See Cast-iron Wearing Properties.
Nickel Plating. See Electro-plating.
Nickel Silver. See German Silver.
Nickel Steel. Nickel steel usually contains from 3 to 3.5 per
cent of nickel (seldom over 5 per cent) and from 0.20 to 0.40 per
cent of carbon. It combines great tensile strength and hardness
with a high elastic limit and ductility. When properly heat-
treated, it is much stronger than tool steel, but should not be used
without heat-treating. Because of its combination of ductility,
strength, and hardness, it is extensively used for armor plate,
because it does not crack when perforated by a projectile. It is
also used for ammunition, bridge construction, rails, etc., and in
automobile building. An advantage claimed for nickel steel for
rails is its increased resistance to abrasion. On sharp curves, it
is estimated that a nickel-steel rail will outlast four ordinary
rails. The combination of ductility with a high elastic limit makes
this steel also valuable for shafting, especially for marine pur-
poses where high and sudden stresses are frequently imposed
upon the propeller shafting. It it suitable for parts requiring
great strength, ductility, elasticity, abrasion and corrosion re-
sistance for example, axles, spindles, light-weight frames (such
as for bicycles), rivets, gun barrels, armor plate, etc. It is easily
cast and forged. When alloyed with chromium or vanadium, it
is largely used for crankshafts, special spindles, automobile axle

parts, etc. The strongest nickel steels are made from low-carbon
steels.
Nickel steel can be purchased in almost any percentages of
nickel up to 85 per cent, and with the carbon component varying
between 0.10 and 1 per cent. If nickel is added to steel in any
percentage not exceeding 8 per cent, the tensile strength and the
elastic limit of the steel will increase with the percentage of
nickel. If the percentage of nickel is above 8 per cent, but less
than 15 per cent, its effect on the steel becomes entirely neutral-
 863 -N
ized and brittieness
is produced. If the nickel percentage, how-
ever, isabove 15 per cent, then the strength and elasticity become
practically equal to that of the nickel steels with percentages of
nickel less than 8 per cent. If the nickel percentage is increased
above 20 per cent, the strength and elastic limit gradually de-
crease, but the elongation increases. The nickel in S.A.E. com-
positions varies from 3.25 to 5.25 per cent.

Nigrosine Paper. Nigrosine paper, also known as black-print

paper, is a material used for obtaining black lines on a white
background by the process of blueprinting.

Nikrome M. An alloy steel containing from 2 to 2.5 per cent

nickel;from 0.90 to 1 per cent chromium; and from 0.40 to 0.50
per cent molybdenum. Minimum guaranteed properties : Tensile
strength, 110,000 pounds per square inch; yield point, 90,000
pounds per square inch; elongation in 2 inches, 16 per cent; re-
duction of area, 47 per cent. Especially intended for heavy-duty
parts, such as axles, shafts, bolts, studs, etc., made to large di-
mensions approximately 5 to 8 inches in diameter. The material
can be so heat-treated as to be practically uniform in hardness
from surface to center.

Nilvar. A nickel-iron alloy that has the lowest coefficient of

expansion of any metal at temperatures up to 392 degrees P.
Suitable for applications where dimensions must be maintained
at varying temperatures, as, for example, in rotor and stator
plates of variable condensers in ultra high-frequency radio equip-
ment, bimetallic strip, and length standards.

Nipples. Nipples are short pieces of standard pipe threaded

on each end. When the threads run together at the center, the
term "dose nipple" is used; if a small amount of unthreaded sur-
face is left in the center, the name used is "short nipple." Longer
nipples are classified as "long" and "extra long," the latter vary-
ing from 4 to 12 inches, the length increasing by even inches. A
shoulder nipple is a nipple of any length, which has a portion of
pipe between two pipe threads. Generally, however, it is a nipple
about halfway between the length of a close nipple and a short
nipple. A space nipple has a portion of pipe or shoulder between
the two threads. It may be of any length long enough to allow
a shoulder. Nipples are either threaded right-hand or right- and
left-hand.

Niter Bluing Process. This is a method for giving articles

of iron and steel a fine blue color by immersing them in molten
nitrate of potash (niter), often called "saltpeter." See Bluing
Steel.
N-864
Nitralloy. "Nitralloy" is a trade
name applied to a number of
special alloy steels which can be surface hardened by being sub-
jected to the action of ammonia gas. See Nitriding Process.

Nitric Acid. Commercial nitric acid is yellow in color and has

a specific gravity of about 1.4. It is one of the important mineral
acids. It contains 68 per cent of the pure acid and boils at a
temperature of 120.5 degrees C. (249 degrees F.). Nitric acid
attacks most metals readily, its action depending usually upon the
temperature and the strength of the acid. Concentrated nitric
acid gives off red fumes when the acid acts upon most metals.
Nitric acid has no effect upon gold, platinum, iridium, or
rhodium. It solidifies at a temperature of 53 degrees F.

Nitriding Process. Nitriding is a process for surface hard-

ening certain alloy steels by heating the steel in an atmosphere of
nitrogen (ammonia gas) at approximately 950 degrees F. The
steel is then cooled slowly. Finish machined surfaces hardened
by nitriding are subject to minimum distortion. The physical
properties, such as toughness, high impact strength, etc., can be
imparted to the core by previous heat-treatments and are un-
affected by drawing temperatures up to 950 degrees F. The
"Nitralloy" steels suitable for this process may readily be ma-
chined in the heat-treated as well as in the annealed state, and
they forge as easily as alloy steels of the same carbon content.
Certain heat-treatments must be applied prior to nitriding, the
first being annealing to relieve rolling, forging, or machining
strains. Parts or sections not requiring heat-treating should be
machined or ground to the exact dimensions required. Close
tolerances must be maintained in finish machining, but allow-
ances for growth due to adsorption of nitrogen should be made,
and this usually amounts to about 0.0005 inch for a case depth of
0.02 inch. Parts requiring heat-treatment for definite physical
properties are forged or cut from annealed stock; heat-treated
for the desired physical properties, rough machined, normalized,
and finish machined. If quenched and drawn parts are normalized
afterwards, the drawing and normalizing temperatures should be
alike. The normalizing temperature may be below, but should
never be above the drawing temperature.

Nitrogen* Nitrogen is a gas that forms approximately 79 per

cent by volume, or 77 per cent by weight, of the atmosphere. The
specific gravity of nitrogen (air e= 1) is 0.967, and its atomic
weight, 14.01. It liquefies at a temperature of 194 degrees C.
( 317 degrees F.) and solidifies at a temperature of 210 de-
grees C, (346 degrees F.). Its specific heat equals 0.244.
Nitrogen neither bums nor supports the combustion of ordinary
combustible materials. Nitrogen is produced in large quantities
 865 ^N
from atmospheric air in the commercial manufacture of nitric
acid and nitrates.

Nitroglycerine. Practically all the higher explosives are based

on "nitro," which is a chemical combination of glycerine and
nitric acid, wherein the three hydroxyls of the glycerine are re^
placed by nitrogen oxide or some other organic substance with
which the nitric acid can combine in a similar manner. Nitro-
glycerine is a heavy, thick, syrupy liquid. It has a specific gravity
of 1.6, and its melting point is 13 degrees C. It has an intensely
sweet taste, but is very poisonous, even in small quantities, when
taken internally. The dose, when given internally, is only from
1/200 to 1/50 drop. Nitroglycerine is very sensitive to shock and
friction, for which reason it is dangerous when frozen, as it must
be thawed out before it can be used. A diluent has been found
that will lower its freezing point without impairing its explosive
power.
Noble Metal. This is a term applied to metals, such as gold,
silver, and platinum. A noble composition is an alloy of two
noble metals to which are added one or more metals as minor
components.
Non-Ferrous Alloys. See Alloys, Non-ferrous; also various
non-ferrous alloys, such as Brass; Bronze; Aluminum Alloys;
Copper Alloys; Die-casting Alloys.
Non-Gran Bronze. Non-gran bronze is a gun-metal alloy.
Its composition is copper, 86.5 per cent; tin, 11 per cent; and
zinc, 2.5 per cent, with impurities which are less than 0.2 per
cent. Non-gran bronze can be cast readily, and is also produced
in bar form. The solid sizes range from %
inch to 5 inches in
diameter, by eighths of an inch, and the cored sizes from %
inch
to 3 inches inside diameter, by eighths. It is a good metal for
non-adjustable bushings where the original dimensions must be
preserved through long service. It is also adapted, on account of
its resistance to wearing action, for high-speed gears and worms,
and for feed-nuts, valves, etc.
Properties: Weight, 0.31 pound per cubic inch; 536 pounds per
cubic foot, Specific gravity, 8.6. Strength: tension, 37,000
pounds per square inch; compression, 19,500 pounds per square
inch. Melting point, 2050 degrees F.

Non-Metal. A non-metal is a chemical element which does not

possess the properties of a metal that is, one that lacks metallic
;

luster and which as a rule is nearly a non-conductor of heat and

electricity; it is also electro-negative. There is no sharp demar-
cation, however, between metals and non-metals. The elements
tt&hich cannot be defined strictly as being either the one or the
other are known as metalloids.
N-866
Non-Spinning Rope. See Rope, Non-spinning*
Norbide. An extremely hard material having a compressive
strength of 260,000 pounds per square inch; unaffected by the
strongest acids and alkalies, and little affected by heat up to tem-
peratures of 1800 degrees F. It is lighter than aluminum. Used
in the cutting and lapping of cemented tungsten-carbides; for
wire-drawing dies; pressure blast nozzles; and bearings for elec-
tric motors and high-speed spindles in grinding machines.

Nordberg Key. This is a taper key of circular cross-section.

This type of key may be used for attaching handwheels to their
shafts or for other similar light work requiring an inexpensive
type of key. The Nordberg key has a taper of 1/16 inch per foot.
The center of the key hole is located at the joint line between the
shaft and hub. A small hole may be drilled first to prevent the
larger drill from crowding over into the cast-iron hub. A general
rule for determining the size of the key is to make the large key
diameter equal to one-fourth the shaft diameter.

Normal Circular Pitch. The word "normal" is applied to the

pitch of helical gears. The normal circular pitch is the distance
between the centers of adjacent teeth measured along the pitch
surface and perpendicular to the teeth; hence it is the shortest
center-to-center distance.
Normal circular pitch = circular pitch in plane of rotation
multiplied by cosine of helix angle. It also equals 3.1416 divided
by normal diametral pitch. Circular pitch in plane of rotation t==
pitch circumference divided by number of teeth.

Normal Diametral Pitch. This is the diametral pitch corre-

sponding to the normal circular pitch. Normal diametral pitch
s= number of teeth divided by product of pitch diameter mul-
tipliedby cosine of helix angle. It also equals 3.1416 divided by
product of circular pitch in plane of rotation multiplied by cosine
of helix angle. This is the diametral pitch of the cutter for a
helical gear.

Normalizing. Normalizing of steel is a special case of anneal-

ing and may be defined as heating the steel above the critical tem-
perature and cooling it freely in air. Annealing consists in heat-
ing at any elevated temperature and cooling at a relatively slow
rate. It may be necessary, in the case of annealing, to hold the
temperature fOT many hours or even days, whereas in normalizing
it is sufficient to secure an even penetration of the heat through-
out the material. Normalizing is intended to put the steel into a
uniform, unstressed condition of proper grain size and refinement
so that it will properly respond to further heat-treatments. It is
particularly important in the case of forgings which are to be
 867 -N
later heat-treated. Normalizing may or may not (depending upon
the composition) leave steel in a sufficiently soft state for
machining. In some cases annealing for machinability is pre-
ceded by normalizing, and the final result is much better than a
simple anneal. The annealing temperatures are usually above the
critical range, although not in general as high as those used in
normalizing.
When using the lower carbon steels, simple normalizing is often
sufficient to place the steel in its best condition for machining and
will lessen distortion in carburizing or hardening. In the medium
and higher carbon steels combined normalizing and annealing
constitutes the best practice. For unimportant parts the normal-
izing may be omitted entirely or annealing practiced only when
the steel is otherwise difficult to machine. Both processes are
recommended in the heat-treatments (for S.A.E. standard steels)
as representing the best metallurgical practice. The temperatures
recommended for normalizing and annealing have been made in-
definite in many
instances because of the many different types of
furnaces used in various plants and the difference in results
desired.

Normal Pitch. The term "normal pitch" is applied to helical

gears but it may have different meanings. This term, used in
connection with gear design or gear-cutting practice, generally
relates either to the normal diametral pitch or to the normal cir-
cular pitch, in which case either diametral or circular should be
included in the term to indicate definitely which kind of pitch is
intended. Ahelical gear also has a normal pitch which pertains
to the pitch of successive involute curves or tooth profiles. In-
volute curves developed from equidistant points along a given
base circle, will be parallel or equidistant at all points if measured
in a plane perpendicular to the gear axis and along any line that
is tangential to the base circle. The normal pitch of an involute
gear is the distance between the corresponding profiles of ad-
jacent teeth when measured as described. The normal pitch also
equals the length of the arc of the base circle, between the points
where successive involutes originate.
Normal pitch equals circumference of base circle divided by
the number of gear teeth.
Diameter of base circle equals pitch diameter multiplied by
cosine of pressure angle in plane of rotation.
The normal pitch is often referred to as base pitch. The normal
pitch is measured in the rotational plane of the gear, whereas the
normal circular pitch is measured in the plane that is normal or
perpendicular to the helix angle of the gear as explained in the
paragraph Normal Circular Pitch. See also Normal Diametral
Pitch.
N-868
Normal Pressure Angle. See Pressure Angle.
Normal Salt. In chemistry, a normal salt is a salt in which
one atom of hydrogen in each molecule is replaced by a metal.

North Bolt. A North bolt is one which has a number of longi-

tudinal grooves rolled into its body. This type of bolt is used
largely on farming machinery and other agricultural appliances.

Numbers, Preferred. See Preferred Numbers.

Nusite. A term applied to a method of hardening high-speed
steelwhich results in a hardness of 65-66 Rockwell C., combined
with about twice the normal toughness. Tools hardened by the
Nusite method, as compared with tools hardened by ordinary
methods, are claimed to permit one or more of the following, de-
pending upon the job: Increased cuts, increased feeds, longer
runs between grinds, cutting of tougher steels, making of inter-
mittent cuts, reduction of chipping and breakage, and usually
some increase in speed. This method is intended to provide tools
which fill a gap between high-speed tools hardened in the ordinary
way and the carbide tools.
Nut Standardization. The American Standard for Nuts in-
cludes a Regular Series and a Heavy Series. Regular nuts are
for general use and the heavy nuts are for applications requiring
a larger bearing surface. In each of these series, there are un-
finished, semi-finished, and finished grades.
Regular Nuts, Unfinished: The width across the flats of square
and hexagon nuts equals 1% X screw thread diameter, excepting
*/i- to %-inch sizes inclusive, which have widths equal to 1% X
screw thread diameter -(- 1/16 inch, adjusted in all cases to
sixteenths. Unfinished nuts are threaded but not machined on
any other surface.
Regular Nuts, Semi-Finished: The width across the flats
(hexagon nuts only) equals 1% X screw thread diameter,
excepting sizes ^4 to % inch inclusive, which have widths equal
to iVz X screw thread diameter -f 1/16 inch, adjusted in all
cases to sixteenths. Semi-finished nuts are threaded and ma-
chined on bearing surface only.
Regular Nuts, Finished: The width across the flats equals 1%
X screw thread diameter, excepting %- to %-inch sizes inclusive,
which have widths equal to 1% X screw thread diameter -f- 1/16
inch, adjusted in all cases to sixteenths. Finished nuts are
threaded and finished on all surfaces. Made in hexagon form
only.
Heavy Nuts, Unfinished: The width across the flats of square
and hexagon nuts equals 1% X screw thread diameter -f %
inch, adjusted to sixteenths excepting sizes below %
inch.
 869 -N
Heavy Nuts, Semi-Finished: The width across the flats
(hexagon nuts only) equals 1% X screw thread diameter +
l
/s inch, adjusted to sixteenths, excepting sizes below %inch.
Heavy Nuts, Finished: The width across the flats equals 1% X
screw thread diameter + y8 inch, adjusted to sixteenths, ex-
cepting sizes below % inch. Made in hexagon form only.
This standard was adopted by the American Standards Asso-
ciation in 1933.

Nut Taps. A tap designed for the use of machine shops which
tap their own nuts, generally from blanks supplied by a nut man-
ufacturer. It is customary practice to give the entering threads
for approximately 75 per cent of the thread length a slight taper
in both pitch diameter and root diameter to insure tapping a nut
with a full form of thread. The length overall, length of thread,
and length of shank are appreciably longer than on a regular
(standard) hand tap.
Straight Shank Tapper Taps: A tap used by nut manufacturers
in tapping nuts in vertical spindle machines. They are made
12 or 15 inches long and the nuts are allowed to accumulate on
the shank during the tapping operation. Shanks are machined
to fit the various spindles in ordinary use. Made in both frac-
tionaland machine screw sizes.
Bent Shank Tapper Taps: A tap designed for use in an auto-
matic tapping machine. The nuts are fed to the tap by means of
a hopper, and there is a continual production of tapped product
without stopping or reversing. Made in both fractional and ma-
chine screw sizes.

Nuttall Stub-Tooth Gears. See Stub-tooth Gears.

Nut-Tapping Machines. Some of the most highly developed

and ingenious tapping machines are used for tapping nuts. These
machines are made in reversing and non-reversing types and may
be hand-operated, semi-automatic, or fully automatic. Reversible
machines are used for tapping nuts having closed ends which
make it necessary to reverse the tap and back it out. The non-
reversible machines may be so arranged that the nuts pass onto
a long tap shank from which they are removed periodically, or
the tap, on a machine of the automatic type, may be so held and
driven that the tapped nuts pass over it completely without re-
moving it or stopping the machine.
Automatic Machine of Bent-Tap Type: One type of automatic
machine is equipped with a tap having a shank that is bent on a
rather large radius so that the extreme end is at right angles to
the main tap body. This shank with the right-angle bend is held
in a groove in the spindle large enough to allow the nuts to slide
over the shank. When the machine is in operation, the tapped
N-870
nuts are forced along the shank around the curved end and ejected
from an opening in the side of the spindle. The reason for using
a bent tap is that the curved shank makes it possible to drive the
tap and at the same time have it sufficiently free in the spindle
opening to allow the nuts to pass over the shank and be ejected
at the end; consequently, the machine can be operated continu-
ously and without reversing the spindle or removing the tap for
unloading the tapped nuts.
Automatic Machine of Straight-Tap Type: Another type of
automatic machine has a stationary straight-shank tap and a me-
chanical device employed to grip and revolve the nut blank while
advancing it over the stationary tap at the linear speed required
by the lead of the tap threads. In operation, the nut blanks fall
from a hopper down a chute which delivers them into line with
and facing the tap directly in back of a revolving head. They are
then pushed automatically through this head and into a driving
jaw within the head. Each nut is held square with the tap and
is screwed on it as the head revolves. A three-fingered jaw is
required for hexagonal nuts, and a four-fingered jaw for square
nuts. The tap shank is of sufficient length to accommodate two
pairs of mechanically operated clamps, by means of which the tap
is held stationary. These clamps are engaged and released alter-
nately to permit the tapped nuts which accumulate on the tap
shank to be carried toward the end of the shank, from which they
drop off and slide into a receptacle.
 Oakum. Oakum is used for calking seams of ships, stopping
leaks,and by plumbers in the packing of joints such as the bell-
and-spigot and Matheson types. Oakum may be made by untwist-
ing tarry ropes and picking them into loose fiber. That made
from untarred ropes is called "white oakum." In making a calked
joint of the bell-and-spigot type, the oakum is forced into the
joint with a yarning iron, and firmly calked with a calking tool;
then molten lead is poured on top. The oakum should fill the bell
of the joint to within about one inch of the top, because the really
beneficial expansion of the lead, due to blows on the calking tool,
is effective only through a comparatively small depth of lead. Ad-
ditional metal is of no real value, merely filling space which the
oakum might fill at less expense.
Obtuse Angle. An angle larger than 90 degrees. See Angle.
Octahedral Borax. This isa form of borax suitable for use
as a flux in soldering or welding. It is also known as jeweler's
borax.

Octane Number of Motor Fuels. The property of a motor

fuel such as gasoline in regard to detonation is very important.
Detonation, or "knocking" as it is commonly called, is indicated
by a pronounced metallic blow which is similar to the noise pro-
duced by some mechanical cause such as looseness or play between
parts. Actually, however, detonation or knocking in automobile
or similar motors, when caused by the fuel used, is due to vibra-
tions set by a local high pressure which is similar in its effect to
a hammer blow. Detonation should not be confused with pre-igni-
tion. The term pre-ignition relates to ignition that occurs before
the spark has passed. This may be due to overheated spark-plug
points or scraps of stray incandescent carbon. While such pre-
ignition is likely to cause violent thumping, detonation or knock-
ing occurs after ignition by the spark; in other words, detonation
follows the spark while pre-ignition precedes it.
Cause of Detonation: When there is no detonation, combus-
tion started by the spark spreads steadily throughout the com-
bustion space. In using a detonating fuel, self-ignition may
occur and the last portions of the charge may burn almost in-
stantaneously. When this occurs, a detonation wave is caused
and the gas pressure rises locally to a point far in excess of the
average pressure. In fact, this detonation wave may deliver a
blow of sufficient intensity to break the piston. The characteristic
871
O-872
knock caused by some fuels occurs when this detonation wave
reaches the cylinder wall. The almost instantaneous combustion
which causes the pressure wave is confined to the last part of the
charge. Whether such detonation or knocking occurs, depends
upon the chemical characteristics of the fuel, the initial tempera-
ture and pressure, and the rate of combustion of that part of the
fuel which is first ignited. Since the action of gasoline in re-
gard to detonation is a very important characteristic, the relative
qualities of different fuels should take this property into account.
Establishing Octane Number: Theaction of a fuel in regard
to detonation might be established terms of the highest useful
in
compression ratio values. In other words, such values might be
used to range fuels according to a certain order of merit. How-
ever, a compression ratio to avoid detonation depends very much
upon the speed as well as various other factors; consequently,
it is important to classify fuels in regard to detonation by some
method which does not relate only to a particular engine. Thus,
the scale of detonation should be independent of any particular
engine. Such a scale has been adopted in terms of two hydro-
carbons. One of these, iso-octane, is very good in regard to de-
tonation, and the other, normal heptane, is very bad.
The knock or detonating characteristics of a fuel such as gaso-
line, is determined by comparing it under standard test condi-
tions with whatever proportions of octane and normal heptane
just match its anti-knock quality. For example, if a gasoline is
matched by a mixture of 75 parts octane and 25 parts heptane,
its octane number is 75. In other words, octane number is de-
fined by and is numerically equal to the percentage by volume of
iso-octane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) in a mixture of iso-octane
and normal heptane, used as a primary standard for measure-
ment of knock characteristics. Thus, by definition, normal heptane
has an octane number of zero and iso-octane of 100.
C.F.R. Engine: The engine used in establishing the octane
number is known as the C.F.R. engine. This abbreviation is from
the name Cooperative Fuel Research Committee, composed of
representatives of the American Petroleum Institute, Automobile
Manufacturers Association, Society of Automotive Engineers and
IL S. Bureau of Standards, This engine has a continuously vari-
able compression and apparatus for determining the knock in-
tensity. The iso-octane and normal heptane referred to is the
primary reference fuel. To insure a greater degree of repro-
ducibility in testing, it is preferable to use secondary reference
fuels which have been properly calibrated against the primary
reference fuels. Such secondary reference fuels may be straight-
run or other stable gasolines suitable for the purpose. One of
the reference fuels should be of low knock rating and the other
 873 -O
of high knock rating. These secondary reference fuels are cali-
brated against normal heptane and iso-octane, and the calibration
is expressed in terms of the octane-number scale.
The octane number of a fuel is ascertained by comparing the
knock intensity for the fuel with those for various blends of the
reference fuels until two blends differing in knock rating by not
more than two octane numbers are found, one of which gives a
higher knock intensity than the fuel and the other a lower knock
intensity. Before the test sample and the blends of the reference
fuels can be compared, the compression ratio must be set to give
the proper knock intensity and the carburetor adjusted to give
the maximum knock for each fuel. With the carburetor set for
the air-fuel ratio of maximum knock, alternate series of readings
of knock intensity are taken on the fuel under test and on a
reference fuel blend.
Advantages of High-octane Fuels: Modern gasolines having
high octane ratings permit higher compressions without knocking
or "ping" as it is sometimes called. These high-octane fuels may
be used primarily either to increase power or fuel economy, or to
secure a combination of these two advantages. The maximum
gain in power may be obtained by supercharging to the limit of
the fuel as is done in connection with aircraft. The highest
gains in economy are obtained by increasing the compression
ratio as much as possible with a given fuel without excessive
knocking.
Octoid Gear Teeth. An octoid bevel gear tooth is formed
when planing bevel gears on the Bilgram, Gleason, or other simi-
lar type of generating machines. In these machines, the teeth of
the gears are shaped by a tool which represents the side of the
tooth of an imaginary crown gear. The cutting edge of the tool
is a straight line, since the imaginary crown gear has teeth the
sides of which are plane surfaces. Theoretically, however, the
sides of the teeth of a true involute crown gear are slightly
curved: hence, the tooth formed by the generating machine is
not an involute gear tooth, but has been called octoid by Geo. B.
Grant. This form was invented by Mr. Bilgram. Both the octoid
and the involute tooth give theoretically correct action.

Odd-Leg Caliper. This is a caliper in which the points of

both legs are bent in the same direction. A caliper of this type
is used for measuring the distances between shoulders, and for
similar work.

Odometer. An odometer is an instrument that is attached to

the wheel of a vehicle formeasuring the distance traveled by the
vehicle, by recording the number of revolutions that the wheel
makes in traversing the distance. When the circumference of
O-874
the wheel is known, the approximate distance can be calculated.
The instrument is used in engineering for preliminary surveying.
In this case, the wheel to which the odometer is attached is gen-
erally made with a circumference of 10 feet. Maps are frequently
prepared by the use of an odometer for measuring distance, the
compass determining directions.

Odontograph. An odontograph, in the limited sense of the

word, is an instrument for laying out the forms of gear teeth,
or a guide used in cutting gears to a given form in a gear-
cutting machine. The term is, however, also applied to any method
or table for laying out gear teeth by means of circular arcs which
closely approximate the exact tooth curves. The most generally
known, as well as the most accurate, of these odontographs is
the one devised by George B. Grant. This odontograph consists
of diagrams and tables giving the radii and location of the centers
for arcs that approximate the true gear-tooth shape. These tables
are found in engineering handbooks.

Odontometer. The "odontometer" is a simple instrument or

gage for testing the accuracy or uniformity of gear tooth profiles
and spacings of the teeth in production work. It is equally
adaptable to spur and helical gears and is self-contained. In gen-
eral, the instrument is used as a comparator, to test the uni-
formity of interchangeable and mating gears. If actual measure-
ments are required, the distance between the two parallel working
faces of the instrument can be measured. The instrument is made
so that a dial indicator is in full view of the operator as he rocks
it over the teeth. Adjustment from one pitch to another can be
made quickly.

O. D. Pipe. This is an abbreviation applied to large wrought

or steel pipe, the nominal size of which is designated by the out-
side diameter instead of the inside diameter as in the case of
smaller sizes. According to the American Standard, all sizes
above 12 inches represent the nominal outside diameter. These
"0. D. pipe" range from 14 to 24 inches.

Oersted, The oersted is the unit of magnetizing force (mag-

netic intensity) in the cgs electromagnetic system and is equal
to the intensity of a magnetic field at any point in a vacuum
in which a unit magnet pole experiences a force of 1 dyne.
Some confusion may result if it is not realized that (1) the
oersted was formerly a unit of magnetic reluctance, and (2) the
unit of magnetic field intensity used to be called the gauss. The
change to the present usage was made by the International Elec-
trical Committee in 1980.

Ogee Cam Curve. See Harmonic Motion Curve.

 875 -O
Ohm. The unit of resistance to the flow of an electric cur-
rent is as an ohm. A conductor is said to have a resistance
known
of one ohm if the ratio of a constant electromotive force, applied
at its ends, in volts to an unvarying current, flowing through it,
in amperes is equal to unity. According to the International
Standard, it is equal to the resistance offered to an unvarying
electrical current by a column of mercury having a mass of
14.4521 grams at degrees C. (32 degrees F.), the column to
be of constant cross-sectional area and to have a length of
106.300 centimeters (41.850 inches).

Ohm's Law. The electric current that flows through a circuit

is directly proportional to the electromotive force of the circuit
and inversely proportional to the resistance in the circuit. This
relation is known as Ohm's Law, and may be expressed in
formulas as follows :
E E
= / ; E = IR; R *= ;

R I
in which, = current
/ in amperes; E = electromotive force in
volts ; R= resistance in ohms.

Oil, Acid Number. See Acid Number of Oil.

Oil and Chip Separators. See Chip and Oil Separators.

Oil and Cas Engines. See Internal Combustion Engines.
Oil Bath Lubrication. Oil bath or submerged lubrication,
arhich consists in running parts in a bath of oil which they con-
tinually stir up and spread over themselves, exists in many forms.
In the oil bath as correctly arranged, there is never any lack of
lubricant and the chief care is to see that no sediment is thrown
up, or that any parts are shielded from the spread of oil.

Oil Bonding Process. With the oil bonding process for grind-
ing wheels, an oxidizing oil is mixed with the abrasive grains.
After this mixture has thickened from exposure to the air, it is
formed into wheels, by compressing it into molds by means of
hydraulic presses. The molded wheels are then baked slowly at
a low temperature. Oil wheels are similar in action to elastic
wheels, but less dependable as to grade and uniformity.

Oil-Burning Furnaces. The use of oil in furnaces for the

heat-treatment of steel possesses, in many cases, certain advan-
tages over other methods of heating. Chief among these ad-
vantages is the consideration of economy, as oil in the past, at
least, has generally been cheaper to use than any other available
form of fuel. The factor of economy is limited, however, by a
somewhat increased complication in the method of operation,
O-876
and, on this account, oil is not recommended for furnaces that
will operate on gas with a consumption of 230 cubic feet per
hour or less. The best results with oil-heated furnaces are secured
with the larger-sized units. In those cases where the oil is
atomized by steam, it is necessary to supply a certain amount of
additional air in order to obtain the desired combustion. Steam
is a chemical compound consisting of two parts of hydrogen and
one part of oxygen and when the steam impinges upon the white
hot brickwork of the furnace, the chemical union is broken, hydro-
gen and oxygen being liberated. The oxygen set free in this way
is used in effecting the combustion of the oil, and the hydrogen
is carried into the furnace. As hydrogen itself is a combustible

gas, and is burned in the furnace by the oxygen of the additional

air which is supplied for this purpose, this combustion of hydro-
gen takes place further from the burner than the point at which
the bulk of the oil is burned, and helps considerably in maintain-
ing a uniform temperature. When the oil is atomized by a stream
of compressed air, there is no hydrogen present to be burned in
the furnace. Crude oil and kerosene are commonly used in oil-
heated furnaces. To insure an unvarying temperature, the air
and fuel pressures should be uniform. The two general types of
oil-fired furnaces used are the over-fired type and the under-fired

type.

Oil, Cold Test. See Cold Test of Oil.

Oil Coolers. A properly designed oil cooler will extract the

greater part of the heat absorbed by oil from bearings and return
the oil to the bearings at a comparatively low temperature. Cool-
ing the oil permits it to absorb a greater amount of heat from
the bearings, thus lowering the bearing temperature and at th
same time decreasing the rate of evaporation* If the tempera-
ture is carried too low the increased viscosity of the oil will cause
a slightly higher bearing friction and retard the rate of separa-
tion of water and other foreign matter.
The efficiency of the oil cooler depends upon the initial tem-
peratures of the oil and water, the amount and rate of oil and
water circulated, the mechanical design of the oil cooler and the
cleanliness of the surfaces of the coils. The rate of heat absorp-
tion in the cooler depends largely upon the rate of flow of the oil
film near to the metal surfaces. This rate of flow is again de-
pendent upon the viscosity of the oil, all of which means that
high viscosity oils require a much larger cooling surface than
more fluid products for the same temperature reduction.

Oildag, See Graphite.

Oil Extractors. The oil that flows onto the cutting tools of
automatic turning machines and other classes of machine tools,
 877 -O
may be extracted from the metal chips or other foreign matter
by means of an oil extractor or separator. The common
design of
separator intended for use in machine shops for recovering oil
from chips is of the centrifugal type and is driven either by belt
or by a direct-connected motor. See Chip and Oil Separator.

Oil-Filled Cable. An oil-filled cable is a cable having insula-

tion impregnated with an oil which is fluid at all operating tem-
peratures, and provided with facilities such as longitudinal ducts
or channels and with reservoirs, or their equivalent, by means of
which positive oil pressure can be maintained within a cable at
all times, incipient voids promptly filled during periods of con-
traction and all surplus oil adequately taken care of during periods
of expansion.

Oil Fire Point. See Fire Point of Oil.

Oil Flash Point See Flash Point of Oil.

Oil Grinding. Oil grinding is the final grinding to which steel

balls are subjected in their manufacture, and by means of which
the balls are brought to exact size. The oil-grinding operation is
practically a lapping process ; no grinding wheel is used but the
machine has two one of which is grooved, between which
plates,
the balls roll. The grinding is done with fine abrasive and oil.
Oil-Grooves in Bearings. With the exception of small solid
bearings subjected to light loads, it is common practice to groove
bearings in order to distribute the lubricant more uniformly.
Such grooves should not extend across that part of the bearing
surface likely to be subjected to oil-film pressure because grooves
in the pressure area permit the oil to follow the path of least
resistance, thus preventing, partially, the formation of an oil film
on the load-carrying side. Grooves should never be cut into the
journal, but always in the surrounding bearing. Alongitudinal
groove along the top is often used but one inclining from the oil
hole in the direction of journal rotation is preferable. This groove
should not extend to the ends of the bearing, unless the bearing
is ring-oiled or chain-oiled, and leakage at the ends drains to the

housing well for recirculation. With two-part bearings, the longi-

tudinal grooves may be formed along each side merely by cham-
fering the edges of the cap and base but not the entire length.
The edges of all chamfers and grooves should be rounded to avoid
sharp corners and facilitate the introduction of the oil between
the journal and the bearing metal.
Paint of Oil Entry: The locating of maximum oil-film pressure
depends upon the speed, load, direction of rotation, and other
factors. If the load is applied to a horizontal journal running
counter-clockwise, the center of maximum pressure will be located
O-878
to the right of the foot of the vertical center-line anywhere from,
say, 10 to 45 degrees, depending upon the load, speed, etc. Exces-
sive load or very low speed may shift the center of maximum
pressure practically to the bottom of the bearing circle. The
minimum pressure area for counter-clockwise rotation will be at
the upper part of the bearing somewhere to the right of the ver-
tical center-line. Keversal of rotation will shift these points of
maximum and minimum pressures to the same relative positions
to the left of the vertical center-line.
For gravity feed, the oil should enter on the low-pressure side;
and if the journal is carrying the load, a point of entry at the
top of the bearing will meet practical requirements. For pres-
sure systems, the oil should enter adjacent to the high-pressure
area on the in-feeding side toward which the journal surface is
moving. If the point of entry is on the horizontal center-line (or
below it not over 45 degrees) at the left-hand side for counter-
clockwise rotation and at the right-hand side for clockwise
rotation, the oil will enter on the in-feeding side.
Oil-Hole Drills. In drilling rather deep holes, it may be diffi-
cult to supply the point of the drill with the required amount of
oil or cutting compound due to the tendency of the chips to carry
the fluid back with them before reaches the bottom of the hole.
it
To overcome may be used. This type
this difficulty, oil-hole drills
is provided with internal holes or ducts through which the cut-
ting fluid can be carried right to the drill point. The fluid and
chips escape through the flutes of the drill in the usual manner,

Oiling, Ring Method. See Ring Oiling.

Oiling Systems. See Lubricating Systems.

Oilless Bearings. Oilless or self-lubricating bearings are
especially adapted for applications in places where oiling is un-
desirable, or where the bearings are difficult of access, or likely
to be neglected. They are of particular value in such plants as
canneries, textile mills, etc., where the product is liable to harm
from dripping oil, and bearings are applied in many other
oilless
classes of service. A number of different types of oilless bear-
ings have been developed, each of which doubtless has its ad-
vantages when applied under suitable conditions. One type con-
sists of wood impregnated with wax, oil or paraffin; another is
made of bronze and has graphite inserts; another type is formed
of graphite impregnated with some bearing metal such as a white
alloy or bronze; and still another consists of hard maple rein-
forced by babbitt metal, the wood shell of which is impregnated
with lubricants and thus serves as an oil reservoir.
Oil of Vitriol. This is a name sometimes used for sulphuric
acid.
 879 -O
Oil Quenching Baths. See Quenching Baths, Oil.

Oil-Ring Design. See under Ring Oiling.

Oil Separators. In order to purify the exhaust steam so that

its condensation may be returned to the boilers, it is necessary to
use some form of separator for removing the cylinder oil which
it contains. There are various forms of separators in common
use. In one type the entering steam is thrown downward upon
an annular ring having a corrugated surface and an opening at
the center. The outlet is downward from a point near the top.
This construction completely changes the direction of the steam,
reduces its velocity, and thus allows the particles of oil to be
caught by the corrugations upon the annular ring or baffle. As
the oil collects, it drips into the bottom of the chamber, from
which it is trapped to the sewer or sump well through the drip
pipe at the lower end. In another oil separator for non-condensing
systems the separating surface consists of a baffle plate with
vertical ridges, and ports at the sides for the passage of steam.
The principle depended upon in the action of this separator is a
sudden change of direction. The fact that the greater part of the
oil contained in the steam runs along the lower surface of the

pipes is taken advantage of, and the separator is so designed

that it will break up the flow and drain the oil into a receptacle
provided for it. The separators previously referred to are for
use with non-condensing engines, where the pressure is slightly
above that of the atmosphere. In cases of this kind, the oil is
drained from the separator by means of an ordinary steam trap.
When the engine is run condensing, in connection with a surface
condenser, and it is desired to return the water of condensation
to the boilers, it is evident that the oil cannot be drained from
the separator in the usual manner because the pressure in the
system is less than that of the atmosphere. Although the separa-
tor itself is practically the same, except in special cases, a special
method of draining is required.

Oil Shale. There are large deposits of oil shales in the west-
ern and southern parts of the United States, Colorado alone, ac-
cording to an estimate, having enough oil shales to produce
20,000,000,000 barrels of oil and 300,000,000 tons of ammonium
in 1694
sulphate. The oil shale industry originated in England
but the chief commercial operations are in Scotland. One ton
of shale yields from 1 gallon to 90 gallons of oil. In Scotland
the average is about 23 gallons per ton. Gasoline obtained from
shale oil contains large amounts of olefins and aromatic com-
pounds and is inferior in quality as compared with gasoline
obtained from petroleum.
O-880
Oils, Slushing. See Slushing Oils.

Oils, Soluble Cutting. See Soluble Oils for Cutting Tools.

Oil Stains on Concrete. Oil stains on concrete floors may
be removed by covering with a mixture of 1 pound of oxalic acid,
3 gallons of water and enough wheat flour to make a paste that
can be applied with a brush. The paste is removed with clean
water.

Oilstones, The natural oilstones commonly used are the

Washita and Arkansas. The Washita is a coarser and more
rapidly cutting stone than the Arkansas, and is generally con-
sidered the most satisfactory for sharpening woodworkers' tools.
There are various grades of Washita rock, varying from the per-
fect crystallized and porous whetstone grit, to vitreous flint and
hard sandstone. The sharpness of the grit of any Washita stone
depends entirely upon the character of its crystallization. The
best whetstones are porous and uniform in texture and are com-
posed entirely of silica crystals. The poorer grades are less
porous, making them vitreous or "glassy," They may also have
hard spots or sand holes, or contain grains of sand among the
crystals. For general work, a soft, free-grit, quick-cutting stone
is required, although a fine-grit medium-hard stone is sometimes

preferable. Washita stones are sometimes white in color, but fre-

quently streaked more or less with a yellow or red tinge. They
are found in the spurs of the Ozark mountains of Arkansas.
Many artificial oilstones are now used for various classes of work.
These are commonly furnished in three grits : viz., fine, medium,
and coarse, and in all required shapes.
Oil Switches. See Switches, Oil Type.
Oil Viscosity. See Viscosity of Oil.

Oldham's Coupling. Oldham's coupling may be used when

two shafts to be connected are parallel, but slightly out of line.
In this coupling each shaft end has a flanged hub attached to it,
these flanges being keyed firmly to their respective shafts. Across
the face of each of these flanges, a single groove, passing through
the center, is planed, and between the ends of the flanges is in-
terposed an intermediate disk which has a tongue on each side
running diametrically across its face, these tongues engaging
with the plain grooves in the faces of the flanges. The tongues
in the intermediate disk are placed at right angles to each other;
hence,when the shafts rotate, the motion can be transmitted from
one shaft to the other at a uniform rate, although the axes of
the two shafts are not in alignment.

"Old Man." An "old man" is the supporting bracket for the

feed screw end of a ratchet drill. It consists of an L-shaped mem-
 881 -O
her which is usually bolted, or clamped to the part being drilled,
and an adjustable arm against which the pointed end of the
ratchet feed-screw bears. This device is also used with pneumatic
and electric portable drills to provide "backing" or a resisting
support for the drill.

Olympic Bronze. High-strength copper alloy containing sili-

con and zinc. Available in three types: Type A plates, sheets,
strips, rods, wire, tubing, forgings, and welding rod; Type B
free-turning wire and rod; Type C ingots for casting purposes
and sand castings. Tensile strength from 40,000 to 150,000 pounds
per square inch, the lower figure applying to Type C castings
and the higher to Type Awire. Suitable for all purposes where
high-strength, corrosion-resistant machine parts, forgings, or
castings are required.

Open-Circuit Cell. This is a primary cell which will only

supply current intermittently and then only for a short period of
time, but which will stand on an open circuit for a long time
without loss of materials through electrolytic action. Most dry
cells are of this general type.

Open-Hearth Process. The open-hearth process, sometimes

called "the Siemens-Martin process," is a method of producing
steel by mixing pig iron with steel and iron scrap and removing
the impurities contained in the bath of iron on the hearth of a
regenerative furnace, the hearth being open or exposed to the
action of the flame. The process is similar to the puddling process,
but is carried out on a much larger scale. The gas and the air
are heated to a high temperature (over 1000 degrees) before en-
tering the combustion chamber, by passing through regenerative
chambers. Owing to this preheating of the gas and air, a very
high temperature can be maintained in the furnace so as to keep
the iron liquid. The charge of molten metal has added to it a
certain proportion of ore, iron scale or other oxides, the chemical
reaction of which keeps the molten iron in a state of agitation.
The process may be carried out by either the basic or the acid
method. In the basic, or dephosphorizing, furnace, the slag is
basic and the furnace lining is neutral, but burnt lime is added
to the charge to remove the phosphorus. In the add, or un-
dephosphorizing, process, there is a silicious slag and the furnace
has a silicious lining, with the exception that the bottom lining
of the furnace for both acid and basic processes is practically
the same. The acid is the faster process, as the heat-insulating
layer is comparatively thin; it is also the cheaper process, but
by the greater cost of pig iron and
this difference in cost is offset
scrap free enough from phosphorus. The open-hearth process
produces a more uniform and reliable steel and a greater yield
O-882
of ingotsfrom the metal charge than does the Bessemer process;
and the operations are under greater control and samples can be
frequently taken. Most of the structural steel used is made by
the open-hearth process.
Open-hearth Furnace: The furnaces for the open-hearth process
of making steel are of various designs. Some are stationary,
although many are arranged so that they can discharge their steel
by being tilted, while others can be entirely removed from their
setting and poured. They vary in size from 5 to 15 tons, for
special grades of steel, and from 50 to 80 tons and upward, for
standard grades; furnace units of from 50 to 60 tons are now
generally preferred. The furnaces may be heated by natural gas,
producer gas, or oil. The furnaces consist of a rectangular hearth
with ports at each end through which the gas enters and leaves.
Two chambers at each end provide means for heating the air and
the gas. The roof of the furnace must be high enough so that
it will not be burned by an impinging flame from the ports. The
hearth must be of such a length that there will be complete com-
bustion its length should be about two or two and one-half times
;

its width; its depth should be sufficient to permit the oxidation

of the metal, yet it should be sufficiently shallow to promote
thorough heating, and reasonably quick working of the bath.
Usually the maximum width of the hearth is about 15 feet, while
the depth is about from 15 to 20 inches.

Open-Hearth Steel. As defined by the International Asso-

ciation for Testing Materials, open-hearth steel is any steel made
by the open-hearth process, irrespective of the carbon content
As a rule, however, open-hearth steel contains a smaller per-
centage of carbon than the steel generally known as crucible or
tool steel.

Open-Hearth Tool 8teef. Alarge percentage of the steel

used for making tools, if all classes of tools are considered, is
produced by the open-hearth process. Open-hearth tool steel,
however, is not recommended ordinarily for metal-cutting tools;
in fact, either crucible or electric tool steel is specified by prac-
tically all manufacturers whenever the use of a dependable high-
carbon steel of the best quality is considered essential.
Open-hearth tool steel meets all requirements for a large variety
of tools and implements which ordinarily are made from steels
containing about 0.65 to 0.85 per cent carbon. These tools in-
1
clude hammers, sledges, pliers, woodworking tools, stone cutters
cheap knives, blacksmith tools, forging
tools, picks, bars, axes,
implements, and numerous other products. The
dies, agricultural
extensive use of open-hearth steel in the agricultural field ac-
counts for the name "agricultural tool steel/'
 883 -O
In attempting to make a direct comparison between steels made
by the open-hearth process and either the crucible or electric
process, it should be remembered that much depends upon the
selection of raw materials and the care with which each process
is conducted. Considering these steels as they are produced
under ordinary commercial conditions, it is the general opinion
of manufacturers that either crucible or electric steel is superior
to open-hearth steel except for the general classes of tools men-
tioned, which are made from the relatively cheap open-hearth
steel, as the latter meets all practical requirements.

Open-Sand Castings. Eough castings, such as foundry

plates,gaggers, etc., are usually made without a cope or other
covering. Castings made in this way are known as open-sand
castings. In preparing molds that are to be cast in this way,
it is essential that they be level, as there is nothing to confine
the metal which "seeks its level."

Open Tailstock. This is a special design of tailstock for

bench lathes in which the upper part of the spindle bearing is
removed, so that the tailstock spindle may be readily lifted out
of place. It is used on light delicate work which requires dif-
ferent tools to be employed. The open construction facilitates
the rapid replacement of the spindle which holds the tool.

Optical Flats. Optical flats are glass disks made of a special

brand of glass, whose surfaces are the nearest possible approach
to perfect planes. Optical flats provide a simple and rapid means
for checking surfaces that have been made very accurate by care-
ful lapping. In testing such surfaces, all dirt or dust is first re-
moved from both the glass and the work; then the optical flat is
wrung on the work sidewise, with a slight pressure. If the
lapped surface is sufficiently accurate, rainbow colored bands
caused by the interference of light waves become visible across
the working face of the optical flat. Ordinarily, lapped surfaces
are passed as satisfactory if these interference bands are visible,
but for exceptionally accurate work, the nature or formation of
the bands is considered. Thus if a surface is perfectly flat, the
bands extend across it in straight parallel rows, whereas the
slightest amount of concavity or convexity would cause more or
less curvature or irregularity of the bands. Optical flats in-
tended for general testing of plane surfaces, as made by one
manufacturer are 1% inches in diameter. One grade is guaran-
teed to be accurate within limits of 0.000004 inch and another
grade to 0.000008 inch. See also Light-wave Measuring Method,

Optical Indexing Head. See Indexing Head, Optical,

Optical Measuring Tools. Fixed gages and measuring de-

vices of the purely mechanical type are used largely throughout
O-884
the machine-building field, but optical methods are being applied
on an increasing scale in connection with certain classes of meas-
uring or checking operations incident to the manufacture or
inspection of interchangeable parts, tools, etc. These optical de-
vices for shop use are mostly of simple design and are not to be
confused with scientific apparatus such, for example, as the in-
terferometer, but nevertheless the extreme accuracy of some of
the finely graduated glass scales, as well as the prisms and lenses
used in these optical instruments for shop and tool-room use, de-
pends directly upon the more highly developed forms of optical
apparatus. In the design of these tools, optical principles and
methods have been utilized in different ways. Most of the in-
struments are provided with finely graduated scales and "spider"
or "hair" lines on glass, in conjunction with means of magnify-
ing the graduations so that readings or other observations may
be readily made. The reasons for employing these optical appli-
ances in preference to purely mechanical devices vary somewhat
with different instruments, but, in general, the plan is to safe-
guard against errors that might otherwise result, either from
wear, temperature changes, mistakes in checking readings, or
variations due to the "feel" or pressure of contact between in-
strument and work. Some of these optical measuring tools are
arranged for general use, and others are designed expressly for
one class of work.

Optimeter. An "optimeter" may be described briefly as an

optical indicator or comparator, which utilizes a microscope for
magnifying the image of an exceedingly accurate glass scale
which, through suitable reflecting means, enables the observer to
obtain by direct reading the difference between the measurement
of whatever gage or other part is being tested and the precision
gage-block or other standard used in setting the optimeter to the
zero position.

Ordinate. In analytical geometry, the ordinate of a point is,

generally, that coordinate which is measured parallel to the ver-
tical axis. In mathematical expressions, the ordinate of a point
is generally designated by the letter y. Whether the coordinate
axes are parallel to each other or not, the ordinate is always
measured along a line parallel to the vertical axis, and not along
a line at right angles to the other axis. See also Abscissa.

Ore. An ore is a material that contains a metal in such quan-

titiesthat it may be mined and worked commercially for that
metal. In an ore, the metal usually is contained in chemical com-
bination with some other element, and, in addition, there are
generally various impurities; hence, the condition in which the
metal exists in the ore differs greatly. In all commercial iron
 885 -O
ores, the metal occurs as an oxide, a carbonate, or a sulphide.
The ore may be deposited in beds, lenses, or veins. Beds are
masses of minerals found in solid strata; lenses or pods are
irregular masses of ore imbedded in, and separated by, earth or
rock; veins fill crevices or seams and generally have quite well-
defined walls. Ores having a high metal content are termed
"rich"; those having a low metal content are termed "lean."
Commercial iron ore oxide, carbonate, or sulphide of iron
contains from about 35 to 70 per cent of iron, together with im-
purities of phosphorus, silica (sand), etc. When ore contains less
than 40 per cent of iron, it must first be concentrated, and when
it contains less than 25 per cent of iron, it is not considered of

any commercial value, because the cost of extracting the iron

from the ore is too high to make it possible to sell the product in
competition with that extracted from richer ores. The best iron
ores are those in which the iron is combined with oxygen, form-
ing an oxide ore. Ores which consist of carbonates, that is,
minerals in which the iron is present in combination with carbon
and oxygen, are also mined, and are of considerable importance,
although they must be roasted to drive off the carbonic acid.
The sulphide ores, that is, minerals in which the iron is present
in combination with sulphur, are also used, but are of minor
importance. These ores must be desulphurized in order to elimi-
nate the sulphur. In fact, all iron ores, whether sulphides or
otherwise, which contain sulphur to an amount exceeding one
per cent, must be subjected to a special treatment before smelt-
ing. The three most important iron ores consisting of iron oxides
are magnetite, hematite, and limonite. The carbonate iron ore is
known as siderite and the sulphide iron ore as vyrite.
Organic Chemistry. In general, organic chemistry is the
chemistry of carbon compounds. Some carbon compounds, how-
ever, such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbon disulphide,
and silicon and iron carbides, are considered as inorganic sub-
stances and some other substances which do not contain carbon,
are treated as organic.
Orifice Method. This is a method of testing air compressors
based upon the principle that if gas is allowed to pass from one
vessel in which the pressure is high, through a small opening
into a vessel where the pressure is low, the volume of gas passing
through the opening in one minute is constant as long as the
pressures are unchanged. This principle has been thoroughly in-
vestigated, and is used as the basis of many methods of measur-
ing both gases and liquids. In the orifice method, the volume of
air actually passing through the orifice is measured.
is the point where
Origin. In analytical geometry, the origin
the coordinate axes intersect.
O-886
Orthographic Projection. See Projection.

Oscillating Current. See Periodic Current

Oscillograph. In order to observe and measure the rapid

variations of current and voltage which regularly occur in alter-
nating-current circuits and as transient phenomena in both alter-
nating- and direct-current circuits, an instrument called an
oscillograph is utilized. By means of such an instrument, the
variations are plotted on a suitable screen or recorded on a
photographic film.
The two chief types are the moving coil oscillograph which is
ased for frequencies up to 2000 cycles per second, and the cathode
ray oscillograph which is used chiefly for frequencies beyond this
range.

Oscilloscope. An oscilloscope is an optical-mechanical ap-

paratus by means of which it is possible to observe the action of
high-speed mechanisms under actual working conditions. With
this device, the action of the mechanism, moving at high speed,
may be studied as if it were moving very slowly or actually stand-
ing still. This is accomplished by the use of a special type of
electrical lamp, the flashes of which are synchronized with the
movements of the revolving mechanism. If the lamp flashes illu-
minate the moving part repeatedly at the same point in its travel,
that point will appear stationary, because it is illuminated only at
the instant when it passes a given position. If the successive
flashes of the lamp illuminate the moving part at points slightly
in advance of each other, the part will have the appearance of
moving slowly. See also Vibroscope.
Osmondite. Osmondite is the constituent obtained in steel
that has been drawn, after hardening, to a temperature of about
750 degrees P. This condition marks the boundary line between
troostite and sorbite, troostite being developed by a lower draw-
ing temperature, and sorbite, by a higher temperature.
Ostwald Calorie. The calorie or metric heat unit generally
used in engineering is the kilogram-calorie, also known as kilo-
calorie or large calorie, which is equivalent to the heat required
for raising the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree
C. In electro-chemistry, a unit known as the Ostwald calorie is
frequently used. This is equivalent to the amount of heat required
for raising the temperature of one gram of water from to 100
degrees C. One kilogram-calorie equals 10 Ostwald calories.
Otto Cycle. See Cycles, Internal Combustion Engines.
Ounce Metal. This is an alloy widely used for pump bodies,
valves, and similar parts. It is composed of 85 per cent of cop-
 887 -O
per, 5 per cent of tin, 5 per cent of lead, and 5 per cent of zinc.
It is also regarded as a good bearing metal for general service.

Oval Chuck. An oval chuck, also known as an elliptic chuck,

is a work-holding device used in the lathe for holding and revolv-
ing work that is to be turned to an oval or elliptic shape. See
Elliptical Chucks.

Overhead Expenses. The term "overhead" or "overhead ex-

pense" generally includes all items of cost that cannot be directly
charged as wages of productive labor or as cost for materials used
in actual manufacturing. Such expenses include such items as
salaries of company officials and supervision in the shop, general
officeexpense, office supplies, advertising, selling expense, travel-
ing expense, losses from bad debts, power, light, heat, insurance,
taxes, depreciation, general repairs, and shop supplies, shipping
expense, storekeeping, purchasing, accounting, inspection, safety
work, engineering and drafting-room expense, and research work.
In different plants, there would evidently be different items that
would have to be charged to overhead, but generally speaking, it
includes costs that cannot be charged to productive labor and the
cost of materials.

Overhead Expenses, Machine-Hour Distribution. The ma-

chine-hour rate method consists of distributing all the manufac-
turing expenses of an establishment by a charge to each job of
the overhead cost of operating the machines and other facilities
used on that job. This overhead charge is not an average for the
whole plant or department, but is, as nearly as possible, the actual
overhead cost of maintaining and operating each of the machines,
group of machines, benches, etc., which are found in the plant.
By the proper use of this method it is possible to show the dif-
ference between the expense cost of a boring mill and a lathe, a
gear-cutter and a splining machine, etc.
To install a machine-rate method, the number of feet of pro-
ductive floor space available for manufacture is first found, elim-
inating the space used for foremen's offices, stairways, wash-
rooms, stock-rooms, etc. The number of square feet so obtained
is used as a devisor for determining the cost per square foot per
year for maintenance, depreciation, taxes, insurance, and other
kindred charges applying against the land and building. No ex-
penses are included in this group that are incident to the actual
operation of the machines, but only those charges that apply
against the empty building ready for manufacture. However, the
expense of lighting and heating the building and charges of a
similar nature are included. In this way a charge per square foot
is obtained which is practically the same charge as the owner of
a building would make if he rented it and furnished the light,
O-888
heat, and water used in the building, except that he would include
a profit on his investment. The factory is divided into production
centers, including in each center machines of a similar type lo-
cated together, or individual machines where there are no con-
venient groups. Different kinds of machines should not be in-
cluded in one production center, as this would defeat the object
of the system. After the division into production centers has been
made, the number of square feet occupied by each center is deter-
mined, including in this area the space required for the material
waiting to go on the machines, the space required for the work-
man, etc., and each center is charged with a part of the rental of
the whole building based upon the area occupied. This division
gives the rent per year for each production center, and in this
way the total charges of the building which we have called rental
charges would be allocated to various production centers. Thus
it will be seen that one part of the expenses is now divided in
such a way that these items can be included as one factor in the
machine-hour rate.
The next step is to determine the actual cost of the expense
items incident to the operation and maintenance of each of the
production centers. These expenses consist of depreciation of the
machinery and equipment, taxes, repairs, small tools, cutting oils
and other charges which can be definitely allocated to the ma-
chines that have been included in one production center. If a
small group of machines, all included in one center, requires the
entire time of one foreman, the wages paid this foreman would be
included with the other expenses in arriving at the total cost of
operating the centers. The distribution of the power charge can
best be made on the basis of the horsepower required by each
production center. In this power charge we would include the
expense of running the power plant as well as the shafting, belt-
ing, etc.
The expenses under consideration should cover a period long
enough to insure correct results, as well as a period of normal
operations so that the results will represent the hourly cost of
operating the production centers in normal times and under nor-
mal conditions. The best results are obtained if the expenses for
a whole year are used as a basis for the machine-hour rate; and
if these expenses are carefully analyzed and allocated to the
various production centers, the hourly rates first determined will
not require much adjustment. In fact, the success or failure of
the system depends on the amount of attention given to the divi-
sion of the expenses at the beginning, as, unless the first rates are
approximately correct, the first results obtained from the system
will be so disappointing and misleading as to cause a manufac-
turer to condemn it and to insist for all time that the plan is no
 889 -O
good. We will assume that the expenses analyzed cover a period
of one year.
Two groups of the annual expenses are now divided among the
various production centers, and by adding the rental charges and
the charges for operating and maintaining the machines, we have
the basis for determining the hourly cost of expense applicable to
work on the machine-hour basis. To determine the hourly charge,
the total normal hours which each production center will work per
year is estimated; then the amount of the expenses allocated to
each production center is divided by the normal hours this center
should operate, and the result is expense cost per hour.
There still remain a few items of expense which have not been
distributed, such as supervision, clerical, and general administra-
tive expenses. These expenses should be totaled, and the total
divided by the sum of the normal hours of all the production cen-
ters. The result of this is another hourly expense cost which
must be added to each machine rate as a supplementary charge.
The machine-hour rate is based entirely on the assumption that
the production centers will work a certain number of hours in a
certain time, a year having been used as the basis. It is obvious
that no man can predetermine accurately the number of hours
any machine in his plant will be occupied, and many people reject
the idea of installing this system for that reason alone. However,
a close approximation of the normal working time of any machine
can be found, either by keeping records or examining records
already available, and if the expenses of operating the machine
are based on an approximately correct operating time, we have,
by the machine-hour rate method, a means of showing imme-
diately the financial effect of any variation of the operating time
of the machines from the predetermined normal or standard op-
erating time.
In making up the hourly rates, we assume that we had a cer-
tain amount of expense, say $1200, to absorb in a certain period,
say one year, over one production center. Let us say that we esti-
mated the normal hours that this center would be used in the year
to be 2400, or 200 per month. On this basis, the hourly expense
cost of operating this production center is fifty cents. By adding
fifty cents for each hour that a job required the facilities of this
production center, we would expect to absorb all the expenses con-
nected with it. Now, if the jobs passing through this center in
a month required the use of the facilities for only 180 hours, we
would see at the end of the month that on this particular center
we had failed to absorb $10 of our expenses. We would have the
same information for all other centers, and, therefore, for the
whole shop, and would know at the end of the month how much
of the manufacturing facilities had not been used or had been
O-890
used more than we expected, this information being available
both in terms of hours and money.
When comparing the way in which expenses are distributed by
machine-rate costs with the distribution by means of any othei
method, it will be seen that, as far as accuracy is concerned,
everything is in favor of the machine-rate method. All othei
methods of absorbing manufacturing expense depend in one way
or another on averages, and yet there is no more reason for aver-
aging the expenses over costs of all the work produced than there
is for averaging the material items.

Overhead Expenses, Man-Hour Distribution. The man-hour

method of distributing overhead has for its base the number of
hours spent on a job instead of the amount of wages paid. This
method is subject to the same criticism as the man-rate method
in that the assumption is made that the overhead expenses have
a fixed ratio to the number of hours of time spent on a job. The
advocates of this method point out that certain items of expense
do bear a direct relation to the number of hours worked, and in-
clude under this head the expenses of the payroll and welfare
departments, compensation, insurance, and supervision* To a
certain extent these items do bear a closer relation to hours
worked than to wages paid, but as they represent a small part of
the total expense, and as it would be erroneous to distribute the
major part of the overhead on this basis, there is no advantage
in this method over the man-rate basis. Moreover, if It is the
policy not to reduce the payroll and supervisory force every time
business falls off, the cost per man-hour would fluctuate suffi-
ciently to nullify any advantage gained over the man-rate method,
particularly where this advantage consists chiefly in compensating
for the difference in labor rates by substituting hours worked
for wages paid.
Overhead Expenses, Man-Rate Distribution. The man-rate
method of distributing overhead costs is the one in most general
use because of its simplicity. To use this method, it is only neces-
sary to find the ratio of total expenses to total labor for a given
business, and to apply this ratio to the labor cost of each job
For a factory making one kind of product, this method of distrib-
uting overhead is quite satisfactory, but where the product itself
is varied and the tools used in getting out the product are dif-
ferent for each of the various units produced, this method is in-
correct and misleading as to final results. According to the man-
rate method the highest paid workman requires the most overhead
expense, when actually the lowest paid man often requires the
most supervision, and frequently the machine tools used by the
low-priced man are more expensive and require greater expendi-
tures for operation and maintenance than those used by the skilled
 891 -O
mechanic, because there is incorporated in the machine which
enables lower grade labor to be used the skill that the high-grade
man has in himself. Thus, if a semi-automatic machine is used
for making any part, a man who is not an expert mechanic can
be employed to run this machine or even several of these ma-
chines, but if this special equipment were not used a skilled man
would be required to be in constant attendance on a simpler ma-
chine. It is obvious in this case that the overhead expense that
is incurred in running the automatic machine is much greater in

proportion to the wages paid the operator of these automatic

machines than is the overhead incurred in running the mechan-
ical equipment required by the skilled mechanic.
It is also true that even if the same wages were paid all men
in a manufacturing establishment, it would still be wrong to ap-
ply the overhead to each job on the basis of a percentage of labor
cost, for we would still have the condition of one man running
more machines than another and of the difference in cost of the
machines operated; also that some men would be occupied on jobs
such as cleaning castings, checking finished product, painting,
etc., which require little mechanical equipment and therefore do
not increase the overhead expense at the same rate as their wages
increase the direct labor payroll. From the foregoing, it would
appear that the man-hour rate method of distributing expenses
is a dangerous one, in some instances. There are cases, however,
where this method may give results which will be satisfactory
from the standpoint of profit, as cited in the following:
In a manufacturing establishment where the mechanical equip-
ment is fairly well standardized, where the product, while varied
as to different types, still has the same average types of output,
and where these types all require substantially the same machin-
ing operations, it will be found that the ratio of profit to total
output will come up to expectations when the man-rate method
of distributing overhead is used. There is also a factor that must
not be overlooked when considering any business, and that is, the
amount of information which the man or men at the head of it
have of that business independent of records; frequently when
estimating the cost of new work, allowances are made by the
owner of a business for a higher expected cost due to special
facilities which will be necessary and to the expectation that the
bigger machines in the plant will be used on the work. By mak-
ing such allowances, the final price submitted includes some of
the factors of expense cost that are not actually subject to proof
from any records of overhead expense which would be available
if the man-rate method of distributing overhead were in use.

Overhead Expenses, Material and Labor Distribution. The

application of overhead on the basis of prime cost (material and
O-892
labor) does not seem to be in very general use. This method re-
quires that the total expenses of a business be divided by the sum
of the direct labor and direct material and that the ratio or per-
centage so obtained be applied to the direct material and labor
cost of each job turned out. It is manifestly wrong to apply this
method to the product of a business that uses various kinds of
material, but, where the product is all made from iron or steel,
this method has some good points, as, by taking the material into
consideration as well as the labor, we apply more accurately the
expense of handling the material in the shop which, of course,
varies with the size of the piece handled.
This method has many of the same kind of inherent defects as
the man-rate and man-hour methods, as we would still be apply-
ing an average expense to jobs instead of an actual cost, the dif-
ference between this and the other two systems being only that
the material is added to the labor before determining the expense
to be applied. Even were this method correct for some kinds of
business, the places where it could be applied would be limited
in number, and this method could never be applied generally.

Over-Hung Bender. This is a bending machine for angles,

channels, and other structural shapes in which the rolls are placed
outside of the housing. These machines are not adapted for very
heavy work, but the rolls are easily adjusted and can readily be
taken off and replaced with rolls of a different shape,

Overload Prevention. Some types of machines are so arranged

that any unusual resistance to motion will automatically stop
either the entire machine or whatever part is affected, in order
to prevent damaging the mechanism or straining it excessively.
A simple form of safety device consists of a pin which shears off
or breaks in case the overload becomes excessive. This method
of protection against overload has been applied in various ways,
and, while it is simple, there are certain disadvantages, one of
which is that in order to avoid replacing a broken pin, the ma-
chine operator sometimes inserts a pin that is stronger than it
should be. The ideal safety device is one which does not break
in case of overload, but simply disengages and is so arranged
that can readily be reengaged. In electrical work, this prin-
it

ciplehas been applied by substituting circuit-breakers for fuses

which melt when the current becomes excessive.
Automatic Relief Mechanisms for Forging Machines: Forging
machines are equipped with a tripping or relief mechanism which
prevents excessive straining or breakage of the parts controlling
the motion of the movable die, in case the stock to be forged is
not placed in the grooves of the dies, but is caught between the
flat faces. These relieving mechanisms differ somewhat in de-
sign, but the object in each case is to temporarily and automatic-
 893 -O
ally release themovable die from the action of the driving mech-
anism, in case the operating parts are subjected to a strain or
pressure that is abnormally high. The release may be obtained
by inserting bolts or "breaker castings" in the mechanism, which
will shear off or break if there is an excessive strain; another
type of relief mechanism depends for its action upon a spring
which is proportioned to resist compression for all ordinary
strains but to compress sufficiently to release the pressure on the
dies when that pressure increases beyond a safe maximum.

Overload Trip. An overload trip is an arrangement which re-

leases the holding latch of the circuit-breaker when the current,
flowing through the circuit in which the breaker is connected,
exceeds a certain predetermined amount, the tripping being ac-
complished by the armature of the magnetic circuit when forced
against the holding latch by the attraction of the magnet.
Oxidation. One of the most common forms of chemical energy
is which is the combining of oxygen with various ele-
oxidation,
ments and compounds. The corrosion of metals is generally a
form of oxidation ; rust on iron, for example, is iron oxide. When
oxidation becomes rapid, it is known as combustion, and the sub-
stances acted upon are termed "combustibles." When the com-
bustion is extremely rapid and is accompanied by noise, it is
termed explosion, and the matter that explodes is called on "ex-
plosive mixture."

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents. Any substance that causes

an element or compound to combine with oxygen is called an
oxidizing agent. A substance that removes oxygen, or elements
similar to it, is called a reducing agent. Reducing agents are
especially useful in obtaining metals in the free state from their
ores.

Oxy-Acetylene Method of Cutting Steel and Iron. The

process of oxygen cutting of steel, wrought iron, and cast iron
consists of burning the metal along a predetermined path with a
jet of oxygen after the metal has been preheated at the starting
point to a bright red heat. Only the red hot metal in the path of
the oxygen jet burns, while the cooler metal adjacent is unburned
and practically unaffected beyond a narrow zone, usually less than
1/16 inch on each side of the cut.
The heating, preparatory to cutting, is done by a small flame
or flames close to the central orifice in the torch tip through which
the oxygen cutting stream issues. The gas for the preheating
flame that has given the most general satisfaction is acetylene;
hence, the process, when acetylene is used for preheating, is
known as "oxy-acetylene cutting." The number of heating flames
varies from one to six seldom more. One flame is rarely or
O-894
never used, but it is seldom that more than four or five are re-
quired, except when cutting cast iron. The use of four or five
preheating flames insures that one or two flames will always be
ahead of the oxygen jet when cutting in any direction in a plane
parallel to the surface of the piece cut.
The use of fabricated steel plates and structural shapes, as-
sembled by welding, has greatly increased for such purposes as
machine bases, frames, housings, uprights, rotors, and other ma-
chine parts and oxygen cutting has proved a convenient and
economical method of cutting steel plates to the shapes required
for work of this kind.
Hand Torches for Oxy-acetylene Cutting: Oxy-acetylene cut-
ting was practicedat first with hand torches exclusively, and the
hand torch is still the principal gas cutting tool. The operator
holds the torch at the required height from the work and fol-
lows the line of the cut. He must move the torch steadily to
keep in step with the cutting action. If the torch is moved along
the cut much faster or slower than the cutting action, the cut is
"lost," and a new start must be made.
As with other hand operations, the accuracy, smoothness, and
efficiency of the cutting depends upon the skill and care of the
operator. The thicker the metal, the more difficult hand-cutting
becomes, owing to the slow rate of progress required, compared
to most hand movements, and the necessity of holding the torch
so that the cutting edge will be projected squarely through the
piece. Slight variations in the side angle at which the torch is
held, and variations in speed that might have little noticeable
effect on thin plates, are likely to produce shape defects when
thick plates, slabs, and forgings are being cut. The shape of the
cut is likely to have one form at the top surface and another at
the bottom. This reduces the efficiency of the cutting operation.
Efficiency in cutting refers to consumption of oxygen and acety-
lene, as well as to the cutting time. The volume of oxygen used is
almost directly proportional to the volume of steel oxidized and
displaced in the cut The wider the kerf, the greater the weight
of steel burned away and the larger the volume of oxygen used.
The hand-operated torch cuts a wider kerf than a mechanically-
guided torch, because the former wavers slightly from side to
side and the cutting jet covers a wider area.
Machines for Oxy-acetylene Cutting: Machines for "gas cut-
ting" are designed to hold and guide the torch mechanically and
propel along the required path at a uniform rate that is varied
it
to suit conditions. Such cutting machines are made in portable,
semi-portable, and stationary types. In shipyards, bridge works,
and industrial plants where a large tonnage of steel plates is
handled daily, requiring trimming, splitting, beveling, and cutting
to length, portability is important.
 895 -O
One type of portable machine is known as the "Radiagraph."
This machine carries a straight-head machine-torch with means
of setting the torch at any angle required for beveling or cutting
a calking edge. A compound slide rest provides for vertical and
horizontal adjustments. The carriage of this machine has three
small wheels, two being tractors and the third a free wheel. When
straight lines are being cut, the wheels run on a grooved track
and when circular arcs or circles are being cut, the machine re-
volves around a pivot point fixed to a radius rod. In the latter
case, only one of the tractor wheels is used for a drive, and the
free wheel, which is mounted like a caster, follows the path set
by the radius bar. This machine is used largely for fabricating
shapes from steel plates or slabs.
Cutting Duplicate Parts to Shape of Master Cam or Templet:
A semi-portable machine, known as the "Camograph" can be
taken to the job or, when the parts are easily handled, used in a
stationary position. The torch is mounted on a vertical slide at
the outer end of a double hinged arm. The hinged arm is sup-
ported by a vertical post fixed in a base. At the top of the post is
a cam-holder designed to hold, in a horizontal position, an internal
cam or templet having an opening, the shape of which is approxi-
mately the shape to be cut. In contacting with this inner surface
is a magnetic roller driven by a variable-speed motor. As the

magnetic roller turns on its axis it follows the cam shape and
carries the straight-head torch with it, cutting the shape below.
Only one shape can be cut with a cam hence, this is a repetitive
;

production cutting machine. Boiler hand-holes, hand-hole covers,

rubber heel dies, and tube supports in water-tube boilers are a
few of the shapes cut with this machine.
Multiple Oxy-acetylene Cutting: Machines have been designed
for multiple cutting of shapes, using two or more torches on one
thickness of steel plate; for cutting in multiple from a stack of
two or more plates with one torch; or for cutting shapes from a
stack of two or more plates with two or more torches. The condi-
tions that must be met in multiple cutting are more exacting than
with single piece cutting of a thickness equal to the height of the
stack.
Thickness of Metal that can be Cut: The maximum thickness
of metal that can be cut by high-temperature flames depends
largely upon the gases used and the pressure; the thicker the ma-
terial, the higher the pressure required. Steel slabs 18 inches
thick are within the range of standard practice. Amechanically-
guided torch will cut thick material more satisfactorily than a
hand-guided torch. With any flame, the cut is less accurate and
the kerf wider, as the thickness of the metal increases. When
cutting light material, the kerf might not be over 1/16 inch
wide, whereas, for heavy stock, it might be % or % inch wide.
O-896
Oxy-Acetylene Welding. The high temperature required
for autogenous welding is obtained usually by the combustion of
acetylene gas and pure oxygen. These gases are thoroughly mixed
in the nozzle or tip of the welding torch to insure perfect com-
bustion. The weld may be formed directly between two adjoining
from a welding rod is fused in between
surfaces, but usually metal
the surfaces of the jointThe rod or wire used may or may not
have the same composition as the material being welded.
This welding process may be applied to cast iron, steel, brass,
copper, aluminum and other ferrous and non-ferrous metals. For
ordinary welding operations the equipment consists of containers
for the oxygen and acetylene gases, with suitable reducing valves,
pressure gages, and hose connections with the welding torch. In
manufacturing plants where oxy-acetylene welding or metal-
cutting apparatus is used more or less continuously, and especially
on duplicate work in quantity, special tools, fixtures and machines
are employed for holding the work and guiding the torch
mechanically.
Oxy-acetylene Flame: The combustion of acetylene in oxygen
produces an extremely high heat. The temperature produced by
the oxy-acetylene flame is estimated at about 5400 degrees F. The
flame of acetylene is much hotter than that of hydrogen, and the
number of heat units per cubic foot of gas is about five times as
great, the ratio being as 330 to 1600. Hence, both the intensity
and amount of heat of the oxy-acetylene flame, as compared with
other heat-producing mediums, are superior. The oxy-acetylene
flame is used for cutting metals, in addition to its use for weld-
ing. When iron and steel are heated to a high temperature, they
have a great affinity for oxygen and readily combine with it to
form different oxides, which cause the metal to be disintegrated
and burned with great rapidity; this is the principle governing
the operation of a cutting torch. See also Cutting Metals with
Oxidizing Flame.

Oxyacld. Oxyacid is an acid which contains oxygen. Its

name is generally formed by adding "-ic" either to the name of
the element with which the oxygen is united or to an abbrevia-
tion of that name, as, for example, sulphuric acid and phosphoric
acid. If the element forms two acids with oxygen, that which
contains less oxygen usually ends in "-ous." The acid which con-
tains still less oxygen than one ending in "-ous," is designated
by the prefix "hypo-"; those containing more oxygen than one
ending in "-ic" are designated by the prefix "hyper-" or "per-."
Oxygen, Oxygen is one of the chief constituents of the at-
mosphere, in which it is present to the extent of 21 per cent by
volume or 23 per cent by weight. The atomic weight of oxygen,
which is taken as 16, is used as a standard by which the atomic
 897 -O
weights of other elements are compared and determined. The
specific gravity ofoxygen (air = 1) is 1.106. Its specific heat
at 32 degrees F. is 0.217. It becomes liquefied at a temperature
of 183 degrees C. ( 297 degrees F.), and solidifies at a tem-
perature of 235 degrees C. (391 degrees F.). Oxygen does
not itself burn, but it is the greatest supporter of combustion
known, and nearly all other chemical elements combine with it
under evolution of heat. Oxygen is used in many industries in ;

the machine industries, it is used in large quantities for oxy-

acetylene and oxy-hydrogen welding of metals and cutting of iron
and steel.

Oxygen and Nitrogen in Steel. Oxygen and nitrogen are

very injurious to steel and decrease its strength and wearing
qualities. When titanium is added to the molten metal, it com-
bines with these gases, which otherwise are liable to become oc-
cluded in the steel, and carries them off into the slag. These gases
also form miniature bubbles that, when segregated, form holes
large enough to be seen plainly. If segregated in large enough
masses they form good-sized blow-holes. Owing to the gaseous
nature of both oxygen and nitrogen, it has been difficult to analyze
steels for these contents. Investigations, however, showed that
the percentage of oxygen in some twenty-four samples of steel
ranged from 0.021 to 0.046 per cent. Even these small per-
centages are high enough to materially effect the qualities of steel.
Investigations have shown that, at first, an increase of nitrogen
causes the toughness of steel to slightly increase, but reduces its
ductility; each increase of nitrogen causes the elongation to
rapidly diminish. Steel with 0.5 per cent of carbon loses its duc-
tility in the presence of from 0.040 to 0.047 per cent of nitrogen.
Open-hearth steel usually contains from 0.020 to 0.025 per cent
of nitrogen; Bessemer steel from 0.018 to 0.062 per cent; and
crucible steel has from 0.010 to 0.015 per cent in nitrogen.
Titanium has a very strong affinity for both oxygen and nitrogen ;
it forms with oxygen an oxide, and with nitrogen, a stable nitride
that shows as tiny red crystals under the microscope. Both of
these are then carried off into the slag and the quantity of slag
that is lifted from the molten metal is quite materially increased.
The deoxidation of steel is usually accomplished with manganese
and but these never remove the oxides as thoroughly as
silicon,
is desired. Titanium is a much more powerful deoxidizer than
either or both of these; when added to steel at the time of tap-
ping, it completes their unfinished work and reduces the oxygen
and nitrogen to mere traces.

Oxygraph. The oxygraph is a machine used for cutting steel

by the oxy-acetylene process, and is employed when it is required
O-898
to follow a certain outline or pattern* The device is constructed
on the pantograph principle.

Oxy-Hydrogen Flame. Hydrogen gas burns readily in oxy-

gen or air. When the combustion of hydrogen is sustained by
pure oxygen, a very high temperature (about 4000 degrees F.) is
produced. Many forms of oxy-hydrogen lamps and blowpipes
have been invented to make use of the high heat produced by the
combustion of hydrogen. The flame is used for autogenous weld-
ing and cutting of metals and in platinum works, because the
latter metal is fusible only in the oxy-hydrogen or oxy-acetylene
flame and in the electric furnace. The oxy-hydrogen flame, or,
more properly speaking, the air-hydrogen flame, is used exten-
sively in lead burning, which is a process similar to that used
for the welding of iron, steel, and other metals, by means of the
oxy-acetylene flame. Hydrogen with air to sustain the combus-
tion is used for lead burning instead of acetylene, because lead
melts at a low temperature, and the high heat produced by acety-
lene burning in oxygen makes the welding of lead by it very diffi-
cult, if not impossible. Air is also used instead of pure oxygen
for the combustion of the hydrogen in order to reduce the
temperature of the flame.
Ozalid White-Print Process. This process for obtaining re-
production of tracings produces a positive print or dark lines
on a white background, by dry development. See Positive Prints.
Ozonators. An ozonator or ozonizer is an electrical apparatus
for producing ozone for the purification and deodorization of air
under various conditions. The essential parts of an ozonator are
the transformer for obtaining a sufficiently high voltage and the
generating units.
 Pack-Hardening. Pack-hardening- as usually conducted is
actually carburizing, the only departure from the process, in gen-
eral, being that the temperatures of the heats are lower. Cor-
rectly speaking, pack-hardening is the process whereby high-
carbon steels or steels that will harden without the aid of carbon
added by carburizing, may be protected from furnace gases and
air. By packing in some carbonaceous material, the work is pro-
tected by the carbon gases given off, and in quenching from the
pot, the work is clean and free from scale. A valuable point in
favor of this operation is that the work is brought to the quench-
ing temperature slowly and uniformly, and so dangers of crack-
ing and warpage are reduced to a minimum. Any carburizer can
be employed in packing, used material being the best, as the
carbon strength of the gas is lower and there is less danger of
carburizing the work. The danger of decarburizing is slight, pro-
vided the lowest temperature that can be used for hardening the
work is employed. The length of time of the operation has a
tendency to increase the grain size, which is augmented by high
temperatures. It is dangerous to carburize the surface of high-
carbon steel, because a line of demarcation between the case thus
produced and the case of the original steel will shorten the life of
the part. Minute surface cracks usually develop after hardening.
Common hard wood charcoal is recommended for pack-
hardening, especially if it has had an initial heating to eliminate
shrinkage and discharge its more impure gases. The work is
packed as in carburizing and in the same type of receptacle. The
pack-hardening of high-speed steels is extensively done. There
are many tools which are so delicate and have such a variation
in cross-section that only with extreme care can they be hardened
in the open furnace and preserve the delicate edges and corners.

Packing. Packing is used on engines, pumps, and machinery

of various classes to seal joints either between stationary or mov-
able parts, in order to prevent the leakage of steam, air, water,
or any other gas or fluid. Packing is made in many different
forms and is applied in various ways. For instance, packing in
the form of thin sheets or rings of some flexible material is placed
between pipe flanges, cover joints, etc., to prevent leakage. Other
forms, which may be of square or circular cross-section, are ap-
plied to valve stems, engine piston-rods and in general, wherever
a tight joint is required. A great variety of materials are used
for packing, the particular material used depending somewhat

899
P-900
upon the class of service and also upon the preference of the de-
signer or engineer. Whatever the composition may be, the es-
sential qualities are elasticity, durability, and, in the case of
packing for a moving part, a low coefficient of friction and
practically no wearing or abraiding effect.

Packing Materials. The packing materials formerly used

were hemp and cotton fiber,but much of the packing now used
for certain classes of service is made of combinations of cotton
(in the form of canvas) with rubber. The rubber provides the
necessary elasticity and the canvas absorbs and holds the lubri-
cant. Paper fiber has also been extensively used, as well as hemp
with graphite. For some purposes, these fiber and rubber pack-
ings have been inadequate, either because of high pressures or
high temperatures. In order to secure a more durable packing
and one that would resist both heat and an excessive pressure, the
metallic form of packing has been extensively used, especially
for steam engine piston-rods. There is a great variety of pack-
ing adapted to steam work which may be classified as fibrous and
metallic, although it may be combined in many different ways,
together with rubber, graphite, and other materials. The metal-
lic packing is formed of a series of rings composed of some soft

alloy, and so arranged that end-wise compression, from a spring

within a gland, will cause the rings to contract upon the rod.
There are various forms of shredded packing, both metallic and
fibrous, which are mixed with certain lubricating substances and
packed in the stuffing-box. Packing of this kind is also put up
in thin cotton tubes, two or three feet in length, which are wound
around the rod the same as wicking. Ring packing made up of
various substances is a very efficient and convenient form.

Paint, Aluminum. See Aluminum Paint.

Paint, Heat-Reflecting. See Aluminum Paint; also Acalorin;

also Eadiation of Heat.

Paint, High-Temperature. Paint that will withstand high

temperatures, even up to a red heat, has the following composi-
tion: Lampblack, 3 pounds; graphite, 3 pounds; black oxide of
manganese, 1 pound; Japan gold size, 1 pint; turpentine, 1.5 pint;
and boiled linseed oil, 1 pint. Powder the graphite and mix all
the ingredients to a uniform consistency; give two coats. The
following mixture is also recommended: Black oxide of man-
ganese, 2 pounds; graphite, 3 pounds; and terra alba, 9 pounds.
Mix and pass through a fine sieve, then mix to the required con-
sistency with the following compound: Sodium silicate, 10 parts;
glucose, 1 part; and water, 4 parts.

Paint, Radiator. See under Radiation of Heat.

 901 -P
Panel or Thickness Planer. This type of wood-working ma-
chine is also known as a "surfacer" and may be either single or

double, depending upon whether it operates on one or on both

sides of the board at the same time. It does not make a plane
surface, as the stock is fed through rollers which hold the piece
straight while the cutters are in operation, but the work resumes
itsoriginal form as soon as the pressure is relieved. The single
type used in combination with the hand jointer is the best for
pattern-shop work. The stock is first jointed on one side and
planed to thickness on the panel planer.

Pantograph Mechanisms. A pantograph is a combination

of links which are so connected and proportioned as to length
that any motion of one point in a plane parallel to that of the
link mechanism will cause another point to follow a similar path
either on an enlarged or a reduced scale. Such a mechanism
may be used as a reducing motion for operating a steam engine
indicator, or to control the movements of a metal cutting tool.
For instance, most engraving machines have a pantograph mech-
anism interposed between the tool and a tracing point which is
guided along lines or grooves of a model or pattern. As the
tracing point moves, the tool follows a similar path, but to a
reduced scale, and cuts the required pattern or design on the work.

Pappus Rule. See Guldinus Rule.

Parabola The parabola is a curve of that class known as
conic sections. The parabola is obtained by taking a section
through a cone parallel to the side of the cone. If a parabola
rotates about its own axis, the parabolic curve will describe a
surface which includes a solid body known as a paraboloid.

Parallel Connection. In any electrical circuit, two or more

elements such as resistances, inductances, condensers, lamps,
motors, etc., are said to be connected in parallel when a common
connection joins one terminal of each element and another com-
mon connection joins the remaining terminal of each element.
See also Series Connection.
In electric batteries, when all the anodes or positive electrodes
of a battery are connected together and all the cathodes or nega-
tive electrodes are connected, this is known as a parallel connec-
tion. With such a connection the result is the same as if the
battery were a single cell having elements of the same area as
the area of the combined anodes and combined cathodes. The
electromotive force is the same as that of one single cell, but the
resistance of the battery will be that of one cell divided by the
number of cells ; hence, the amount of current is increased, being
equal to the current of one cell multiplied by the number of cells.
See also Batteries.
P-902
Parallelepiped. A
parallelepiped (sometimes also called
paral-
lelepipedon) is a solid body bounded by six plane surfaces, all of
which are parallelograms. Each two opposite surfaces are paral-
lel and equal to each other. A
parallelepiped may also be defined
as a prism, the end surfaces or bases of which are parallelograms.

Parallel Motion. See Straight-line Motions.

Parallelogram. A plane figure bounded by four straight sides,

of which those opposite each other are parallel, is known as a
parallelogram. The square and rectangle are parallelograms in
which all of the angles are right angles. It is not necessary,
however, that the angles be right or 90-degree angles; some-
times two of the angles are less and two more than 90 degrees.
The sum of the angles is always equal to four right angles*
Parallels. Parallels are placed beneath parts to be planed or
ground, usually for the purpose of raising them to a suitable
height, or to align a finished surface on the under side with the
platen, when such a surface cannot be placed in direct contact
with the platen. These parallels are made in pairs of different
sizes, and opposite sides are parallel to each other.

Paraloy No. 2. A nickel-chromium alloy cast iron containing

nickel,2 to 4 per cent; chromium, 0.75 to 1 per cent. Brinell
hardness, 250 to 300, and tensile strength, 40,000 to 60,000 pounds
per square inch before heat-treatment; after heat-treatment:
hardness, 450 to 550 Brinell, and tensile strength, 30,000 to 40,000
pounds per square inch. Suitable for cast dies for sheet-metal
stamping and drawing operations.
Paramagnetic Substance. If a substance has a magnetic
permeability greater than that of a vacuum, it is called a para-
magnetic substance. Most substances are very slightly paramag-
netic; but the only substances that are strongly paramagnetic
that is, that have a permeability considerably greater than that
of a vacuum are iron, steel, nickel, and cobalt, and certain of
their alloys. For the purpose of distinguishing these materials
from those which are only slightly paramagnetic, the term fer-
romagnetic has been applied. A
paramagnetic substance is the
opposite of a diamagnetic substance, which latter has a perme-
ability less than that of a vacuum. Of all materials, bismuth
exhibits the strongest diamagnetic property. Silver and copper
are also diamagnetic, but in a considerably less degree. All the
elements, except iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, and bismuth, are, from
a practical standpoint, generally considered to be non-magnetic.

Parentheses. Two important rules relating to the use of

parentheses are based upon the principles of positive and negative
numbers :
 903 -P

1. If a parenthesis is preceded by a +
sign, it may be removed,
if the terms within the parentheses retain their signs.
a -f (6 c) a 6= + c.

a parenthesis is preceded by a
2. If sign, it may be removed,
if the signs preceding each of the terms inside of the parentheses
are changed (+ changed to , and to +). Multiplication
and division signs are not affected.
a (6 c) t= a b -f-
c.
a ( 6 -f- c) 6= a -j-
6 c.

Parkerizing. Parkerizing is a chemical conversion rustproof-

ing process whereby the surfaces of iron or steel are changed to
an insoluble phosphate coating that is highly resistant to corro-
sion when combined with stain, oil and wax finishes. The process
is especially adapted to treating forgings, castings, stampings,
screw machine and wire products, on which paint finishes are
not necessary or desirable. It produces a deep black color and
may be painted when desired.
Parkhurst Wage System. See Wage System, Parkhurst.
Parsons' White Brass. This is an alloy of tin, zinc, and cop-
per, frequently known as "Parsons' white bronze." This alloy has
the essential characteristics of hard babbitt.

Parting Sand. Parting sand is a fine shore or river sand

used in molding to prevent adjoining bodies of sand from ad-
hering. It is sprinkled on the joints of molds to prevent the
sand in the cope and drag from adhering to each other.
Passow Cement. A cement known as Passow cement is made
by granulating blast furnace slag and finely grinding the product,
either alone or with an addition of about 10 per cent of Portland
cement clinkers. Passow cements are claimed to produce a ma-
terial which sets rapidly and which attains a strength comparable
with that of Portland cement.
Paste Binder. This is a paste made of flour and water, used
for holding together the sand in dry sand cores. This binder is
especially used for long, slender cores.

Pasted Plate. See Paure Plate.

Patch Bolt. A bolt provided with
a countersunk head on the
top of which a square head is provided; such bolts are used for
fastening patches in the repair of boilers. Holes in the patch or
plate are countersunk for the heads of the bolts and the boiler
plate holes are tapped. After the bolts have been screwed securely
into place, the square heads are removed, and the bolt heads and
edge of the plate are calked to prevent leakage.
P-904
Patch-Bolt Taps. Patch-bolt taps are only a modified form
of taper boiler taps* The taper is the same, %-inch per foot, but
the threaded portion as well as the total length is shorter than the
corresponding lengths of a taper boiler tap. Patch-bolt taps are
always provided with 12 threads per inch irrespective of diameter.

Patenting. A term applied to the heating of steel above its

critical temperature range followed by cooling to below that
range in air, in molten lead, or in a molten salt. This treatment
is applied in the wire industry as a finishing treatment or as a
treatment preparatory to further wire drawing.
Patented Rods: Rods of medium or high carbon content which
have been given an individual strand heat treatment in prepara-
tion for drawing into wire. The temperature employed in this
operation is above the critical range and heating is followed by
comparatively rapid cooling.

Patents, A patent is a monopoly securing to an inventor the

exclusive right of exploitation of his invention for a certain period
of time provided he complies with certain rules and regulations to
obtain his patent. The general idea is that a patent is a contract
between the inventor and the Government. The inventor discloses
his idea to the public in the form of a patent and thereby bestows
a benefit on the public. In return for this benefit the Government
gives the inventor a monopoly on his invention which lasts, in the
United States, for 17 years from the date of issue of the patent.
Invention: What is invention? Some courts have stated that
the term defies definition some courts have tried to define it, but
;

the laws relating to patents apparently take it for granted that

everybody knows what it is. It seems to be a peculiar quality of
the human mind which enables us to produce new results by com-
bining and recombining elements. There must be something of
this quality present in order to entitle you to a patent. There
must be something of this gift of seeing things which others do
not see to make an improvement an invention. This does not
mean, however, that inventions made in chemical laboratories as
a result of the so-called trial-and-error method are not patentable.
There is probably little use in trying to positively define the term
invention, but many rules have been established to show what is
not invention.
Novelty in Invention: As in connection with the term "inven-
tion" the law has not attempted to define novelty but has estab-
lished a number of rules to show when an invention is not novel.
In other words, the law takes it for granted that your invention
satisfies the requirement of novelty unless it can be shown that,
under a set of positive provisions, your invention is not novel. An
invention lacks patentable novelty if
 905 -P
1. It was known or used by others in the United States, before
the date of the invention, or
2. It was patented or described in any printed publication in
this or any foreign country, (a) before the date of the invention;
or (b) more than one year prior to the application. (Under the
act of August 5th, 1939, the former two-year periods were reduced
to one year, beginning August 5th, 1940.)
3. It was in public use or on sale in the United States for more
than one year prior to the application. (This period prior to
August was two years.)
5th, 1940,
Utility Patents and Design Patents: Patents are divided into
two groups, utility patents and design patents. The former are
intended to cover inventions the object of which is to enhance the
usefulness of an article while the design patent covers inventions
the object of which is to enhance the aesthetic appearance of a
device. The design patent is rather closely related to the Copy-
right, the difference being that a copyright protects, in addition
to works of literature, works of the so-called fine arts, while a
design patent protects works of the industrial arts. The utility
patent is the one which is most commonly used. While the prose-
cution of a design patent application, trademark application and
copyright application is, more or less, a routine matter, the prose-
cution of a utility patent application calls for a high degree of
skill and knowledge and the value of the Patent depends largely

upon the skill with which the application has been prosecuted
through the Patent Office.

Patent Rights. Considerable difficulty has arisen between

employes and employers relative to the ownership of patents that
are issued in the name of an employe without the knowledge of
the employer. The holding of the United States Supreme Court
is to the effect that if a patent is issued in the name of an in-

ventor, and relates to an invention conceived, experimented with,

and perfected on his employer's time, the true ownership of the
patent lies with the employer. Of course, all these facts must be
proved before a court will issue an order requesting the Patent
Office to transfer the title of a patent already issued, from the
name of the inventor to the employer.
Invention Made on Workman's Time: Simply because an in-
ventor is employed and paid to perform certain duties, the em-
ployer cannot, ordinarily, claim the ownership of an invention
that an employe conceives and perfects while not engaged in per-
forming his regular duty. In other words, an employer has no
common law rights of ownership in an employe's invention which
is made entirely on the employe's time, unless a contract to that
effect exists or there is a written agreement between the employer
P-906
and employe. Therefore the old custom of having contracts seems
to be logical at present, the same as it was previous to the later
court decision.
For many years it was customary to provide a written agree-
ment between the employer and his workmen, wherein the em-
ployes specifically and unmistakably agreed to assign all the
patent rights to the employer on inventions made while working
on the employer's time. During those years the existence of such
a contract was necessary in order to assure the employer that he
would receive the benefits of the inventive faculty and ability of
the employes, even though the inventors actually were paid to
design and invent new things.
Contracts Which Protect Employer: At present, a signed con-
tract in which an employe unmistakably agrees to assign to his
employer all inventions made on the employer's time, may elimi-
nate litigation wherein the employer would be required to prove
that the invention in controversy was perfected specifically in
accordance with the present established law. Furthermore, an
additional clause may be added to this contract in which the em-
ploye agrees to assign the patents on all inventions relating to
kindred lines of business in which the employer is engaged,
whether the inventions are conceived and invented on the em-
ployer's time or while the employe is in his own home, or else-
where. The latter clause gives the employer important advantages,
particularly for the reason that it may not be necessary for him
to prove that the inventor actually did work on or perfected in-
ventions on the employer's time, which is often very difficult to
prove.
Protection of Both Inventor and Employer: It is well to thor-
oughly understand that while the present law takes into due con-
sideration the rights of an employer relative to the ownership of
an invention made in his factory, even where no contract exists,
nevertheless, the law also protects the inventor who may patent
an invention conceived and perfected while he may be at his own
home, or other places, during periods when he is not receiving
remuneration from his employer. The law seeks to protect both
the employer and the employe to the full extent of the rightfulness
of the ownership of a patent.

Patent Royalties. See Eoyalties on Patents.

Patterns. A pattern of the type used in producing castings,

isa model or form from which a mold can be made in damp sand
or other suitable material. This mold when filled with molten
metal gives the proper shape to the required casting. The exterior
form of an ordinary pattern corresponds to the shape of the cast-
ing to be produced, but if holes or interior passages are required
 907-P
in the casting, the pattern is provided with projecting core prints
which will give it a different appearance from the casting which
isreproduced in the mold. Materials for making patterns include
wood, metal, and plaster.
One-piece Patterns: The solid pattern is the simplest type. The
term means that the pattern is in one piece, but it may be con-
structed of several pieces of wood which are fastened together
permanently.
Parted or Split Patterns: Most patterns are formed of two
parts or sections which are kept in the proper relation to each
other by dowel-pins or plates, and are known as two-part patterns.
In making a mold from such a pattern, one-half of the pattern is
first placed joint side down on the molding board so that, after
the drag is "rammed up," this joint is flush with the parting line
of the mold. The other half of the pattern is then placed in posi-
tion, preparatory to ramming up the cope. The two-part construc-
tion enables the molder to locate the parting line accurately and
with less work than is necessary when using a solid pattern. A
three-part pattern is constructed for molding in a flask with three
sections or parts.
Sectional Patterns: It is often possible to make a part or sec-
tion of a patternwhich can be used by the molder, instead of sup-
plying a complete pattern. This is common practice in making
molds for circular work where but few castings are required.
Rings of almost any section are frequently made by this method.
The molder rams up a section of the mold and then moves the
section of the pattern to the next position.
Skeleton Patterns: Skeleton patterns are a framework the gen-
eral outline ofwhich conforms to that of the required casting.
The spaces between the framework are filled by the molder with
the molding material and are smoothed off to complete the pattern.
Shett Patterns: Patterns of the shell type are used for making
drainage fittings of all kinds. They are usually made of iron and
are complete models of the finished casting.
Gated Patterns: Gated patterns are small patterns fastened to
the runners and gate pin to form a multiple pattern which can
be used to mold a number of pieces at one time. The pattern-
maker is sometimes required to make wood patterns on a gate,
but more often he furnishes but a single pattern from which the
molder casts the required number of patterns and then proceeds
to mold and cast them on a gate. This gated metal pattern is then
sent back to the shop to be finished smooth. See Draft on Pat-
terns; Joints used in Patternmaking; Match-plate Patterns.

Pattern Shrinkage Allowances. The shrinkage allowances

ordinarily made on patterns to compensate for the contraction of
P-908
castings in cooling are as follows: Cast iron, from 3/32 to Vs inch
per foot; common brass, 3/16 inch per foot; yellow brass,
inch per foot; aluminum, from
7/32 inch per foot; bronze, 5/32
Vs to 5/32 inch per foot; magnesium from %
to 11/64 inch

per foot; and steel casting, 3/16 inch per foot. The amount of
shrinkage, in any case, depends to some extent upon the shape
and size of the casting. A
plain casting that is long in
proportion to its width will contract differently from one that is
more compact, even though both castings have the same weight
and were cast from the same material A
heavy iron casting may
shrink only 1/10 inch per foot or even less, whereas a lighter
casting of the same material may shrink Vs inch per foot. A
cylindrical or column-shaped casting will contract more in a
lengthwise direction than radially. Hence, when making patterns
for rather large castings of this kind, the allowance should be
about 1/10 inch lengthwise and from 1/20 to 1/16 inch per foot
radially. For pipes or other hollow castings, the lateral shrinkage
is very much less than for solid castings or those having thick
walls. A general rule for columns of comparatively small diam-
eter but great length, such as are used for building purposes, is
to allow %
inch per foot for shrinkage lengthwise and make no
allowance on the diameter. The "one-tenth" shrinkage rule is the
standard (for cast iron) in most machine pattern-shops. Al-
though this is not the proper allowance for all forms of casting,
the adoption of a standard eliminates the confusion that would
follow the use of a number of rules for different classes of work.
There is no fixed rule governing shrinkage allowance.

Patterns, Lacquering. Although it is general practice to

apply several coats of shellac to wood patterns in order to keep
out moisture and protect the glued joints, at least one prominent
manufacturer has had very successful results in using lacquer in-
stead of shellac. The advantages cited are that lacquered patterns
draw from the sand much better, there is less tearing of the mold
and smoother castings are obtained. Experiments have shown
that the brushing lacquer is more satisfactory than a spraying
lacquer, as the former fills rough places in the pattern more
evenly. Wax fillets should be shellacked before applying lacquer,
as otherwise the lacquer will not harden properly over the fillets
and sticks to the molding sand. Metal plates and patterns which
have not been sherardized may be protected from corrosion by the
lacquer coating. The first cost of finishing a pattern with lacquer
is greater than when shellac is used, but it is claimed a
great
many more castings can be obtained from a lacquer finished pat-
tern than from a shellacked pattern before recoating is necessary.

Patterns, Metal. Metal patterns are especially adapted to

molding machine practice, owing to their durability and superi-
 909 -P

ority in retaining the required shape. The original master pat-

tern is generally made of wood, the casting obtained from the
wood pattern being finished to make the metal pattern. The
materials commonly used are brass, cast iron, aluminum and steel.
Brass patterns should have a rather large percentage of tin, as
this gives a good surface for the casting. Cast iron is generally
used for patterns of large size, as it is cheaper than brass and
more durable. Cast-iron patterns are largely used on molding
machines. Aluminum patterns are light, but they shrink con-
siderably. White metal is sometimes used when it is necessary
to avoid shrinkage. The gates for the mold may be cast or made
of sheet brass. Some patterns are made of vulcanized rubber,
especially for light match-board work. In making master pat-
terns of wood, two shrinkages must be allowed, and, in some
cases, a double allowance for finishing. If the pattern is to be
of iron for an iron casting, two cast-iron shrinkages must be
allowed for, but if the pattern is to be cast iron and the casting
of brass, one cast iron and one brass shrinkage will be necessary.

Patterns, Right- and Left-Hand. Many patterns are re-

quired in pairs, and when it is not possible to reverse them, and
have the centers of hubs, bosses, etc., opposite and in line, they
must be made right- and left-hand. If the pattern is a small one
or if a great many castings are to be made from it, the better
way would be to make two patterns, but if the pattern is large or
if only one or two castings are required, the work should be laid
out and planned so that the required pieces may be moved from
side to side or from end to end in order to change the pattern
from right- to left-hand.

Patterns, Standard Colors. Standard colors for painting

patterns, adopted by a joint committee on pattern equipment
standardization consisting of official representatives from the
American Foundrymen's Association with eight other
affiliated
national organizations are as follows : 1. Surfaces to be left un-
finished are to be painted black; 2. Surfaces to be machined are
to be painted red; 3. Seats of and for loose pieces are to be red
stripes on a yellow background; 4. Core-prints and seats for loose
core-prints are to be painted yellow; 5. Stop-offs are to be indi-
cated by diagonal black stripes on a yellow base.

Patterns, Varnish or Shellac. A yellow or orange shellac

varnish is generally used as a protective coating for pattern work,
although there are other varnishes, such as copal, etc., that are
used in special cases. Shellac comes in thin, flaky irregularly
shaped pieces. It is brown in color and can only be cut with
alcohol; grain alcohol is best, but wood or denatured alcohol is
most frequently used, on account of the high cost of grain alcohol.
P-910
Core prints and core outlines on the drag part of the pattern are
colored,and also surfaces concealed by loose pieces. There is no
generally accepted standard for pattern coloring.
Black Shellac: Black shellac is made by adding lampblack to
orange shellac. The lampblack should be of good quality and free
from grit.
Red Shellac: A good grade of finely ground vermillion mixed
with orange shellac may be used for making red shellac. All color-
ing matter should be ground dry.
Shellac dries quickly and is not easily affected by heat or mois-
ture two qualities which make it particularly desirable for fin-
ishing pattern work. It is also easy to cut through, which is
another important consideration when patterns are to be altered.
Pots for holding clear or yellow shellac should be of glass or
earthenware, as the chemical action set up by the use of a metal
pot will darken the shellac. See Patterns, Lacquering.
Pattern Wood. Woods commonly used for patterns are white
pine, mahogany, cherry, maple, birch, white wood, and fir. For
most patterns, white pine is considered superior because it is
easily worked, readily takes glue and varnish, and is fairly dur-
able. For medium- and small-sized patterns, especially if they
are to be extensively used, a harder wood is preferable. Ma-
hogany is often used for patterns of this class, although many
prefer cherry. As mahogany has a close grain, it is not as
susceptible to atmospheric changes as a wood of coarser grain.
Mahogany is superior in this respect to cherry, but is more ex-
pensive. In selecting cherry, never use young timber. Maple and
birch are employed quite extensively, especially for turned parts,
as they take a good finish. White wood is sometimes substituted
for pine, but it is inferior to the latter in being more susceptible
to atmospheric changes. The Honduras mahogany or bay-wood is
used for patternmaking, as it is much softer and easier to work
than the mahogany used for making furniture, etc. Bay-wood is
obtained near the Gulf of Campeche. It is worked almost as easily
as pine and can be obtained in long and clear lengths, remark-
ably free from serious defects. The wood is of an open grain and
requires careful finishing in order to obtain a smooth surface.

Pea Coal. Pea coal is small coal of such size that the pieces
willnot pass a screen of %-inch mesh, but pass a screen of %-inch
mesh. Pea coal is often used for power plant purposes.

Pearlite. Pearlite is a structural condition present in steel

heated beyond the critical temperature and slowly cooled. If the
steel that is thus slowly cooled contains very nearly 0.90 per cent
of carbon, it will consist of pearlite alone. If it contains more
than 0.90 per cent of carbon, it consists of pearlite and micro-
 911 -P
scopic crystals of cementite, and if it contains less than 0.90 per
cent of carbon, it consists of pearlite and microscopic crystals of
ferrite. Chemically, pearlite is composed of 86.5 per cent of
ferrite and 13.5 per cent of cementite.

Peat. Peat consists of decayed vegetable matter and earth,

and is found in bogs and swamps. It is cut out and dried, and
sometimes pulverized and compressed into blocks before burning.
It gives an intense heat, burning with a short blue flame which
changes to yellow when the grate spaces become filled with em-
bers. One pound of air-dried peat contains about 7700 B.T.U.
Peat briquettes have been used to some extent, and with fair
success, in Northern Europe, both under stationary boilers and in
locomotives, but, up to the present time, peat has not been em-
ployed commercially in the United States, for that purpose. It
has been used successfully, however, to some extent in gas
producers.

Peaucellier Straight- Line Motion. This motion (see dia-

gram) is the invention of Peaucellier, an officer of the French
army. The value of the mechanism in guiding a moving piece
along a rectilinear path was at once apparent to the mechanical
engineer, but it was reserved for the mathematician to discover
the underlying principles of this combination of links. The

Peaucellier Linkage for Straight Line Motion

P-912
Peaucellier linkage is composed of seven links moving about two
fixed centers of motion, A
and B. The four equal links E
form
a rhombus; the links F are equal; and the center B is midway
between Aand C. If the point D be moved in the direction of
the arrows, it is a simple demonstration in geometry to prove
that it will be constrained to move in the straight path D'D",
which is perpendicular to the line of centers ABCD. This may be
tested experimentally. The locus of the point C is the circum-
ference ACf
C\ and the locus of G and G' is the arc described
with the radius F. If the center-line of the angle formed by links
E and F be in any position, such as AC'D', it will be found that
the rhombus the sides of which represent the length of the links E
takes the position shown in the drawing.

Peening Metal. When one side of a bar, rod, or plate is ham-

mered, in order to expand or stretch the metal by indenting and
compressing it, this is known as peening. The ball-peen hammer,
which is the type commonly used by machinists, has a ball or
spherical-shaped end that is adapted for peening or riveting
operations. For peening some parts, the straight indentations
left by the straight peen or cross-peen hammers are preferable
to the spherical depressions formed by a ball-peen hammer.
Peening is frequently done in order to straighten a shaft or bar
by stretching the metal on the concave side. The extent to which
the metal is expanded or stretched depends upon the area of the
surface peened and the force of the peening blows. Some pumps
have brass linings which are composed of staves or cast strips
that are peened all over in order to secure a tight fit in the cylin-
der. The edges of these strips are first planed so that a fairly
good fit is obtained before peening. After the peening operation,
which not only tightens the strips but closes the lengthwise joints
between them, the cylinder is bored. The inner sides of worn
piston rings are sometimes peened in order to enlarge the ring
and increase its bearing pressure against the cylinder wall.

Peening Piston Rings. Concentric piston rings for internal

combustion engines are peened on the inside by some manufac-
turers, in order to secure a ring which bears against the cylinder
wall with practically a uniform pressure around the entire cir-
cumference, and a more durable and elastic ring, as the result
of the hard compact surface formed on the inside by the peening
process. This peening was formerly done by hand and was found
to be a rather expensive item in the manufacture of the rings ;
moreover, the peening was, in most cases, poorly done because of
the difficulty in delivering blows of the required intensity when
peening rings by hand, which resulted in a ring that did not have
the desired resiliency or tension. Since the introduction of the
 913 -P
automatic peening machine it is possible to peen rings me-
chanically and at the same time regulate the peening action.

Peins. The tools used in cold-riveting machines are commonly

called peins. Peins used for riveting operations are of many
kinds cup peins; two-, three-, four-, and six-prong peins; pilot
peins; serrated-face peins; convex and concave peins; as well as
peins for round-head, cone-head, flat-head, pin-head or counter-
sunk-head rivets. Since the pein in the high-speed type of vi-
bratory riveting machine is positively rotated as it hammers, a
two-prong concave pein may be the proper tool for a round-head
rivet; and if it is desired to expand the rivet in the hole, a wider
land is incorporated in the tool than would be the case if only a
head were required, as, for example, in a hinged part. This prin-
ciple applies in varying degrees, according to whether the pein
has two, four, or six prongs. Selection of the proper steel and
its correct heat-treatment for riveting peins is a matter requir-
ing considerable experience. Peins must be tough enough to with-
stand tremendous shocks, and at the same time, hard enough to
give maximum wear.

Pendulum. A simple pendulum is a material point which is

supposed to be suspended from a fixed point by a string without
weight. A compound pendulum is a material body suspended from
a fixed axis about which it oscillates by the force of gravity. A
conical pendulum is formed by a weight suspended by a cord and
revolving at a uniform speed along the circumference of a circle
in a horizontal plane. The application of the compound pendulum
is found in all pendulum clocks. The principle of the conical
pendulum is employed in the design of fly-ball governors.
Pendulum Hardness Tester. This is an instrument for test-
ing the hardness of substances from lead to sapphires. It consists
of a frame which is supported on the work by a ruby or steel
ball, and may be oscillated like a pendulum. There is a curved
spirit level at the top of the frame and a scale that permits of ob-
serving accurately the distance traveled by the bubble in the level
when the frame oscillates. The hardness of a metal may be de-
termined in two ways; first, by observing the distance that the
bubble moves from the zero graduation on the scale with the first
oscillation of the pendulum, and second, by ascertaining the length
of time elapsed while the pendulum swings ten times. When placed
to oscillate on plate glass, the bubble travels from to 97 on the
less hard
scale; in the first oscillation of the tester, however, on a
surface, such as on hardened steel, the ball will indent the surface
slightly and elongate this indentation as the pendulum swings.
The energy consumed in thus displacing the metal is taken from
the potential energy of the pendulum, as is shown by shortening
P-914
its firstswing. The position of the bubble on the scale at the end
of the first swing indicates the work done by the ball on the
specimen, and is a measure of its hardness. In the case of a soft
specimen, the indentation is relatively deep, and the pendulum
comes to rest after a short swing; on lead it will not swing at all,
so the bubble remains at zero. Typical scale-test readings with
a steel ball are as follows Glass, 97 ; very hard carbon steel, 93 ;
:

hard carbon 88; tempered high speed steel, 75; annealed

steel,
high-speed steel, 54; annealed carbon steel, 41; rolled brass, 14;
cast brass, 4; and lead, 0. In making a time test, the hardness
number is the time in seconds consumed in making ten single
swings. The pendulum is placed gently on the specimen with the
bubble at or near 50 and caused to oscillate through a small arc.

Pentabasic Acid. In chemistry, this is an acid which has five

atoms of hydrogen in each molecule replaceable by a metal.

Pentagon. A
pentagon is a plane figure or surface bounded
by straight lines. If the five lines are of equal length and
five
the angles between the sides are equal, the figure is known as a
regular pentagon. The angles between the sides of a regular
pentagon are 108 degrees.
Pentavalent. Pentavalent, also known as quinquevalent, is a
term used to indicate that an atom of one element will combine
with five atoms of another element.

Percentage. The per cent of gain orloss is found by dividing

the amount of gain or by the original number on which the
loss
percentage is to be based, and multiplying the quotient by 100.
For example Out of a total output of 280 castings a day, 30 cast-
:

ings are, on an average, rejected. What is the percentage of bad

castings?
30
X 10 = 10 7 P
- er cent -

280
If by a new process 100 pieces can be made in the same time as
60 could formerly be made, what is the gain in output of the new
process over the old, expressed in per cent?
Original number, 60 gain 100 ; 60 40. Hence, =
40
X 100 = 66.7 per cent.
60
Care should be taken always to use the original number, or the
number of which the percentage is wanted, as the divisor in all

percentage calculations. In the example just given, it is the per-

centage of gain over the old output 60 that is wanted, and not the
 915 -P
percentage with relation to the new output 100. Mistakes are
often made by overlooking this important point.
Perch. One perch equals 16% feet, one rod or one pole. A
perch of stone is 16% feet long, 1 foot high and 1% feet wide,
and it contains 24% cubic feet.
A
Percussion Press. percussion press is a friction-driven type
of press used for hot-pressing brass and steel parts and by jewelry
and other metal goods manufacturers for work similar to that
done with a drop-press. An important feature claimed for per-
cussion presses is the cumulative blow delivered, all the energy
of the flywheel being utilized as it comes to a dead stop. See Hot-
pressed Brass Parts; Hot-pressed Steel Parts.
Percussive Electric Welding. Percussive electric welding
differsfrom the Thomson or incandescent process in that the
heating of the parts to be welded is done instantly by the sudden
discharge of a heavy electric current from a condenser at the
same moment as the two parts are forced together with a rapid
blow. Hence, the resistance to the sudden rush of current mo-
mentarily melts the portions of the work that are to be joined at
the very moment when they are suddenly forced together, so that
a very intimate joint is formed. The process is applied mainly
to the welding of wires of the same or dissimilar metals, and can
also be used for the welding of a wire to an object of large
dimensions.

Perforating Dies. The dies used for punching large numbers

of holes or perforations in sheet metal, for producing strainers,
sifting devices, etc., and also the dies used for cutting ornamental
shapes around the edges of lamp-burner shells or galleries, etc.,
are commonly known as perforating dies. The type of die used
for perforating sheet stock is, in reality, a multiple or gang die,
but, as a general rule, the work of a perforating die differs from
a gang die in that it is used to punch a large number of holes,
whereas a gang or multiple die, as these names are ordinarily
applied, means the type that is used to blank out a number of
duplicate parts, punch rows of rivet holes, etc. There may be
exceptions, however, to this general classification. Some perforat-
ing dies, such as are used for perforating sheet metal or other
materials, have hundreds of punches which are arranged in rows
and operate simultaneously.
used for punch-
Perforating Presses. Presses of this class are
ing large numbers of small holes in sheet metal, for producing
strainers, sieving devices, etc., and also for perforating the sides
of circular parts, such as lamp-burner galleries, etc. The perforat-
ing of shells and flat sheets is done either in presses of ordinary
construction fitted with special attachments or feeding median-
P-916
ism, or by means of special perforating presses. For perforating
heavy sheets or where the quantity required is so small that it is
not economical to make a die covering the entire width of a sheet,
a special type of press has been developed. This has a sliding
table which automatically feeds the stock through the die. The
latter may only have one punch or it may be equipped with a gang
of punches, the type depending upon the design or quantity of
perforating necessary.
Periodic Current. A periodic current is an oscillating cur-
rent, the values of which recur for equal increments of time. An
oscillating current is a current which alternatingly increases and
decreases in magnitude with respect to time. See also Electric
Currents.

Periodic Law. In chemistry, this law is usually stated as fol-

lows: "The properties of the elements are periodic functions of
their atomic weights." If the chemical elements are arranged in
the order of their atomic weights, there will be found at regulai
intervals of the series, elements that have similar physical and
chemical properties; that is, there is a periodic recurrence of
similar properties. If these elements are arranged by themselves
in order, they form a group. The modern classification of the
chemical elements is generally based upon these groups rather
than upon the older methods of distinguishing between metals,
metalloids, and non-metals.

Periphery. The periphery is the curved line which forms the

boundary line of a circle (circumference), ellipse, or similar
figure.

Permanent Hardness, This is a condition in boiler feed

water which is due to the presence in the water of sulphates,
chlorides, and nitrates of lime and magnesia. As these are not
precipitated until a temperature of 300 degrees F., or more, has
been reached, water containing these impurities is known as
permanently hard.
Permanent Mold. This is a mold for making castings, which
is made of metal and, hence, is of a comparatively permanent
nature. Ametal mold can be used for a large number of castings
while a sand mold disintegrates for each casting made.

Permeability. Permeability may be defined as the conduc-

tivity of substances for magnetic lines of force. Free space is
taken as unity of permeability. The number of lines of force
passing through different substances of the same length and
cross-section is proportional to their respective permeabilities.
The reciprocal of permeability is reluctivity (not to be confused
with reluctance) . The permeability is sometimes, therefore, also
 917 -P
defined as the reciprocal of the magnetic reluctivity. Any ma-
terial which has a magnetic permeability greater than that of
a vacuum is known as a paramagnetic substance; and any ma-
terial which has a permeability less than that of a vacuum is
known as a diamagnetic substance. The materials which are
strongly paramagnetic, sometimes designated as ferromagnetic to
distinguish them from materials which are only slightly para-
magnetic, are iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, and certain alloys.
Bismuth is distinctly diamagnetic. All other materials may be
classed, generally, as non-magnetic. Their permeability differs
from unity by less than 1 per cent.
Permeameter. The permeameter is an instrument for meas-
uring the permeability of a piece of iron or steel with sufficient
accuracy for commercial purposes, or for determining the me-
chanical properties of iron and steel by ascertaining the corre-
sponding magnetic characteristics. In one form in which this in-
strument is built, the permeability is indicated by the magnitude
of the mechanical force required to detach one end of the sample,
arranged as the core of a straight electromagnet, from an iron
yoke. The permeability is calculated when the value of this force
is known. More common is the method which employs a ballistic
galvanometer to measure the magnetic induction produced in
a sample and the magnetizing force producing it, from which the
permeability can be determined. See also Magnetic-mechanical
Analysis.
Permutations and Combinations. In algebra the number
of permutations that can be made of different elements or symbols
is the number of different ways in which they can be arranged
in successive order. Thus, the letters ab have two permutations
which are ab and ba. When there are three terms such as a, b
and c, the number of permutations possible is six. This may be
determined as follows : the letter a may be in any of three posi-
tions. For each position that a is in, the letter b may be in one
of two positions. The possible arrangements or permutations of
X
a and b in this three-letter combination are 3 2= 6 -Now for
each position that a and b may be in there is only one remaining
position for c. Hence, the number of permutations of a three-
letter combination is 3 X X = 2 1 6 - For a four-letter com-
bination it would be 4 X X X =
3 2 1 24. For a combination
of n terms it would be n(n-l) (ra-2) 1 or as it is com-
monly expressed nl or n factorial. Where some of the given ele-
ments or symbols are alike or where only a part of them are to be
rearranged each time, formulas are used which take these condi-
tions into account.
In algebra the number of combinations is the number of dif-
ferent groups of a given numerical size that can be made up from
P-918
a larger group of different elements, regardless of their order.
Thus, suppose it were to be determined how many different groups
or combinations of three each could be made up from a group of
six different elements. This may be determined as follows: If
one element is selected from a group of six, there are ten possible
pairs that might be selected from the remaining five elements to
go with it to make up a group of three. If we now set this one
element to one side and select another, there would be six possible
pairs that might be selected from the remaining four elements
to go with it to make up a group of three. Setting the second
element aside and selecting a third, there would be three possible
pairs that might be selected from the remaining three to go with
it to make up a group of three and finally if this third element is
set aside there is one group of three remaining. The number of
possible combinations of three each that can be selected from a
group of six is, therefore, 10 6+ + +
3 1 =
20. Written alge-
braically, a formula for the number of combinations of elements
which can be taken from a group of elements, all different, where
n equals the number of elements in each combination, N equals
the number of elements in the group and C equals the number of
Nl
combinations, would be C = .
/XT
n\ (N-n)
. .

I
which is in effect a dif-

ferent way of arriving at the same answer. For the specific ex-

ample just given n = 3 and N = 6 so that C = pt

6!*
o I (o-oj
6 XSX*X3X2X1 g ft
(3 X 2XD (3X2XD
Other similar -formulas which are given in treatises on algebra
enable the determination of special types of permutations and
combinations.

Perpetual Motion. The numerous attempts to invent a ma-

chine capable of "perpetual motion" have failed because the suc-
cessful operation of such a machine would require the creation of
energy. According to the principle of work (neglecting fric-
tional or other losses) the applied force, multiplied by the distance
through which it moves, equals the resistance overcome, multi-
plied by the distance through which it is overcome. That is, a
force acting through a given distance can be made to overcome a
greater force acting as a resistance through a less distance; but
no possible arrangement can be made to overcome a greater force
through the same distance. The principle of work may also be
stated as follows :
Work put into machine =
lost work -f- work done by machine.
This principle holds absolutely true in every case. It applies
equally to a simple lever, the most complex mechanism, or to a
 919 -P
so-called "perpetual motion" machine. No machine can be made
to perform work unless a somewhat greater amount enough to
make up for the losses be applied by some external agent As
in the "perpetual motion" machine no such outside force is sup-
posed to be applied, this problem is absolutely impossible, and
against all the laws of mechanics.

Perspective Drawing. A perspective drawing may be defined

as a representation upon a plane surface of the appearance of an
object as seen by the eye from some given point of view. Perspec-
tive projection, therefore, differs from orthographic projection,
as used in ordinary mechanical drawing, in that it represents the
whole object in one view, showing its appearance as seen by the
eye, but not showing the true relationship between the dimen-
sions, nor showing the dimensions to any true scale. Oblique or
isometric projection is also used, to some extent, to represent an
object as it appears to the eye, but in these two latter types of
projection the lines are drawn to some predetermined scale, so
that an isometric or oblique projection may be said to form a
step between the ordinary mechanical drawing and the true
perspective.
Petroleum. Carbon and hydrogen in chemical combinations
known as hydrocarbons form the main elements in petroleum and
frequently there is in addition, relatively small amounts of oxy-
gen, nitrogen and sulphur. The amount of carbon in crude oils
usually varies from 80 to 89 per cent and the hydrogen from
10 to 15 per cent. The oxygen may vary from zero up to 5 per
cent; the nitrogen from zero up to 1.8 per cent; and the sulphur,
from 0.01 to 5 per cent.
Petroleum or "crude oil" is an inflammable mixture and is found
in subterranean deposits which are tapped by drilling and may be
located hundreds or even thousands of feet below the surface of
the earth. There are three general classes of petroleum which
may be defined respectively as paraffin-base, which contains solid
paraffin hydrocarbons and practically no asphalt; asphalt-base,
containing asphalt and no paraffin; and paraffin-asphalt, which is
a combination of these elements. The paraffin-base petroleum
usually is of lightest gravity and yields the largest variety of
lubricating oils. Although petroleum is sometimes used in the
crude state for fuel or for surfacing roads and to lay dust on
roads, the various motor fuel oils and lubricating oils, etc.,
are obtained by different distilling and refining processes.
The specific gravity of petroleum varies considerably accord-
ing to its composition. It may be as low as 0.8 and as high as 1 ;
frequently it is found to be about 0.88. Pure petroleum is com-
posed mainly of hydrocarbons which distill at different tempera-
tures. Some crude oils contain a large percentage of the lighter
P-920
hydrocarbons, while others are composed principally of lubricating
hydrocarbons.
The lightest vapors are driven off at about 115 degrees F.,
while the heavier vapors and oils require temperatures up to
600 degrees F. The heat value of petroleum varies with its specific
gravity and also with the amount of impurities that it contains,
California oil of a specific gravity of 0.92 has a heating value of
about 19,000 B.T.U. per pound. Caucasian crude oil of a specific
gravity of 0.88 has a heating value of 22,000 B.T.U. per pound.
As a general average, the heating value of crude oil per pound
may be assumed to be from 19,000 to 20,000 B.T.U.
Topped Crude Petroleum: A residual product remaining after
the removal, by distillation, or other artificial means, of an ap-
preciable quantity of the more volatile components of crude
petroleum. The term tops is applied to the unrefined distillate
obtained in topping a crude petroleum.
Weathered Crude Petroleum: The product resulting from crude
petroleum through loss, due to natural causes, during storage
and handling, of an appreciable quantity of the more volatile
components.
Petroleum Spirits or White Spirits: A refined petroleum dis-
tillatewith a minimum flash point of 70 F. (21 C.) determined
by the Tag Closed Tester in accordance with the standard method
of test for flash point of volatile flammable liquids of the Ameri-
can Society for Testing Materials or by the Abel Tester, with
volatility and other properties making it suitable as a thinner
and solvent in paints, varnishes and similar products. NOTE.
The term "turpentine substitute" as applied to petroleum spirits
is false and misleading. The term "mineral spirits'* which is fre-

quently used in the paint and varnish industry is a misnomer as

it includes within its scope not only petroleum products, but other

hydrocarbon mixtures, such as coal-tar distillates. In Great

Britain the term "petroleum spirits" is applied to a very light
hydrocarbon mixture having a flash point below 32 F. (0 C.) .

Petroleum Lubricating Grease: A combination of a petroleum

product and a soap or a mixture of soaps, suitable for certain
types of lubrication.
Petroleum Naphtha: Ageneric term applied to refined, partly
refined or unrefined petroleum products and liquid products of
natural gas, not less than 10 per cent of which distills below
347 F. (175 C.) and not less than 95 per cent of which distills
below 464 F. (240 C.), when subjected to distillation in ac-
cordance with the standard method of test for distillation of
gasoline.
Pewter. The name "pewter" is given to a number of alloys
of various metals in which tin is always the chief constituent.
 921 -P
Generally, the alloy is composed of tin and lead. Thus, an alloy
of 71.5 parts of tin and 27.8 parts of lead, or 78.2 parts of tin
and 21.7 parts of lead, together with some impurities, is known
as Roman pewter; but practically any composition of tin and lead,
in which tin is the chief constituent, is known by the same name.

Phase. The distance, usually in angular measure, of the base

of any ordinate of an alternating wave from any chosen point on
the time axis, is called the phase of this ordinate with respect to
this point. The general term polyphase is applied to any system
of more than a single phase. This term is ordinarily applied to
symmetrical systems. Single-phase is a term characterizing a
circuit energized by a single alternating e.m.f . Such a circuit is
usually supplied through two wires. The currents in these two
wires, counted positively outwards from the source, differ in phase
by 180 degrees or a half-cycle. Three-phase is a term character-
izing the combination of three circuits energized by alternating
e.m.f. 's which differ in phase by one-third of a cycle; i.e., 120 de-
grees. Quarter-phase or two-phase are terms characterizing the
combination of two circuits energized by alternating e.m.f.'s
which differ in phase by a quarter of a cycle; i.e., 90 degrees.
Six-phase is a term characterizing the combination of six circuits
energized by alternating e.m.f.'s which differ in phase by one-
sixth of a cycle; i.e., 60 degrees.
Phase-Advancer. A phase-advancer, also called a "phase-
modifier," is an asynchronous machine that supplies reactive volt-
amperes for improving the power factor of an induction motor.
Induction motors and other inductive apparatus take a component
of current that lags behind the line voltage and thereby lowers
the power factor of the system, while a non-inductive load, such
as incandescent lamps, takes only current in phase with the volt-
age and operates at unity or 100 per cent power factor. The
operating conditions of an installed motor, which has turned out
to be too weak, may be improved by a phase-advancer so that the
motor is able to conform to heavier service than that for which it
was originally designed. The compensating action of the phase-
advancer is entirely automatic and it can be so designed that it
corrects the power factor of the main motor from about one-third
to one and one-half the normal load, to unity or any other de-
sired value, lagging or leading. The phase-advancer is only in-
tended to be used in connection with induction motors that run
continuously in one direction, and its most important application
is with large slow-speed motors which have inherently a poor

power factor, as well as to motors that run most of the time at

part load and at a low power factor.
Phase-Converter. According to the American Standard a
is a machine which converts power from
rotary phase-converter
P-922
an alternating-current system of one or more phases to an alter-
nating-current system of a different number of phases, but of
the same frequency.

Philadelphia Carriage Bolt Thread. This is a screw thread

for carriage boltswhich is somewhat similar to a square thread,
but having rounded corners at the top and bottom. The sides of
the thread are inclined to an inclusive angle of 3% degrees. The
width of the thread at the top is 0.53 times the pitch.

Phono-Electric Wire. Phono-electric wire is a copper alloy

wire which is intended primarily for railroad electrification and

trolley work. This alloy may be produced in rod, sheet, or tube

form; it is forgeable either hot or cold and can be cut much more
readily than copper. When cold-drawn it has a tensile strength
fully 50 per cent higher than hard-drawn copper and requires a
much higher temperature to affect it adversely.
Phonograph. The phonograph was invented by Thomas A.
Edison. The first demonstration of a practical working model
was given in 1877, and the phonograph was patented in 1878.
Originally the cylindrical record for recording and reproducing
sounds was covered with a sheet of tin foil. Several years after
the invention of the phonograph Dr. Alexander Graham Bell,
inventor of the telephone, and his associates Messrs. Chichester
A. Bell and Charles Summer Tainter, directed their attention to
the improvement of the phonograph; consequently in 1886 a
patent was obtained covering the substitution of a wax surface
for the tin foil sheet originally used. This invention was known
as the "graphophone." The use of a flat disk instead of a wax
cylinder was the distinguishing feature of the "gramophone,"
which was invented by E. Berliner and patented in 1887.

Phos-Copper. This isa brazing alloy that melts at approxi-

mately 1300 degrees F. It possesses high tensile strength and
excellent penetration, is self-fluxing for most applications, has
high ductility, high resistance to fatigue and corrosion, high elec-
trical conductivity, and unusual fluidity at the brazing tempera-
ture. It is suitable for use in place of expensive silver solders
and is particularly useful for applications where strength or gas-
and liquid-tight joints are required. Phos-copper is used on
refrigerator parts where leakproof joints are essential.

Phosphor-Bronze. Copper is the chief element in phosphor-

bronze; the other ingredients are tin and phosphorus with small
percentages of zinc, iron, and lead. This metal is an excellent
composition for use where anti-friction qualities are desired,
standing up exceedingly well under heavy loads and severe usage.
Phosphor-bronze resists corrosion to a considerable extent, and
 923-P
is, therefore, used for parts that are exposed to the action of
salt water.
Phosphor-bronze according to S.A.E. specification No. 64 is
composed as follows: Copper, 78.0 to 82.0 per cent; tin, 9.00 to
11.00 per cent; lead, 8.00 to 11.00 per cent; phosphorus, 0.25 per
cent; zinc, 0.75 percent; nickel 0.50; antimony 0.50; phosphorus
0.25 per cent. Good castings made of this alloy should give the
following minima in physical characteristics Ultimate strength,
:

25,000 pounds per square inch; yield point, 12,000 pounds per
square inch; elongation in two inches or proportionate gage
length, 8 per cent.
Phosphor gear-bronze according to S.A.E. specification No. 65
is composed as follows.: Copper, 88 to 90 per cent; tin, 10 to
12 per cent; phosphorus, 0.10 to 0.30 per cent; lead, zinc and other
impurities, maximum, 0.50 per cent. Good castings made of this
alloy should give the following minima in physical characteristics :

Ultimate strength, 35,000 pounds per square inch; yield point,

20,000 pounds per square inch; elongation in two inches by pro-
portionate gage length, 10 per cent. This is a very hard bronze
and may be used for gears and worm-wheels subjected to severe
service.
Electrical Applications: Phosphor-bronze has properties mak-
ing it ideally suited for various electrical applications. It is non-
magnetic, so can be used in many cases where steel is out of
question, and when used for springs, its corrosion resistance is
better than that of the usual spring steel. It can be drilled,
stamped, and otherwise machined without necessity of heat treat-
ment, and can be soldered or brazed with ease. The electrical and
physical properties vary with the tin content the higher the tin
content, the lower the conductivity and the harder the alloy.

Phosphor-Bronze Springs. Brass and phosphor-bronze should

be used for springs that must resist moisture. These springs are
more expensive than steel springs, both on account of the higher
cost of the material, and because the permissible stress is less,
thus making larger sizes of these springs necessary for the same
capacity. If a spring of a material other than steel is desired,
phosphor-bronze is usually specified. If the mixture is right, such
a spring cannot be surpassed by anything except steel. When dif-
ficulties are met with in the use of phosphor-bronze springs, it is
advisable to ascertain whether the troubles are not caused by the
absence of the necessary amount of tin, or the presence of too
much zinc. A phosphor-bronze wire intended primarily for
springs has the following composition: Tin, 4 to 6 per cent; phos-
phorous, 0.03 to 0.04 per cent; zinc, maximum, 0.2 per cent; iron,
maximum, 0.1 per cent; lead, maximum, 0.1 per cent; copper, the
remainder. See Spring Brass and Bronze.
P-924
Phosphor-Copper. This is an alloy of phosphorus and cop-
per containing up to 15 per cent of phosphorus, and used in the
making of phosphor-bronze, the phosphorus being introduced into
this bronze in the form of phosphor-copper.

Phosphor Gear-Bronze. This is an alloy of copper and tin

of the phosphor-bronze class. For S.A.E. specification No. 65, see
Phosphor-bronze.

Phosphor-Tin. This is an alloy of phosphorus and tin con-

taining up to 5 per cent of phosphorus, and used in the making
of phosphor-bronze, the phosphorus being introduced into this
bronze in the form of phosphor-tin.

Phosphorus. Phosphorus is one of the non-metallic chemical

elements, the symbol of which is P, and the atomic weight, 31.04.
Perfectly pure phosphorus is white and transparent, having the
solidity of wax. It is usually, however, yellow in color, due to
the presence of allotropic "red phosphorus." The specific gravity
of phosphorus is about 1.82 at 32 degrees P. It melts at 44 de-
grees C. (Ill degrees P.), when the specific gravity drops to
1.76. It boils at 290 degrees C. (554 degrees P.). Phosphorus
is highly inflammable, taking fire in air at a temperature of 34 de-

grees C. (93 degrees P.). Its specific heat at 32 degrees P. is

0.202. So-called "red phosphorus" an allotropic form of phos-
phorus is produced by heating yellow phosphorus to about
300 degrees C. (about 570 degrees F.) in a closed vessel. Red
phosphorus has a specific gravity of 2.25. It melts at about
610 degrees C. (about 1130 degrees P.). Its specific heat equals
0.183. Phosphorus enters as one of the impurities in a great
many of the most important iron ores, and is nearly always
present in commercial iron and steel. Its presence above a cer-
tain percentage is always detrimental to the quality of the steel,
and various metallurgical processes are used for the purpose of
reducing the phosphorus contents as much as possible.

Photomicrography. Photomicrography is the science of pho-

tography under high-power microscopes. With a photomicrograph
a piece of steel has been enlarged and photographed 15,500 diam-
eters in a single projection. Such magnification is so tremendous
that only objects invisible to the naked eye can be dealt with in
order to be able to get the enlarged image on a photographic plate.
This same combination of lenses is capable of separating and
photographing lines lying so close together that 200,000 of them
are contained within a single inch. The apparatus used in carry-
ing out this work, a Leitz micro-metallograph, consists essentially
of a very high power microscope arranged between a powerful
automatic arc light and an extremely fine camera, the entire ap-
paratus being mounted on a carriage suspended on sensitive
 925-P
springs so that even a slight movement of the floor will not
disturb it. See Metallography.
Phototubes. See Electronic Tubes; Electronic Tubes, Indus-
trial Applications and Electronic Tubes, Industrial Types.
Pi (TT) The Greek letter TT is used to denote the ratio of the
.

circumference of a circle to its diameter; hence, it is a number

constant for all circles. It cannot, however, be expressed by an
exact arithmetical figure, because it is an incommensurable num-
ber that is, a number having an infinite number of decimals.
The ratio has been calculated to as many as 707 decimals; this
was done by Shanks, in 1873. The first twenty-five decimals are
as follows:
3.1415926535897932384626434.
For practical use, the first four decimals only are required. As
the fifth decimal is "9," the fourth decimal is raised to "6" when
only four decimals are used; hence, TT, for ordinary calculations,
is almost always assumed to equal 3.1416. Fractional approxima-
tions that give very close results are to assume v equal to
22/7 or 355/113.
Piano Wire. Piano wire, also known as music wire, is a high
grade of steel wire. It has an ultimate strength of from 300,000
to 340,000 pounds per square inch, the wire being drawn in com-
paratively small sizes only.
Pickling Castings. Castings are "pickled" or immersed in
an acid bath in order to soften and remove the sand and scale on
the surface of the castings, so as to make it easier to machine
them and reduce the wear of tools and the time required for their
resharpening and resetting. The pickling solutions used for re-
moving scale from castings and forgings preparatory to milling
or other machining operations are usually composed either of
dilute sulphuric acid, oil of vitriol, or hydrofluoric acid. Iron
castings are usually pickled with sulphuric acid. The sulphuric
acid pickling solution is generally made up of one part of sul-
phuric acid to from four to ten parts of water. The sulphuric
acid should always be poured into the water while the latter is
being stirred. The reason for this is that a chemical reaction
takes place which causes the bath to become quite warm, but
there is no dangerous ebullition if properly mixed. However, if
the water is poured upon the sulphuric acid, the latter, being
much heavier than water, remains at the bottom. When an at-
tempt is made to stir the solution, the water enters the acid in
small streams, and is instantly raised to the boiling point, gen-
erating steam, which may cause an explosion.
Picric Acid. Picric acid, chemically, is similar to nitrogly-
cerine, in that it is a trinitro-phenol, whereas nitroglycerine is
P-926
a trinitro-glycerine. Picric acid is a powerful explosive with a
very high melting point; so high, in fact, that it must be adulter-
ated to bring its melting point down in order to make it of prac-
tical value. It is one of the most dangerous explosives to handle
or manufacture. Phenol, from which picric acid is made, is the
chemical name for what is commonly known as carbolic acid.

Picul. This is a Chinese capacity measure, legalized in 1908,

equal to 103.55 liters or 27.36 gallons.
Piece-Work Wage System. The piece-work plan of paying
wages is based upon the principle of paying the workman for the
exact amount of work produced. See Wage System, Piece-work.

Piezometer. The piezometer is an instrument of meter used

for determining the pressure in a pipe containing water or other
fluid. It consists simply of a vertical tube inserted into a pipe
containing fluid under pressure. The fluid will then rise in the
tube, and the vertical height to which it rises will be equal to the
head producing the pressure at the point where the tube is in-
serted. The instrument is sometimes used for determining the
location of obstructions in pipe mains. If the observed pressure
at any one point falls below what would be expected under normal
conditions, there is an obstruction between this point and the
water reservoir. If the pressure recorded by the piezometer is
higher than normal, it shows that the pressure at this point has
been increased by an obstruction beyond the point where the
instrument is located.

Pig Iron. Pig iron, which is a product of the blast furnace,

is pbtained directly from iron ore, and is the raw material used
in the production of all kinds of iron and steel. The term "pig"
is derived from the original method of casting the bars of pig
iron in depressions or molds formed in a sand floor adjacent to
the blast furnace. The molds in the pig bed were connected to a
runner or feeder (known as the "sow"), and, when filled with
metal, this runner and the numerous smaller molds were sup-
posed to resemble a litter of sucking pigs; hence, the name "pig
iron." What is known as sand cast pig is produced in this way.
Chill cast pig is made in metal molds or chills, and machine cast
pig f in a pig-casting machine. Pig iron is remelted usually in a
cupola, for making ordinary castings, and it is converted into
steel either by the open-hearth, Bessemer, or crucible processes,
and into wrought iron, by the puddling process. Pig iron con-
tains about 93 per cent of pure iron, from 3 to 5 per cent of
carbon, and some silicon, manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus.
Grades of Pig Iron: Pig iron may be classified either accord-
ing to its composition, its intended use, or the method of manu-
facture. The modern method of grading pig iron is by chemical
 927 -P

analysis. The former practice was to examine the fracture of a

broken pig. If the silicon is low and the carbon all combined, the
fracture white, whereas, if the silicon is high, the fracture is
is

silvery. form of graphite, the fracture is

If the carbon is in the
gray. Terms such as "high silicon pig," "low phosphorus pig,"
etc., are used to indicate an important element in the composi-
tion. Pig iron may be classified according to the methods of
manufacture, as, for instance, coke pig, which is smelted with
coke; charcoal pig, which is smelted with charcoal; and anthra-
cite pig, which is smelted with anthracite coal mixed with coke.
The name given a brand or grade of pig iron may also indicate
its intended use. For instance, Bessemer pig is used for making
acid Bessemer and acid open-hearth steel; basic pig is used for
the basic open-hearth process; foundry pig, for general foundry
work; malleable pig, for making malleable cast-iron castings. The
names "iron" and "pig" are often used as abbreviations for
pig iron.
Pillar Crane. This is a crane consisting of a column or post
supported and pivoted at the foundation, a boom extending from
a point near the foundation to the point where the tackle for
lifting the load is mounted, and a tie rod which connects this
latter point with the top of the column or post. There is no trol-
ley moving horizontally along the arm as in a jib crane, and the
load, therefore, is moved in a horizontal direction along the
periphery of a circle only, but has no radial movement. The type
known as "pillar jib crane," however, is provided with a jib on
which a trolley moves, so that the load can be moved both in a
radial and circular direction.

Pillar File. Thisis a style of file that is parallel as to width,

but tapers somewhat in thickness toward the point. The cross-
section of a pillar file is similar to that of a hand file, except that
it is thicker in proportion to the width; these files are made in
narrow and extra narrow patterns. They are double-cut and are
applicable to general machine shop work, especially in connection
with erecting and fitting.
Pilot for Cutting Tools. A
pilot for metal-cutting tools, such
as boring-bars and reamers, is a cylindrical part which extends
beyond the cutting end and enters a close-fitting hole in some
rigid member, thus supporting the cutting edges and preventing
the lateral deflection that might otherwise occur.

Pilots for Punches. Pilots or guide pins are placed on the

ends of some punches for aligning the stock before blanking, by
entering holes that have been pierced previously. A pilot should
be made slightly smaller than the hole in the blank and should be
straight for the thickness of the stock, and then rounded off
P-928
similar to the point of an acorn. When pierced holes are very
small the punch should be provided with a spring pilot, so that
if the pilot misses the pierced hole in the blank, it will spring
back into the punch.
Pinion Blank Enlargement. When an ordinary pinion is
used (having a pressure angle of 14V2 degrees) twelve teeth is
generally considered the minimum number if the addendum con-
forms to the usual standard. Even with a pinion of this size,
the flanks of the teeth must be under-cut somewhat to avoid in-
terference, provided the mating gear has more than twelve teeth,
and this interference and the need for under-cutting increases if
the pinion is to run with larger gears. A method of improving
the shape of the pinion tooth that has long been employed con-
sists in enlarging the pinion blank and reducing the gear blank a
corresponding amount. Another method is to increase the pres-
sure angle of the gearing, and a third method consists in modi-
fying both the pressure angle and the blank diameters in order
to obtain a tooth shape giving the best results. Enlarging the
pinion blank and decreasing the gear blank a corresponding
amount (if the center distance is to remain the same) is applied
not only to spur gears but also to bevel gears, worm-gearing, and
herringbone gears. In cutting an enlarged pinion or a reduced
gear (whether by hobbing or on a generating shaper or planer)
the procedure is the same as for cutting standard gear teeth, and
any generating type of machine may be used. The teeth are cut
to the full depth on both pinion and gear, and in the usual man-
ner, but if the position of the cutter relative to the gear blank
is checked by measuring the tooth thickness, then the change in
the height of the pinion and gear addendum must be taken into
account, the tooth thickness being measured where the pitch circle
crosses the tooth in each case. When the pinion blank is enlarged
and the gear blank reduced, without changing the pressure angle,
the practical effect is to move the pinion teeth outward radially
and the gear teeth inward a corresponding amount relative to
the pitch circles as well as to the base circles from which the
tooth curves are derived.
Pinion Rod Many small steel and brass pinions are pro-
duced by first making the pinion in rod form, and then cutting
the rod into whatever lengths are required for the pinions* The
teeth are formed along the rod, which may have a length of three
or four feet. The companies making pinion rod usually sell it in
rod form, and the manufacturer using the rod cuts it into short
pinion lengths. Either a hand screw machine or an automatic is
generally used for this purpose, the machine being employed to
cut whatever shoulders, holes, or bearing surfaces are required
for the pinion. Cold-drawn pinion rod is produced by methods
 929- P
that, in a general way, are practically the same as the methods
employed for making cold-drawn rods or other sections. Care has
to be exercised in determining the various reductions and anneal-
ings, in order to obtain the correct shape of tooth and size of rod,
as well as the most suitable temper in the finished rod, for ob-
taining good cutting qualities.

Pinions, Lantern. See Lantern Pinions.

Pintle Chain. What is known
as a "closed end" pintle chain
was designed primarily toreplace link-belts of corresponding
pitch for transmissions requiring greater strength, or where the
amount of dirt or grit was such as to interfere with the opera-
tion of the "open-book" connection of the link-belt This "closed
end" chain is adapted for elevating or conveying machinery, or
for power transmission.

Pipe. Pipes are manufactured from various metals such as

bteel, cast iron, wrought iron, brass, copper, and lead.
W r ought-iron and Steel Pipe: Wrought-iron and steel pipes are
made in different thicknesses. The actual outside diameter is
the same, the increased thickness of the wall merely decreasing
the internal diameter. The term "wrought-iron pipe" is often
used indiscriminately to designate all butt- or lap-welded pipe
whether made from wrought iron or steel, but the term wrought
pipe is preferable for designating either steel or wrought-iron
pipe. A large percentage of the wrought pipe now used is made
of steel. When wrought-iron pipe is desired the term "genuine
wrought iron" or "guaranteed wrought iron" should be used, as
otherwise the manufacturer will invariably supply steel pipe.
The size of iron and steel piping is specified in terms of the
nominal inside diameter excepting for the large sizes, as noted
later. For standard pipe, the actual inside diameter is usually
greater than the nominal, especially on the smaller sizes, but in
the extra strong, and especially in the double extra strong pipe,
the internal diameter is less than the nominal size. The thick-
ness of the wall and the weight per linear foot of piping varies
on account of the difficulty in securing uniformity in the process
of manufacture. It is assumed to be permissible for standard
weight pipe to vary from 5 per cent above to 5 per cent below
the standard weight. (See Pipe Schedule Numbers.)
Formerly wrought iron was preferred for the best classes of
work, but records of installations and tests have demonstrated
that steel pipe is equal to wrought-iron pipe for general work
and, according to some authorities, resists corrosion, in the
average case, as well as wrought iron; the steel pipe is also
cheaper than wrought iron. The term galvanized iron pipe is ap-
plied to ordinary wrought pipe which has been galvanized. The
P-930
abbreviated expression 0. D. pipe is applied to large wrought
pipe, the nominal size of which is designated by the outside diam-
eter instead of the inside diameter as in the case of smaller sizes.
It is common practice to designate the nominal sizes of all pipes
above 12 inches by giving the outside diameter.
Cast-iron Pipe: Cast-iron pipe is used instead of wrought pipe
where the pipes must be placed under ground or submerged, and
also for main steam pipes and branches which are subjected to
acids. Cast-iron pipe is extensively employed for cold water on
lines 4 inches in diameter and above. Commercial cast-iron pipe
is unsuitable for lines subjected to expansion strains, contrac-

tion, and vibration unless the pipe is very heavy. It is not suit-
able for superheated steam or for temperatures above 575 de-
grees F. The cast-iron pipe used for underground work generally
has the bell-and-spigot ends which are leaded and calked to secure
a tight joint. Exposed cast-iron pipes usually have flanged ends.
See also Brass Pipe.

Pipe and Tube Bending. In bending a pipe or tube, the

outer part of the bend is stretched and the inner section com-
pressed, and as the result of opposite and unequal stresses, the
pipe or tube tends to flatten or collapse. To prevent such distor-
tion, the common practice is to support the wall of the pipe or
tube in some manner during the bending operation. This support
may be in the form of a filling material or temporary support
that is placed inside the pipe.
Use of Filling Material: A simple method of preventing dis-
tortion and one that has been widely utilized, especially when
pipe or tube bending is done by hand and on a small scale, con-
sists in using some filling material which is placed inside the
pipe to support the walls to prevent flattening at the bend. Dry
sand is often used. Other filling materials, such as resin, tar,
or lead, are sometimes employed. The pipe is first filled either
with molten resin, lead, or some alloy having a low melting point,
and then after bending, the pipe is heated sufficiently to melt the
filling material. Resin has often been used for bending small
brass and copper pipes, and lead or some alloy for small iron and
steel pipes. Before bending either copper or brass pipe or tubing,
the latter should be annealed.
Alloy of Low Melting Point Used as Filler: Filling of tubes
with lead may result in satisfactory bends, but the comparatively
high melting point of lead often has a deleterious effect on the
physical properties of the tube. A commercial alloy known as
"Cerrobend" has a melting point of only 160 degrees F. con-
siderably less than the temperature of boiling water. "Cerro-
bend" is composed of bismuth, lead, tin, and cadmium. With this
material, tubes having a wall as thin as 0.007 inch have been bent
 931 -P
to small radii. The metal filler conforms to the inside of the
tube so closely that the tube can be bent just as though it were a
solid rod.
This method has been applied to the bending of copper, brass,
duralumin, plain steel, and stainless steel tubes with uniform
success. Tubes plated with chromium or nickel can be bent with-
out danger of the plate flaking off. The smallest tube so far bent
was 1/8 inch in inside diameter. The practice usually is eco-
nomical for tubes up to 2 inches in diameter. For larger sizes,
the cost of the metal filler would probably be too high on an
average job. The method is considered ideal when the number
of tubes of a given size or kind is more or less limited or when
the bend is especially severe.
When a tube-bending operation has been completed, the re-
moval of the metal filler is a simple process. The tube may be
heated in steam, in a bath of boiling water, or in air of about
the same temperature; the metal can then be drained out and
used again and again,
Mandrel Inside of Tube: For certain classes of pipe and tube
bending, some form of internal mandrel is used so that the pipe
or tube is supported both externally and internally in order to
prevent flattening. Internal mandrels are used particularly in
connection with the bending of thin tubing. The mandrel may
be in the form of a plain cylindrical bar that fits closely inside
the tube and has a rounded end at the bending position, or it
may be of special form.
The ball type of mandrel has been used for many tube-bending
operations. The ball is so connected to the end of its supporting
arbor that it has a limited amount of movement, and partially
supports the curved section of the tube. This general type of
mandrel has been used both on hand-operated fixtures and on
power-driven pipe- and tube-bending machines. In some cases,
two or more rounded or spherical-shaped supports are used.
These are linked together to provide flexibility at the bend.
Rule for Safe Minimum Radius: Pipes are often bent to avoid
the use of fittings, thus eliminating joints, providing a smooth
unobstructed passage for fluids, and resulting in certain other
advantages. Sometimes it is desirable to make the radius of the
bend as small as possible without causing distortion, whereas on
other classes of work, the radius may be comparatively large, as,
for example, when pipes are curved to provide means of com-
pensating for expansion and contraction in a line of piping.
The safe minimum radius for a given diameter, material, and
method of bending depends upon the thickness of the pipe wall,
it being possible, for example, to bend extra heavy pipe to a
smaller radius than pipe of standard weight. As a general rule,
P-932
wrought iron or steel pipe of standard weight may readily be bent
to a radius equal to five or six times the nominal pipe diameter.
The minimum radius for standard weight pipe should, as a rule,
be three and one-half to four times the diameter. It will be
understood, however, that the minimum radius may vary con-
siderably, depending upon the type of fixture or machine used for
bending. Extra heavy pipe may be bent to radii varying from
two and one-half times the diameter for smaller sizes to three
and one-half to four times the diameter for larger sizes.
Rules for Finding Lengths of Bends: In determining the re-
quired length of a pipe or tube before bending, the lengths of
the straight sections are, of course, added to the lengths of the
curved sections in order to make the proper allowance for bends.
The following rules may be used for finding the lengths of the
curved sections.
Rule: To find the length of a 90-degree or right-angle bend,
multiply the radius of the bend by 1.57 (the radius is measured
to the center of the pipe or to a point midway between the inner
and outer walls) .

Rule: To find the length of a 180-degree or U bend, multiply

the radius of the bend by 3.14.
Example: A right-angle or 90-degree bend is to have a radius
of 10 inches and straight sections on each side of the bend of
5 and 15 inches, respectively. Find the total length of the pipe
before bending.
= ^
=x
Length of curved part 1.57 15 -? inches; hence,
total length = 15,7 + 5+ 15 35.7 inches.
A general rule for finding the lengths of sections having de-
grees of curvature other than 90 and 180 is as follows: Multiply
the radius of the bend by the included angle, and then multiply
the product by the constant 0.01745. The result is the length of
the curved section.
To prevent flattening at the ends there should be a straight
section adjoining the bend equal at least to the pipe diameter or
to 1% times the diameter for pipes larger than 10 inches.
Bending Tubing for Refrigerating Equipment: The following
general methods are employed by a very large manufacturer of
brass and copper tubing. Coils of a large variety of shapes are
made by this company from tubing as small as 1/16 inch in
diameter and as large as 2 inches.
Bending Tubing around a Plain Cylindrical Mandrel: If the
diameter of the coil is fairly large relative to the size of the
tubing, the coil can be formed on a plain cylindrical mandrel,
mounted on the headstock of a lathe. At the beginning of the
operation, the tube is slipped over a round-end arbor to prevent
it from buckling. This arbor is mounted on a rod that is fastened
 933 -P

to a stand located at a sufficient distance from the lathe to accom-

modate the length of tubing required for the coil. The forward
end of this supporting arbor is above and slightly in advance of
the center of the lathe mandrel.
When the tube has been slipped over the arbor, a suitable lubri-
cant is poured into it to facilitate bending, after which the front
end of the tube is clamped to the overhanging end of the mandrel.
Bending of the coil is then performed by merely running the
lathe, the tube being wound automatically on the mandrel. When
space is desired between the successive turns of a coil, a spacer
bar is used. This bar is mounted on a sleeve which surrounds
the tube being bent and the arbor rod within it. A tightly wound
coil is obtained when a spacer bar is not used. When the coil has
been wound to the desired length, which is usually done with
reference to a stop on the mandrel, the lathe spindle is reversed
to free the coil from the arbor. It can then be easily slipped off.
The diameter of the mandrel must be somewhat smaller than the
required inside diameter of the coil, in order to compensate for
spring in the finished coil when it is released from the mandrel.
Grooved Mandrels: In bending tubing of large sizes, it is neces-
sary to use a grooved mandrel, in addition to the support on the
inside of the tube, to prevent the tube from buckling. The bend-
ing operation is practically the same as when a plain mandrel is
used but the end of the inner supporting arbor has a ball type
of support to guard against buckling of the tube wall. This de-
vice consists of two balls joined together with a stud. One of
the balls is held in the peened-over end of a sleeve attached to the
long rod over which the tube is slipped at the beginning of the
operation. When the rotation of the lathe spindle is reversed at
the end of an operation on a grooved mandrel, the coil of tubing
is unscrewed from the grooves automatically. The tailstock cen-
ter must, of course, be disconnected from the end of the mandrel.

Pipe and Tube Classifications. The following classifications

are by grades and applications :
Line Pipe is furnished in sizes % inch nominal size to
24 inches actual outside diameter, inclusive, and is used princi-
pally for conveying gas, oil or water.
Pressure Piping, as distinguished from pressure tubes, is used
for conveying fluids at normal or elevated temperatures or pres-
sures or both, but not subjected to external heat application. The
range of sizes is % inch nominal size to 24 inches actual outside
diameter in differing wall thicknesses. Pressure piping is fur-
nished in random lengths, with threaded or plain ends, as required.
Water-Main Pipe is welded or seamless steel pipe used for con-
veying water for municipal and industrial purposes. In applica-
tion these lines are designated as flow main&, transmission mains,
P-934
force mains, water mains or distribution mains. The mains are
generally laid underground. Sizes range from 1% inch nominal
size to 96 inches actual O.D. in a variety of wall thicknesses.
Pipe is furnished with ends suitably prepared for mechanical
couplers or for riveting, or with plain ends beveled for welding.
Structural Pipe is welded or seamless pipe made for use only
as structural members, for fabrication, etc., and is not intended
for conveying gases or liquids or for pressure purposes of any
kind. Such pipe is furnished with plain ends only, in nominal
and outside diameter pipe sizes in the commonly listed weights,
and in random or definite cut lengths. It is not subjected to
hydrostatic testing and is stenciled "Structural Pipe."
Large Diameter Pipe is pipe 14 inches or over intended princi-
pally forwater lines, but is also used for conveying gases and
liquids, or solids in suspension. Size designations refer to either
actual outside diameter or actual inside diameter, and this pipe
should be specified by outside diameter and wall thickness, which
is preferable, or by inside diameter and wall thickness. The alter-
native of ordering Large Diameter Pipe by either an outside or
inside diameter is an important distinction between it and Large
O.D. Pipe.
Large O.D. Pipe is made in sizes from 14 inches to 30 inches
actual outside diameter, inclusive. It is intended for conveying
gases, liquids or other fluids and for miscellaneous uses. This
pipe is specified by outside diameter and wall thickness.
Ice Machine Pipe also known as Refrigeration Pipe and Am-
monia Pipe may be standard weight or extra strong butt-welded,
lap-welded, electric-resistance-welded or seamless and is intended
for use in the refrigeration industry. It is suitable for coiling,
bending and end-to-end welding, and is air tested under water
when such testing is specified by the purchaser. The sizes com-
monly used are 1 inch to 2 inches, furnished in random lengths
unless otherwise ordered. It may be supplied with threaded ends
and couplings, with threaded ends only or with plain ends, as
desired.
Drive Pipe is standard weight butt-welded, lap-welded, electric-
resistance-welded or seamless pipe used in gas, oil and water wells
for driving into the ground or for forcing into a drilled hole to
prevent caving of the walls. The ends of the pipe are specially
threaded so as to permit them to butt in the coupling when made
up tight. Drive pipe is furnished in 2 inches to 12 inches stand-
ard pipe sizes and 14 inches to 20 inches actual outside diameter
and in random lengths, unless otherwise ordered.
Dry Kiln Pipe is butt-welded, electric-resistance-welded, or
seamless pipe made for use in the lumber industry. .

Signal Pipe is 1 inch standard weight butt-welded pipe intended

 935 -P

for use in the mechanical operation of railway signal systems*

The pipe is furnished in random lengths with special signal pipe
threaded ends and couplings, and generally with plugs and rivets
for completing connections.
Bedstead Tubing (special light-weight pipe) is a welded prod-
uct furnished with plain ends, with outside surface cleaned, or
cleaned and polished for enameling purposes, and pointed-tool cut
to ordered length. This tubing is not subjected to hydrostatic test.
Conduit Pipe is welded or seamlesa pipe intended for fabrica-
tion into rigid conduit, a product used for the protection of elec-
trical wiring systems. Conduit pipe is not subjected to hydrostatic .

tests unless so specified. It is furnished in standard weight pipe

sizes from % inch to 6 inches, in lengths approximately 10 or
20 feet, with plain ends or with threaded ends and couplings, as
specified.
Conduit Tubing EMT is thin-wall welded tubing intended
for the manufacture of that type of conduit called electrical metal-
lic tubing and is made to the same inside diameters as standard

weight pipe in sizes % inch to 2 inches.

Casing (Oil Well) is used as a structural retainer for the walls
of oil or gas wells, to exclude undesirable fluids, and to confine
and conduct oil or gas from productive subsurface strata to
ground level. Casing is furnished in sizes 4% inches to
24% inches outside diameter, inclusive. Size designations refer
to actual outside diameter and foot-weight. Ends are commonly
threaded and furnished with couplings, but if desired, are pre-
pared to accommodate other types of joints.
Tubing (Oil Well) is used within the casing of oil wells to con-
duct oil to ground level. It is furnished in nominal sizes
1% inches to 4 inches inclusive, in several foot-weights. Ends
are threaded and fitted with couplings and may or may not be
upset externally or internally.
Drill Pipe (Oil Well) is used to transmit power by rotary mo-
tion from ground level to a rotary drilling tool below the surface,
also to convey flushing media to the cutting face of the tool.
Drill pipe is furnished in sizes 2% inches to 8% inches outside
diameter, inclusive. Size designations refer to actual outside
diameter and foot-weight. Drill pipe is generally upset either
internally or externally, and is furnished with threaded ends and
couplings, threaded only, or prepared to accommodate other types
of joints.
Pressure Tubes, as distinguished from pressure piping, are
used to convey fluids at elevated temperatures or pressures or
both, and are suitable to be subjected to heat application. Sub-
divisions of this classification, embrace: boiler and superheater
tubes, oil still tubes, heat-exchanger and condenser tubes.
P-936
Boiler and Superheater Tubes are used in various types of
steam generating apparatus where they are subjected to pressure
by water or steam at elevated temperatures either internally or
externally. Size designations refer to actual outside diameter.
Oil-StillTubes are used for carrying oil or vapors at elevated
temperatures and pressures in various types of oil refining equip-
ment in which the tube is subjected externally to furnace tem-
peratures higher than that of the contained fluids. Still tubes
are furnished in sizes up to and including 7% inches outside
diameter, and size designations refer to outside diameter, and
minimum or average wall thickness. These tubes are furnished
either hot-finished or cold-drawn, commonly in definite cut-lengths
and with plain ends.
Heat-Exchanger and Condenser Tubes are used in various
types of heat transfer apparatus in which the walls of the tube

Pipe Center for Lathe

act as a heat-transfer medium between two fluids of differing

temperatures. These tubes are cold-drawn and are furnished in
sizes up to 2 inches outside diameter, commonly in definite cut-
lengths and with plain ends. Size designations refer to outside
diameter and minimum or average wall thickness.
Mechanical Tubing is welded or seamless tubing used for a
variety of mechanical purposes. It is generally made in special
sizes and shapes and to special tolerances. Chemical limits and
physical properties may also be specified. It may be hot-finished
or cold-drawn. This type of tubing is commonly manufactured
to consumers' specifications, and is used for such a variety of
purposes that it is impracticable to subdivide it into classifica-
tions such as those shown for other types of tubing.

Pipe, Butt-Welded. See Butt-welded Pipe.

Pipe Center. This is a conical center (see illustration) often

used for holding one end of a pipe or tube when turning the out-
side surface in a lathe. The conical member is free to rotate on
*he shank which fits into the tailstock spindle and is adjusted
 937 -P

with reference to the work the same as an ordinary center. A

center of this type is used for holding parts having holes that
would be too large for an ordinary center. The opposite end of
the work is usually held in a chuck.

Pipe
Center Reamer. This is a conical reamer used for
reaming the ends of large holes usually cored so that they will
fit upon a center in a lathe. The cutting part of these reamers
is generally in the shape of a frustum of a cone.

Pipe Coatings and Linings. Black pipe is the term com-

monly applied to uncoated pipe and to pipe given an ordinary air-
drying lacquer coating for protection against rust in shipment,
the latter being regular mill practice. Gas, steam, air and am-
monia pipe are generally furnished black.
For particular services pipe is furnished from the mill, coated
or lined or both, with a variety of metallic or non-metallic ma-
terials. The metal commonly used is zinc, applied by the hot-
dipped galvanizing process and widely used for protection against
corrosion. Galvanized pipe is readily available from mill stocks
in sizes 12 inches or smaller, also in larger sizes when specially
ordered.
A large tonnage of pipe for water lines is coated or lined or
both at the mill with tar base or asphalt base materials, by brush-
ing, hot-dipping, spraying, or centrifugally spinning. Pipe for
use in gas lines is commonly coated outside only. Outside coat-
ings may be reinforced, to minimize damage to the coatings, by
mechanically wrapping with heavy paper or saturated fabrics such
as cotton, canvas, rag felts, or asbestos felts.
When so ordered, pipe is furnished with a primer coating de-
signed to serve as a base for field coating.
Pipe may be internally lined with cement to meet such known
corrosive actions as are withstood by cement.
When so ordered, pipe is furnished pickled to remove mill scale
and dirt. It is common practice to oil after pickling.
Rubber-Lined Pipes: Rubber-insulated pipe and fittings are
especially intended for the chemical industries, and are com-
pletely rubber-insulated inside and out, including flanges and bolt
holes. Due to the construction, the flange couplings are flexible,
and there can be no "freezing" of bolts in the rubber-lined holes.
The rubber is built up in such a manner that there are no seams
and laps in the entire construction.

Pipe Column. This is a strut or column made from ordinary

commercial pipe. No pipe column should be used having an un-
supported length greater than 120 times its radius of gyration.

Pipe Corrosion. Corrosion prevention in water piping sys-

tems involves the consideration of two major factors the kind
P-938
of water and the kind of pipe. A few years after the introduc-
tion of brass and copper as domestic water piping material, and
before troubles with these materials had an opportunity to de-
velop, it was generally believed that they supplied the solution
to the corrosion problem in buildings. Now that troubles have
developed, it has become increasingly evident that no metal is
immune to corrosion and that the rate of corrosion depends prin-
cipally upon the characteristics of the water involved. It is not
feasible to make general recommendations as to the best material
to be used under all circumstances. Each individual case must
be studied with particular reference to local experience and the
composition of the water. The following information is from
the Water Service Laboratories, New York:
Effect of Locality on Corrosion: The New York City supply
is corrosive to all kinds of iron piping and yellow brass piping.
The Great Lakes supply, which furnishes many municipalities
along its shores, such as Toronto and Chicago, is non-corrosive
because it deposits a protective mineral coating (primarily cal-
cium carbonate) on the inside surfaces of pipes, thus insulating
the pipe from the corrosive action of the dissolved gases.
Effect of Temperature: In addition to the chemical factors af-
fecting corrosion, the physical factor, temperature, is the most
important consideration controlling the rate of reaction. It is
considered that a rise in temperature of about 25 F will double
the speed of reaction. Thus, while a particular water may be
only mildly corrosive to the cold water piping of a building, it
may be very corrosive to the hot water piping. It is obvious,
therefore, why specifications frequently call for less expensive
pipe material in the cold water system and more expensive, more
corrosion resistant, piping material in the hot water system of
a building.
Pipe Materials: The various pipe materials in common use, are
steel,wrought iron, the several brass alloys, and copper. The ef-
fect of corrosive waters upon iron piping, even when galvanized,
is usually evidenced by the pipe lines losing their carrying

capacity by becoming clogged with rust (iron oxide) caused by

the direct combination of iron and oxygen. The rust formed by
this oxidation reaction occupies about ten to fifteen times the
volume of the iron of the pipe wall from which it was formed.
Thus it is evident why iron pipe lines will become completely
clogged by the rusting of only a small percentage of the pipe
wall thickness. Another form of iron pipe failure is due to
leaks caused by local pitting, in which case the oxygen attack is
confined to small areas on the pipe wall. In addition, a com-
mon nuisance frequently arises from the fact that some of the
 939 -P

fine rust particles get suspended in the water, causing the familiar
"red," or rusty water.
Brass Piping: The effect of corrosive waters upon brass piping
takes the form of dissolving the zinc from the copper-zinc alloy.
This action is known as "dezincification" and appears to be caused
by the combined action of the oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
water. The net result of this action is the removal of the zinc,
leaving porous brittle copper which eventually causes pipe fail-
ure. Leaks usually occur first at the root diameter of the threaded
joints where the metal is thinnest. Moreover, the pipe breaks
easily at these points when repairs are attempted.
Yellow Brasses: Dezincification has been found to be confined
to the so-called yellow brasses. There are three brass alloys com-
monly used. A "low" brass, or Muntz metal (60 per cent copper,
40 per cent zinc) and a "high" brass (67 per cent copper, 33 per
,

cent zinc) are called yellow brasses. The use of these low copper
content alloys has proved disappointing as compared with the
previously used iron piping in many localities. In fact, many
municipal authorities discourage the use of the yellow brasses and
in some instances have gone so far as to actually forbid their
use. The third brass alloy is referred to in the next paragraph.
Red Brass and Copper: Red brass (85 per cent copper and
15 per cent zinc) and copper are considered to be the most gen-
erally resistant to corrosion. Their increasing use, following the
poor experiences with the yellow brasses, has indicated, however,
that even these materials should be used with discretion. When
a corrosive water acts on copper, it may dissolve a sufficient
amount to produce green staining of white plumbing fixtures and
laundered articles. When soap or any other alkaline material is
added, the water will turn blue. The indiscriminate choice of
copper pipe or tubing without regard for the composition of the
local water has produced many such complaints. Many munici-
palities are chemically treating their water supplies in order to
reduce corrosion. However, there are many limiting factors to
this municipal practice, two of which are the cost of chemicals to
treat the entire supply and the effect of the changed water char-
acteristics upon existing industrial processes and power plant
operation.

Pipe Coverings. Steam and feed-water pipes are protected

with heat-insulating coverings in order to prevent loss of heat by
radiation. Under ordinary conditions, about 3 British thermal
units per square foot per hour, per degree difference in tempera-
ture, are radiated from a bare pipe. The best commercial heat-
insulating materials used for pipe covering will save from 75 to
85 per cent of this loss. Among the various materials used for
covering pipe may be mentioned hair felt, cork, magnesia, and
P-940
mineral wool. Asbestos is a very poor non-conductor of heat, but
it may be used to advantage as a binder in other insulating sub-
stances. A common covering consists of 85 per cent carbonate
of magnesia mixed with 15 per cent of asbestos. The covering
should be least 1 inch thick and preferably from 2 to 3 inches,
depending on the size of the pipe. It is generally manufactured
in sections molded in halves to fit the pipe. Valves and fittings
may be covered with the same material in a plastic state. The
covering is secured in place by means of heavy duck or canvas and
bands made of brass or sheet iron placed at regular intervals
along the pipes. Many commercial pipe coverings are made from
two or more of these substances. Pipe laid in trenches may be
insulated by the use of ashes, coke, loam, or charcoal.
The actual heat losses in a steam pipe depend upon the size of
the pipe, its position, the nature of the pipe surface, and the
velocity of the air surrounding the pipe. Horizontal steam pipes
radiate heat more rapidly than vertical pipes, the reason for this
being that the heated air surrounding a vertical pipe travels up-
ward along the surface of the pipe, while with horizontal pipes
the heated air rises immediately upon being heated, thus making
room for cooler air, which is, in turn, heated. For all practical
purposes, however, it is customary to assume a loss of 3 B.T.U,
per square foot, per hour, for each degree P. difference in tem-
perature between the steam in a bare steam pipe and the air
surrounding the pipe. Tests made on an 8-inch standard steam
pipe 60 feet long, carrying steam at from 109 to 117 pounds per
square inch gage pressure, and surrounded by air at tempera-
tures varying from 58 to 81 degrees P., showed that each square
foot of bare pipe surface radiates approximately 2.706 B.T.U. per
hour, per degree average difference of temperature between the
steam in the pipe and the outside air.

Pipe Discharging Capacity. There are many formulas for

calculating the discharge of water through a pipe some of them
;

are quite complicated, and all are, and must of necessity be, ap-
proximate. It is impossible to derive one formula that will fit
every case. The pipe, or conduit, is made of various materials,
and the friction of the moving water varies greatly with the ma-
terial of which the pipe is composed. Even for a particular
material, the discharge will not be the same for a pipe that has
been in use a long while as for a new pipe. The impurities car-
ried by the water stick to the pipe, causing it to become foul ; this
reduces the diameter and discharge, and also alters the resistance
due to friction. If the slope is not gradual and even, air will ac-
cumulate at different points; this also reduces the discharge, since
the area of the cross-section at those points is less. Bends, espe-
cially those of short radius, reduce the velocity and, consequently,
 941 -P
the discharge. Contractions and enlargements, likewise, exert
a deterrent effect.
As a result of the examination and comparison of a large num-
ber of experiments, the following formula has been derived; it is
simple in form, is said to give good results, and is adapted to

logarithmic computation: v = 0.0757c<Z2/8

( j
, in which

v = per second; d
velocity, in feet =
diameter of pipe, in inches;
h =head, in feet; I =
length of pipe, in feet; and c a con- =
stant the value of which depends on the material of which the pipe
is composed. For new, smooth, wrought-iron pipe, laid straight
and without bends, c may be taken as 160. Since the actual in-
ternal diameter of a 1%-inch pipe is 1.61 inches, the velocity of

discharge in the pipe is v = 0.0757 V

^ 160 v
^ 1.61 2/8 V ( i

\2640/
= 2.508 feet per second. The number of cubic feet per minute
,. ,

discharged
, .

is
60X2.508X0.7854X1-612
-T-:
144
= o<iory
2.127;
oior?
2.127

X 7.48 = 16 gallons per minute.

Pipe Fittings. There are several American Standards for pipe

fittings tomeet the wide range of requirements both as to size of
fitting and allowable working pressure. The different standards
and classes of fittings are based primarily upon allowable pres-
sures and whether the fitting is of the flange-and-bolt type or the
threaded-joint type,
Cast-Iron Flanged Fittings 25 Pounds Pressure: These fit-
tings are for a maximum working saturated steam pressure of
25 pounds per square inch. (All pressures are gage pressures.)
Fittings such as elbows, tees, side outlets and straight crosses are
for nominal pipe sizes ranging from 4 to 72 inches. The 36-inch
and smaller sizes may be used for maximum non-shock hydraulic
pressures of 43 pounds per square inch, or maximum gas pres-
sure of 25 pounds per square inch at or near the ordinary range
of air temperatures.
Cast-Iron Flanged Fittings Class 125: These fittings, in sizes
from 1 inch to 5 inches, inclusive, are for maximum saturated
steam service pressures of 125 pounds per square inch. The pres-
sure ratings for larger sizes have been revised downward to con-
form to modern practice and keep the safety factors on a more
conservative basis. These revisions follow: Sizes 6 to 12 inches,
inclusive, 100 pounds per square inch; sizes 14 to 24 inches, in-
clusive, 80 pounds per square inch sizes 30 to 48 inches, inclusive,
;

50 pounds per square inch. For maximum water service pres-

sures at or near the ordinary range of air temperatures, the
P-942
pressure ratings are 175 pounds per square inch for 1- to 12-inch
sizes, inclusive. The rating for flanges only is 150 pounds per
square inch for 14 to 48 inches. The regular elbows, tees, side
outlets and crosses are for nominal pipe sizes ranging from 1 to
48 inches.
Cast-Iron Flanged Fittings 250 Pounds Pressure: This stand-
ard applies to maximum working saturated steam pressures of
250 pounds per square inch. Fittings of 10-inch size and smaller
may also be used for maximum non-shock working hydraulic pres-
sures of 325 pounds per square inch at a temperature of 250 de-
grees F. and maximum non-shock working hydraulic pressures of
400 pounds per square inch at or near the ordinary range of air
temperatures. The elbows, tees, side outlets and straight crosses
are for nominal pipe sizes ranging from 1 to 30 inches.
Cast-Iron Flanged Fittings 800 Pounds Pressure: These fit-
tings are for maximum non-shock working hydraulic pressures of
800 pounds per square inch at or near the ordinary range of air
temperatures. This standard covers nominal pipe sizes ranging
from 2 to 12 inches.
Steel Flanged Fittings: The pressure ratings range from 150
to 2500 pounds per square inch. The 150- and 300-pound classes
cover nominal pipe sizes from 1 to 24 inches. The 400-, 600-, 900-
and 1500-pound classes cover nominal pipe sizes from % to
24 inches. The 2500-pound fittings are for pipe sizes ranging
from % to 12 inches. The materials for these fittings may be
either steel castings or steel forgings.
Malleable-Iron Screwed Fittings 150 Pounds Pressure: This
pressure rating of 150 pounds per square inch is a recommended
maximum for saturated steam service pressure. The maximum
hydraulic service pressure rating, including shock, is 300 pounds
per square inch at or near the ordinary range of air tempera-
tures. The elbows, tees and crosses in the regular straight sizes
are for nominal pipe sizes ranging from y8 to 6 inches, inclusive.
The threads conform to the American Standard taper pipe thread.
Cast-iron Screwed Fittings 125 Pounds Pressure: The maxi-
mum working saturated steam pressure is 125 pounds per square
inch. The elbows, tees and crosses in regular straight sizes are
for nominal pipe sizes ranging from %
to 16 inches.
Cast-Iron Screwed Fittings 250 Pounds Pressure: The maxi-
mum working saturated steam pressure is 250 pounds per square
inch. The elbows, tees and crosses in regular straight sizes are
for nominal pipe sizes from % to 16 inches.

Pipe Flange Faces. Pipe flanges which have the entire face
of the flange faced straight across, and use either a full face or
ring gasket, are commonly employed for pressures less than
125 pounds on steam and water lines. The best results are ob-
 943 -P
tained by using a fairly thick gasket, so that the gasket will have
sufficient pressure exerted on it by the bolts to make a tight joint
before the outside edges of the flanges meet. The full-faced gasket
is preferred by some, because it may be installed more
readily and
is more likely to be concentric with the bore of the flange than
that of a ring gasket, but it has no other advantages. A ring
gasket, properly proportioned and correctly applied, will make just
as tight a joint as a full-faced gasket, at considerable less expense
and with less pulling up on the bolts.
Raised Face, Smoothly Finished for Gaskets: This type of face
is made by raising the face of the flange between the bore and
inside of the bolt holes from 1/32 to 1/16 inch above that of the
remainder of the flange. This type of joint is most satisfactory
on high-pressure steam lines, and is the most generally used. With
this style of face, ring gaskets are employed, and a greater pres-
sure per square inch of gasket is obtained by pulling up on the
bolts than would be obtained with similar bolts on a full-faced
gasket. The raised face prevents the touching of the outside
edges of the flanges, and the entire pressure exerted by the bolts
is transmitted to the gasket, which gives a maximum efficiency
and resistance against leakage.
Raised Face, Ground Joints: This style of face is identical with
that employed when gaskets are used, excepting that the raised
face is ground to an absolute metallic joint. This eliminates the
use of gaskets. This style of joint was popular before a satis-
factory gasket material was found, and was employed consider-
ably on superheated steam lines. There are now on the market
gaskets which are employed for temperatures as high as 800 de-
grees F. ; the successful use of these gaskets has to a considerable
degree reduced the number of ground joints used in steam lines.
See also Corrugated Flanges, and Tongue-and-groove Flanges.

Pipe for Acids. Pipes for carrying acid liquids, when made
from for a short time only. Wrought-iron
steel, will usually last
pipes will last somewhat longer, but are not satisfactory. A steel
to which 0.5 per cent of copper has been added has given good
results for pipes of this kind. Valves made from f erro-silicon will
resist the corrosive action of acid liquids to a considerable extent.
Their first cost is higher, but their resistance to the action of the
acid warrants their use.

Pipe Joint Cements. See Cements for Joints.

Pipe, Lead. See Lead Pipe.

Pipe of Riveted Type. Very large sizes of pipe are fre-

quently made from and provided with riveted
boiler sheet steel
joints, the seams being longitudinal or helical. This class of
piping is frequently used in large hydraulic installations where
P-944
the ordinary pipe sizes would be of insufficient capacity for the
volume of water passing through them. The helical-seam riveted
pipe was invented by John B. Root, and by him termed "spiral
riveted pipe." The helical seam makes it possible to obtain in a
riveted pipe practically the full strength of the plate; with a
longitudinal riveted seam, from 60 to 65 per cent of the strength
of the plate is all that can be expected of the riveted seam.

Pipe Reamers. Pipe reamers are used for reaming taper

holes previous to tapping by standard taper pipe taps. They are
made in sizes corresponding to those of pipe taps, and the taper
is the same % inch per foot. They are fluted with the same kind
of cutters as are used for straight reamers of sizes corresponding
to the diameter at the small end of the pipe reamers.

Pipe Schedule Numbers. The American Standard for

Wrought Iron and Wrought Steel Pipe includes a series of wall
thicknesses which are designated by schedule numbers. Welded
and seamless steel pipe, according to this standard, has two wall
thicknesses for each nominal pipe size from % to % inch, inclu-
sive; three wall thicknesses for each nominal pipe size from % to
3 inches, inclusive; four wall thicknesses for each size from 4 to
6 inches, inclusive; nine wall thicknesses for each size from
8 to 12 inches, inclusive; and ten wall thicknesses for each O.D.
pipe in nominal sizes from 14 to 24 inches, inclusive. Welded
wrought iron pipe has two wall thicknesses in each size from
Ys inch to 6 inches, inclusive, and from three to six wall thick-
nesses for each of the larger sizes. The ten schedule numbers for
welded and seamless steel pipe are 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120,
140, and 160. These schedule numbers indicate approximate
values of the expression 1000 X ?/&> in which P = internal pres-
sure in pounds per square inch and S = allowable fibre stress
in pounds per square inch. This permits an approximation
of the wall thickness if the service pressure and the value of
allowable stress for the material and service conditions are known.
Recommended values of S, the allowable stress, may be obtained
by reference to engineering codes such as the A.S.M.E. Boiler
Code, the American Standard Code for Pressure Piping
(ASA B31.1), etc.
It is contemplated that the user will compute the exact value
of wall thickness suitable for the conditions for which the pipe is
required, as described in detail in the A.S.M.E. Boiler Code,
the American Tentative Standard Code for Pressure Piping
(ASA B31.1) From the schedules of nominal thicknesses, a thick-
.

ness may then be selected to suit the value computed to fulfill the
conditions for which the pipe is desired. The thicknesses repre-
sented by schedules 30 and 40 are identical with thicknesses for
"standard weight" pipe in former lists, whereas thicknesses
 945 -P

equivalent to schedules 60 and 80 are identical with thicknesses

for "extra strong" pipe. The thicknesses represent the nominal
or average dimensions and include an allowance for mill tolerance
of 12% per cent under the nominal thickness.

Pipe Size Designation. Nominal sizes of steel and wrought

iron pipe represent the approximate inside diameter for sizes up
to 12 inches, inclusive. The larger nominal sizes represent the out-
ride diameter. Changes in thickness and weight of the various
grades are made by varying the inside diameter only. The out-
side diameter remains constant so that any grade of pipe may
be used with any grade of fitting, flange, coupling, or valve. When
the nominal size indicates the approximate inside diameter, it
may differ considerably from the true inside diameter, especially
when the pipe has exceptionally thick walls. For example, the
inside diameter of pipe having a nominal size of 2 inches may
vary from 2.067 to 1.939 as the wall thickness is increased from
0.154 (schedule 40 of the American Standard) to 0.218 (sched-
ule 80) Another method of specifying pipe sizes, which has been
.

used to a limited extent, is to give the outside diameter and the

wall thickness. To illustrate, a pipe may be designated as 4 O.D.
with 0.226 wall or this may be simplified to 4 by 0.226 inch pipe.
This designation would represent the present nominal size of
3% inches with a schedule 40 wall thickness which is equivalent
to the weight previously designated as standard.

"Pipes" in Steel Ingots. In the preparation of steel for

rolling into bars and various structural shapes, the first step is
to pour the molten steel into molds, thus forming ingots. As
the steel gradually solidifies, a more or less cone-shaped cavity
forms at the top of the ingot. This is known as the pipe. Piping
is caused by the side of the ingot cooling faster than the central
part. As the metal in the ingot cools and solidifies toward the
sides, the still molten metal at the center separates and a "pipe"
forms. There is a greater tendency for a pipe to form at the
top of the ingot than farther down, because formation in the
lower part is offset by the metal from the upper part of the ingot
fillingthe space formed.
After the metal solidifies, further cooling and contraction tends
to open the pipe farther toward the bottom because the colder
exterior is more rigid and is capable of stretching the more
elastic interior. The surface of this pipe or cavity is likely to
become more or less oxidized. Since this oxidized portion is not
welded or amalgamated in rolling, the pipe will appear in the
smallest rod or wire into which this part of the ingot may be
rolled. The only way to avoid the defects due to this pipe is by
discarding that part of the ingot containing it. Various methods
of reducing the pipe and resulting waste have been tried. One
P-946
plan is to squeeze the partially solidified ingot so as to close up
the pipe. This, however, requires the use of very heavy hydraulic
equipment and is expensive. The pipe may be shortened by cast-
ing with the large end of the mold up. This method may also be
combined with the use of a "hot top" mold. This is the method
generally employed. The larger end is surmounted with a short
mold lined with a refractory and non-conducting material such
as clay. This lining reduces the size of the top section and keeps
the top in the molten state until the ingot proper has solidified.
The pipe is thus brought up in the cope or sink head which is of
much smaller section than the ingot, thus decreasing the waste
accordingly.

Pipes, Steam-Flow Capacity. See Darcy's Formula.

Pipe Taps. A
taper pipe tap is a hand tap used for tapping
all kinds of American Standard taper pipe fittings, either by
machine or by hand.
Straight Pipe Taps: A hand tap exactly the same in every way
as the taper pipe tap except that the threaded portion is straight
and of proper size for tapping American Standard straight pipe
threads.
Combined Pipe Tap and Drills: A taper pipe tap having an
extended point suitable for drilling and a taper square shank.
Used for drilling and tapping holes in range boilers and similar
work in one operation.
Pipe, Test for Wrought-Iron and Steel. Wrought-iron pipe
may be distinguished from steel pipe by testing the material in
the pipe for manganese, which is present in the steel pipe, but is
not present, except possibly as a trace, in wrought iron.A method
of making the manganese test is as follows Place a clean, bright
:

chip or filing of the metal to be tested, about the size of a pin-

head, in a porcelain crucible; add six drops of pure nitric acid,
and heat; add two drops of silver nitrate solution, then one
crystal of ammonium persulphate not greater than % inch in
diameter; warm the solution, but do not let it boil. If the metal
is steel, a pink color will begin to develop, and at this
point the
crucible should be removed from the source of heat, when a very
decided red coloration will result. If no color develops, but a
small amount of dark residue remains in the dish the metal is
wrought iron.

Pipe Thickness Formula. In developing the American Stand-

ard (B36.10 1939) for wrought-iron and wrought-steel pipe,
a survey of current practice in the piping industry was employed
by the Committee as the logical starting point. Before making
this survey, however, the Committee developed a basic formula
for its own guidance in setting up theoretical wall thicknesses
 947-P
for a wide range of pressure-stress ratios. This formula is not
to be used for design. It was developed solely for the purpose of
determining a rational set of pipe thicknesses reasonably con-
sistent with the usual "basis-of-design" formulas, and is given
here as a matter of record only:

**=/ X ^-4-0.1

In this formula, P = internal pressure, Ib. per sq. in.; S =

allowable fibfer stress, Ib. per sq. in.; D s= outside diameter of
pipe, in. t ; =
nominal wall thickness, in.
This formula is a modification of the Barlow formula for pipe
wall thickness, with a constant addition of 0.1 inch in thickness
to compensate for threading and corrosion. This plan is similar
to the one recommended in the A.S.M.E. Boiler Code, but in addi-
tion it includes an allowance for under-thickness mill variation
of 12.5 per cent. Analysis by this formula showed that up to 12
inches in size, common usage had largely centered on four sched-
ules of wall thicknesses corresponding approximately to definite
pressure-stress ratios which could be expressed simply as 1000
X P/S equaling 40, 80, 120, and 160. These schedules were
projected for pipes larger than 12 inches and up to 30 inches.
Wall thicknesses from current practice were then selected for the
intermediate series equaling 60, 100, and 140. From the light
wall O.D. sizes and from certain 8-, 10-, and 12-inch standard
pipes used in large quantities, three additional schedules were set
up for low pressures.
The formula was not applied to sizes smaller than 1 inch. How-
ever, dimensions and weights which have been traditional in com-
mercial lists for "standard weight" and "extra strong" schedules
have been retained in pipe sizes %
inch to %
inch, inclusive. The
terms "standard," "extra strong," and "double extra strong" in
the old terminology, however, have been discarded in the Amer-
ican Standard. See also Pipe Schedule Numbers.

Pipe Thread- The American Standard pipe thread (formerly

known as National Standard and as the American Briggs Stand-
ard) has an angle of 60 degrees, and the crest and root are
truncated an amount equal to 0.033 X
P itc^ of thread except for
8 threads per inch which (according to 1942 revision) are trun-
cated 0,045 X
Pitek at the crest and 0.033 X
P^ tch at the root -
The (basic) maximum depth of the truncated thread is 0.80 X
pitch except for 8 threads per inch which is 0.788 X
pitch. The
taper of the thread is 1 in 16 or 0.75 inch per foot, measured on
the diameter and along the axis. The pitch diameter at the end
of the pipe thread and at the gaging notch of the plug gage, as
P-948
well as the effective pipe thread length, are determined by the
following formulas:

F t= B B E =F + X
=+
(0.05 1.1) P; 0.0625 *>/
C (0.8 X*+ P
6.8)

in which F =
pitch diameter at end ; E=
pitch diameter at gag-
ing notch; B=
outside diameter of pipe; D =
normal engage-
ment, by hand, between external and internal threads; C s=
effective length of external thread; P =
pitch of thread. The
American Briggs Standard tapered pipe thread is cut so that
the thread is at right angles to the pipe axis; this now is also the
accepted practice for British tapered pipe threads, although for-
merly it was the usual British practice to cut the thread at right
angles to the surface of the cone.
Straight Pipe Thread: The straight pipe thread is the same as
American Standard taper pipe thread in regard to pitch and
depth of thread. The basic pitch diameter for straight pipe
threads equals the pitch diameter at the gaging notch of the
taper plug gage. The straight pipe thread is gaged with a taper
threaded plug gage and should gage flush at the face with the
gaging notch, allowing a maximum variation of one turn plus or
minus from the notch.

Pipe Thread, British Standard. The form of thread is that

of the Whitworth system; the sides of the thread form an angle
of 55 degrees with each other, and the top and bottom of the
threads are rounded to a radius equal to 0.1373 X
*^ e pitch of
the thread. For taper pipe threads the taper is %
inch per foot,
or 1/16 inch per inch, measured on the diameter. This system
has been approved by the British Standards Institution as the
standard pipe thread system in Great Britain. This standard is
applied to iron and steel pipes and tubes for water, steam and gas.

Pipe Threading Machines. There are two general types of

pipe threading and cutting-off machines. The most common type
is so arranged that the pipe is revolved while the thread is cut
by stationary dies with the other type, the pipe is held stationary
;

while the die-head is revolved. The die-head contains several

equally-spaced chasers, the number depending upon the pipe sizes
for which the machine is intended. The die-head is so arranged
that these chasers can be moved after a thread has been cut, thus
permitting them to be withdrawn from the threaded end. com- A
mon method of securing this outward movement is by means of
a cam ring which is turned slightly by a hand lever. The die-head
is so constructed that the chasers are locked when in the cutting
position, and provision is made for adjusting them in order to cut
threads which are either larger or smaller than the standard size.
 949 -P

The chasers should preferably be so located or ground that the

front of each chaser will have a certain amount of rake, in order
to insure cutting a clean thread, and also to reduce the amount
of power required for the threading operation. The cutting-off
attachment is a feature common to pipe threading machines in
general. This attachment is located directly back of the die-head,
and is used for cutting off pipes preparatory to threading. Some
pipe threading machines have a reaming attachment for remov-
ing the burr which is formed on the inside of the pipe by the
cutting-off tool.

Pipe Working Pressures. Standard weight pipe is commonly

used for heating work, exhaust lines, and all pressures below 100
pounds per square inch; extra heavy pipe should be employed for
pressures from 100 to 200 pounds per square inch, and where
there is liable to be considerable corrosion. The pressures are far
below the ultimate strength of the pipe. Special hydraulic pipe
for service on lines requiring the highest possible grade of ma-
terial and workmanship are bored from solid forgings and are
made to order for pressures up to 10,000 pounds per square inch.
If seamless steel tubes are assumed to have a strength of 100 per
cent, butt-welded steel pipe has a comparative strength of 73 per
cent, and lap-welded steel pipe of 92 per cent. Prom this it will
be seen that the strength of a butt-weld is only about 80 per cent
of that of a lap-weld. The relative strengths of wrought iron and
steel pipe are as follows: Butt-welded wrought-iron pipe has 70
per cent of the strength of similar butt-welded steel pipe, and
lap-welded wrought-iron pipe has 57 per cent of the strength of
similar lap-welded steel pipe.

Piston Alloys, Aluminum. The S AE Standard No. 321,

2
Type alloy, has a low coefficient of expansion and other desir-
able mechanical properties at elevated temperatures and is
adapted for automobile engine pistons. For composition, see
S A E Standard No. 321 under Aluminum Alloys, Cast.

Piston Displacement. Piston displacement is the volume which

is swept through by a piston working in a cylinder.. This volume
is equal to the area of the piston multiplied by the length of its
travel. See also Pump Displacement.

Piston Packing Rings. The pistons of steam engines, gas and

gasoline motors, as well as other pistons which are required to
move freely in a cylinder, must be slightly less in diameter than
the diameter of the cylinders in which they operate.
Piston Allowances: In steam engine work, the allowance
of cylinder
usually varies from 0.015 to 0.020 inch for each foot
diameter. Applying this rule to a 24-inch locomotive cylinder,
P-950
the clearance would be about 1/32 inch. A gas or gasoline engine
piston should fit into the cylinder so as to allow for the necessary
oil film and to provide for slight distortions in shape under heat,
but still close enough to prevent excessive leakage and loss of com-
pression. The question of the ideal allowance to make is con-
sidered apart from that of manufacturing tolerances. Some engi-
neers use the very convenient rule of making the piston 0.001
inch small for each inch diameter of the cylinder bore, but the
following rule comes closer to actual requirements: Allow from
0.002 to 0.0025 inch as a maximum for each inch of cylinder
diameter above two inches. As it is commercially impossible to
manufacture parts that are all exactly alike, due allowance must
be made for variations.
Types of Piston Packing Rings: In order to secure a tight joint
between a piston and the cylinder in which it operates, piston or
packing rings are used, the function of the rings being to seal
the clearance space between the piston and cylinder and form as
nearly as possible a tight joint. These rings vary greatly in de-
sign, many attempts having been made to construct a ring that
would give a perfectly tight joint. The two types of ring shown
in Pig. 1 have been widely used in steam engines or wherever
such a simple type of ring will serve the purpose. While such
rings do not form a joint that is absolutely tight, they are com-
paratively inexpensive to produce. In gasoline motors, improved
forms of special patented rings are used.
Concentric and Eccentric Rings: The concentric ring A is of
uniform thickness, whereas the eccentric ring, Fig. 1, varies in
thickness, as the illustration shows, the bore of the ring being
somewhat off center. The reason for making a ring eccentric is
to obtain a uniform pressure against the cylinder wall all around
the circumference. In the ideal or theoretical eccentric ring, the
reduction of thickness in proportion to the gradually decreasing
stiffness of the ring, from the point of maximum thickness to the
thinnest part, will serve to give a uniform radial pressure. In
actual practice, however, the rings are not made to conform to
the exact theoretical shape, and the uniform pressure is not ob-
tained, although eccentric rings are superior in this respect to
an ordinary concentric ring which has not been made by a special
method.
One objection commonly referred to in connection with eccen-
tric rings is that, owing to the eccentricity, there is considerable
space beneath the ring on the thin side, since the depth of the
ring groove in the piston is uniform. This space makes it easier
for gas or steam to blow through. Trouble of this kind naturally
depends, to some extent, upon how carefully the rings are made
and fitted.
 951 -P
Ring Diameter Before Splitting: Piston rings of the general
type illustrated in Fig. 1 are inserted in grooves in the piston,
and are compressed sufficiently, when assembled in the cylinder,
to bear tightly against the cylinder wall. The increase in ring
diameter over the cylinder diameter, to obtain the required ex-
pansion varies more or less for different types of rings and ring
castings. One rule is to make the ring diameter before splitting
equal to the cylinder diameter multiplied by 1.02 to 1.027.
Ring Thickness: In order to insert an ordinary eccentric or
concentric piston ring in the groove of a one-piece piston, the
ring must be sprung open enough to permit it to pass over the
piston. The strains to which a ring is subjected when it is being
expanded over the piston, and also when it is compressed into the

Fig. 1. Concentric and Eccentric Piston

Packing Rings

Fig. 2. (A) Lap Joint. (B) Diagonal Joint

P-952
cylinder, depend upon the thickness of the ring in proportion to
the diameter. Therefore, rings are so proportioned that the ma-
terial will not be over-stressed, either when inserting the ring
over the piston or when it is compressed to the cylinder size. It
is considered good practice to so design a ring that it will be sub-

jected to about the same stress when being expanded over the
piston as when it is compressed in the cylinder, because, under
these conditions, a ring exerting a certain pressure per square
inch against the cylinder will be subjected to the least total
strain, and the chance of breakage will be reduced to a minimum.
When expanding a ring over the piston, and also when compress-
ing it, the stress will be greatest at a point opposite the joint;
hence, the thickness at this point should be considered in the case
of an eccentric ring.
For a concentric ring, a thickness equal to approximately 1/32
of the cylinder diameter is, according to one rule, about the maxi-
mum thickness that the ring can have and still be inserted over
the piston without breakage. An eccentric ring may be made
somewhat thicker than cylinder diameter -+- 32, because of the
gradual reduction in the thickness toward the joint. A ring hav-
ing a thickness equal to cylinder diameter -f- 27.5 should, if made
of a good cast iron, be thick enough to give the necessary pressure
against the cylinder wall and yet not be so thick as to result in
over-straining the ring when the latter is expanded over the
piston.
Ring Width: The proportions of piston rings of the types
shown in Pig. 1 vary more or less among different engine manu-
facturers. The concentric ring A usually has a width that slightly
exceeds the thickness, although rings of square section are often
used and, in some cases, the thickness exceeds the width. When
rings are properly made, so that they have an even bearing all
around the circumference, nothing is gained by making the width
greater than 1% X maximum thickness. It is considered good
practice to make the width equal to the cylinder diameter x0.05.
Amount toCut Out of Ring: The amount to cut out of the ring
to permit contracting it to the cylinder diameter (or to this diam-
eter plus a grinding allowance) equals the circumference of the
ring before splitting minus the circumference when the ring is
compressed, plus a small clearance to allow for expansion when
the ring is in the engine cylinder and its temperature rises. When
the ring is compressed to the cylinder diameter plus the amount
allowed for grinding, the ends should be a distance apart equal
to the cylinder diameter X 0.004 to allow for expansion. It will
be assumed that the ring, before being compressed, has a diam-
eter equal to 1.027 Xthe cylinder diameter, and that the grinding
allowance for truing the outer surface after compression, is 0.008
 953 -P
X the cylinder diameter; then the outside diameter of the turned
ring would equal 1.035 Xcylinder diameter, and the outside di-
ameter of an unground ring compressed to the cylinder diameter,
plus the grinding allowance, would equal 1.008 X cylinder diam-
eter. In order to cut enough out of the ring to obtain this latter
dimension, the reduction along the outer circumference of the
ring should equal 0.085 Xcylinder diameter. Therefore, the total
amount to cut out of the ring equals 0.085 X cylinder diameter
+ a clearance allowance between the ends equal to 0.004 x cy*'
inder diameter. Aresult accurate enough for practical purposes
will be obtained by the following rule:
The amount to cut out of the piston ring as measured along the
outer circumference = cylinder diameter X 0.09.
Width of Cutter for Diagonal Joint: The amount to cut out of
a ring, as determined by the foregoing rule, applies to either a
concentric or eccentric ring, since it is the amount in a circum-
ferential direction. In the case of a diagonal joint, however, the
width of the cutter will be less than this amount. In the diagram
B, Fig. 2, the length x represents the cylinder diameter X 0.09,
and w, the required width of the cutter. To obtain this cutter
width w, multiply the dimension x by the sine of the joint angle a.
The angle a between the diagonal joint and the side of the ring
varies between 30 and 45 degrees, and is usually 30 degrees. For
30 degrees w = x X
0.5; for 45 degrees, w= x X0.707.
Grinding the Outside of Rings: It is very important to make
piston rings so that they are truly cylindrical after being com-
pressed to the size of the cylinder bore. In order to make accu-
rate rings, it is necessary to turn or grind them to the required
diameter while compressed the same as they will be when in the
cylinder. The split rings to be ground are compressed and in-
serted in a locating sleeve or cylinder; they are then clamped in
place between a shoulder and nut or between clamping flanges.
Then the locating sleeve is removed. The inside diameter of this
sleeve should be equal to the cylinder diameter plus the amount
left on the rings for grinding.

Piston-Ring Peening. See Peening Piston-rings.

Piston Valve. The piston type of slide valve for steam engines
is identical in its action with the plain slide valve except that it
iscircular in section instead of being flat or rectangular. The
advantages claimed for this type of valve are that it is balanced
against the steam pressure ; the working edges of the valve are
opposite the ends of the cylinder so that the steam ports are short
and the clearance comparatively small; when used on high-
pressure cylinders, steam may be admitted around the valve cen-
ter and exhausted on the outside, thus protecting the valve-stem
packing from the high-pressure and high-temperature steam. The
P-954
valve slides in special bushings which may be renewed when
worn. Modern locomotives are fitted with cylindrical or piston
valves, instead of flat-seated slide valves. These piston valves
have packing rings at the ends which form the working edges
and control the points of admission and release of the steam to
and from the cylinders. The chambers or steam chests for the
piston valves are provided with linings or bushings in which the
steam ports are located.

Pitch and Lead of Screw Thread. The terms "pitch" and

"lead" of screw threads are often confused. The pitch of a screw
thread is the distance from the center of one thread to the center
of the next thread, whether the screw has a single, double, triple,
or quadruple thread. The lead of a screw thread is equal to the
distance a nut will move forward on the screw, if it is turned
around one full revolution. The pitch and lead of a single-
threaded screw are equal. With a double-threaded screw the nut
will move forward in one revolution, an amount equal to twice
the pitch, so that the lead of a double-threaded screw equals twice
the pitch. The lead of a triple-threaded screw equals three times
the pitch, and the lead of any other multiple screw can be deter-
mined by multiplying the number of threads by the pitch. The
lead may also be expressed as the distance from center to center
of the same thread, after one turn.

Pitch Circle. The pitch circles of two spur gears in mesh

always intersect the common center line at the point where the
line of action crosses this center line. Ordinarily a pair of in-
volute gears is designed for a given center-to-center distance, but
these gears might be separated somewhat and it would still be
possible for one to transmit motion to the other at a uniform
rate, although this would cause a certain amount of backlash or
play between the intenneshing teeth. However, if two gears were
assembled so that the center distance was somewhat greater than
standard (as is sometimes done to meet a special condition) the
pitch circles would be enlarged and the pressure angle increased,
but the base circles would remain the same, the involute curvature
of the teeth not being changed. The reason why the pitch circles
would become larger will be apparent when it is remembered that
the radius of each pitch circle is equal to the distance from the
gear center to the pitch point or the point where the line of action
intersects the common center line. See also Pitch Diameter,

Pitch Cone. The pitch cone of a bevel gear is equivalent to a

cone which, if mounted on the shaft in place of the bevel gear,
would drive or be driven by the frictional contact with the pitch
cone of its mating gear in the same velocity ratio (if no slip oc-
curred) as that of bevel gears having correctly formed teeth.
 955 -P
Pitch Cone Angle. The pitch cone angle of a bevel gear is the
angle which the pitch line makes with the axis of the gear. This
is sometimes referred to merely as "pitch angle."

Pitch Cone Radius. The pitch cone radius of a bevel gear is

the distance measured on the pitch line from the vertex of the
pitch cone to the outer edge of the teeth. This dimension is also
known as the "cone distance."
Pitch Diameter of Gear. The pitch diameter, as ordinarily
applied in the design of spur and bevel gears, equals the number
of teeth divided by the diametral pitch. The actual pitch circle,
however, when, say, two spur gears are in mesh, is established
by the intersection of the line of action and the common center

Method of Checking Pitch Diameter of Spur Gear by

Measurement over Pins

fine. The pitch diameter of a bevel gear is the distance across

the gear at the point where the pitch lines intersect the outer
edges of the teeth; in other words, the pitch diameter is measured
at the large ends of the teeth.
Checking Pitch Diameter by Pin Method: When spur-gear sizes
are checked by the pin or roll method, cylindrical pins of known
diameter are placed in diametrically opposite tooth spaces; or, if
the gear has an odd number of teeth, the pins are located as
nearly opposite as possible. (See illustration). The measure-
ment Mover these pins is then checked by using any sufficiently
accurate method of measurement. The general formulas for de-
termining what the measurement over the pins should be, when
the gear pitch diameter is correct, are not included here because
they are cumbersome to apply and involve the use of a table of
P-956
involute functions. (Measurement Mover pins may be obtained
simply by dividing tabulated constant in MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK
by diametral pitch of gear.) This method of checking gear sizes
by measurement over pins is especially useful in shops having a
limited gear-inspection equipment.

Pitch Diameter of Screw. On a straight screw thread, the

"pitch diameter" is equivalent to the diameter of an imaginary
cylinder which would pass through the threads at such points as
to make the width of the threads and the width of the spaces cut
by the surface of the cylinder equal. Thus the pitch diameter is
equal to the outside or major diameter minus one thread depth.
(See diagram accompanying Screw Thread Definitions.)
The pitch diameter is important because contact between any
threaded plug, bolt, etc., and a threaded hole, should be on the
sloping sides of the thread and not at the crest or root. This is
the reason why some method of checking the diameter that is
related to these angular sides is desirable. The pitch diameter
serves this purpose because it is across the angular sides of the
thread. This will be more apparent when the method of measur-
ing the pitch diameter is understood. Pitch diameter is also
known as the "effective diameter" and sometimes as the "angle
diameter." The pitch diameter may be checked very accurately
by what is known as the "three-wire method." See Thread
Measurement, Three-wire Method.
Pitch of Gear. Pitch, as used with reference to gear teeth,
defines the sizes of the teeth. Two kinds of pitches are used,
circular pitch and diametral pitch. The circular pitch is the
distance along the pitch circle from the center of one tooth to the
center of the next. The pitch circle at the larger or outer ends
of the teeth is used for determining the circular pitch of a bevel
gear. The diametral pitch is the ratio or quotient obtained by
dividing the number of teeth by the pitch diameter.
Pitch of Rivets. The pitch of rivets is the distance from the
center to center of adjacent rivets. The pitch should be as large
as possible without impairing the tightness of the joint when
under pressure. For single-riveted lap-joints in the circular
seams of boilers which have double-riveted longitudinal lap-joints :

Pitch s= d X 2.25 = t X 5, approximately, in which d *= the

actual diameter of rivet (in parallel hole) t = thickness of plate.
For double-riveted lap-joints: Pitch = ;

8*.
The following rules for rivet spacing apply to bridge and struc-
tural work. The minimum center-to-center distance or pitch
should not be less than three times the rivet diameter. In bridge
work, the pitch should not exceed six inches, or sixteen times the
thickness of the thinnest outside plate, except in special cases.
 957 -P

The distance between the edge of any piece and the center of the
rivet hole should not be less than l 1^ inch for
%- and %-inch
rivets, except in bars less than2% inches wide; when practicable,
this distance should be at least two rivet diameters for all sizes
and should not exceed eight times the plate thickness. For flanges
of girders and chords carrying floors, the
pitch should not exceed
four inches. For plates in compression, the pitch in the direction
of the line of stress should not exceed sixteen times the thickness
of the plate, and the pitch in a direction at right angles to the
line of stress should not exceed thirty-two times the thickness,
except for cover plates or top chords and end posts, in which the
pitch should not exceed forty times the thickness.

Pitch Point. The term "pitch point" as applied to

spur gear^
ing, indicates that point where the line of action intersects the
common center line of two gears in mesh.
Pitot Tube- The Pitot tube is used for
measuring the velocity
of fluids in motion. It consists simply of an
open tube having a
right-angle bend. The tube is placed in the stream of water (the
pressure of which is to be measured) in such a position that one
of the open ends is directed against the flow of the water while
the other end projects above the surface of the water. The
height
to which the water rises in the end projecting above the surface
is equal to the velocity head. Modifications of the Pitot tube are
also used for measuring the flow of water and gases in
pipes.

Pit-Saw File. This type of file is a full half circle in section

and is sometimes referred to as a frame-saw. The form is blunt
and the teeth single-cut, second-cut These files are used for filing
the teeth of what are known as pit-saws and frame-saws.

Pitting. In boilers, pitting is the formation of conical or

spherical depressions in the plates. Pitting is caused by the action
of oxygen or chlorine released from the feed water when heated.
When the depressions are small and close together, this condition
is known
as honeycombing. Magnesium and calcium chloride con-
tained in the boiler feed water are frequently the causes of
pitting.

Pivot Switches. It sometimes happens that it is necessary to

connect a source of power to any one of three or more circuits,
and this can be most conveniently done with a pivot switch. A
pivot switch is a lever switch having its hinge arranged so it can
be revolved around its center, a number of contacts being located
on the circumference of a circle with the hinge as its center.
With this arrangement, the blade can be closed into any one of
these contacts. Pivot switches are usually single-pole, but may
be made double- or triple-pole in the smaller capacities. In the
P-958
have to be double-break, as the pivot or
latter case, the switches
hinge cannot be a current-carrying part.

Planamilling and Planathreading. The form milling (inter*

nal or external) of one or more circular surfaces by a planetary
movement of one or more milling cutters mounted on an arbor,
is known as Planamilling. The work is held by a stationary
chuck; the rotating cutters are fed automatically over or through
the work to a set stop, and then fed radially into the work to the
proper depth of cut; now the cutter arbor travels slowly in a
circle and the cutters mill to an accurately finished diameter.
When the cutter arbor has made one complete revolution the cut-
ters are automatically lifted from contact with the work and
withdrawn while the work is being changed. While this process
shows large saving in machine time on a single diameter, greater
savings are effected in the simultaneous milling of two or more
concentric bores, especially when the innermost bore is larger
than the through bore, the machining of which would require
more than one set up on some other type of machine. In Planar
threading a thread milling cutter of the required pitch is mounted
on the arbor and revolved in a circle as in planamilling. The
length of the cutter is the same as the axial length of the thread
to be cut, plus two threads. While the arbor with the cutter or
cutters revolves one revolution, it is also fed axially one thread.
One planetary revolution of the arbor completes the operation.
Depending on the location of the shoulders of the work, plana-
threading and planamilling may be performed simultaneously.

Planer. Planing machines are used principally for producing

fiat or plane surfaces in connection with the finishing of machine
parts. The natural function of a planer is to produce plane or
flat surfaces, although it is sometimes used for forming irregular
or curved surfaces. There are three general classes of planing
machines which are commonly known as planers, shapers, and
Blotters. Shapers are smaller machines than planers and are used
for lighter work, whereas Blotters, which might be considered as
vertical planing machines, are used for operations that could not
be done readily, if at all, on regular planers or shapers. These
three classes of planing machines differ radically in their con-
struction. There are several different types of planers which have
been designed for planing certain general classes of work to the
best advantage. There is, however, what might be called a stand-
ard design which is found in all machine shops and which is
adapted to general planing operations. While the construction
or design of planers of different makes varies somewhat, there
are certain features which are common to all machines of the
standard type.
 959 -P

Open-side Planers: The open-side type of planer has a massive

column on one side of the table only so that the opposite side is
open and unobstructed, which greatly increases the range of the
machine. The cross-rail or beam upon which the tool-heads are
mounted is of very rigid design and has a broad bearing surface
on the column to prevent deflection due to the thrust of the cut.
The chief advantage of an open-side planer is that it can be used
for machining large castings which would not pass between the
housings of a two-housing planer of ordinary size. The driving
and feeding mechanism of an open-side planer is similar, in prin-
ciple, to that used on the regular type.

Open-side Plate Planer: The open-side plate planer is a type of

planing machine designed especially for planing the edges of steel
and iron plates. While this machine is known as a planer, it is,
in reality, a modification of the shaper, since the planing tool is
given a reciprocating movement, and the work-table and work
remain stationary.
Combination Planer: In shops where the use of an open-side
planer would be exceptional, but necessary, at times, what is
known as a combination planer has been used to a limited extent.
One planer of this class is equipped with two housings which are
similar to the housings of an ordinary planer. When the work
is too wide to pass between these housings, one is moved back

along the bed and a box-shaped casting or brace is interposed

between the housing and the cross-rail to support the latter
against the thrust of the cut. By adjusting the housing back-
ward in this way, a standard form of planer is converted partially
to an open-side type.
Crank Planer: The crank planer, as the name indicates, derives
its motion from a crank instead of from a rack and gearing. This
crank motion is generally the Whitworth quick-return movement,
or some modification of it. Planers of this type are made in small
sizes, a 20- by 20- by 24-inch machine representing
a typical size.
These machines are especially adapted to rapid operation on com-
class of work is similar
paratively short work; in fact, the general
to that done on a shaper. The crank planer, as compared with
the standard planer, has the advantage that the stroke is definite
and exact, owing to the fact that the motion is derived from a
crank mechanism; therefore, it is possible to plane right up to a
line without the danger of over-running. While the general
characteristics of a crank planer are similar to those
of the
that the work-table moves to
shaper, it differs from the latter in
and fro, the same as with the regular planer, whereas, in the case
forth across
of the shaper, the tool itself is traversed back and
the and accuracy of a crank planer,
the work. Owing to speed
it is particularly adapted for tool and gage
work.
P-960
Traveling-head Planer: Traveling-head planer is the name
given a certain type of planing machine that operates on the
same principle as a draw-cut shaper, although of very different
construction. The planer has a large floor plate for holding the
work, and a vertical column upon the face of which is a slide.
The latter carries the ram for planing and also the ram operating
mechanism. The slide and ram have a vertical adjustment upon
the column, the arrangement being similar, in this respect, to a
horizontal boring machine of the floor type. As previously inti-
mated, the cutting is done on the return stroke of the ram, so
that the thrust of the cut is taken directly by the column. The
reciprocating motion of the ram is controlled by two special fric-
tion clutches. This planing machine may also be used for milling
and boring operations, thus enabling planed parts to be finished
complete at one setting, in many instances.

Duplex Planer: The duplex planer differs from the ordinary

type in that there are housings (equipped with a cross-rail and
tool-heads) at each end of the planer bed. The housings at one
end may be adjusted on the bed for varying the distance between
the two sets of planing tools. This type of planer is intended
more especially for such work as planing the ends of locomotive
connecting-rods. When doing work of this kind, the rod is clamped
to the table in such a position that a cut is taken over one rod
end when the table is moving in one direction, and the opposite
end is planed when the table movement reverses therefore, when
;

using this machine, there is no idle return period, and the planer
table moves at the same speed in both directions, the tools being
constantly in operation.
Pit Planer: Planers of this class are intended for very large
unwieldy work, such as armor plate planing, etc. They are so
arranged that the work remains stationary and the tool-heads,
together with the cross-rail and its supporting columns, are given
a traversing movement. The vertical columns between which the
cross-rail is held are mounted upon parallel beds, one of which
extends along each side of the work-table. One make of pit planer
intended for armor plate work is equipped with a cross-rail which
swivels 90 degrees each way from the vertical, and carries two
tool-heads. For cross-planing, one of the two heads can be
traversed along the cross-rail.
Breast Planer: Breast planers are a special type used for plan-
ing the edges of armor plate or other work that could not readily
be done, if at all, on a regular planing machine. They are usually
built for cross-planing, the planing operation being done by a
tool-head which is traversed along a cross-rail. Power may be
applied, however, for longitudinal motion, in which case the work
can be planed lengthwise, as well as crosswise.
 961 -P
Frog and Switch Planer: Frog and switch planers are so named
because they are intended primarily for shops manufacturing
switch parts and rail crossings or frogs for railways. They are
also adapted for other work, especially of a heavy
nature, such
as planing large steel castings, etc. Great driving
steel^forgings,
power and extreme rigidity under maximum duty are character-
istic features of these planers. Planers of this class usually have
an adjustable cross-rail, the same as a standard planer, although
some are so designed that the cross-rail can only be located in one
of three fixed positions. See also Kotary Planers.

Planer Attachments. While planers ordinarily do not have

much auxiliary equipment, there are certain planer attachments
which increase the range or capacity of the planer, and others
which make it possible to plane special classes of work. Among
the planer attachments commonly used may be mentioned the ex-
tension tool-head which increases the planer capacity for handling
exceptionally wide work, the floor stand or independent housing
which still further increases the planer capacity, index centers
for planing parts that require dividing or spacing, and various
other attachments such as those for planing curved surfaces,
spiral grooves, etc. These special attachments are needed more
particularly in shops handling a wide variety of work, and espe-
cially those having a rather limited planer equipment.

Planer Net Cutting Speed. The net cutting speed of a planer

is equal to the number of feet traversed by the tool in a given
time while cutting or planing, and it is less than the speed of the
table on the forward or cutting stroke, because of the idle or re-
turn period, when no work is being done. The net cutting speed
equals the forward cutting speed divided by the total time re-
quired for the forward and return movements. If the cutting
speed were 40 feet per minute and the return speed 120 feet per
minute, a forward movement if continued for a distance of ^40
feet would require one minute and the return stroke one-third
There-
minute, or 1 1/3 minutes for forward and return strokes.
fore the number of feet per minute traversed by the tool while
actually cutting equals 40-4-1 1/3 = 30 feet per minute.

Planer Origin. The names of six or seven English inventors

are associated with the planer which was used at such an early
period in the United States that there may also
have been inde-
pendent developments. The French were, to a certain extent,
pioneers as a form of planing machine was
invented by Forq in
although the design is not along the lines of the early
1751,
English types. A planer is said to have been built by Matthew
Murray in 1814 in order to machine the D-slide valve for steam
engines*
P-962
The
oldest existing planer is in the South Kensington Museum
in London. This planer, in its general principle of operation,
resembles the modern type in so far as the relationship of a tool-
head and table are concerned. The table is reciprocated by the
pilot type of handwheel acting through a sprocket and chain
transmission. This chain is of the ordinary forged link type.
The tool-slide has vertical and horizontal feeding movements,
angular adjustment, and a hinged tool-block for lifting during
the return stroke. This planer was built by Richard Roberts in
1817, and evidently it was made without the use of a planer as
chisel and file marks on the bed and ways indicate hand work.
In 1820, George Rennie built a screw-driven planer which had
a revolving cutting tool an idea evidently considered quite im-
portant by several early designers. In this same year, 1820,
Joseph Clement built a planer provided with two cutting tools,
one being for the forward and the other for the return stroke.
This was known as the "Great" planer and the bed operated on
rollers to reduce frictional resistance. It is believed that the first
planer in America was built in 1836 in the shop of Silver & Gay
Co., North Chelmsford, Mass., although a planer is said to have
been built at about the same time by Pedrick & Ayer of Phila-
delphia.
Planer Size. The size of a planer is equivalent to the width
and height of the largest part that will pass between the housings
and under the cross-rail, when the latter is raised to its highest
position. For instance, a 38- by 38-inch planer is one that will
plane work approximately 38 inches wide and 38 inches high.
Sometimes the maximum length that can be planed is included
when designating the planer size. Thus a 36-inch by 36-inch by
8-foot planer means that a piece 36 inches square will pass be-
frween the housings, and that a length of 8 feet can be planed.

Planers, Gear. See Gear Planers of Templet Type.

Planer Tools, Right- and Left-Hand. Planer tools are usually
lesignated as right-hand when the cutting edge is on the right-
hand side, assuming that the tool is in a horizontal position and
is seen from above, whereas left-hand planer tools have the cut-

ting edge on the left-hand side. If a planer tool is in the working

position, then, as viewed from the front of the planer, a right-
hand tool has its cutting edge on the left-hand side and it feeds
from right to left. The foregoing method of designating right-
and left-hand planer tools has never been applied universally, but
it seems to agree with the most prevalent usage at the present
time. It would be preferable, however, in case these names were
standardized, to have them agree as to the "hand" for both lathe
and planer tools of the same general type or shape. See also
Lathe Tools, Right- and Left-hand.
 963 -P

Planetary Gearing. Planetary gearing (also called differen-

tial and epicyclic gearing) is the common name for a special type
of mechanism used in the transmission of mechanical motion. It
is composed of a series of mounted toothed wheels in gear, the
distinctive characteristic being that some of the wheels turn on
movable centers, while the others turn on fixed centers. Its specific
advantage is that it may give very little or very great change in
angular velocity with the same or the opposite directional rela-
tion, all within very small compass. Usually the change in an-
gular velocity is in the nature of a reduction, and very large re-
ductions are readily obtained. The wheels that turn on movable
centers are termed "planet wheels" and those that turn on fixed
centers are called "sun wheels."
Planimeter. The planimeter is an instrument used for deter-
mining the area of a figure on a drawing or map by moving a
"tracing point" of the instrument along the outline of the area
or surface to be measured. The irregular shape of the area does
not influence the accuracy of the reading. A
common form of
planimeter is the "Amsler polar planimeter." The results obtained
by the planimeter are correct within an error of about one per
cent. A more elaborate instrument than the polar planimeter is
known as the rolling planimeter. This instrument is more ex-
pensive than the polar type but results that are correct within
0.1 per cent can be obtained by it. The whole instrument rolls
forward and backward in a straight line while the tracing point
follows the outline of the surface to be measured. The planimeter
is used for measuring areas in general, and especially for meas-
uring the areas of indicator cards. Some forms give the mean
effective pressure directly, without computations, by changing
the scale to correspond with the spring used in the indicator.

Planishing. A planishing operation is one involving the use of

a hardened tool having a very smooth working surface which im-
parts a fine finish to a steel or other surface by either a rubbing
or a rolling process, depending upon the nature of the work. The
tool used may either be in the form of a hand-tool having a
smooth end which is held into contact with the rotating surface,
or it may consist of a hardened and polished roller or of a pair
of rolls. In rolling finished shapes in steel mills, the pass next to
the last one is called the "planisher," or sometimes the 'leader/'
Planishing rolls are also used for certain finishing operations on
sheet metals. For example, the second pair of rolls used for fin-
ishing coin metal by cold-rolling prior to minting, are known
as
planishing rolls. Cylindrical parts which have been turned in the
lathe are sometimes finished by rotating in contact with a hard-
ened and polished roller, the object being to obtain^a dense sur-
face and a smooth finish, This planishing operation, however,
P-964
is not common, and is confined largely to certain railroad shops
where it is applied to the fitted ends of crankpins and axles. In
metal spinning, a "planisher" is used for planishing or burnish-
ing the surfaces of spun parts. This tool is manipulated by hand,
and has a hardened and polished end which removes unevenness
as it rubs over the rapidly rotating part, the surface of which is
made smooth and dense. The term "planishing" is also applied
to a hammering operation, which consists in giving parts a dense,
smooth finish by a rapid succession of blows delivered by the
highly polished dies or hammers of a planishing hammer. Plan-
ishing is similar to burnishing so far as the general principle of
the process is concerned, and the two terms are used interchange-
ably for certain operations.

Piano-Milling Machines. Horizontal milling machines of the

planer type are sometimes referred to as plano^nilling machines,
because the general design resembles that of an ordinary planer.
When the name "piano-milling machine" is used, it is often ap-
plied regardless of the arrangement of the cutter spindles; that
is, whether the machine is equipped simply with one horizontal

spindle, with vertical spindles on the cross-rail, or with both ver-

tical and horizontal spindles.

Plant Factor. The ratio of the average load to the rated ca-
pacity of the power plant, i.e., to the aggregate ratings of the
generators, is the plant factor.

Plaskon. A
urea-base synthetic plastic molding material ob-
tainable in all colorsfrom white to lustrous black. Infusible and
inflammable, tasteless, odorless, resistant to the action of grease
and oils, and to the common organic solvents. Compressive
strength, 25,000 to 35,000 pounds per square inch; tensile
strength, 8000 to 13,000 pounds per square inch. Used for prac-
tically all purposes where a synthetic plastic material might be
applied, and especially where color is of importance. Covers and
cases as large as 15 by 15 by 18 inches have been made.

Plaster Molds. Plaster-of-paris molds are especially useful as

a means of producing small castings for experimental work. A
casting made in a plaster-of-paris mold is smoother than one made
in a sand mold. Plaster-of-paris alone will not withstand the
heat of molten metals, and experience has shown that the addi-
tion of asbestos is necessary to insure the success of so-called
"plaster-of-paris" molds. Pure plaster would crack when heated,
and the castings produced would not be uniform. The percentage
of asbestos may be varied according to the material to be cast,
although equal amounts of plaster-of-paris and asbestos generally
produce very satisfactory results.
 965 -P
The mixing of the plaster is very simple, yet there are several
points that require careful consideration. A pan or pail of suit-
able size is partly filled with water (the amount depending on the
Quantity of plaster required) and powdered plaster sifted into
the water. When the sifted plaster thus piled up reaches the
surface of the water, an equal amount of asbestos is added. Care
should be taken not to stir the water and plaster-of-paris before
adding the asbestos. After the addition of the asbestos the in-
gredients are stirred thoroughly. The asbestos is used in pulver-
ized form. A small amount of plaster should be poured on the
pattern, and a soft brush used to brush the surface of the pattern
over with the plaster before filling up the frame. This insures
covering the entire surface and prevents the formation of air
pockets.
Wooden and metal patterns should be covered with a coat of
oil before pouring the plaster. This facilitates the removal of
the pattern from the mold after the plaster has set. A mold of
this kind will set in from twenty to thirty minutes. The entire
matching surface of the drag is covered with a solution of soapy
water, which prevents the plaster forming the cope from adhering
to that of the drag.

Plaster-of-Paris. Plaster-of-paris is a calcined gypsum from

which the water has been driven off by heat. Plaster-of-paris,
when diluted with water into a thin paste, sets rapidly, and at
the instant of setting, it expands or increases in bulk. This ma*
terial is, therefore, used for making casts of statuary, etc., as it
fills the forms perfectly. It is also used as a pattern material.
Plaster-of-paris sets in from three to six minutes, but if, for any
reason, it is desired to keep the mass plastic for a longer period,
this may be done by adding a drop of glue to a five-gallon mix-
ture. This will keep the plaster-of-paris soft for a couple of
hours. Citric acid will also delay the setting of plaster-of-paris
for several hours. One ounce of citric acid will delay the setting
of one hundred pounds of plaster-of-paris for two or three hours.
The acid is dissolved in water before being mixed with the
plaster. Plaster-of-paris, when mixed with cold water, has an
expansion of about 1/16 inch to the foot when hardening. If this
expansion is undesirable, it may be mixed with warm water or
lime water, in which case the expansion is negligible. When
mixing plaster-of-paris, water should not be poured on the
plaster, but the plaster should be sprinkled into
the required
amount of water until it sets as a powder upon the surface of the
water. Then it should be stirred quickly by hand until the mass
attains the consistency of heavy cream, when it is ready for use.

Plasticalk. A plastic compound taking the place of putty

and
similar substances, which does not dry, harden, crack, or shrink
P-966
with age, but retains its plasticity and adhesiveness indefinitely.
It is unaffected by water and humidity and adheres strongly to
the substances that it joins. Used for cementing glass to glass,
metal, or wood; for calking crevices; and for making joints of
various kinds. Especially useful in the marine field, for refriger-
ator show-cases, etc.

Plastic Bronze. Plastic bronze is an alloy containing 69 per

cent of copper, 10 per cent of tin, and 21 per cent of lead. This
alloy may be used as a bearing metal.

Plastics. Synthetic plastics of various kinds are now a very

important engineering material and are used for numerous
structural parts in many lines of manufacture. The advantages
obtainable with plastic materials may be divided into two groups.
The consumer advantages include light weight (half the weight
of aluminum); a chip-proof, scuff-proof luster; non-resonance;
non-conductance of electricity; pleasing-to-touch surface; and
resistance to peeling, checking, moisture, heat, acids, alkalies,
and greases. The engineering advantages are self-insulation;
lower shipping weight; elimination of grinding, spraying, and
baking operations; reduction of finish rejections and damage to
finish in shipping; and when the quantities are sizable, produc-
tion economy all of which may result in lower costs. In many
instances, there are both lower production costs and convincing
sales arguments.
In the use of plastics, it is important to select material that
is adapted to a given application and the manufacturers should
be consulted. To show some of the varieties of phenolic molding
materials available, the major groupings of one supplier are
listed:
General Purpose Closure Type
Non-bleeding Moisture-resistant
Heat-resistant High Dielectric
Extrusion Type Acid-, Alkali-resistant
High Impact Friction-resistant
Arc-resistant Sanding, Buffing Type
Synthetic plastic materials are now being used in almost every
type of industry for one purpose or another. They are available
in practically all colors and for almost all purposes where metal
can be used, except where a very high degree of strength is re-
quired. They are lighter in weight than any common metals and
are sufficiently hard to take the place of metal parts for most
purposes. Transparent, translucent and opaque materials are
available. Another important development in the field of syn-
thetic plastics is the greatly increased use of bar stock for the
production of a wide variety of objects by lathes and automatic
 967 -P

screw machines. Synthetic plastics are made in the form of

rods, tubes, sheets, and castings.
Plastics are usually divided into two general classes. The
"thermo-setting" or "thermo-reactive" plastics undergo a chem-
ical change when heated to the curing temperature in the mold.
This change usually results in permanent hardening and in mak-
ing the material infusible and insoluble. It is, therefore, irre-
versible. The "thermo-plastic" plastics do not undergo a chem-
ical change when molded. They are merely softened by the ap-
plication of heat and solidify again when cooled below a certain
temperature. Moldings made from this type of material can be
remolded again when heated.

Plastics, Properties. The relative values of some of the more

important plastic materials in terms of various properties are
indicated by the following numbers. For each property No. 1
represents first choice, No. 2 represents second choice and so on.
This information has been obtained from the Bakelite Corpora-
tion.
Toughness (Impact Strength): 1. Aceto-Butyrate; 2. Shock-

Resistant Phenolic; 3. Ethyl-Cellulose; 4. Cellulose-Acetate;

5. Vinyl; 6. Methyl-Methacrylate; 7. Polystyrene, Transparent

Phenolic; 8. Low-Loss Phenolic; 9. Urea; 10. General Purpose

Phenolic, Heat-Resistant Phenolic; 11. Acid and Alkali-Resistant
Phenolic.
Flexural Strength: 1. Urea, Transparent Phenolic: Vinyl (No
2. Ethyl-
Filler), Methyl-Methacrylate, Shock-Resistant Phenolic;
Cellulose; 3. General Purpose Phenolic, Low-Loss Phenolic; 4.

5. Aceto-Butyrate; 6. Cel-
Heat-Resistant Phenolic, Polystyrene;
lulose-Acetate, Acid and Alkali-Resistant Phenolic.
Tensile Strength: 1. Urea; 2. Vinyl (No FiUer) ; 3.
General

Purpose Phenolic, Transparent Phenolic; 4. Methyl-Methacrylate;

7. Low-Loss
5 Shock-Resistant Phenolic; 6. Ethyl-Cellulose;
Polystyrene; 8. Heat-Resistant Phenolic, Acid and
Phenolic,
10. Aceto-
Alkali-Resistant Phenolic; 9. Cellulose-Acetate ;
Butyrate.
Cold Flow (Relative per cent decrease in height of %-inch cube
in 24 hours under load of 1,000 pounds and at 120 degrees
2. Vinyl;
Fahrenheit): 1. Phenolic (AH Types Applicable), Urea;
5. Cellulose-Acetate.
3. Polystyrene; 4. Methyl-Methacrylate;
Heat Resistance (Highest Temperature for Use): 1. Heat-
3. Shock-
Resistant Phenolic; 2. General Purpose Phenolic;
Resistant Phenolic, Transparent Phenolic, Low-Loss
Phenolic,
4. Aceto-Butyrate; 5. Cellu-
Acid and Alkali-Resistant Phenolic;
6. Polystyrene; 7. Urea; 8. Vinyl;
iose-Acetate, Ethyl-Cellulose;
9. Methyl-Methacrylate.
P-968
Heat Conduction (Thermal Conductivity): The following ma-
terials are listed inorder from poorest to best: 1. Polystyrene:
2, General Purpose Phenolic, Transparent Phenolic, Acid and
Alkali-Resistant Phenolic, Vinyl, Methyl-Methacrylate; 3. Shock-
Resistant Phenolic; 4. Cellulose-Acetate, Ethyl-Cellulose; 5. Urea;
6.Aceto-Butyrate; 7. Heat-Resistant Phenolic, Low-Loss Phenolic.
Flammability (Inverse ratio of the time a piece continues to
burn after removal from gas flame) ; 1. Heat-Resistant Phenolic,
Low-Loss Phenolic; 2. Acid and Alkali-Resistant Phenolic, Trans-
parent Phenolic; 8. General Purpose Phenolic; 4. Shock-Resistant
Phenolic; 5. Urea; 6. Polystyrene, Aceto-Butyrate, Cellulose-
Acetate, Ethyl-Cellulose, Vinyl, Methyl-Methacrylate.
Water Absorption (Immersion A.S.T.M.) The following mate-
:

from lowest to highest: 1. Polystyrene;

rials are listed in order
2. Vinyl; 3. Heat-Resistant Phenolic, Low-Loss Phenolic; 4.

Transparent Phenolic, Acid and Alkali-Resistant Phenolic; 5.

Methyl-Methacrylate; 6. General Purpose Phenolic; 7. Shock-
Resistant Phenolic; 8. Aceto-Butyrate; 9. Urea; 10. Ethyl-Cel-
lulose; 11. Cellulose-Acetate.
Acid Resistance: 1. (Excellent for both weak and strong acids)
Polystyrene, Vinyl; 2. (Very good for weak acids and good for
strong acids which are not oxidizing) Acid and Alkali-Resistant
Phenolic, Transparent Phenolic, Methyl-Methacrylate; 3. (Fair
to weak acids and good to strong acids which are not oxidizing)
General Purpose Phenolic; 4. (Fair to weak acids and poor to
strong acids) Heat-Resistant Phenolic, Shock-Resistant Phenolic,
Urea, Cellulose-Acetate, Ethyl-Cellulose, Aceto-Butyrate.
Solvent Resistance: 1. Phenolics: All Types (Bleeding of color
only encountered on some), Urea; 2. Vinyls, Polystyrene; 3.
Methyl-Methacrylate, Cellulose-Acetate, Ethyl-Cellulose.
Caustic Resistance: 1. (Excellent for weak and strong caustics)
Polystyrene; 2. (Very good for weak and strong caustics) Vinyl,
Methyl-Methacrylate, Ethyl-Cellulose; 3. (Very good for weak
and poor for strong caustics) Acid and Alkali-Resistant Phenolic,
Transparent Phenolic; 4. (Fair for weak and poor for strong
caustics) Urea, Aceto-Butyrate, General Purpose Phenolic, Low-
Loss Phenolic, Heat-Resistant Phenolic; 5. (Fair for weak and
rery poor for strong caustics) Shock-Resistant Phenolic; 6. Cel-
lulose-Acetate.
Dimensional Change after Molding: The following materials
are listed in order from lowest to highest. 1. Heat-Resistant
Phenolic; 2. Low-Loss Phenolic; 3. Polystyrene, Vinyl; 4. Gen-
eral Purpose Phenolic; 5. Acid and Alkali-Resistant Phenolic,
Transparent Phenolic; 6. Shock-Resistant Phenolic; 7. Urea; 8.
Ethyl-Cellulose, Methyl-Methacrylate, Aceto-Butyrate; 9. Cellu-
lose-Acetate.
 969 -P

Weight per Unit Volume: The following materials are listed

in order from lightest to heaviest 1. Polystyrene; 2. Ethyl-Cel-
lulose; 3. Methyl-Methacrylate; 4. Aceto-Butyrate; 5. Acid and
Alkali-Resistant Phenolic; 6. Transparent Phenolic; 7. Cellulose-
Acetate; 8, General Purpose Phenolic; 9. Vinyl; 10. Shock-
Resistant Phenolic; 11. Urea; 12. Low-Loss Phenolic; 13. Eeat-
Resistant Phenolic.
Hardness (Brinell): 1. Urea; 2. Heat-Resistant Phenolic;
3. Low-Loss Phenolic; 4. Acid and Alkali-Resistant Phenolic,
Transparent Phenolic; 5. General Purpose Phenolic, Shock-
Resistant Phenolic; 6. Polystyrene; 7. Methyl-Methacrylate,
Vinyl; 8. Aceto-Butyrate, Ethyl-Cellulose; 9. Cellulose-Acetate.
Dielectric Strength (A.S.T.M. y^-inch Instantaneous) : 1. Urea,
Ethyl-Cellulose, Vinyl; 2. Polystyrene, Methyl-Methacrylate; 3.
Low-Loss Phenolic; 4. General Purpose Phenolic; 5. Cellulose-
Acetate; 6. Transparent Phenolic; 7. Acid and Alkali-Eesistant
Phenolic; 8. Heat-Resistant Phenolic, Shock-Resistant Phenolic.
Relative Loss Factor: The following materials are listed in
order from lowest loss to highest loss. 1. Polystyrene; 2. Ethyl-
Cellulose; 3. Aceto-Butyrate; 4. Low-Loss Phenolic; 5. Methyl-
Methacrylate; 6. Vinyl; 7. Transparent Phenolic; 8. Cellulose-
Acetate; 9. Urea; 10. General Purpose Phenolic.
Plastic Wood. A material known as plastic wood is so called
because it is sufficiently plastic to be molded readily with the
fingers andit may be used for filling cracks, holes or other de-
fects. hardens quickly and then can be carved, planed, sand-
It
papered, or turned in a lathe the same as ordinary wood. This
material is transported and sold in cans. The manufacturers
claim it will adhere to metal, tile, cloth and glass, as well as to
wooden surfaces, and that nails and screws will not split it. It
may be painted, stained or varnished and has the general char-
acteristics of wood, except that it has no grain. Plastic wood
may also be used for filling defects in castings, provided im-
provement in appearance is the only requirement.
Plate Gage. See Gages for Sheet Metals.
Platelustre. A baking enamel by means of which any polished
metal can be made to resemble brass, aluminum, or steel. Flat
stock finished with the enamel can be formed after baking. The
enamel can be applied to polished metal by spraying or roller-
coating. Especially suitable for use in the manufacture of light-
ing fixtures, compacts, novelties, and other products on which a
brilliant metallic finish is desirable.

Platen. This is a name frequently applied to the table of a

planer and to the work-holding tables of hydraulic presses, test-
ing machines and certain other classes of mechanical equipment.
P-970
Platine. The white-metal alloy platine is composed of 43 per
cent of copper and 57 per cent of zinc.

Plating, Chromium. See Chromium Plating.

Platinite. A nickel steel containing 42 per cent of nickel

has the same coefficient of expansion as glass. It is known as
platinite, because the only other metal that has this coefficient of
expansion is platinum. Both platinum and platinite have been
employed in the incandescent lamp for the connecting wire fused
into the glass to establish an electric connection between the in-
side and outside of the bulb. Platinite is used for scientific in-
struments or for standards of length, because of its peculiar
quality of being practically non-expansive when heated to high
temperatures.
Platinoid. Platinoid is an alloy containing 60 per cent of cop-
per, 14 per cent of nickel,24 per cent of zinc, and 2 per cent of
tungsten. The name is derived from the fact that it possesses
some of the properties of a platinum alloy.
Platinum. Platinum is a grayish-white metal which is very
malleable and ductile. This is one of the heavier metals, having
a specific gravity varying from 20.85 to 22.6, according to the
treatment it has received. It melts at a temperature of 1755 de-
grees C. (3190 degrees P.). Its linear expansion per unit length,
per degree F., equals 0.00000479. Its electrical conductivity
(silver c= 100) is about 14.4. Its mean specific heat, from 32 to
212 degrees F., is 0.0323. Its latent heat of fusion is 27.18
calories. The atomic weight is 195.2.

Plioform. Thermoplastic material which molds into relatively

hard forms rapidly and without vulcanizing. Obtainable in al-
most any color, except very light shades. Lends itself to the
production of many decorative effects plain, variegated, or
mottled. Because of its comparatively low cost, is suitable wher-
ever decorative effects are desired.

Plioweld. A rubber lining material, about 3/16 inch thick,

which provides effective protection against most corrosive liquids,
hot and cold; does not oxidize nor crack or buckle under condi-
tions of alternate drying and wetting. Used for the protection
of steel, aluminum, lead, or wooden tanks. A special adhesive
derived from rubber actually "welds" the resilient rubber to the
tank walls during the process of vulcanization.

Plow Bolt. This is a general name for a number of tyres of

boltsemployed in the making of plows and cultivators. They are
generally short bolts with a countersunk head and provided with
a square nut.
 971 -P
Plow Steel. The term "plow steel" is a commercial trade name
applied to a high grade open-hearth steel used in maldng wire
rope. The name originated in England because of the application
of a strong grade of steel wire to ropes used in the mechanical
operation of plows.
Plow-Steel Wire. Plow-steel wire is a special kind of very
high-grade steel wire having an ultimate strength varying from
200,000 to 350,000 pounds per square inch, according to the diam-
eter of the wire. For wire 0.093 inch in diameter, the tensile
strength has been found to be as high as 345,000 pounds per
square inch, whereas, for wire 0.191 inch in diameter, the
strength is about 200,000 pounds per square inch. The elongation
is only about 1 per cent. The composition of the wire is about
as follows: Carbon, 0.83 per cent; manganese, 0.59 per cent;
silicon, 0.14 per cent; sulphur, 0.01 per cent; phosphorus, nil;
copper, 0.03 per cent.

Plug Fuse. The most common type of fuse is the plug fuse
which is generally used to provide protection against overloading
of 110- to 125-volt lighting circuits. These fuses are very com-
pact and consist of a cylindrical porcelain or composition body
in which the fuse strip is placed. They fit into lamp-type recep-
tacles in a porcelain cutout base. Most types are non-renewable,
but at least one design provides for renewed use by switching a
succession of new fusible elements into the circuit. They are
limited to a 250-volt, 30-ampere rating.

Plug Switches. In a plug switch, the stationary contacts are

known as "receptacles" and the bridging member as the "plug."
Plug switches may be arranged in either of two ways ; the recep-
tacles may be placed one back of the other and the circuit com-
pleted by inserting the plug so that it will pass through the first
receptacle and into the second; or the receptacles may be placed
side by side, and two plugs, connected at their outer ends, inserted
to complete the circuit. There are many forms of plug switches,
each designed to meet certain conditions.
also commonly known as "black lead,"
Plumbago. Plumbago,
is a frequently applied to a certain quality of graphite.
name
Plumbago is used in the foundry, for the "blackening" of molds,
and mixed with tallow and wax as a lubricant for driving ropes.
The main supply of plumbago imported into the United States
comes from Ceylon.
Plunge-Cut Grinding. This term has been applied
to grinding
which is done by directly feeding into the work a wheel, the face
of which is sufficiently wide to cover the entire surface being
ground. In the case of parts with surfaces longer than the
maximum possible wheel face, the grinding is done by in-feeding
P-972
along the work at successive intervals, the face of the wheel
overlapping slightly each previous cut, until the grinding of the
entire length has been done, after which the work is rapidly
moved past the wheel to complete it. This method is adapted to
the simultaneous grinding of duplicate parts that can be placed
in a gang on a mandrel or other convenient chucking device, such
as piston rings, ball-bearing cups, roller-bearing cups, collars,
and bushings. Single pieces which lend themselves to the appli-
cation of a wide wheel are also ground in quantity by this method,
such as, for example, transmission shafts, axle shafts, propeller
shafts, armature shafts, spindles, pistons, etc.

Pluramelt. The name applied to a steel-making process which

makes it possible to produce a single ingot consisting of a low-
cost base metal as the chief material and a corrosion-resistant
coating of stainless steel or a covering of some other metal. The
results are accomplished by means of a special electric arc melt-
ing furnace, in which, briefly, all the special-composition mate-
rial and the surface of the low-cost material are melted and
integrally joined as part of the operation. The furnace is
radically different from the conventional type of electric furnace
in that the functions of steel making and of ingot mold are com-
bined to produce Pluramelt ingots.
Pneumatic Chuck. This is an air operated chuck used on
some turret lathes for holding and rotating work to be machined.
The pneumatic operation permits closing and opening of the
chuck jaws rapidly.
Pneumatic Hammers. The pneumatic hammer is a combina-
tion of a cylinder, a reciprocating plunger or piston, a valve for
automatically controlling the movements of the plunger, and a
throttle valve for regulating the flow of air to the hammer from
the supply pipe. The first practical pneumatic hammer was de-
veloped by Boyer of St. Louis, who, in 1883, patented a chipping
machine having a handle or grip and a hand-controlled throttle.
Pneumatic Tire. The pneumatic tire was patented in Eng-
land by R. W. Thomson in 1845. It was not intended originally
for the bicycle, but such application was made in 1889 by Dunlop,
as covered by a United States patent granted in 1890.

Poisson's Ratio. If a square bar is stressed in a testing ma-

chine in the direction of its length, so that the length increases,
there is a contraction in each opposite direction, which produces
a decrease in the thickness of the bar. The ratio between the
contraction at right angles to a stress and the direct extension
is called Poisson's ratio. For ordinary kinds of steel this has a
value of about 0.3. If the direct stress is a compressive stress,
so as to cause decrease of length in the direction of the stress,
 973 -P
then there wiH be an expansion in each direction at right angles
equal to 0.3 times the compression.
Polar Moment of inertia. The polar moment of inertia of a
surface is the moment of inertia with respect to an axis through
the center of gravity at right angles to the plane of the surface,
and equals the sum of two moments of inertia taken with respect
to two gravity axes in the plane of the surface at right angles
to each other. The polar section modulus equals, for circular
sections, the polar moment of inertia divided by the distance
from the center of gravity to the most remote fiber. This method
may also be applied with fair accuracy to sections that are nearly
circular. For other cross-sections, the polar moment of inertia
has been obtained in the form of empirical formulas by means
of experiments.
Polar Section Modulus. The polar section modulus is also
known as the section modulus of torsion. See Polar Moment of
Inertia,

Polarization. Polarization is a phenomenon which occurs on

the passage of a current between two electrodes immersed in an
electrolyte, and its effect is to oppose the flow of current by
creating a counter-electromotive force. The discharge voltage
is

equal to the cell potential, as it would be without external load,

minus internal resistance drop, minus the polarized counter-
electromotive force. The charging voltage is equal to the cell
resistance drop,
potential (without external load), plus internal
plus the polarized counter-electromotive force.
In the case of dry cells, polarization is commonly understood
to mean the formation of a layer of hydrogen at the carbon
electrode which takes place when the circuit is closed. This layer
of hydrogen practically constitutes a new pole in place of the car-
bon electrode but it has no charge since this is delivered to the
carbon electrode when it comes in contact with it. As polarization
its charge by deliver-
develops, the zinc electrode gradually loses
the carbon through the external circuit. Hence,
ing it to pole
covers
there comes a time when the hydrogen layer completely
there ceases to be any potential difference
the carbon electrode,
between the zinc and copper poles and the flow of current
ceases.

See also Depolarizer.

Polaroid. A transparent material similar to irlass,
known as
"Polaroid," is used the same as glass
but "polarizes" light and
makes it possible to obtain remarkable results. For example,
when Polaroid is used in the headlights of automobiles, as
well
an car, there is no glare
as in the windshield of approaching
from the fully turned on headlights. By the use of this
new
three-dimensional movies. When
"glass" it is possible to produce
P-974
used in connection with color photography, the actors virtually
come to life, moving no longer merely across a screen, but ap-
parently on a stage for which the outline of the screen seems to
form a frame. To get this effect, the pictures must be viewed
through spectacles provided with Polaroid. By this means, colors
become realistic and objects stand out as if they were actually
placed on a stage.
In engineering, this new polarized glass has an important func-
tion. It enables models made from transparent materials, such
as synthetic plastics, to be used to examine the stresses in engi-
neering structures, or, in fact, in all kinds of industrial products;
furthermore, products transparent in themselves, like glassware,
when viewed through Polaroid, will portray strains left by the
manufacturing processes through the brilliant colors that the
strained portions assume. Colorless cellophane may be given
brilliant colors of every hue for display signs, stage decoration,
architectural ornaments, and other purposes, simply by placing
clear colorless cellophane between two sheets of the new material.
By rotating one of the Polaroid plates, the colors are made to con-
stantly change. Colorless sun glasses made of Polaroid will elim-
inate the glare of the sun, leaving the view unchanged. This
material is adapted to many additional applications in science
and industry.

Pole Lathe. The pole lathe, which was a primitive form, con-
sisted of two poppets supported on a wooden bed, and suspended
from the ceiling was a wooden spring-pole, to the free end of
which was attached a strong cord. This cord was wound once
around the piece to be turned, and the loose end was carried down
to the floor where it was formed into a loop for the workman's
foot. In improved forms of the pole lathe, a rude treadle was
provided instead of the loop. When the foot was depressed, the
work-piece was turned by the cord against the cutting tool, the
spring-pole depressing at the same time. With the upward lift
of the foot, the spring-pole raised the cord and turned the work
in the opposite direction. The pole lathe had the serious objec-
tion that the work did not turn continuously, but was turned
alternately in opposite direction. A very high degree of skill
was required to do satisfactory work, as the turning tool had to
be lifted the moment the work began to turn backwards, and had
again to be brought to the cutting position when the reverse
movement began ; hence, the application later of a driving wheel
connected by a cord to drive the work continuously in one direc-
tion. The driving wheel, which was turned by a crank, was
mounted on a separate stand or base placed to one side of the
lathe, and was usually provided with three grooves. This type
 975 -P
of machine required two workmen, one to turn the crank and the
other to handle the cutting tool.

Polishing. In general polishing is an operation performed by

using any wheel that has a polishing abrasive glued to its face,
regardless of whether the wheel is made from leather, canvas,
or some other material. The term polishing embraces everything
from the "flexible-grinding" operations performed on rough
forgings such as axes and picks, and the removal of flash from
table knives and forks, to the production of the brightest luster,
such as is given to surgical instruments, high quality scissors,
and other kinds of general hardware. The former class of work,
which consists of grinding away metal preliminary to the luster
producing process, has been called "flexible grinding." This term
is also applied to other operations in which a flexible polishing
wheel removes metal preparatory to plating, painting or enamel-
ing the surface. In contradistinction to flexible grinding is the
process by which the surface of metals is refined by a number of
operations until it has been reduced to a degree of smoothness
that is known as a mirror finish; that is, a finish such that the
light is refracted from the surface as in a mirror. But in gen-
eral, in the trade, polishing is the term used to cover all this work
of refining metal surfaces. Polishing, however, does not include
buffing which is done with doth wheels to which the abrasive is
applied loosely instead of imbedding it in glue. See Buffing.
Polishing wheel speeds vary somewhat for different kinds of
work, but ordinarily the speed at the periphery of the wheel
ranges from 6000 to 7500 feet per minute. Loose muslin wheels
of the kind used for buffing often run at from 8000 to 10,000 feet
per minute.

Polishing or Buffing Machines. The type of machine that

is generally used for polishing and buffing operations is usually
known either as a polishing or buffing lathe, machine, stand, or
head. It is very simple in construction and consists simply of a
column and a spindle which is mounted in suitable bearings and
provided with means for holding the polishing or buffing wheels.
This spindle is rotated very rapidly when the machine is in use,
and the wheels are held either between the collars shown or on
a tapering screw at the end of the spindle.
Some polishing machines are equipped with polishing belts.
The belts used on machines of this type may be of cotton, felt,
leather, or abrasive cloth. When plain cloth or leather belts are
used, they are prepared for polishing by first applying a coat of
glue and then a suitable abrasive to the working surface.
Ma-
chines of the belt or band type are sometimes provided with a
flat supporting plate back of the point where the work is applied
P-976
to the belt, so that the machine is adapted for polishing flat sur-
faces.
Some machines are designed to automatically maintain contact
between the work and the polishing or buffing wheel so that the
entire surface is finished without hand manipulation. Circular
parts rotate while in contact with the wheel and a reciprocating
device may be used to provide a traversing movement. With
square, hexagonal, oval, or unsymmetrical parts, the distance
from the center of the work to points along the outside varies
considerably, and so a special mechanism must be employed to
change the distance between the center of the buffing wheel and
the center of the work as the work is revolved. Some machines
which automatically present the work to the wheel have multiple-
spindle work-heads. With such a machine, the operator loads and
removes the work while contact of the work and buffing wheel is
made automatically by the intermittent indexing of the work-
head.
One type of automatic polishing machine intended for fairly
flatparts has a feed belt which carries the parts under a series
of polishing wheels. Pieces up to several inches in thickness may
be handled, and the machine is built in various widths to accom-
modate pieces up to about 20 inches wide. Contact between the
work and the polishing wheels is maintained by a micrometer
adjustment. The machine is built in units, each of which carries
an independently operated polishing wheel that is driven by an
individual motor. Any number of units may be used in one bat-
tery to suit the particular polishing process or desired rate of
production.

Polygons. A polygon is a plane geometrical figure bounded

by a number of straight sides. Strictly speaking, triangles and
figures having four sides are polygons, but the term is more gen-
erally applied to figures having more than four sides. If all the
sides are of equal length and the angles between the sides are
equal, the figure is called a regular polygon.
A circle may be drawn so that it passes through all the corners
of a regular polygon; such a circle is said to be circumscribed
about the polygon. A smaller circle drawn tangent to the sides
of the polygon, is said to be inscribed in the polygon. The
centers of the circumscribed and inscribed circles are located at
the same point. If lines are drawn from this point to the
corners it will be found that the polygon is divided into a num-
ber of triangles of equal size and shape. An angle, designated
by the Greek letter a, equal to one-half the angle between any
two adjacent lines meeting at this center point is used in the
general formulas which follow. These formulas apply to all regu-
lar polygons :
 977-P
A = N X cot- a X S = N
2
.
XT
X sin a X cos a X R*
= N X tan a X r 3

S r
2 sin a cos a
S = 2R X sin a = 2r X tan a
= SX cot
= RD X
vx a
r cos a
t

where AT"= number of sides; S = length of a side; R = radius of

circumscribed circle; r = radius of inscribed circle; A = area of
polygon; and a = 180 H- N.

Polyphase Circuit. By definition, a polyphase circuit is a

group of associated current paths (usually interconnected) which
is energized by a set of alternating electromotive forces, all of
which have the same period but which differ in phase.
Two-phase circuits have two single-phase electromotive forces
which have a 90-degree difference in phase. The three-wire, two-
phase circuit has two separate outgoing wires but a common re-
turn wire. The voltage between outside wires is 41 per cent
greater than that between either outside wire and the return
wire, while the current in the return wire is 41 per cent greater
than that in either outside wire. The four-wire, two-phase cir-
cuit has two pairs of conductors, the potential differences between
each, pair being displaced from each other by a phase difference
of 90 degrees. A
two-phase, five-wire circuit comprises five con-
ductors, four of which are connected as in a four-wire, two-phase
system, the fifth being connected to the neutral points of each
phase and is usually grounded.
Three-phase circuits have three electromotive forces which dif-
fer in phase by 120 degrees. There are three-, four-, and six-
wire three-phase circuits, the three-wire being the most exten-
sively used.
Six-phase circuits are used for substation inside connection.
Pood. A Russian measure of weight, equal to 16.38 kilograms
or 36.12 pounds avoirdupois.

Poppet Valve. The term "poppet valve" is applied to a valve

having, ordinarily, a conical surface which engages a conical seat
of corresponding angle, thus forming a tight joint by metal-to-
metal contact. The valve is usually made of steel or brass and
the seat of cast-iron. The nominal valve diameter equals the
port diameter. Poppet valves and valve seats should have an in-
cluded angle of 90 degrees, the valve seat and corresponding
bearing surface on the valve inclining 45 degrees from the axis
or center line.
P-978
Poppet Valve Lift. Conical-seated poppet valves require a lift
varying from one-fifth to one-fourth greater than corresponding
flat-seated valves. Assume that D equals the minimum diameter
of the valve seat; d equals diameter of pipe to which valve open-
ing must correspond and r equals D -^- d. Then the left may be
;

determined as follows: Flat-seated Valves: If r =

1, the lift c=
D X 0.25; if r *= 1.25, lift =
D X 0.160; if r =, 1.5, lift t=
D X 0.111; if r =
2, lift ===== D X 0.162; if r =
2.5, lift *=
D X Cone-seated Valves of 45-Degree Angle: If r
0.040. 1, =
lift = D X
0.307; if r =
1.25, lift D = X
0.205; if r *=- 1.5,
lift *= D X
0.146; if r =
2, lift D =
0.084; if rX 2.5, lift^
= D X
0.055. Since flat-seated valves generally introduce a
certain amount of wire drawing of the incoming charge, a slight
increase over the theoretically correct lift should be provided.
This allowance seldom exceeds 25 per cent of the theoretical lift.
Porcelain. Porcelain is an insulating material composed of
kaolin, ball clay, flint and feldspar. The characteristics that give
porcelain its value to the electrical industry are as follows : High
insulating value; a vitrified structure which resists the entrance
of water or moisture; refractoriness; resistance to oils and
vapors ; freedom from tendency to warp, weaken or deteriorate in
any way with age or severe service conditions; attractive appear-
ance; ease of forming into various intricate shapes which are
made permanent by firing; mechanical strength, with the excep-
tion of resistance to impact; and comparative cheapness.
So called wet process porcelain is non-porous and usually pro-
vided with a glazed surface. It is used for outdoor high-voltage
insulators.
So called porous and not generally suit-
dry process porcelain is
able for out-of-door or high voltage insulating use. It is used in
the manufacture of knobs, tubes and cleats, bases for lamp re-
ceptacles and as a refractory electrical insulation.
Port- A port as the term is applied to mechanical devices, is a
passageway as in a cylinder or valve. In a steam engine or air
compressor, the ports are the openings for the inlet or exhaust
of the steam or air. The port for the inlet in a steam engine is
known as the steam port and that for the outlet as the exhaust
port. In an air compressor, the port for the inlet is known as
the inlet port and the port for the outlet as the discharge port.

Portable Drills. See Drills, Portable Air-driven; and Drills,

Portable Electric.
Portland Cement. Portland cement is a chemical compound
of lime and silica and lime and alumina, which combines with
water when mixed with it, forming substances of great mechan-
ical strength capable of adhering firmly to stone and sand and.
 979-P
hence, forming a valuable building material. The specific gravity
is about 8.1. A satisfactory Portland cement when mixed with
water will not develop an initial set in less than thirty minutes,
and will not develop a hard set in less than an hour, but it must
set hard in less than ten hours.

Positive Clutch. This is a clutch for transmitting power be-

tween two machine members, the driving and driven members of
which are connected by the engagement of interlocking teeth or
projecting lugs, so that there is no slippage, the power being
transmitted in a positive manner. This type of clutch is em-
ployed when a sudden starting action is not objectionable, and
when the inertia of the driven parts is relatively small. The teeth
of positve clutches are made in a number of different shapes, ac-
cording to the service for which they are required.
Positive Prints. Processes have been developed for obtaining
positive prints directly from the positive originals in reproducing
tracings. These positive prints may have black, blue or dark red
lines on a white background. The object in obtaining positive
prints is to make reading and checking easier and in addition the
white background facilitates the writing of notes.
The Bruning BW Process: With this process a black and white
positive print is obtained directly from a positive original or
without the use of a negative. The first step consists in exposing
the BW paper and the original tracing in a printing machine the
same as in making an ordinary blueprint. The exposed paper is
then developed by applying a thin film of developing solution.
When the print emerges from the machine or attachment, it is a
tully developed black and white positive and is ready for use.
The BW paper is made especially for this process.
Ozalid White Printing Paper: This process produces dark lines
on a white background but by means of dry development or with-
out the use of developing liquids. A heater vaporizes an am-
monia solution, thus causing ammonia vapors to rise. The sen-
sitized print material is developed by these vapors.
Transparent Duplicates: Ozalid transparent duplicates, from
which an unlimited number of subsequent prints can be repro-
duced, are made in the same manner as standard ozalid working
prints. Additions or changes may be made readily on these
transparent duplicates using either pencil or ink. A transparent
duplicate thus revised constitutes a new original that is easily
obtained. Furthermore, white prints incorporating such revision
or changes may be obtained from the altered transparent print
even though the original drawing remains unchanged.
Positive Transmissions. Any type of drive or transmission
that is unyielding and dependent upon the positive contact of
P-980
intermeshing teeth or other parts, rather than frictional resist-
ance, is classed as positive. Intermeshing gears represent a pos-
itive drive, whereas friction gearing is an example of a trans-
mission that is not positive. In general, slippage between driving
and driven members of a positive drive could not occur without
breakage or possibly excessive distortion or displacement of the
driving and driven members. On the contrary, any transmis-
sion that is not positive might slip (and without injury to the
mechanism) whenever the load exceeds the frictional resistance
between driving and driven surfaces. Most mechanisms are pos-
itive either because the power to be transmitted would be ex-
cessive for a non-positive drive or because a definite relation must
be maintained between the driving and driven members. In many
cases, a positive drive is needed to meet both of these require-
ments.

Positron. See Electron Theory.

Pot Annealing Furnace. This is a furnace used, in connec-

tion with the production of cold-rolled sheet steel, for annealing
the coils of sheet metal. The coils are placed in clay pots and
packed with fine iron borings, after which a cover is put on the
pot and the joints sealed with fireclay. The pot with the steel is
then heated in the furnace for about six hours, after which it is
withdrawn and allowed to stand for sufficient length of time to
become quite cool before the cover is taken off*
Potassium. Potassium is a metallic chemical element, the
symbol of which is K, and the atomic weight, 39.10. Pure potas-
sium is a white metal of silvery appearance, having a slightly
bluish tint. It combines rapidly with the oxygen in the air, and
is at once covered with a film of oxide, if exposed to the at-
mosphere. Absolutely dry oxygen, however, has no action upon
it. At a temperature below 32 degrees F., the metal is fairly hard

and brittle, but at ordinary room temperature it is so soft that

it can be cut with a knife. Its specific gravity is 0.87 (its weight
per cubic inch being 0.031 pound) It is the lightest metal known,
.

with the exception of lithium. It melts at a temperature of 62

degrees C. (144 degrees F.), and boils at a temperature of 667
degrees C. (1233 degrees F,). Its specific heat is 0.166 at 32
degrees F., and its electrical conductivity (silver=100) is 19.62.
Potassium is the basis of all potash salts or compounds. Com-
bined with oxygen, it forms potassium oxide (K2 0), commonly
known as "potash."
Potassium Cyanide. See Cyanide.
Potential Energy. Potential or stored energy may be defined
as stored-up capacity for performing work. It is measured in
 981 -P
the same units as work; thatis, in foot-pounds. Potential energy
is exemplified inthe case of a body of water stored in a reservoir,
which would be capable of doing work if released and applied to
a turbine. The measure of potential energy is obtained by mul-
tiplying the weight of the stored body by the distance through
which it would fall. Potential energy is used in distinction to
actual or kinetic energy, which is the energy of a moving body
and is capable of performing work against a retarding resistance.

Potentiometer. A potentiometer is an electrical instrument

used for the accurate measurement of currents, voltages, and
resistances. It does this by comparing or balancing an unknown
electromotive force or potential difference against a known elec-
tromotive force or potential difference, using a circuit or network
of accurately calibrated resistances, if a direct-current instru-
ment, and of inductances and capacitances as well, if an alter-
nating-current instrument.

Potentiometer Pyrometer. The type of pyrometer which has

a potentiometer differs from the millivoltmeter type in that the
indicating instrument operates upon a different principle. Instead
of utilizing the current to displace either a suspended or pivoted
part, the electromotive force of the thermo-couple is opposed by
an electromotive force of known value usually derived from a dry
cell contained in the instrument. When the balance between the
opposing forces is complete, a galvanometer is used to show that
no current is flowing, and then the electromotive force of the
thermo-couple is indicated directly by the position of a movable
contact. The potentiometer requires some outside source of cur-
rent,but it gives accurate readings and is not affected by resist-
ance changes in the thermo-couple circuit. The meter or indi-
cating instrument of a pyrometer, either of the millivoltmeter or
potentiometer types, may either be arranged to show the tem-
perature at any time by a graduated scale and pointer, or may be
designed to trace a record of temperature changes upon a chart,

Poundal. The expression "poundal" is sometimes used in con-

nection with calculations in mechanics. Many mechanical hand-
books, however, do not define it, because of its limited use. A
poundal is a unit of force, and is defined as that force which,
acting on a mass of one pound for one second, produces a velocity
of one foot per second. A
foot-poundal is a unit of energy equal
to the energy resulting when a force of one poundal acts through
a distance of one foot. In order to reduce foot-poundals to foot-
pounds, multiply the number of foot-poundals by 0.03108. Divid-
ing the number of foot-poundals by 82,16 (acceleration due to
gravity) will also give foot-pounds.
P-982
Pound-Foot Torque or turning moment, should be expressed
as pound-feet or pound-inches, instead of using the term foot-
pounds or inch-pounds. Since the foot-pound is the unit of work
and is used in horsepower calculations, it is considered preferable
to reverse it and use the term pound-foot to indicate torque or
turning moment. The reversal of these terms serves to distinguish
readily the two units of measurement the unit of work and the
unit of turning moment. The latter ordinarily is expressed as
pound-inches instead of pound-feet, because the dimensions of
shafts and other machine parts ordinarily are given in inches.
Pounds per Square Inch. The pressure of steam, air, water
or any gases or fluids is given ordinarily in relation to the square
inch. 1 pound per square inch = 144 pounds per square foot =
0.0703 kilogram per square centimeter = 2.31 feet of water at
62 F. S 27.7 inches of water at 62 F. = 2.042 inches of mer-
cury at 62 F. = 0.068 atmosphere.
Powder Metallurgy. Powder metallurgy may be defined as
the use of metal powders, with or without bonding agents, to
produce articles by the application of pressure and heat. The
method may be applied to single metals or to mixtures of two or
more to form a sintered alloy; further, it is possible to incorpo-
rate non-metallic powders if so desired. The pressing operation
may be carried out hot or cold. The sintering temperature is
usually well below the melting point of the metal or metals con-
cerned. The final product of powder metallurgy may be closely
similar to that produced by the ordinary methods of casting and
fabrication or it may have special features or properties unattain-
able by ordinary methods.
General Methods: There are two general methods of powder
metallurgy in use. These are: (a) Pressing of the powder at
room temperature, followed by sintering in a suitable atmosphere
at a temperature which is, in general, about two-thirds of the
melting point of the alloy, (b) Pressing of the powder at such
a high temperature that sintering takes place at the same time
as the pressing. The first is the more common method, since
with the second, high pressures may have to be applied to hot
metal powders in a controlled, non-oxidizing atmosphere, and this
involves complicated equipment.
Control of Composition: By the use of metal powders, alloy
compositions can be accurately controlled and bronzes and gun
metals, for example, can be produced with an accuracy and uni-
formity unattainable by foundry methods. Segregation and its
accompanying evils are entirely eliminated. Bi-metals such as
nickel-iron and tungsten-copper can be produced in bars, the
layers of which are perfectly welded together; the latter com-
bination could hardly be produced at all by ordinary methods.
 983 -P

Alloys having constituents that are widely different in melting:

point (and, therefore, cause difficulty in the foundry), can easily
be produced by powder metallurgy. In this class, the lead-copper
alloy which has such desirable bearing properties is important.
Special Mixtures: The possibility of introducing non-metallic
powders permits of producing materials with special character-
istics, as for example, the copper and graphite mixture used for
generator and motor brushes, and the well-known oilless bear-
ings, in which graphite is used in addition to copper and tin
powders.
Materials Having High Melting Points: Materials having a
high melting point, such as tungsten, molybdenum, and tantalum
are so refractory to ordinary processes that powder metallurgy
is practically the only method by which they can be made com-
mercially available, and makes possible the incorporation of the
thoria which gives the wire its "non-sag" characteristics when
used for filaments.
The various forms of hard-cutting materials of the cemented-
carbide type, owing to their high melting points and the neces-
sity of providing a plastic bond, can also be produced most ad-
vantageously by the powder method.
Controlled Porosity: It is possible by the control of particle
size, pressure, type of bond, and sintering temperature to pro-
duce material of controlled porosity. This may, for some applica-
tions, be highly desirable, as in the case of oilless bearings, where
the pores act as oil capillaries, or as minute oil reservoirs.
Highly porous articles can be made successfully by bonding the
powder with some foam-producing agent, which is destroyed by
the heat of sintering, leaving a metallic "foam" behind; such
material may be useful for filters, storage battery plates, and
other purposes.
Accurate Dimensions: The dimensions of sintered articles can
be held to close tolerances, since the dies for forming the powder
compress can be accurately made, and by careful control, the vol-
ume changes on sintering can be closely regulated. These already
close dimensions can be further improved by repressing and coin-
ing, so that the finished article is extremely accurate. Although
the first cost of the metallic powder is generally high, there is
practically no loss of material during the manufacturing cycle,
since the powder is accurately controlled by hopper feeds.

Power. Power, in mechanics, is the product of force by dis-

tance divided by time, or the performance of a given amount of
work in a given time. Power is measured in inch-pounds per
minute or second, foot-pounds per minute or second, etc. The
term power is frequently used by writers on mechanics to desig-
nate a force. In connection with the so-called mechanical powers
P-964
the lever, wheel and axle, wedge, screw, etc. the applied force
isfrequently spoken of as the power. This is, however, not strictly
correct, as power should always, in mechanics, be used in ac-
cordance with the definition given. Horsepower is the unit of
power adopted for engineering work, and equals 33,000 foot-
pounds per minute. See Horsepower.
Power and Heat Equivalents. In some engineering calcula-
tions, it is necessary to convert standard units into units of an-
other kind. For example, horsepower units may be changed into
electrical units, or into heat units, etc. The following power and
heat equivalents include the units in general use.
One horsepower-hour s= 0.746 kilowatt-hour = 1,980,000 foot-
pounds = 2545 B.T.U. (British thermal units) = 2.64
pounds of water evaporated at 212 F. = 17 pounds of water
raised from 62 to 212 F.
One kilowatt-hour = 1000 watt-hours = 1.34 horsepower-hour
=
2,655,200 foot-pounds = 3,600,000 joules = 3415 B.T.U.
=
3.54 pounds of water evaporated at 212 F. = 22.8 pounds
of water raised from 62 to 212 F.
.

One horsepower = 746 watts = 0.746 kilowatt t= 33,000 foot-

pounds per minute = 550 foot-pounds per second = 2545
B.T.U. per hour=42.4 B.T.U. per minute=0.71 B.T.U. per
second=2.64 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 F.
One kilowatt = 1000 watts == 1.34 horsepower = 2,655,200 foot*
pounds per hour <= 44,200 foot-pounds per minute e= 737
foot-pounds per second = 3415 B.T.U. per hour = 57 B.T.U.
per minute t== 0.95 B.T.U. per second = 3.54 pounds of watei
evaporated per hour at 212 F.
One watt &= 1 joule per second = 0.00134 horsepower s= 0.001
=
kilowatt 3.42 B.T.U. per hour t= 44.22 foot-pounds per
minute = 0.74 foot-pounds per second s= 0.0035 pound of
water evaporated per hour at 212 F.
One B.T.U. (British thermal unit) = 1052 watt-seconds = 778
foot-pounds = 0.252 kilogram-calorie = 0.000292 kilowatt-
hour =r 0.000393 horsepower-hour = 0.00104 pound of water
evaporated at 212 F.
One foot-pound e= 1.36 joule t= 0.000000377 kilowatt-hour =
0.00129 B.T.U. != 0.0000005 horsepower-hour.
One joule = 1 watt-second =r 0.000000278 kilowatt-hour t=
0.00095 B.T.U. t= 0.74 foot-pound.
Power Factor. In an alternating-current circuit, the electro-
motive force and the current may or may not be in phase, and
the difference in phase determines the "power factor." The power
factor is the ratio of the real power to the apparent power. This
ratio is generally less than 1, and can never be greater. When
the current leads the electromotive force, the power factor is not
 985 -P
greater than unity, but is distinguished from that caused by
lagging current by calling it "leading" power factor.
Power Hammers. See Hammers, Forging.
Power of a Number. Power, in mathematics, indicates the
number of times that a certain quantity is repeated as a factor.
For example, the third power of 5 equals 5 X 5 X 5 = 125. The
fifth power of 2 equals 2x 2 X 2 X 2 X2 = 32. The power
is designated by an exponent; thus the third power of 5 is written
"5 3 ," and the fifth power of 2 is written "2 5 ." The small figure
in upper right-hand corner of expression is known as exponent.
Power Presses. In order to handle the wide range of work
now done by means of dies, many different types of power presses
are required. These presses, like the dies used in them, are diffi-
cult to classify because of the variety of designs and the different
features which may properly be considered in making the classi-
fication. The names commonly given presses by manufacturers
indicate, in some cases, the class of work for which the press is
intended; whereas the names applied to other types are derived
from the constructional features. As examples of names which
indicate the nature of the work for which the press was designed,
there are drawing, embossing, trimming, punching, forging, wir-
ing, and perforating presses, etc. The construction of presses for
these different classes of work varies considerably, there being
single-action, double-action, triple-action, multiple-crank, cam,
knuckle-joint, and toggle presses. As is apparent, these names
are based on constructional features and indicate particularly the
nature of the mechanism which operates the slide or ram of the
press. Presses are still further classified according to the design
of the frames, as indicated by the names inclinable, straight-sided,
arch, gap, adjustable-bed presses, etc. In many cases, the names
previously referred to are combined, whereas, in others, they are
not. For instance, the names inclinable press, straight-sided
press, arch press, double-crank press, etc., are commonly used and
simply refer to constructional features, whereas combination
names, such as toggle-drawing press, knuckle-joint embossing
press, straight-sided trimming press, etc., suggest the general
nature of the work for which the press is intended, as well as
some important constructional feature. While power presses are
made in an almost endless variety of designs, there are, how-
ever, certain types which might be considered standard, although
different makes vary more or less in regard to constructional
details. See Double-action Presses; Embossing and Coining
Presses; Friction-driven Screw Press; Gang Presses; Inclinable
Power Presses; Knuckle-joint Embossing Press; Multiple-crank
Presses; Straight-sided Power Presses; Stagger-feed Press.
P-986
Power Press Feed Mechanisms. When mechanical feeds on
power presses are warranted by a reasonably large production
or by the character of the work, they effect economies by increas-
ing the normal production rate or decreasing the labor cost, or
by a combination of both. The type of press, the length of stroke,
and the work to be handled all affect the speed of hand feeding.
Obviously, strip stock which does not have to be accurately
located can be fed very rapidly by hand, and on such work there
might be little economy in equipping presses running at less than
to 40 strokes a minute with mechanical feeds. Work requiring
to be located more accurately, however, or parts that are hard to
place correctly in the die, may be fed mechanically to advantage,
even at much lower speeds. The increase in production effected
by mechanical feeding may be due to speeding up the press or to
the fact that the feed "catches" every stroke with the press run-
ning continuously, while without a feed, the operator may have to
trip each time or he may require that the press be run more
slowly to feed every stroke.
Driving Mechanical Feeds: The matter of driving and timing
mechanical feeds properly is a problem in selecting the most suit-
able driving method and so arranging it as to make the most of
the available time in the cycle and to get the smoothest action.
Smooth action, uniform acceleration and deceleration, and the
design of parts so that the possibility of wear and backlash oc-
curring is reduced to a minimum are essential in securing and
maintaining accuracy and reliability. Most press-feeding involves
one uniform motion, in the same direction, at each stroke of the
press. In the majority of cases, this is derived from a crank or a
cam on the free protruding end of the press crankshaft, although
in some cases sprockets, gears, etc., are used in connection with
clutches, grippers, or friction devices. In general, where there is
a choice, a crank motion is decidedly preferable to a cam motion,
because it can be run faster, is easier to adjust and maintain,
and is much cheaper to construct.
Arc for Feed Motion: The working portion of the stroke on
single-action crank presses is considered in most cases to be up
to half (the lower half) of the down stroke or from 90 degrees
to 180 degrees (nearly) as the shaft revolves. If all of this is
used, then another full quarter turn will be required on the up
stroke to bring the punch clear. This leaves a full half turn
(180 degrees) , from 270 to 90 degrees, for feeding. If a straight
crank motion is used, it requires this remaining 180 degrees for
the feed stroke. The feed is usually arranged on the up stroke
of the crank-pin to bring the connecting-rods into tension while
feeding. A
3ixm>le crank-driven feed motion, with the feed crank-
 987 -P

pin 90 degrees in advance of the press crankpin, brings the feed-

ing action on the up stroke and, provided the connecting-rod works
vertically, the feed begins at 270 degrees and finishes at 90 de-
grees. This drive is suitable for dial or roll feeds and the like,
provided the working portion of the stroke is completed and the
punches are clear again in less than 180 degrees. This is neces-
sary because the dial or strip material passes under the punches
in feeding, and obviously, there must be no interference.
The crank-driven feed motion with the feed crankpin advanced
180 degrees ahead of the press crankpin, is suitable for some
magazine feeds and special push feeds, where the first part of
the feed stroke is to pick up a slug from a stack, and the last
part (90 degrees or less) is to deliver it to the die, or where a
portion of the feed mechanism must cross the die and return it
in locating the work. For the first case, this timing has the ad-
vantage that the feed is completed before the stopping position
of the press is reached a favorable point when setting up and
adjusting.
Double-action presses in general, and single-action presses in
some cases, are not suited to the plain crank drive on account of
not having a full half cycle (180 degrees) available for the feed
action. This applies only, of course, to roll and dial feeds and
the like, in which the work or the feed itself travels under the
punches through the whole feeding stroke. Double-action toggle
presses are usually stopped about 15 degrees ahead of top center,
as this is the highest point reached simultaneously by both slides.
The blank-holder dwell is arranged to start before the punch
reaches the material, and to hold until about 10 degrees after the
draw is completed. There remains about 135 degrees during
which the work space is clear for feeding.

Power Press Indexing Feeds. Feeds designed to grip and

advance or rotate strip, circular, cylindrical, or conical shaped
work for a series of punching, notching, perforating, or stamping
operations, equally spaced, usually require special treatment to
suit the particular job. Specific applications include, for instance,
feeds for use in perforating cylindrical or conical shapes, arma-
ture disk notching, silver-plate decorating, flat perforating, etc.
The essential features common to most of these feeds are means
of locating the work accurately; means of gripping it securely;
feeding motion (usually a ratchet type, crankdriven) ; and a de-
vice to stop the press after the desired number of strokes. Also
in most cases, there must be means of stopping the press at any
time and, especially for flat work, a cam stripper to reduce dis-
tortion to a minimum. Convenience of arrangement and accuracy
are essential to all feeds. Indexing feeds In general are not
P-988
adaptable to standardization, on account of the wide variation in
the work to be handled and in the types of presses they are ap-
plied to. However, all have the same general characteristics of
advancing and rotating the work a fixed amount for a prede-
termined number of strokes, and then stopping the press, and
therefore make use of similar motions and devices.

Power Press Magazine Feeds. Magazine feeds, which in

some cases are also called coin feeds and tube feeds, are a com-
paratively simple type, adapted to handling blanks of sufficient
thickness to permit of being fed out positively from the bottom
of a stack. They are also used in some cases for such stampings
or forgings as can be stacked without danger of nesting or in-
terlocking and are not so high as to be in danger of toppling
over. This type of feed can usually be built as an entirely self-
contained unit, which may be bolted to the press bolster. It may
be placed either at the front or the side of the press, and can
be applied to practically any type of press. Placing the feed at
the side is usually the most satisfactory for end-wheel type gap-
frame presses, on account of the drive, but for the side-wheel
type presses, it may be mounted either at the front or the side,
according to the conditions of the individual case. Adjustment
can be provided on the driving crankpin to alter the length of
the feed stroke, but as this is rarely necessary, a fixed crankpin
is more usual.

Magazine feeds for press work are used particularly in con-

nection with coining, swaging, piercing, and forming operations,
and on some stamping and repunching work. These feeds are
sometimes used in connection with hopper feeds, which are rather
complicated. Another modification includes the use of gripper
fingers on the reciprocating slide, in which case the blank is
dropped into the die centrally, instead of being pushed into it.
It is often possible, when magazine feeds are being used, to
utilize some sort of stacking device under the press, to receive
the blanks and facilitate feeding.
Gravity Chute Feeds: Gravity chute feeds are comparatively
simple, consisting only of a chute of proper dimensions, down
which the work moves by gravity, and a releasing device to drop
one piece at a time into the die, with sometimes the addition of
a mechanism to gage and hold the shell in the proper position.
The presses are usually used either in the horizontal position on
special legs or inclined back 45 degrees or more from the vertical.
This method of feeding is limited to parts that can be put into a
chute without danger of becoming twisted or of overlapping.
Gravity chute feeds are also used on automatic machines for
rolling beads and threads, or similar work.
 989 -P
Hopper Feeds: On some classes of work, where small partially
worked symmetrical parts are fed in large quantities to fast
presses, hopper feeds are advisable. They include a hopper, or
receiver, in which the pieces are agitated, and those that fall in
the right position are passed on, timed, and carried by some one
of the simpler feed motions into the die. Hopper feeds for screw
blanks or parts that can be picked up by the head, are more or
less standardized, and are quite well known. Hopper feeds for
press work, however, present a more serious problem, on account
of irregularities in the parts and the dangers of injury, jamming,
and misfceding. The development cost is necessarily high, as each
feed presents a problem in itself, and frequently requires some
novel solution.

Power Press Ratchet Dial Feeds. Ratchet or station dial

feeds consist essentially of a dial having stations to hold the work
being operated on, and driven from the press shaft by a suitable
ratchet mechanism, so that the stations are brought successively,
accurately and positively under the punch. The drive may be
from the simple crank disk on the end of the shaft, although in
some cases, it is necessary to use a cam drive or scotch-yoke drive
where less than 180 degrees is available for feeding. The dials
are of two general classes those having a locating bushing in
each station on the dial to carry the work into alignment over
a die in the bolster below the dial; and those having a complete
die at each station on the dial.
Obviously, the structural requirements of this type of feed are
that the dial shall move smoothly and accurately, that the notches
and stations shall all be very accurately located and machined so
that the work will be properly aligned with the punch every time,
that the feed motion shall function accurately and reliably, and
that lost motion and the opportunity for wear shall be reduced
to a minimum. Dial bushings or dies must be interchangeable.
The class of machine work required on a dial feed is very high.
These station dial feeds are adapted especially to handling
work for secondary operations, such as redrawing, piercing,
stamping, broaching, wiring, punching, and burring. Sometimes
it is possible to perform two or three operations in sequence at
successive stations. In such cases, it is advisable to balance the
operation so that the strain on the slide will not be much off
center, and to provide separate adjustments for height on the
punches. Feeds of this type are also used for assembling, rivet-
ing, and closing operations on finished parts and on material other
than metal.
As these feeds are ordinarily arranged, the operator places the
work in the bushings or on the posts at the front of the dial,
P-990
from which point they are carried around into the working posi-
tion and then ejected. An unskilled operator can catch every
stroke of a press that is operating at full speed, and can accom-
plish this without any danger of losing a hand.
Friction Dial Feeds: The ac-
companying illustration repre-
sents diagrammatically a plan of
a typical friction dial feed. This
is a comparatively simple type of
feed consisting, as a rule, of a
table, a revolving friction disk
on which are suitable guides, and
a lateral feed or escapement. The
operator has only to push the
shells from the table to the disk,
right side up. The combination
of the friction drive and the
guides lines them up and the es-
capement feeds the pieces one at
a time into the die or series of
dies. This type of feeding mech-
anism is suited especially to
Plan of Typical Friction handling parts (usually drawn
Dial Feed shells) thathave their center of
gravity low enough so that they
are not likely to tip over. The exact design varies more or less.

Power Press Roll Feeds. Roll feeds, suited to feeding strip

or ribbon stock by means of intermittently driven rolls, are quite
universal in their range of work, when properly designed, and are
readily adaptable to standardization, when they are built in suffi-
cient quantity. The whole feed can be built as a self-contained
unit on a bolster plate, with merely a driving collar or arm for
the end of the shaft. Boll feeds may be arranged to operate
either front and back or right and left (the most common method)
on gap-frame presses, and front and back on straight-sided
presses or right and left on such presses when arrangement can
be made to feed through an opening in the housing.
Single roll feeds are those having only one pair of rolls at one
end of the bolster, adapted either to pushing across the die, stock
that is sufficiently stiif to preclude the chance of buckling, or to
pulling the strip across by the scrap, where the scrap is strong
enough not to break and is not too deformed. Double-roll feeds
are built with a pair of rolls at each end of the bolster, so that
the pulling stress on the stock is somewhat distributed and the
material between the rolls is kept taut, preventing wrinkling or
 991-P
buckling; they are therefore suited especially to very thin or
narrow material or to material lacking stiffness and body, though
they are often used with heavier materials for control at start
and end. Double-roll feeds are very similar to the single-roll
type, requiring merely the addition of a practically identical hous-
ing and pair of rolls. For short feeds, the second pair of rolls is
provided with another friction device, which is driven from the
first pair by the reciprocating motion of a connecting cross-bar.
When the feed exceeds 90 or 100 degrees on the rolls, bevel gears
and a connecting-shaft are used.
The length of the feed is governed by the diameter of the rolls
and by the arrangement. The direct-connected feed is limited to a
maximum feeding arc of about 100 degrees. Longer feed strokes
are obtained by the use of a rack connected with the crank block
and driving a gear having the friction grip device built into it.
For an accurate feed, especially of the friction type, there should
be the least possible opportunity for backlash between the friction
device or ratchet and the rolls.
There are various accessory attachments used occasionally with
roll feeds to suit special conditions. These include strip oiling and
straightening devices and scrap-cutting shears or scrap-winding
reels. Scrap-winding devices coil up the scrap material so as to
make subsequent handling easy. Another method with a similar
object is to provide a small gate shear driven from the slide or
shaft of the press to cut off a portion of the scrap at each stroke,
so that it falls into a barrel or tote box and no rehandling is
necessary.

Power Press Safeguards. To prevent power-press accidents,

the hands of the operator should be kept from under the rani
when it descends, by means of mechanical safeguards put on tie
machines for this purpose. Four methods by which this can be
done are as follows: 1. By having a guard, which pushes ihfr
hand away before the ram descends. 2. By having a device whicji
prevents the clutch being thrown, locking the ram in its upper
position while the operator's hands are under the ram, but re-
leasing itwhen the hands are removed. 3. By having a guard
entirely surrounding the danger zone. 4. By requiring both hands
to be used to operate the machine. The machines which are oper-<
ated by the foot will require guards of the first, second, or third
classes, as the hands will be free to get in the way of the descend-
ing ram. A machine so designed as to require the use of both
hands to operate it is a safety device in itself; but if only one
hand is required, then it would be advisable to adopt one of the
tther three methods. A guard should not hinder the workman,
P-992
and it should be so attached to the machine that it cannot readily
be removed and discarded.

Power Press Selection. In selecting a press, there are a num-

ber of factors to be considered. These include type of frame,
power, speed, and stroke. Gap (or cut-back) frame presses lend
themselves most readily to the application of feeds, and the in-
clinable feature on some types is of value to effect gravity dis-
charge from the die. Arch-frame and straight-sided frame
presses are not so convenient for the arrangement of all types of
feeds, but have the advantage of straight-frame spring only, or
still less spring in the case of a built-up frame presses properly
assembled.
Gap-frame presses will spring on an arc about in proportion to
the load. The effect of this spring in presses that have not been
selected with sufficient care is to cause a less distinct impression
at the front in stamping work, and a tendency to wear, especially
at the front and back in blanking dies particularly in those in
which there is very little clearance between the punch and die.
It was demonstrated in one case, for instance, that the life of
expensive dies was increased from about 15,000 punchings per
grind to 250,000 by changing to a heavier and stiffer press,
although the original press appeared to be handling the work
with ease.
The required strength of the press frame and shaft depends
upon the load or pressure to be exerted. The power requirement
governing flywheel, gearing, and motor depends upon the stroke
and work; that is, the energy to be delivered is the product of
the pressure and the distance through which it must act. Thus
for short-stroke blanking work, a flywheel press is usually suffi-
cient, but for long-stroke drawing or forming work requiring the
same pressure but exerted through a longer distance, a geared
press is necessary, as its flywheel runs proportionately much
faster and makes available more energy for the same percentage
of speed reduction.
During the short portion of the stroke in which the actual work
is done, the motor is called on to stand an instantaneous overload
of 50 to 75 per cent and a speed reduction of 10 to 20 per cent.
It is the flywheel and not the motor, however, which supplies the
hulk of the energy to perform the work, and the chief function
of the motor is to restore the lost energy (and speed) to the fly-
wheel during the idle time between working periods. It is evi-
dent that a press may have sufficient power to "pull" a given job
when the press is tripped each stroke and the recuperating period
between strokes is long ; but when the same press on the same job
is fitted with a mechanical feed catching every stroke, the power
 993 -P
demand comes oftener, and the recuperating period is shorter, so
that more power is demanded of the motor, and a larger motor
may be required.

Power Press Stop Mechanism. See "Beaver-tail" Stop.

Power Press Tonnage. The method of rating power presses
varies considerably among different manufacturers. Some rate
their presses by number, the number used bearing a certain rela-
tion to the diameter of the crankpin or crankshaft. For instance,
the number may be determined by some "rule of thumb" as, for
example, by using the square of the crankshaft diameter as a basis.
The number given to a press, however, does not always indicate
its capacity, which may depend, to a certain extent, upon the

gearing. Other manufacturers use the diameter of the flywheel

and its maximumvelocity as a basis upon which to rate the
capacity of the press. Another method is to calculate the diam-
eter of the crankpin in practically the same manner as a beam
supported at both ends, the cross-section of the crankpin being
determined by what the tonnage would be at the dead point. In
other words, the dead-point tonnage is used to indicate the ton-
nage of the press. By this method, however, the tonnage has no
direct relation to the number given, which is chosen arbitrarily.
According to another method, the nominal capacity of the press
in tons is equal to three and one-half times the square of the
diameter of the crankshaft. For instance, a press having a 2-inch-
diameter crankshaft would have a nominal rating of 14 tons. The
nominal tonnage of a press may also be related to the strength of
the frame and crankshaft, and establishes a standard stroke, any
increase in the stroke changing the capacity of the press.
The following empirical rules, for computing the tonnage by
the weight of the press, depend for their usefulness on the presses
to which they are applied; hence, these rules are not intended for
general application but are given as examples. According to one
rule, the weight in pounds of a straight-side or pillar press
divided by 80 will give the capacity of the press in tons.
On overhanging presses of ordinary design the weight of the
press should be divided by 100 to 120 to obtain the tonnage. For
example, the tonnage of a straight-side press weighing 5600
pounds is 5600 -4- 80 =
70 tons, which is approximately correct.
In the case of an overhanging press weighing, say, 3200 pounds,
with an average depth of throat of about 7 inches, we have
3200 -=- 100 = 32
tons capacity, which also is close to the cor-
rect figure. On small overhanging presses the weight of the
flywheel divided by 16 gives the tonnage of the press closely, but
on large presses weighing 2500 pounds or more, the weight of
P-994
the flywheel is divided by 20 in order to get the approximate
tonnage.
Pozzuolanic Cement. Pozzuolanic (or Puzzolan) cement,
alsoknown as slag cement, is a finely pulverized product obtained
by making a mechanical mixture of granulated basic blast furnace
slag and hydrated lime, this mixture being ground to obtain the
cement. The blast furnace slag is granulated by being run into
water while in a fused condition. The usual proportions in the
mixture are three parts of slag to one part of slaked lime, by
weight. Slag cement is not as strong, uniform, or as reliable as
Portland or natural cements, and should be used only for founda-
tion work under ground, where it is not exposed to air or running
water. It sets slowly, but its strength increases considerably
with age. Although it is a cheap material, suitable for many
purposes, it is not largely used.

Precipitation. In chemistry, precipitation is the process of

separating a substance from a solution by adding another sub-
stance to the solution. The separated substance is known as the
precipitate, and the substance which is added to cause the
precipitation is known as the precipitant.
Precision Lathe. See Lathe Classification.
Preferred Numbers. Preferred numbers are series of num-
bers selected to be used for standardization purposes in prefer-
ence to any other numbers. Their use will lead to simplified
practice and they should, therefore, be employed whenever pos-
sible for individual standard sizes and ratings, or for a series
thereof, in applications similar to the following:
1. Important or characteristic linear dimensions, such as

diameters and lengths, areas, volume, weights, capacities.

Eatings of machinery and apparatus in horsepower, kilo-
2.

watts, kilovolt-amperes, voltages, currents, speeds, power-

factors, pressures, heat units, temperatures, gas or liquid-flow
units, weight-handling capacities, etc.
3. Characteristic ratios of figures for all kinds of units.

Preferred Numbers System: In order to facilitate the stand-

ardization of a series of sizes or ratings along logical and rational
lines, preferred numbers have been selected to have definite rela-
tions to one another. The proposed International System, which
has been approved by the American Standards Association, covers
the so-called "5-, 10-, 20- and 40-series," arid in the range from
10 to 100, the numbers are as follows:
5-series: This series gives 5 numbers approximately 60 per
cent apart. These are 10, 16, 25, 40, and 68.
 995 -P

10-series: This series gives 10 numbers approximately

25 per cent apart. These are 10, 12.5, 16, 20, 25, 31.5, 40, 50,
63, and 80.
20-series: This series gives 20 numbers approximately
12 per cent apart. These are 10, 11.2, 12.5, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22.4,
25,,28, 31.5, 35.5, 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 71, 80, and 90.
40-series: This series gives 40 numbers approximately 6 per
cent apart. These are 10, 10.6, 11.2, 11.8, 12.5, 13.2, 14, 15, 16,
17, 18, 19, 20, 21.2, 22.4, 23.6, 25, 26.5, 28, 30, 31.5, 33.5, 35.5,
37.5, 40, 42.5, 45, 47.5, 50, 53, 56, 60, 63, 67, 71, 75, 80, 85,
90, and 95.
Preferred numbers above 100 are obtained by multiplying the
given numbers by 10, 100, etc. Numbers below 10 are obtained
by dividing the given numbers by 10, 100, etc.
The American Standard includes a fractional system of pre-
ferred numbers over a limited range. It is based on the same
general principle and may be used for linear dimensions in inches,
where fractions are in such common use that decimals could not
be applied readily. There is also an 80-series having 3 per cent
steps and a supplementary series.
Theoretical Basis for the Preferred Numbers System: Pre-
ferred numbers are based on geometrical series. Using 10 as the
first number of the series, the other theoretically exact numbers
of any series are obtained by multiplying (or dividing) the first
number by the constant factor applying to the particular series
and repeating this operation with each resultant number. These
factors are established as follows:
For the 5 series, the factor is the fifth root of 10, or 1,5849.
For the 10 series, the factor is the tenth root of 10, or 1.2589.
For the 20 series, the factor is the twentieth root of 10, or
1.1220.
For the 40 series, the factor is the fortieth root of 10, or
1.0593.
The formation of the various series may also be accomplished
by starting with the 40-series and taking every other number to
form the 20-series; every fourth number for the 10-series, and
every eighth number for the 5-series. The standard numbers are
approximations of the theoretical values, the departure from these
theoretical values being in no case more than 1.3 per cent.

Premium Wage System. There is some similarity between

the premium wage-paying system and the differential wage sys-
tem. The difference between the two systems is that, in the pre-
mium plan, the increased pay is based upon the time saved instead
of upon an increase in the piece rate. The standard of efficiency
is fixed by determining upon a reasonable time in which the work
P-996
can be completed. If the workman completes the work in a
shorter time, he receives his regular hourly rate for the time
that he has worked upon the job, and, in addition, he receives a
premium for having worked faster than the standard require-
ments, this premium consisting of from 25 to 50 per cent of the
difference between the wages earned in the shorter time and the
wages that would have been paid if the job had been done in the
fixed standard time. A minimum wage is generally incorporated
in this system, so that the workman is always insured of a cer-
tain amount of pay in case he is not able to earn a premium.
See Wage System, Premium.

Prescoloy. Anickel-alloy steel of high strength, especially

developed for use in the railway field. Used for cast nickel-steel
railway trucks that weigh 13,000 pounds less than previous de-
signs, but carry 26,000 pounds more load.

Present Value. In the appraisal of manufacturing plants, the

value of equipment at the time of the appraisal is known as the
"present value." It equals the replacement value less the accrued
depreciation at the time of the appraisal.

Pressed Fits. See Forced Fits.

Pressed Steel. The term "pressed steel" is commonly applied
to parts made from sheet steel by the die and press method.
Pressed-steel parts have been used in many lines of manufacture
to replace castings, forgings, and machined parts. The advan-
tages of using pressed-steel parts often include such factors as
reduction in weight and accompanying reduction in cost of raw
materials and transportation charges for finished products; in-
creased strength, as compared with replaced parts; larger pro-
duction; and improved appearance of finished parts.

Presses. See Drop Presses; Hydraulic Presses; Power

Presses.

Pressure, Absolute and Gage. See Absolute and Gage

Pressure.

Pressure Angle of Gearing. A line drawn tangent to the

two base circles of intermeshing spur gears is known as the line
of action, because the point of contact between two gear teeth
having involute curvature is along this line as the teeth roll in
mesh with each other. This line of action may be represented
by a crossed belt, if the base circles are considered as pulleys
connected by such a belt. The angle between this line of action
and a line perpendicular to the center line of the two gears, is
known as the pressure angle of the gearing. Gearing is coin-
 997-P
monly designated by giving the pressure angle. For instance, the
expression 14% degrees, 20 degrees, etc., as applied to gearing,
relates tothe pressure angle of the gearing.
In the design and manufacture of gearing, certain pitches,
pressure angles and tooth proportions have been used so exten-
sively that they are generally accepted as standards. While
14% degrees is the most common pressure angle, as applied to
miscellaneous classes of gearing, 20 degrees may be regarded as
the standard sanctioned by common usage for certain types of
transmission gears, and herringbone gears usually have an angle
of 23 degrees. Bevel gears, as well as spur gears, are designed
for both 14%- and 20-degree pressure angles, and other angles
are employed. A 14%-degree angle is unsatisfactory for excep-
tionally small gears (especially if the teeth are of standard or
ordinary proportions) because of under-cutting which weakens
the teeth and causes poor tooth action when two gears revolve
together. For information concerning the reasons why 14% de-
grees was selected as a pressure angle, see Gear Teeth, Historical
Notes.
Normal Pressure Angle: This term is applied to helical gear-
ing to indicate the pressure angle in a plane normal or perpendicu-
lar to the teeth and distinguished from a plane that is perpendicu-
lar to the axis of the gear. The normal pressure angle is
sometimes known as the transverse pressure angle.
To find the tangent of the pressure angle in the plane of rota-
tion, divide the tangent of the normal pressure angle by the
cosine of the helix angle. The tangent of the pressure angle in
the plane of rotation also equals the tangent of the normal pres-
sure angle multiplied by the secant of the helix angle.
To find the tangent of the normal pressure angle, multiply the
tangent of the pressure angle in the plane of rotation by the
cosine of the helix angle.

Pressure, Atmospheric. See Atmospheric Pressure,

Pressure Attachments for Drawing Dies. In the applica-

tion of drawing dies for drawing hollow parts of various shapes,
it is essential to apply enough pressure on the outer surface of
the flange or flat blank to prevent the formation of wrinkles. Ex-
cessive pressure, however, will unduly strain the material and
may result in fracturing it. There are several commercial types
of pressure attachments designed to maintain a uniform blank-
holder pressure or prevent an increase of pressure as the depth
of the "draw" increases. Some of these attachments are equipped
with combinations of springs and links and others have pneumatic
cushions, the latter often being called die cushions. These mod-
P-998
ern types of pressure attachments not only improve the drawing
operation but reduce the number of operations in many cases
and, in addition, they increase the range of work which can be
done on single-action presses.
Pressure Equivalents. 1 pound per square inch 144 pounds =
per square foot =
0.068 atmosphere =
2.042 inches of mercury
at 62 degrees F. =
27.7 inches of water at 62 degrees F. s=
2.31 feet of water at 62 degrees F. 1 atmosphere 30 inches =
of mercury at 62 degrees F. = ;

14.7 pounds per square inch

= 2116.3 pounds per square foot c= 33.95 feet of water at 62 de-
grees F. 1 foot of water at 62 degrees F.
;
62.355 pounds per =
square foot t= 0.433 pound per square inch; 1 inch of mercury
at 62 degrees F. =5 1.132 feet of water =
13.58 inches of water
= 0.491 pound per square inch.

Pressure Fan. A special form of ordinary ventilating fan.

See Fan Blower.
Pressure Filter. See Filters.
Pressure Head. The pressure against which a pump forces
the water usually expressed in "feet head." For example, a
is

pump feeding a boiler against a pressure of 100 pounds per square

inch is operating under a head of 100 ~- 0.433 231 feet; that =
is, each pound pressure per square inch against which the water
is forced equivalent to lifting a column of water 1 inch square
is
and 2.31 feet high. From the above, it is evident that: Pressure
per square inch in pounds -=- 0.433 =
head in feet; head in feet
X 0.433 =
pressure per square inch in pounds.
In determining the pressure head or total height to which the
water must be raised, the distance must be taken from the surface
of the water in the reservoir from which it is drawn to the point
of discharge. The same power is required to raise water by suc-
tion as to force it, and the height of the pump above the water
does not enter separately into the calculation at all, provided the
"lift" is within the maximum limit.

Pressure Regulator. In air compressors, a pressure regulator

isa device which closes the inlet pipe of an air compressor and
connects the two ends of the air cylinder, when the receiver
pressure reaches the maximum point desired.
Pricker. Prickers are small projections provided on the out-
ride of a core barrel which serves to hold the green sand or loam
when making a large core. Cast core barrels over eight inches
in diameter are generally provided with cast prickers placed from
2 to 8 inches apart. Wooden core barrels are provided with nails
driven closely all over the exterior surface, serving the same pur-
pose as the cast projections.
 999 -P

Primary and Secondary. The terms "primary" and "second-

ary" as commonly used in electrical work, serve to distinguish
the windings in regard to energy flow, the primary being that
which receives the energy from the supply circuit, and the second-
ary that which receives the energy by induction from the primary.
Primary Cell. A primary cell is any apparatus for transform-
ing chemical energy into electrical energy. A primary cell is fre-
quently termed a primary battery, but the term primary battery
properly used refers to the joining of two or more primary cells,
which then form a battery. A primary cell generally consists of
a liquid known as the electrolyte and two metals called the ele-
ments or electrodes. In dry cells, the liquid is replaced by some
absorbent material saturated by the electrolyte.
Prime Mover. A prime mover may be defined as any machine
which, by utilizing some of the forces of nature, produces power
for the use of other machinery and devices. The principal prime
movers are the steam engine and turbine, the gas and oil engine,
the water turbine, and the windmill. The electric motor is not,
strictly speaking, a prime mover, as it is driven by current ob-
tained from a generator which, in turn, is driven by a prime
mover. A prime mover may be defined briefly as a machine in
which a natural form of energy is transformed into mechanical
energy. The power from the prime mover is transmitted to the
machine in which it is used for producing a given work, by some
form of power transmission, which may either be mechanical,
hydraulic, pneumatic, or electrical.
Prime Numbers. A prime number is one which is not exactly
divisible by any number except itself and 1. Thus, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,
etc., are prime numbers. A factor which is a prime number is
called a 'prime factor. Prime numbers play an important part in
calculations relating to indexing, gearing ratios, etc. Tables of
prime numbers will be found in mechanical engineering hand-
books.

Priming. If the steam which is generated in a boiler contains

an excessive amount of moisture as it passes into the steam main,
this condition is commonly referred to as '^riming. This may be
caused by impure water, too high a water-line, the presence of
oil, or of certain alkalies used in the removal of scale. Priming
may also be caused by forcing the boiler beyond the capacity for
which it is designed. When the steam rises from the surface of
the water with too high a velocity, it has a tendency to carry more
or less spray with it, which, when once in suspension, does not
readily settle against a rising current, and thus passes over into
the main with the steam.
P-1000

Principle of Archimedes. See Buoyancy.

Prism. A prism is a solid body in which the two end faces are
parallel and in which the lines along which all the other faces in-
tersect or meet are parallel. If all the sides of a prism are rec-
tangles and the end faces are either squares or rectangles, the
prism is called a square prism. In a square prism, the opposite
surfaces or faces are parallel and all the angles are right angles.

Prismatic Borax. This is the common form of borax. It is

not as suitable for use as a flux in soldering or welding as is
jeweler's or octahedral borax, as it does not fuse as readily. See
Borax.

Prismlac. A
lacquer for obtaining unusual finishes, used either
clear on polished metal surfaces or in combination with colors or
bronze powders. The unusual finish is obtained by spraying the
surface with a coat of colored lacquer enamel, followed by a coat
of Prismlac, which becomes ornamented with crystals, when dry-
ing, that will cover the entire surface.

Proferall. Molybdenum-nickel-chromium alloy iron that can

be made with a minimum tensile strength of 50,000 pounds per
square inch; other grades vary from 60,000 to 80,000 pounds per
square inch. Has superior wearing qualities. Used for cast cam-
shafts and crankshafts for automobiles.

Profile Grinding Machine. The profile grinding machine is a

special type of grinder designed to grind formed turning tools of
irregular shape, such as are used for relieving formed milling
cutters, etc. In the operation of one design, a master form is
attached to one table and the piece to be ground is clamped in a
fixed position to another table. The grinding wheel is made to
reproduce the outline of the master form by means of a follower
pin which is kept in contact with the master form. The radius
of the wheel is made to correspond with that of the follower pin
by means of a diamond truing device.

Profile Paper. The horizontal ruling on profile paper is usually

ten lines to the inch, and the vertical ruling is 20, 25, or 30 lines
to the inch. Profile paper is used by civil engineers for repre-
senting the profile or cross-section of grades, cuts, embankments,
excavations, etc. For the use of railway surveyors, the profile
paper is made in continuous strips, folded between covers in book
form; these books are called profile books. Standard profile paper
is obtainable in green and orange ruling, and either in sheets or
in rolls. The sizes of the sheets are 15 by 42 inches and the rolls
contain 50 yards, 10 or 20 inches wide.
 1001 -P
Profiling Machines. A profiling machine or "profiler" is a
type of vertical milling machine which is largely used for making
parts of guns, pistols, typewriters, sewing machines, and for sim-
ilar work. Profiling machines are adapted to milling duplicate
pieces having an irregular contour, especially in connection
with interchangeable manufacture. The distinguishing feature
of this type of machine is that the spindle and milling cutter,
instead of revolving in a fixed position, are guided by a special
former plate, the outline of which exactly corresponds to the shape
required on the work. Most of the profilers used at the present
time are hand-operated, so far as the feeding movements are con-
cerned. They usually have either one or two cutter spindles, the
two-spindle type being commonly used. Each spindle has a former
pin which is located a fixed distance from the cutter and is guided
around the former plate or model by feeding the cutter-slide and
pin laterally and the work-table in a longitudinal direction. By
this method, duplicate parts of irregular shape can be produced.
Semi-automatic Profiler: In armories, etc., where large num-
bers of irregular-shaped parts must be milled, semi-automatic
profiling machines are used to some extent in place of the hand-
operated type. The head in which the two cutter spindles are
mounted is stationary while the machine is operating, and the
required form or contour is obtained by the movement of the
table. The latter is carried at the front end of a swinging arm
which is journaled in the bed between the uprights, and as the
table rotates, it is given an oscillating movement by means of a
cam which is attached to it and bears against a stationary roller,
This cam, which is located at the base of the work-table, must be
made to suit the profile of the parts to be milled. The number of
pieces that can be milled at one time depends upon their size and
the length of the profile which requires machining. The parts to
be milled are held in a special fixture attached to the top of the
table, and the cutter passes from one part to the other as the
table revolves and is guided by the cam. When the cutter is
traversing the spaces between the work, the table speed is auto-
matically accelerated.

Progression. In mathematics, a progression is a series of num-

bers which increases or decreases according to some definite law.
Arithmetical progression is a series where each term is obtained
by adding or subtracting a given quantity to or from the next
preceding term. In geometrical progression, each succeeding
term is produced by multiplying the preceding term by a given
factor.

Progressive Assembly. In their simplest form, conveyor sys-

tems merely represent a method of carrying parts to specified
P-1002
points, but in automotive and other large manufacturing plants,
the conveyor may also serve many other purposes. Important
among these is the so-called method of progressive assembly. By
this method, a conveyor system travels at a specified speed and
carries the work past men who are employed to mount successive
parts on the product as it is carried past them by the conveyor.
Where the progressive assembling method is employed, various
parts to be assembled are delivered at the proper points along the
assembling line. The proper conveyor speed is a matter that can
only be determined by actual operation. This method of assem-
bling was originated in the automobile industry, and the results
obtained were so successful that it has since been adapted to meet
the requirements of other lines of manufacturing.

Progressive Dies. See Follow Dies.

Progressive Plug Gage. The name "progressive" is applied
to a plug gage which has the "go" and "not go" gaging sections
combined in a single unit. The minimum allowable diameter is
followed by the "not go" end. The American Standard progressive
types of plug gages are for diameters from 0.240 to 2.510 inches.

Projection. Mechanical drawings are based on a method of

drawing known as "orthographic projection." In order to illus-
trate simply this method of drawing, assume that some object is
held in the hand on the same level as the eyes and is turned so
that the front side, top side, and end are each seen successively.
These different views will then correspond practically to the dif-
ferent views of the same object as represented by a mechanical
drawing made according to the orthographic projection method.
Mechanical drawings composed of views representing different
sides of a machine part, tool, or some other mechanical device,
show the length, breadth, and thickness of various portions of
the piece accurately, which is a great advantage in mechanical
work, because the chief purpose of most mechanical drawings is
to represent mechanical devices so clearly that they may readily
be constructed. An important part of the draftsman's work is
to place on the drawing all necessary dimensions expressed either
in feet, inches, or fractional parts of an inch, depending upon the
size of the work and the degree of accuracy required. Working
drawings also give, ordinarily, the tolerances.
Principle of Orthographic Projection: The representation of a
plain rectangular block by means of separate views showing the
shape as seen from the front, top, and side, will illustrate the
principle of projection better than a drawing of some complicated
mechanical device. At A (see illustration) this block, which is
shaded, is represented as being enclosed by a box formed of glass
sideis. If lines were extended or projected from the four corners
 1003 -P

Diagram Illustrating Principle of Orthographic Projection

of the block to the front of the box, as illustrated by the dotted

lines,and these four points were joined as shown by the full lines,
the square thus drawn would correspond to the front view. In
the same way, if the corners of the side were projected to the side
of the box and a rectangle drawn, this would correspond to the
side view of the block. The top view is represented as being
projected up to the top side of the box in a similar manner. These
three views now represent a mechanical drawing made according
to the orthographic projection method, but they lie in three dif-
ferent planes and on an actual drawing it is, of course, necessary
to place all three views on a flat sheet or so that they all lie in one
plane. If it is assumed that the top and right-hand side of the
glass box are hinged at the front edges, and that they are turned
so as to lie in the same plane as the front side, the views will then
appear as shown at B.
It will be understood that diagram A is intended merely to
illustrate the principle of orthographic projection and that, in
actually making a drawing of this block, the front view would
ordinarily be drawn first to whatever size the block happened to
be or to some reduced scale; then lines would be extended or pro-
jected for locating the end lines of the sides and top views. The
rectangles would then be completed by drawing lines represent-
ing the sides on both the top and side views, the distance between
these lines corresponding to the thickness of the block.
P-1Q04
Number and Arrangement of the Views: A mechanical draw-
ing may show only one side of an object or it may be composed
of two or more views. Two or three views are the usual number,
although four may be needed and sometimes it is necessary to
add separate views or sections of important details. These detail
views are frequently used to show some part which is not repre-
sented clearly enough in the general views. The views of mechan-
ical drawings are arranged according to a definite plan. In the
United States, the general practice is to place the top view above
the front view, and the end view next to whatever end it repre-
sents. For example, if a view of the left-hand end is considered
preferable to a view of the right-hand end, this end view is placed
to the left of the front view, thus indicating that it represents
the left-hand end or side. If it were considered advisable to show
both ends, then a right-hand view would be placed to the right of
the front view. In some instances, a bottom view is needed, in
which case it is placed below the front view.
The view obtained by looking at the object from above is known
as a plan view; that obtained by looking at the object from one
of its sides and showing a vertical face is known as an elevation,
and it may be either a front elevation or an end elevation (also
known as side elevation] , depending upon whether the view is of
the front or side of the part drawn.
Third-angle and First-angle Projection. When the views are
placed with the plan above the front elevation, the right-hand end
view to the right and the left-hand end view (when drawn) to
the left, this is known as third-angle projection. In European
countries, it is frequently the custom to use what is known as
first-angle projection. With this method, the front elevation is
placed at the top, the plan view at the bottom, the right-hand end
view at the left, and the left-hand end view at the right. The first-
angle projection is also generally employed in architectural and
structural work, as in drawings of bridges, etc. See Isometric
Projection.

Prony Brake. The simplest form of absorption dynamometer

is the Prony brake (see diagram). This consists of a wooden
beam A and a shorter beam B, connected by the two tie-rods T;
fastened to the beams are the two wooden pieces C. These pieces
are sawed so that they fit the surface of the pulley P. By tighten-
ing the nuts on the tie-rods, the friction between the blocks and
the pulley surface is increased. A knife-edge fastened to the
A
beam rests upon a support which transmits the pressure to the
platform scale S. As the pulley revolves in the direction indicated
by the arrow, its motion is opposed by the friction of the blocks.
The brake absorbs the power generated or transmitted by the ma-
chine to which the pulley is attached.
 1005 -P
The horizontal distance L between a vertical line through the
axis of the pulley, and a vertical line through the knife-edge which
supports the brake, is known as the arm of the brake. The weight
indicated by the scale when the brake is absorbing power is
known as the tare of the brake. The weight which would be indi-
cated by the scale, if the pulley were absolutely frictionless, is
known as the zero reading of the brake. The difference between
the tare and the zero reading is known as the brake reading. In
order to determine the zero reading, the nuts are loosened so as
to reduce the friction as much as possible, and the pulley is then
revolved slowly forward and the scale reading taken. The pulley is
then revolved slowly backward and the scale reading again taken.

The Prony Brake

The average of these two readings is the zero reading. If, for
any reason, it is not convenient or possible to make these two
readings, the nuts on the tie-rods may be loosened until a section
of round iron or steel of small diameter can be placed between
the rim of the pulley and the friction surface of the upper block,
parallel to and vertically over the axis of the pulley. The weight
registered by the scale in this case is the zero reading of the
brake. The power absorbed by the brake may be determined by
the formula :
2*LNW
HR _
'
~~
33,000
'

in which H.P.= horsepower absorbed by the brake;

L = length of the brake arm in feet;
N = number of revolutions of the pulley per minute;
W = brake reading in pounds.
a to each
Proportion. When two quantities bear such relation
other that as one is increased the other becomes greater, or, as
one is decreased the other becomes less at the same rate, they are
said to be in. direct proportion. The circumference of round bar
P-1006
stock is directly proportional to the diameter of the bar. If the
diameter increases, the circumference will increase, and if the
diameter is made less, the circumference will be less. If the rela-
tion between two quantities is such that as the one increases the
other becomes smaller, and as the one decreases the other becomes
greater in the same rate, they are in inverse proportion. When
the relation between two quantities is such that the increase or
decrease of one affects the other by a combination of two or more
direct or inverse proportions, they are said to be in compound
proportion. If one man can turn 50 bevel gear blanks in a day
of 10 hours, then 5 men can turn 225 blanks in a day of 9 hours
The number of blanks turned by one man in 10 hours is in com-
pound proportion to the number turned by 5 men in 9 hours,
because the proportion is a combination of the proportion between
the number at work and the proportion of the time they are
working.

Machinery

Proportional Dividers

Proportional Dividers. Dividers of this type have slotted legs

and a combined clamping screw and pivot which can be changed
to any point desired. Thus, the double-pointed legs form prac-
tically two dividers, the relative lengths of which are adjustable
at will (see illustration) If the pivot screw is so placed that its
.

distance from one point is one-third of the entire length of the

legs from point to point, the dividers are set at a proportion of
1 to 2; that is, if the divider legs are opened until the shorter leg
points are one inch apart, the points of the longer will be two
inches apart. It follows that by shifting the position of the pivot
screw any other relative proportion can be obtained. The position
of the pivot screw is determined by graduations upon one of the
legs, to which a single line upon the sliding pivot block may be
adjusted.

Proportional Limit. Proportional limit is the stress at which

deformations cease to be proportional to the load. This value is
determined with an extensometer.
Protex. A liquid that is brushed or sprayed on surfaces to be
protected,which are then covered preferably with so-called
"Kraft" paper. Sets quickly to a
moisture-proof, tough skin,
 1007 -P

Simple Form of Protractor

which isa good insulator for low-voltage current. When the cov-
ering isno longer needed, it can be readily peeled off with the
Kraft paper, or, if paper is not used, it can easily be pulled off
by itself. Metal thus protected can be stamped or pierced with-
out removing the coating. Applied to highly polished, painted,
plated, or duco-finished surfaces to protect them from scratches,
tarnish, etc. ; also sprayed or brushed on parts or assembled ma-
chines in storage to prevent rust or corrosion ; also used as a coat-
ing for equipment in a plant that is not to be used for some time.
Proton. See Electron Theory.
Protractor. The protractor is used by draftsmen either for
locating lines at a given angle or for measuring angles between
lines. A simple form is shown by the illustration. Some pro-
tractors are provided with an arm pivoted at the center and
swinging around the circle. The smaller protractors are divided
into degrees, while larger ones show half or quarter degrees.
Those with a swinging arm are usually provided with a vernier
scale by means of which small fractions of degrees, three or five
minutes, for example, are read. The type generally used by ma-
chinists and toolmakers is known as the bevel protractor. It has
a straight edge or blade which can be set at any angle with the
base or stock; the angle for any position is shown by degree
graduations. ,

Proximate Analysis. In chemistry, a proximate analysis is

a quantitative analysis in Which the percentages of compounds
P-1008

(but not elements) that make up a substance are determined,

For example, in a proximate analysis of coal, the percentages of
volatile matter, fixed carbon, moisture, sulphur, and ash are
determined.

Prussiate of Potash. Same as Cyanide of Potassium. See

Cyanide.

Pu. A Chinese length measure, legalized in 1908, equal to

1.6 meters, or 5 feet 3 inches.

Puddled Steel. A slag-bearing steel made by the puddling

process, which contains enough carbon to harden when suddenly
cooled a product rarely, if ever, made at the present time.

Puddling Process. The puddling process is used in the man-

ufacture of wrought iron. Pig iron is melted in a puddling fur-
nace where most of the silicon, carbon, phosphorus, and other
impurities are separated from the iron. Pig iron melts at about
2100 degrees F., and wrought iron at about 2800 degrees F. The
temperature during the puddling process is high enough to melt
the pig iron, but not high enough to keep wrought iron in a
liquid state. Hence, as soon as the small particles of wrought
iron are freed from the excess of carbon, they form a spongy
mass which the small globules of iron are in a semi-plastic
in
state. This mass is divided by the puddler into lumps of about
200 pounds each, which are formed into elongated blooms by a
rotary squeezer, and, while hot, are rolled out into "muck bars."

Pulley. The pulleys or wheels used for the transmission of

power by belting are made either of cast iron, steel, wood, or a
combination of these materials. Aside from the materials used
in their construction, pulleys differ principally in regard to the
form of the hub, the form of the rim, and the number and ar-
rangement of the arms connecting the hub and the rim. Cast-
iron pulleys may be either of the solid type, the clamp-hub type,
or the slit type. The solid pulley is so named because the entire
pulley is one solid casting. The clamp-hub pulley is a single cast-
ing and has a solid or continuous rim like a solid pulley, but
differs from the latter in that the hub is split or divided, and it
is provided with clamping bolts. When these bolts are tightened,
the split hub grips the shaft tightly. Some pulleys of this class
are held simply by friction, whereas others have, in addition to
clamping bolts, a key or a key and set-screws. The split pulley
is formed of two separate sections which are bolted together both
at the hub and on opposite sides of the rim where the two parts
are divided. This form of pulley can be placed between other
pulleys on a shaft without removing either the pulleys or the
shaft by simply separating the pulley sections and clamping them
 1009 -P
together wherever the pulley is required. Steel pnUeys which are
made from steel plate, represent a comparatively modern develop-
ment in pulley manufacture. The rim is either formed by rolling
or by means of rolls and dies the spokes are also made from sheet
;

stock. These pulleys are of the split type and combine lightness
with strength. The weight of one well-known make is about
45 per cent of the weight of a cast-iron pulley of corresponding
diameter.

Pulley Crown. The face of a pulley is crowned by making

the center larger in diameter than the edges. This is done for the
purpose of guiding the belt in a straight line and thereby keep-
ing it in position without using such mechanical means as belt
guides or flanges for this purpose. The crowning, however, tends
to keep the belt on only when the belt does not slip. A
slipping
belt will run off a crowned face pulley more easily than from a
straight-faced one. Different authorities recommend very dif-
ferent amounts of crowning. One authority recommends a crown
or height at the center of 1/20 of the width of the pulley for
leather belting, and 1/150 of the width for cotton belting. An-
other recommends from 1/16 to % inch of crown for each foot
of width of pulley for high speeds, and ^4 inch of crown for low
speeds. A formula which has proved satisfactory is as follows:
1/200 of pulley face + 0.020 inch = height of crown.

Pulley Lathe. The pulley lathe is a special design intended

for turning and facing pulleys, gears, flywheels, couplings, and
work of a similar nature. A well-known design of pulley lathe
has two tool-rests, one located at the front and the other at the
rear of the machine. The tool-rests are mounted on compound
slides, one of which is utilized for diameter adjustment, and the
other for feeding the tool when turning. These slides are carried
by a table which swivels in the center and has a series of holes
drilled on one side, through which a pin is inserted in order to
locate the table at whatever angle may be required to give the
desired taper or "crown" on the pulley. The tool-slides feed in
opposite directions, so that each tool turns half of the pulley rim.
relation between
Pulley Speeds. The following rule for the
the sizes of pulleys and the number of revolutions of two shafts
can be formulated : The number of revolutions of one shaft multi-
plied by the diameter of the pulley on the same shaft, divided by
the number of revolutions of the second shaft, gives the diameter
of the pulley on the second shaft. To obtain the speed of the
driven pulley in a compound drive, proceed as follows: Divide
product of diameters of driving pulleys by product of diameters
of driven pulleys, and multiply quotient by speed of first driving
pulley.
P-I010
for use in tapping set
Pulley Taps. Originally designed
screw holes in the hubs of steel pulleys. The thread length is
approximately equal to that of a regular (standard) hand tap,
while the shank is full diameter of the thread and comes in vari-
ous lengths. Recently the field for this tap has been expanded
to meet the demands of those who want hand taps in longer
lengths.

Pulsometer. The pulsometer, sometimes known as an aquome-

ter, may be defined as a steam pump which acts partly by direct
steam pressure and partly by vacuum. It has two working cham-
bers into which the steam is alternately admitted. A partial
vacuum is formed by the condensation of the steam, then water
rushes into the chamber on account of the vacuum thus formed.
When the chamber is full of water, the valve opens, steam enters
again, and forces the water out into the delivery chamber, the
steam condenses as before, causing the inflow of another supply
of water, and the cycle is repeated. Two chambers are provided
so that one is filled while the other is discharging. The pulsometer
has neither rotating nor reciprocating parts. It will raise water
to a height of about 26 feet, although it is not advisable to have
a lift exceeding 20 feet, and it will force the water, if necessary,
to a height of about 100 feet.

Pump. A pump may be defined as a mechanical device or

machine designed for elevating or conveying liquids against the
action of gravity, or for exhausting air or other gases from a
closed vessel. A pump for liquids may be intended primarily for
elevating the liquid from a source of supply below the pump up
to the pump, or the principal purpose may be to force the liquid
either to a much higher level or to some distant point by con-
necting the pump with suitable pipes. A mechanical device for
withdrawing air from a closed vessel is ordinarily classified as
a pump, but, if designed for compressing air or other gases, it
is known as a compressor or blower.

Pumps are classified either with reference to some character-

istic constructional feature or the particular class of service for
which they were designed. The common types of pumps may be
divided into several general classes, as follows: 1. Reciprocating
pumps or those having a piston or plunger which is given a re-
ciprocating movement in the pump cylinder. 2. Centrifugal
pumps having a rotary impeller which, as a result of centrifugal
force, causes the water to flow from the center to the periphery
of the impeller with increasing velocity, and then out through
the discharge outlet 3. Rotary pumps which, according to the
general usage of the term, differ from the centrifugal pumps in
that the water or other fluid is forced through the pump by the
 1011 -P
direct application of pressure from rotating pistons or impellers
and independently of centrifugal action. 4. Pumps in which the
fluid is moved by the direct application of steam or compressed
air and without employing a reciprocating piston or rotating
impeller. In each of these four general classes, there are many
different types.

Pump Air Chamber. See Air Chamber on Pump.

Pump, Air or Vacuum. See Air or Vacuum Pump.

Pump Displacement. The displacement of a pump is equiva-
lent to the "effective area" of the pump
piston or plunger multi-
plied by the length of the stroke, or it is the volume included in
a complete stroke. To determine the displacement in cubic inches
per minute, multiply tjhe effective area of the piston or plunger
in square inches by the length of the stroke in inches and this
product by the number of discharging strokes per minute. The
effective area of a piston or plunger will be reduced somewhat
on one side by the area of the piston-rod, except in the case of an
outside end-packed plunger pump or a single-acting pump. Ordi-
narily the piston-rod area would not need to be considered.

Pump Duty. The duty of a pump represents the relation be-

tween the amount of work done by the pump and the amount of
coal, steam, or number of heat units required for driving the
pump. The duty may also be based upon the volume or weight of
water pumped, in comparing the performance of a plant at differ-
ent periods. If one pumping engine performs 130,000,000 foot-
pounds of work during a given time, and the amount of coal or
steam required is less than for another pumping engine operat-
ing under like conditions, obviously the former installation is
more economical. The duty alone, however, is not the only factor
to be considered. The duty of one pumping plant may be con-
siderably higher than that of another, but there may also be a
great difference in their relative initial costs. The more expen-
sive plant might in some cases effect such a saving in coal con-
sumption annually as to much more than offset the difference
in initial cost, whereas, in other installations, a high duty might
be purchased at too great a cost, especially if the service is severe
and the high duty is obtained by an intricate or delicate mechan-
ism that requires frequent repairs or renewal.

Pumping, Air-Lift. See Air-lift Pumping.

Pumping Hot Water. When hot water or other hot liquids

must be pumped, it is usually advisable, if not necessary, to place
the pump low enough for the water to flow into it by gravity.
While the boiling point of water is 212 degrees F. at atmospheric
P-1012

pressure, a reduction of pressure causes a reduction in the boiling

temperature; consequently, when the temperature of the water
exceeds about 180 degrees F., it cannot be lifted by the action
of a pump, because the pressure of the vapor given off by the
water in the suction pipe and pump cylinder counteracts the at-
mospheric pressure, which otherwise would force the water up-
ward. If the temperature approaches this point, there should
be a head of from 10 to 15 feet on the "suction" side, and the
inlet pipe should preferably be larger than the regular size.

Pump Lift. See Lift of Water Pumps.

Pump Suction. "Suction" is a term commonly applied to

pumps to denote a decrease of atmospheric pressure within the
inlet pipe and cylinder of a pump, as compared with the normal
atmospheric pressure. During the suction stroke of a pump,
which lifts water or some other liquid up to the pump cylinder
from a lower level, the movement of the piston creates a partial
vacuum within the cylinder on the inlet side, but as the normal
atmospheric pressure is acting at the same time on the outer
surface of the water with which the inlet or suction pipe con-
nects, the water is forced upward because of the unequal pres-
sure. What is commonly known as "suction," therefore, is, in
reality, the forcing of water to a higher level by normal at-
mospheric pressure acting on a column of water connecting with
a closed chamber or cylinder in which a partial vacuum has been
formed. See Lift of Water Pumps.

Pump Suction and Discharge Pipes. See Suction and

Discharge Pipes.

Pump Valve Lift and Area. In the design of pump valves,

the combined area should be large enough to prevent excessive
velocity and friction when the water or other liquid is passing
through the valve seat; the suction valves should open easily and
with little pressure, as otherwise, the atmospheric pressure would
not overcome the resistance, especially if the vertical height from
the source of supply to the pump cylinder were considerable; the
lift of the valves should be small, to prevent excessive slip or

leakage while the valves are closing; the valves should close rap-
idly, be tight when closed, durable, and easily replaced. Evi-
dently there must be a compromise in the design of valves. For
instance, stiff springs would close the valves quickly, but increase
the pressure required for opening them; a high lift would be
conducive to a free flowing movement of the water, but a low
aft is desirable to prevent excessive losses through slip; large
conical seats would provide straight passages for the water and
reduce the frictional resistance to the flow, but would require
 1013 -P
large heavy valves and high lift. The general practice is to use
a number of small valves and flat seats instead of the conical
form, in order to reduce the amount of lift, although conical
seats are sometimes used in connection with wing valves, etc.
The lift of disk valves is usually about% inch, regardless of the
diameter. Awing valve having a 45-degree seat requires 40 per
cent more lift than a flat valve to obtain a corresponding area oi
opening. The total valve area usually varies from 45 to 50 per
cent of the plunger area, although it may be as low as 30 per cent
and as high as 60 per cent, depending upon the speed at which
the pump is to operate. The maximum velocity of the water while
passing through the valves should be about 225 feet per minute.
By "valve area" is meant the area of the unobstructed opening
or free passageway through the seats.

Pump Valve Spring Pressures. For discharge valves, the

spring pressure should equal approximately from 0.005 to 0.01
times the water pressure, with a maximum pressure of 5 pounds
per square inch. For suction valves, when there is a suction lift,
the pressure should equal from 0.25 to 0.5 pound per square inch,

Punch. A "punch," as the term is applied in pressed-metal

work, that part of a press tool which enters into an opening
is
or cavity formed in the die section, as in drawing, forming, or
blanking. The punch usually is the upper member, being attached
to the press slide or ram, but it may be the lower member, as in
the case of press tools of inverted design. Whenever the function
of the upper and lower members is identical, as, for example, in
embossing the sides of coins or medals, the upper die section
would ordinarily be called the punch merely because the punch
member of most dies occupies the upper position; nevertheless,
it is form rather than location which, in general, is the dis-

tinguishing feature between the punch and its mating die.

Punch and Die Clearance. There is a difference of opinion
among diemakers as to the method of designating clearance. The
prevailing practice of fifteen firms specializing in die work is as
follows: Ten of these firms define clearance as the space between
the punch and die on one side, or one-half the difference between
the punch and die sizes. The remaining five firms consider clear-
ance as the total difference between the punch and die sizes ; for
example, if the die is round, clearance equals die diameter minus
punch diameter. The advantage of designating clearance as the
space on each side is particularly evident in the case of dies of
irregular form or of angular shape. While the practice of desig-
nating clearance as the difference between the punch and die
diameters may be satisfactory in the case of round dies, it leads
to confusion when the dies are of special unsymmetrical forms.
P-1014
The term "clearance" should not be used in specifications with-
out indicating clearly just what it means. According to the prac-
tice of one manufacturer of dies, the term "cutting clearance" is
used to indicate the space between the punch and die on each
side, and the term "die clearance" refers to the angular clearance
provided below the cutting edge so that the parts will clear as
they fall through the die.
Amount of Clearance: The amount of clearance between a
punch and die for blanking and perforating is governed by the
thickness and kind of stock to be operated upon. For thin ma-
terial such as tin, for example, the punch should be a close sliding
fit, as, otherwise, the punching will have ragged edges, but for

heavier stock there should be some clearance. The clearance be-

tween the punch and die in cutting heavy material, lessens the
danger of breaking the punch and reduces the pressure required
for the punching operation. For brass and soft steel, most dies
are given a clearance on one side equal to the stock thickness
multiplied by 0.05 or 0.06 ; but one-half of this clearance is pre-
ferred for some classes of work, and a clearance equal to the stock
thickness multiplied by 0.10 may give the cleanest fracture for
certain other operations such, for example, as punching holes in
ductile steel boiler plate.

Punches, Quill. See Quill Punches.

Punching Machine Spacing Table. See Spacing Table.

Punching Pressure. The following approximate rule may be
used for rapidly finding the pressure in tons required for punch-
ing circular holes in sheet steel: Multiply the diameter of the
hole, in inches, by the thickness of the sheet steel, and multiply
this product by 90. The result is the pressure, in tons, required.
To find the pressure required for punching holes in brass, multi-
ply the diameter of the hole by the thickness, and multiply this
product by 75. It will be understood that the foregoing rules
give only a rough estimate of the punching pressure, since the
latter depends upon the composition of the steel or other ma-
terial to be punched, and may be varied by shear given to the
cutting edges of the punch or die.

Punching Tools and Machines. The tools used for punch-

ing rivet and bolt holes in metal plates, angle irons, 1-beaxns,
channels, etc., vary in size and design from the small hand-
operated types to the large power-driven machines found in boiler
shops, ship yards, and similar places. The term "punch" is com-
monly applied to tools and machines of this class, although,
strictly, the punch is that part of the tool or machine which,
in conjunction with the die, actually performs the punching
 1015 -P
operation. Some punching machines
are designed to punch holes
whereas other machines are adapted either to punch-
exclusively,
ing or shearing by simply attaching suitable tools.
Punch Press Rating. See Power Press Tonnage.

Push-Spindle Grinding Attachment. This is a grinding at-

tachment for bench lathes in which the spindle, which is free to
move in a lengthwise direction, is held by two bearings, and,
when grinding, is transversed by hand, the spindle being driven
by a round belt from an overhead countershaft. See Grinding
Attachment, Push-spindle.
Puzzolan Cement. Same as Pozzuolanie Cement.

Pyrite. Pyrite is an iron ore containing 46.7 per cent of iron.

In its chemical composition it is a sulphide, PeS 2 , having a yel-
low color and producing a green or brownish-black streak on a
porcelain plate. The specific gravity of pyrite varies from 4.8 to
5.2, and the hardness on the Mohs's scale, from 6 to 6.5. This ore
contains too much sulphur to be used directly for the production
of iron and is, therefore, first desulphurized, sulphuric acid being
extracted from the ore as an important product. The ore often
contains copper, and, after the sulphuric acid has been extracted,
the copper is obtained by means of the so-called "wet process,"
after which the ore is used as an iron ore. There are large de-
posits of this ore and it is likely that, when the richer deposits
of oxidized ores have been exhausted, it will gain considerable
importance in the iron industry.

Pyro-Metallurgical Process. This is a method for obtaining

a metal from its ores by means of smelting. See Dry Process.

Pyrometer Paste. Salt mixtures made in the form of paste

are sometimes used for determining temperatures. Different
pastes of various melting points can be placed along a steel bar
and inserted in the furnace, retort, flue, or other point where it
is required to make a temperature determination, and, by noting
which paste melts and which does not, the temperature may be
determined.

Pyrometers. A pyrometer is any device used for measuring

temperatures from about 500 degrees F. and higher. There are
a number of pyrometers based on widely different principles and
of entirely different construction. The most commonly used
pyrometers are of the thermo-electric type. In this type, tem-
perature variations are determined by the measurement of ^an
electric current generated by the action of heat on the junction
of two dissimilar metals. The thermo-couple, consisting of two
pieces of dissimilar metals, is placed at some point within the
P-1016
furnace and is connected by wires with a meter or indicator which
may be close to the furnace or in some other part of the plant
That end of the thermo-couple which extends into the heated
chamber is known as the "hot end," and the two pieces of dis-
similar metals do not touch except at this hot end. The opposite
or "cold ends" which are free or separated are connected by wires
with whatever indicating or recording apparatus is installed.
When the hot end is heated, a feeble electric current is generated.
The electromotive force thus developed depends upon the kind of
metal of which the thermo-couple is made, and upon the difference
between the temperatures of the hot and cold ends. The current
is conducted by wires leading to the meter or indicating part of
the pyrometer outfit. The instrument may be calibrated or grad-
uated to give readings directly in degrees.
The method of utilizing the current to indicate degrees of tem-
perature varies with pyrometers of different makes. Many
pyrometers are so designed that the indicating hand or pointer is
displaced, by the direct action of the current upon a moving ele-
ment, an amount depending upon the strength of the current
generated. In this case, the indicating instrument is a form of
galvanometer or miUivoltmeter. As a feeble current is generated,
a sensitive instrument is required, and one of the important fea-
tures is the method of arranging and supporting the moving
element so that it is actuated by slight changes in the strength
of the current.
The variation in electric conductivity due to changes in tem-
perature is the principle upon which the resistance pyrometer is
based. This type is very accurate for temperatures below 1600
degrees F., but should not be used continuously for higher tem-
peratures. The maximum temperature is about 2200 degrees F.
Radiation pyrometers measure radiated heat and are adapted
for very high temperatures. The Fery radiation pyrometer is
practically a reflecting telescope having a concave mirror which
focuses the radiant heat of the object upon the "hot" junction of
a small thermo-couple. There is a diaphragm for reducing the
aperture when the instrument is pointed at a very hot object, in
order to prevent overheating the thermo-couple. With the Brown
radiation pyrometer, the rays of heat from the furnace or molten
metal which enter the pyrometer tube are reflected from a con-
cave mirror onto a sensitive thermo-couple, and the temperature
is indicated on a miUivoltmeter, graduated in temperature de-

grees, the same as a thermo-electric pyrometer; No part of the

instrument is inserted in the high heat to be measured. If the
temperature of a furnace is to be measured, the tube is either
held on a tripod or in the hand, and is pointed toward the door
 1017 -P
of the furnace. The temperature can then be read off on the
indicator.
There are several classes of optical pyrometers. One type in-
dicates the temperature by heating the filament of an electric
lamp to the same color as that of the incandescent body, the tem-
perature of which is required. The small low-voltage lamp is
placed inside a tube through which the heated object is observed*
To determine the temperature, the current for the lamp is so
regulated (by means of a rheostat) that the color of the lamp
filament corresponds to that of the heated object which is ob-
served through the instrument. The current then being consumed
is indicated by a milliammeter, and the corresponding tempera-
ture is determined. There are several other types of optical
pyrometers. These pyrometers may be used to estimate the high-
est temperatures, and may be used for temperatures above 3000
degrees F., both in laboratory and industrial work. See also
Potentiometer.

Pyrometers, Automatic Control Type. The pyrometer that

automatically controls furnace temperatures is so arranged that
the moving element of the instrument not only indicates the tem-
perature by its position relative to a scale, but by combined
mechanical and electrical apparatus, controls the temperature,
within certain limits, by regulating the heat supply. The pyrome-
ter can be set for any temperature desired within certain maxi-
mum and minimum limits. If the furnace is electrically heated,
the temperature may be regulated by solenoid-operated switches,
which either open and close the main circuit, or are used in con-
junction with rheostats. In the case of gas or oil-fired fur-
naces, electrically or pneumatically operated controlling valves or
dampers are employed, the opening and closing of these valves
being governed by the pyrometer.

Pyrometers, Indicating. Many of the pyrometers used in

heat-treating plants may be designated as the "indicating" type,
since the temperature variations are shown by the position of a
hand or pointer relative to a graduated scale. The indicating
instrument may be located close to the furnace or in some central
station or controlling room. When it is by the furnace, the fur-
nace operator controls the temperature either according to his
experience with similar work, or possibly by reference to data
previously recorded. This is a common method in small plants,
but where a large heat-treating department is installed, a cen-
tralizedsystem of control is quite general.
Pyrometers, Recording. A recording pyrometer is provided
with some kind of marking device which traces either a continu-
ous or a dotted line upon a chart graduated with reference to
P--1018

temperature and time. By referring to one of these charts, the

temperature at any period within the range of the chart is shown
graphically. The chart may be graduated in minutes of time and
may cover a total range of, say, two hours, or the main divisions
may represent hours and cover either a twelve-hour period or a
twenty-four-hour day. Pyrometers are also made to give a con-
tinuous record over long periods. These charts differ in form,
some being circular disks and others of rectangular shape. The
charts or records of temperature variations obtained by means
of recording pyrometers are not only valuable for future refer-
ence, but also enable the superintendent, foreman, or attendant
to watch readily the operation of any furnace by inspecting the
chart whenever convenient. Besides showing the temperatures,
the charts indicate the general trend of any changes which may
occur. The use of recording instruments tends toward greater
uniformity in the quality of heat-treated products.
Multiple Recorder: Where a heat-treating plant contains two
or more furnaces, a pyrometer may be installed that will record
automatically on a chart temperature variations in each furnace
to which it is connected. This type of pyrometer is generally used
when the heat-treating process requires a half-hour or more for
its completion. The pyrometer may be designed especially for

multiply recording or have an auxiliary connecting or switching

device. One type of multiple recorder will produce from two to
eight records on one chart, and when four, six, or eight records
are needed, these are printed on the chart in different colors to
avoid confusion.

Pyrometers, Signaling. In order to dispense with manual

control of temperature signals from a central station, automatic
signaling pyrometers have been developed. One type of signaling
pyrometer is so arranged that the pointer is depressed at inter-
vals upon contacts corresponding to the red, white, and green
lights.The particular contact upon which the pointer is depressed
depends upon the position of the pointer which, in turn, varies
according to the temperature. The three contacts may be ad-
justed to a position corresponding to the temperature to be
maintained. This type of instrument, when provided with a suit-
able switching mechanism, may be arranged to operate batteries
of lights for different furnaces.

Pyrometer, Thermo-Couple. Atype of pyrometer in which

the basic temperature measuring element is a thermo-couple is
widely used in conjunction with steel heat-treating processes. A
thermo-couple consisting of two pieces of dissimilar metals is
placed at some point within the furnace and is connected by wires
with a meter or indicator which may be close to the furnace or
 1019 -P
in some other part of the plant. That end of the thermo-couple
which extends into the heated chamber is known as the hot end,
and the two pieces of dissimilar metals do not touch except at
this hot end. The opposite or cold ends which are free or sep-
arated are connected by wires with whatever indicating or record-
ing apparatus is installed. When the hot end is heated, a feeble
electric current is generated. The current is conducted by wires
leading to the meter or indicating part of the pyrometer outfit
The instrument may be calibrated or graduated to give readings
directly in degrees F. or C.
Either base metal couples, which are made of some nickel al-
loy or of iron-constantin, or rare metal couples, usually of platinum
in conjunction with a platinum alloy, may be utilized. The base
metal couples have the advantage of generating an electromotive
force which is several times as great as that derived from *
platinum alloy couple; consequently, the indicating instrument
can be made less delicate and is not so likely to become deranged.
Another advantage is that for a unit increase in the temperature
of a base metal couple there is approximately a uniform increase
in electromotive force, the relation between the two being repre-
sented by a line that is nearly straight. The result is that the
pyrometer has graduations or divisions that are practically equal
or even, which is preferable to a scale having short divisions lor
the lower temperatures and longer ones for the higher tempera-
tures, or vice versa. Still another advantage is that the increase
of resistance due to an increase of temperature is very low as
compared with a rare metal couple. It is essential that all thermo-
couples which may be used at different times in conjunction with
a pyrometer generate the same electromotive force for a given
temperature; in other words, the thermo-couples should be inter-
changeable. Without this uniform relationship between the tem-
perature and the electromotive force generated, the pyrometer
readings will not be correct. In addition to this quality of
uniformity or accuracy, a reasonable degree of durability is also
important.
 Quadratic Equation. A quadratic equation is one in which
the unknown quantity contained in the second power or in the
is
first and second powers. A
quadratic equation is sometimes called
an equation of the "second degree." See Equations.
Quadric Inch. The expressions "quadric inch" and "quadric
foot" are sometimes used in connection with values denoting the
moment of inertia. The moment of inertia is expressed by the
fourth power of a length dimension; hence, the expression
"quadric inch, foot/' etc., according to whether the inch or foot
is used as the unit length. In expressions containing the moment
of inertia, the quadric dimension is frequently abbreviated in.4 ,
ft. 4 , etc. The expression is not very commonly used.

Quadrivalent. Quadrivalent, also known as tetravalent, is a

term used to indicate that one atom of an element will combine
with four atoms of another element,
Qualitative Analysis. In chemistry, qualitative analysis is
the resolution or division of complex chemical substances into
their elements, when only the kind of constituent elements are
determined, but the percentage contained of each is not of
importance. See Chemical Analysis.
Quantitative Analysis. In chemistry, quantitative analysis is
the resolution or division of complex chemical substances into
their elements when both the constituent elements and the per-
centages of each that are contained in the original substance are
determined. See Chemical Analysis.
Quarter Hammer. This is a small sledge hammer weighing
less than eight pounds. See Sledge Hammers.

Quartering Machine. A
quartering machine is a special de-
sign of horizontal boring machine that is employed exclusively
for boring the crankpin holes in pairs of locomotive driving
wheels. The holes in each pair of wheels must be 90 degrees apart
and they are bored after the wheels are forced on the axle. The
pair of wheels is placed between the centers of the quartering
machine, and the holes are bored by two short boring-bars. One
bar is located on each footstock or center base, and it is carried
by a slide that is adjustable. The angle between the ways upon
which the slides are mounted is 90 degrees, so that the angular
distance between the crankpin holes is also 90 degrees, irrespec-

1020
 1021 -Q
tive of the adjustment of the boring-bars which is made to con-
form to the radius of the crankpin circle. The crankpins in each
pair of driving wheels are placed 90 degrees apart in order that
one side will be developing maximum power when the other side
of the locomotive is passing the dead center position, thus equal-
izing the distribution of the power developed and making it im-
possible for both sides of the locomotive to be on the dead center
at the same time.

Quarternary Alloy. A quarternary alloy is an alloy consist-

ing of four elements. When applied to steel, such an alloy con-
tains, in addition to iron, three alloying elements. Carbon is one
of these, and the other two may be chromium and nickel, silicon
and manganese, etc.

Quarter-Phase Circuit. The expression "quarter-phase" cir-

cuit, also knownas "two-phase" circuit, is used to characterize a
combination of two circuits, energized by alternating electromo-
tive forces which differ in phase by a quarter of a cycle that
is, by 90 electrical degrees.

Quarter-Turn Guide. A
quarter-turn guide, in rolling mill
practice, is a mechanical means for turning a bar, that has passed
through one pass in a rolling mill, through an angle of 90 de-
grees before it passes through the next pass in a continuous mill.
Queen's Metal. Queen's metal is a tin-antimony-copper bear-
ing alloy containing, in addition to the metals mentioned, a small
percentage of either zinc or bismuth. One composition of the
metal contains 88.5 per cent of tin, 7 per cent of antimony,
3.5 per cent of copper, and 1 per cent of zinc. Another composi-
tion contains 88.5 per cent of tin, 7 per cent of antimony, 3.5 per
cent of copper, and 1 per cent of bismuth. Owing to the high
percentage of tin, the metal is rather expensive, but, at the same
time, the high tin content makes it a high-grade bearing metal.

Quenching Apparatus. When steel parts are heated and then

quenched for hardening, excessive distortion may occur, espe-
cially if the cooling is not uniform. To prevent such distortion,
special fixtures, quenching presses or quenching machines are
used for some classes of work. Quenching apparatus may be
applied in hardening circular saws or other disk-shaped parts,
ring gears or other gears, slender shafts, etc. Some apparatus
is designed to prevent distortion by holding the work, while

quenching, between rigid clamping members. It is preferable,

however, to prevent distortion as far as possible, by control of
the quenching medium. One type of machine for slender shafts
or similar parts is designed to insure uniform cooling by rotating
the work rapidly as it is being immersed.
Q-1022
Quenching Press: The Gleason quenching press is designed to
minimize distortion especially in hardening rear axle driving
gears or ring gears. When the quenching press is used, the gears
are held round and fiat, not by great pressures but by control of
the oil circulation and by the variable pressures on the bore and
other sections of the gear. In this way no strains are set up
and the true shape of the gear is maintained by natural laws.
After placing the gear on the lower die, a four-way air valve
is opened and the upper die holder is started on its downward
stroke. The pilot end enters into a segmental bushing and brings
the gear approximately to the center of the machine. A tapered
cone on the pilot enters the bushing, and bears on the correspond-
ingly tapered portions of segments of the bushing. The seg-
ments are pressed outward until they center and "round up"
the bore of the gear after which the upper die which has been
made to suit the shape of the gear, bears on the top of the gear to
hold it fiat. Thus the gear is brought true while in a plastic
condition.
The pressure on the upper die holder increases and submerges
the lower die holder and gear under the oil. In descending the
fresh oil is forced through the teeth of the gear at a high rate.
The gear is free to either shrink or expand but it is always held
round and flat. Areverse movement of the four-way air valve
after a short interval raises the upper die holder clear of the oil
and gear, and one cycle of the machine is completed.
Centrifugal Quenching Machine: A Hannifin quenching ma-
chine that employs centrifugal force to apply the coolant in such
a manner as to reduce distortion of circular or disk-shaped parts
is designed to apply a large volume of quenching fluid at a uni-

form, controlled temperature. The machine is adapted for quench-

ing a wide variety of parts, including disks, flat cams, rings,
bearing races, and similar work.
The heated part, such as the gear indicated in cross-section in
Fig. 1, is placed on the lower fixture in the machine. The inser-
tion and removal of the work at the end of the automatic cycle
of operation is the only handling required. The upper and lower
holding fixtures are designed to meet individual requirements of
the part to be quenched. A mandrel for centering may be pro-
vided, and a certain amount of control of the quenching action
may be obtained when desirable, through the design of suitable
fixtures. The holding
fixtures are automatically operated, and in
closing, provide a mechanical straightening effect or alignment
of the hot part. Referring to Fig. 2, it will be noted that the
hub of the gear, located by a pin on the lower part of the fixture,
is held in place by a plunger in the upper fixture, and that pins
 1023 -Q
in both the upper and lower fixtures clamp or hold the rim of the
gear against warping.
The upper holding fixture is surrounded by a circular quench-
ing chamber, which, when brought down over the work, provides
a circular container for the quenching fluid, as shown in Fig. 2.
When in the closed position, the entire assembly of quenching
chamber, holding fixture, and hot part is rotated by means of a

FIG, 3

Diagrams Illustrating Application of HannHln Centrifugal

Quenching Machine to the Hardening of Gears
Q-1024
motor drive. The quenching fluid is introduced at the outer edge
of the revolving container, as shown in Fig. 3.
The oil is introduced in controlled volume and at a uniform
and accurately controlled temperature. The rotation and the con-
trol of the coolant volume produce a revolving "doughnut" or
ring of quenching oil around the circumference of the chamber.
As the volume of oil isi increased, the hole in the ring of oil con-
tracts or is reduced, as shown in Fig. 4, the quenching action or
effect having advanced rapidly from the circumference of the
part inward or toward the center. The oil flows out of the re-,
volving container, under controlled conditions, so that uniformity
of temperature is maintained by fresh oil. Sectional quenching
under controlled conditions is easily obtained, allowing the cen-
ter of the part to remain hot and unquenched, as indicated by
the cross-sectioned hub of the grear shown in Fig. 4. The
quenched part of this gear, shown in solid black, is hardened,
while the hub portion, shown in cross-section, remains soft.

Quenching Baths. Quenching consists in plunging heated

steel into a bath thus cooling it quickly. By this operation the
structural change caused by the heating seems to be "trapped"
and permanently set. Were it possible to make this cooling in-
stantaneous and uniform throughout the piece, it would be per-
fectly and symmetrically hardened. Clear cold water is com-
monly employed for ordinary carbon steel, and brine is sometimes
substituted to increase the degree of hardness. Sperm and lard
oil baths are used for hardening springs, and raw linseed oil is
excellent for cutters and other small tools. The effect of a bath
upon steel depends upon its composition, temperature, and vol-
ume. The bath should be amply large to dissipate the heat rap-
idly, and the temperature should be kept about constant, so that
successive pieces will be cooled at the same rate. Greater hardness
is obtained from quenching in salt brine and less in oil, than is
obtained by the use of water. This is due to the difference in the
heat-dissipating qualities of these substances. High-speed steel
is cooled for hardening either by means of an air blast or an oil
bath. As a general rule, water should not be used fort high-speed
steel. Various oils, such as cottonseed, linseed, lard, whale oil,
kerosene, etc., are also employed; many prefer cottonseed oil.
Linseed has the objection of becoming gummy, and lard oil has
a tendency to become rancid. Whale oil or fish oil give satisfac-
tory results, but have offensive odors, although this can be over-
come by the addition of about three per cent of heavy "tempering"
oil.

Quenching Baths, Alkaline. Alkaline solutions cool steel

through the critical range or from the hardening temperature
 1025 -Q
to the black stage at a slower rate than oil, which governs the
hardness of the steel. In consequence, the use of alkaline solu-
tions gives the least amount of hardness possible to the work
when quenching in a liquid to the cold stage. The loss in hard-
ness is compensated for by the toughness obtained and the elim-
ination of the tendency to warp. When the hot steel is plunged
into the bath, the "shock" or rapidity of cooling is lessened and
the hardness of the case of the steel is thereby reduced; hence,
the strains, etc., in the main bulk cannot bend it to a position of
strain equilibrium. Alkaline baths are adaptable to treating steel
parts such as axles, etc., when certain physical properties are
desired. In case-hardening, alkaline solutions are well adapted
for core refinement of delicate parts that would warp excessively
if quenched in a faster cooling medium. Materials employed in
preparing alkaline quenching solutions are lye, soda ash, soap,
etc., and these are used in various amounts according to the final
results desired. Alkaline solutions are not generally used, for the
reason that, with the different grades of steels that can be ob-
tained, a grade can almost always be selected that will give the
desired physical properties by quenching in oil or water.

Quenching Baths, Oil. Oil is used extensively as a quench-

ing medium, since it gives the best proportions of hardness,
toughness, and warpage for standard steels. Fish and cotton-
seed oils have been supplanted to a great extent by special com-
pounded oils of the soluble type. The soluble properties enable
the oil to make an emulsion with water, which constitutes a slight
advantage, because if water gets into the oil it combines with it
to form a medium which cools the work slightly faster than oil
alone. In non-soluble oils, the water does not emulsify with the
oil, but goes to the bottom of the quenching tank, and as the hot
steel passes through the oil to the water it receives unequal hard-
ening strains. Agood quenching oil should possess a flash and
fire point sufficiently high to be safe under the conditions used,
and 350 degrees F. should be about the minimum point. Its
viscosity should be such as to allow it to drain readily from the
work and circulate itself freely by a thermo-syphon action. The
specific heat of the regulates the hardness and toughness of
oil
the quenched steel, and the greater the specific heat is, the harder
the steel will be. Viscosity must also be considered in this respect
to some extent. Specific heats of quenching oils vary from 0.20
to 0.75, the specific heats of fish, animal, and vegetable oils usually
being from 0.2 to 0.4, and of soluble and mineral oils, from 0.5 to
0.7. The oil should not contain water, should not gum in use,
should not be of a disagreeable odor, become rancid, or have a
skin-drying effect on the bodies of the workmen. A great many
Q-1026
concerns use paraffin and mineral oils for quenching, while a few
use crude fuel oils.
Oil Bath Cooling Methods: Keeping the quenching bath cool is
important when using oil, and there are three ways of doing
this: (1) By using a large quantity of oil. (2) By circulating
the past colder objects. (3) By passing colder liquids in pipes
oil
through the oil. When using large quantities of oil, the oil will
retain approximately its surrounding temperature if there is one
gallon used for every pound of steel quenched per hour, and the
circulation of the oil past the steel is about one gallon per hour.
The oil circulation may be accomplished by the agitation of the
oil caused by quenching the work and by the thermo-syphon action
of the oil, or by storing the oil in a separate tank and pumping
to and from the quenching tank.
When circulating the oil past colder objects, the oil is pumped
from the quenching tank through a pipe to the cooler. The cooler
may be a brine tank cooled by an ammonia refrigerating system;
a reversed water heater in which the oil passes through many
lengths of piping about which cold water flows ; a series of metal
sheets set at angles on which the oil is sprayed and allowed to
flow from one to the other in a downward zig-zag motion after
which it is collected and pumped back to the quenching tank; or
an open tank in which half of the periphery of many revolving
disks are placed in the oil, and air is blown over the exposed disks
which are covered with a film of oil as they revolve. When passing
colder liquids in pipes through the oil, the oil itself is not circu-
lated. Pipes may be laid in the bottom or at the sides of the
tank through which cold water can be forced. Cold brine from
an ammonia refrigerating system is used in large installations of
this type.

Quick-Break Lever Switches. A quick-break lever switch is

a plain lever switch with each pole equipped with an auxiliary
blade pivoted to the main blade and so arranged that the auxiliary
blade will remain in contact in the contact clip until the main
blade has been opened to a certain predetermined amount.
Then the auxiliary blade is forced out of contact by an arrange-
ment on the main blade, and quickly follows the main blade due
to the action of a spring. The current in the circuit when the
switch is opened under load is broken on the auxiliary contacts
which are moving rapidly when they leave the contact, thus
quickly rupturing the arc without damage to the main blade.
Quicksilver. See Mercury.
Bench Lathes. A quill is an auxiliary spindle that
Quill for
is used on bench lathes for holding and revolving parts that
require extreme accuracy in the location of holes, etc. The spindle
 1027 -Q
revolves in a bearing or "quill rest/' which, in turn, is mounted
on the bench-lathe bed in front of the headstock. The work may
be held either in a "chuck quill" or be attached to a "faceplate
quill"; special fixtures are also attached to the end of the quill
spindle.
The quitt driver is a special coupling used for driving a bench-
lathe quill so that any jar that may be imparted to the lathe
spindle by the belt joint as it passes over the cone pulley is not
transmitted to the quill spindle.
Quill Punches. Piercing punches of the type shown at A
and B are called "quill" punches and are used where a large
amount of stock is to be pierced or when the stock is thick in pro-
portion to the diameter of
the punch. The piercing
punch is held in position
by the quill or punch-
holder which is driven
tightly into the punch-
plate. The piercing punch
is slightlydriven into the
holder andis made of
drill rod! so that it can
very readily be replaced
in case it is broken. The
upper end of punch is A
riveted over as shown.
The holder shown at B is
equipped with a backing
screw for the punch so
that the latter can be
adjusted vertically. The
Quilt Punches
punch is retained by a
set-screw.
Another method of guiding and steadying a slender punch,
which is sometimes employed, consists in using straight drill rod
for the punch which is supported at its lower end by the stripper
plate attached to the die. Instead of making the punch straight
throughout its length, it is good practice to use drill rod of stand-
ard size and then turn down the lower end for a length of about
% inch and to the diameter of the hole to be pierced. This allows
the body part of the punch to be well entered into the stripper
plate, in which it should be a close fit, before the piercing opera-
tion begins, so that the! punch is rigidly supported when at work.
The body of the punch should be a driving fit into the punch-
plate and be riveted over at the upper end and filed flush.
When
made in this way, the punch will be rigid, even though it is used
Q-1028
for piercing small holes, and, if it is well supported in the stripper
plate, a much smaller punch can be employed than would be pos-
sible otherwise. When piercing heavy stock, it is well to insert
a hardened steel disk in the punch-holder just above each piercing
punch. This disk prevents the end of the punch from compressing
the metal and thus working a depression into it, which would
allow the punch to slide up and down at each stroke of the press.

Quinquevalent. Quinquevalent, also known as pentavalent,

isa term used to indicate that an atom of one element will com-
bine with five atoms of another element.
 Rabbeted The rabbeted joint for the corners of pat-
Joint.
from a plain butted joint in that one
terns, boxes, etc., differs
corner piece is rabbeted to form a shoulder for supporting the
other corner piece against inward thrusts. See Joint Used in
Patternmaking.
Race. The race of a bearing is the groove in which the
ball
balls roll; the term applied to the part in which this groove
is also
is cut The "inner race" is the part mounted on the shaft, and
the "outer race" is the part surrounding the balls and mounted
in the supporting structure.

Rack. A rack may be defined as a spur gear having a radius

of infinite length, the pitch-line of a rack being straight. Backs
are commonly used to transmit from a rotating pinion, linear
motion to a machine table, slide or other part. In the involute
system of gear teeth, the sides of an unmodified rack tooth are
straight and inclined from the vertical to the same angle as the
pressure angle. The basic rack of the standard 14%-degree com-
posite system (full depth tooth) has a straight mid-section and
cycloidal curves? above and below.
Rack, Basic for Standard Gear Teeth. See Gear Tooth
Standards.
Rack Cutting. Rack teeth may be cut by milling with a
formed cutter, by planing with a formed tool or by a generating
method. When the milling process is employed, the rack teeth
are produced either by feeding a formed cutter across the rack
blank or by causing the rack to feed past the cutter. After milling
each tooth space, either the rack or the cutter is indexed an
amount equal to the linear pitch of the rack teeth (or circular
pitch of the mating pinion) except when two or more finishing
cutters are used.
Rack-cutting Attachment: This attachment for a milling
machine has a horizontal cutter spindle which normally is at right
angles to the machine spindle. This cutter spindle is so mounted
in the body of the attachment that the cutter may be traversed
across the work without interference between the work and the
attachment. The spindle is driven from the main spindle of the
machine through suitable gearing, and the rack teeth are formed
by cutting spaces straight across the blank; after each tooth space
is milled, the machine table and work is indexed for cutting the
next tooth space.
1029
R-1030
Generating Method: A rack can be designed, for any system
of interchangeable gearing, which will mesh correctly with a
range of gear sizes of the same pitch. Moreover, all gears that
will mesh properly with the rack will also mesh with one another.
Gear-cutting processes of the generating class are based on this
interchangeable feature. In generating the teeth of spur gears,
the cutter represents either a rack or a gear of the interchange-
able series, and it cuts or generates teeth as the uncut gear blank
and cutter are given movements, relative to each other, similar
to a finished gear running in mesh either with a rack or with
another gear.
Rack teeth can be generated merely by reversing this gear-
cutting process. When this method is employed in connection with
a gear shaper, the cutter is a circular or gear-shaped form and
the rack teeth are generated as the rack moves longitudinally
past the cutter which rotates 'slowly the same as if it were in
mesh with the rack. As the cutter rotates, it also has a recipro-
cating motion for traversing it across the rack. The design of the
Fellows rack shape** is based upon this principle.
Radial Bearing. A radial bearing, also known as a journal
bearing, is a support for a shaft or axle, in which the load acts
at right angles to the axis of the shaft. This term is used in
contradistinction to thrust bearing, in which the load acts parallel
to the axis of the shaft. A radial ball bearing is a ball bearing
in which the bearing with its balls surrounds a shaft, and the
load, acting at right angles to the shaft, is transmitted through
the balls.

Radial Drilling Machine. A radial drilling machine differs

from the regular upright machine in that the drilling head is
mounted upon a radial arm adjustable vertically and also hori-
zontally by swinging the arm about its supporting column. The
drilling head may also be moved along this radial arm, to the re-
quired position for drilling, instead of adjusting the work or table
each time a new hole is to be drilled. Because of this feature,
the radial drilling machine is especially adapted to heavy work,
as a number of holes can be drilled by simply adjusting the drill
head to the proper position. A
drilling machine known as a post
or wall radial type is, in principle, constructed along the same
.lines as a plain radial drilling machine, but, instead of being
provided with a base, it is arranged to be attached to a wall or
post.
Radian. A radian is the unit of measurement of angles in
what is termed "circular treasure." In practical work, angles
are always measured in degrees and minutes, but, in theoretical
investigations and in formulas relating to revolving bodies, circu-
 1031 -R
iar measure is often employed. A radian is the angle at the cen-
which embraces an arc equal in length to the length
ter of a circle
of the radius of the circle. The value of a radian in degrees
equals 180 -~ TT =
57.2958 degrees. In circular measure, * de-
notes an angle of 180 degrees, and v -^ 2, an angle of 90 degrees.
It is especially convenient to measure angles in radians when
dealing with angular velocity, because, in this case, a very sim-
ple relationship is obtained between angular velocity, linear
velocity, and the radius of the revolving body. This is the reason
for using the radian as a unit of angular measurement. If <o s=
angular velocity per second of revolving body, in radians, t; t=
velocity of a point on the periphery of a body, in feet per second;
r =: the radius, in feet; then a =
v -5- r.

Radiant Heat. See Conduction*

Radiation of Heat. When a body is at a higher temperature

than surrounding bodies, it will radiate heat to those that are of
a lower temperature. The heat rays proceed in straight lines and
the intensity of the heat radiated from any one source varies in-
versely as the square of the distance from the source. The rate
at which heat is radiated by one body and absorbed by another
depends upon the temperature difference and the character of the
radiating and absorbing surfaces. Dark and rough surfaces
radiate and absorb more heat than smooth and polished surfaces;
hence, the covering of steam pipes and boilers should be smooth
and of light color. Polished pipes will lose less heat than those
that are left rough. The quantity of heat radiated by a body is
also a measure of the amount of heat that it win absorb if it is
exposed to the rays of heat A polished surface will absorb only
part of the heat and reflect the remainder, while a black and
rough surface will absorb nearly all of the heat.
Use of Metallic Paint on Radiators: In experiments made with
steam and hot water radiators, coated with aluminum paint, it
has been found that only about 80 per cent as much heat is con-
veyed into the room to be heated as when the radiators are coated
with zinc oxide paint, green or white enamel, or terra cotta shel-
lac varnish. In general, a gain of from 15 to 20 per cent in heat
dissipation into a room may be expected by covering the ordinary
radiator with non-metallic paint instead of with an aluminum or
bronze paint. By non-metallic paint is meant a covering that
does not contain flakes of pure metal, such as aluminum or bronze.
If the radiator is already coated with aluminum paint, the re-
quired effect may be obtained by painting the non-metallic coating
over the aluminum paint. Aluminum paint apparently is a poor
radiator of heat. The non-metallic coating need not be a black
paint. The white lead and zinc oxide paints and enamels, the
R-1032
chrome-colored pigments, and the greenish colored oxides, such as
chromium oxide, offer a variety of tints for decorative purposes,
with greater efficiency in heat dissipation.

Radical in Chemistry. A radical is a group of atoms which

remains unchanged during a series of chemical reaction, and
hence may be regarded as replaceable by a single atom.

Radical in Mathematics. A radical is an expression indi-

cating a root, as V"& The "radical sign" is the root sign ( -\f).
Radio Frequency. A radio frequency is a frequency usually
higher than those frequencies corresponding to normally audible
sound waves and lower than those corresponding to heat and light
waves. Roughly, the practicable limits of radio frequency extend
from 10 kilocycles per second to 2000 megacycles per second.
Radium. Radium is a metallic chemical element, the symbol
of which is Ra, and the atomic weight, 226.4. Radium is a rare
metal found only in small quantities and commanding a very high
price. It is one of the most remarkable of all metals. It emits
light rays which like the X-rays are invisible, but which traverse
sheets of glass or metal and cannot be refracted. Radium emits
three kinds of rays, which for convenience are called alpha, beta,
and gamma rays. Of these, the gamma rays, which greatly re-
semble the Roentgen or X-rays, have tremendous penetrating
power.
Radius of Gyration. The center of gyration with reference
to an axis is the point at which the entire mass of a body may
be considered as concentrated, the moment of inertia, meanwhile,
remaining unchanged; or, in a revolving body, the center of gyra-
tion is the point at which the whole mass of the body may be
considered as concentrated, the angular velocity remaining the
same. The radius of gyration is the distance from this point to
the axis of rotation. If W
is the weight of a body; /, its moment
of inertia; and k, the radius of gyration, g =
32.16, then:

\7g Wk*

To find the radius of gyration of an area, such as the cross-

section of a beam, divide the moment of inertia of the area by the
area, and extract the square root. The square of the radius of
gyration of an oscillating body is equal to the product of the
radius of oscillation multiplied by the distance of the center of
gravity of the suspended body from the point of suspension.
When the axis, with reference to which the radius of gyration is
taken, passes through the center of gravity, the radius of gyra-
tion is the least possible and is called the principal radius of
 1033 -R
gyration. For a solid cylindrical body, such as a disk or emery
wheel, the radius of gyration is equal to the radius of the disk
divided by ^/2or radius X0.707. For a flywheel rim, it is suf-
ficientlyaccurate to assume the radius of gyration to be the dis-
tance from the center to a point halfway between the outer and
inner edges of the rim. Formulas for the radius of gyration for
bodies of all ordinary geometrical shapes will be found in standard
engineering handbooks.
Radius of Oscillation. See Center of Oscillation.

Rails for Railroads. A rail length of 39 feet was adopted as

a standard in railroad rail specifications at a convention of the
American Railway Engineering Association in 1925. The 45-foot
length is claimed to be the most economical and desirable, but
average car lengths do not conveniently permit of their trans-
portation, and mill facilities are not, at present, adapted to their
manufacture. The reason for the use of longer rails is that joints
of whatever type used constitute a heavy item of expense, both in
respect to their first cost and their maintenance. By increasing
the length of rails from 33 to 39 feet, the number of joints is
reduced about 15 per cent.
For information concerning the minimum and maximum sizes
and weights of both "light rails" and the American Railway
Association's rails, see Structural Shapes.

Rake of Metal-Cutting Tools. When a lathe or other metal-

cutting tool is so ground that the surface against which the chips
bear, while being severed, inclines in such a way as to increase the
keenness of the cutting edge, it is said to have "rake." If the in-
clination is such as to give the tool less keenness than is equivalent
to a rake angle of zero, the term negative rake is often used.
The amount of rake or slope that a tool should have depends upon
the work for which it is intended. If, for example, a turning tool
is to be used for roughing medium or soft steel, it should have
a back slope of about 8 degrees and a side slope ranging from
14 to 20 degrees, while a tool for cutting very hard steel should
have a back slope of about 5 degrees and a side slope of 9 degrees.

Ram, Hydraulic. See Hydraulic Ram.

Rankine, Degrees. Degrees Rankine (absolute temperature

scale) equal degrees Fahrenheit plus 459.69.

Rankine's Formulas. These formulas were developed for the

calculation of the strength of columns. They are also known as
Gordon's formulas. According to these formulas, if S the =
ultimate compressive strength of the material in pounds per
R-1034
square inch, I= the length of the column or strut in inches, r &=
the least radius of gyration in inches (r2 s= moment of inertia
divided by area of section) and p
, = the ultimate load in pounds
per square inch; then for steel columns with both ends fixed:

25,000 r*

and for cast-iron columns with both ends fixed

For Rankine's formulas covering other conditions of columns, and

Euler's formulas for slender columns, see MACHINERY'S Handbook.

Raoult's Method. This is a process for determining atomic

weights based upon the discovery that the molecular weight of a
compound may be determined from the changes caused in the
freezing or boiling point of a liquid in which the compound is
dissolved. The method can be used only with substances which
have no chemical action upon the solvent.

Rapping Plates. Rapping plates for patterns are pieces of

metal let in flush with the joint or cope side of the pattern and
fastened with screws. They come in different shapes and sizes
and are provided with a central hole that is tapped to receive the
threaded end of a lifting iron. In addition to the tapped hole,
there are one or more plain holes for the reception of a rapping
bar. Countersunk holes are provided for fastening screws.

Rasps. A rasp is a file having teeth that are round on the top
and disconnected, the teeth having been formed by raising small
portions of the stock from the surface of the blank. This type of
file isused for heavy, rough filing, where a considerable amount
of material is to be removed, but where a smooth surface is not
required. There are several different types of rasps. Their
names and general features follow:
Cabinet: Flat on one side, convex on the other. Width and
thickness tapered. Edges slightly blunted and cut.
Horse, Plain: No tang. Rasp cut on one side, file cut on the
other.
Horse, Tanged: Similar to horse, plain, but with tang.
Shoe, Flat: Section uniform throughout. One half of each face
cut with rasp teeth, the other half with file teeth.
Shoe, Half-round: Flat on one side, convex on the other. Other-
wise, similar to flat shoe rasp.
 1035- fc

Wood, Flat: Width and thickness tapered.

Wood, Half-round: Similar to cabinet rasp, but coarser.
Ratchet Drills. The ratchet drill is a hand-operated tool and
is generally applied to work which cannot be taken to a drilling
machine. For instance, ratchet drills are often used for drilling
holes in boilers, frames, bed-plates, or other heavy machine parts,
especially in connection with the erection or repair of machinery
and when a power-driven portable drilling machine is not avail-
able or cannot be used for lack of room. It is necessary to pro-
vide a support for the feed-screw end of the ratchet so that the
drill can be forced into the metal as it is turned by a ratchet
lever. In many cases, a part of the machine may be used for
this purpose. If there is no rigid backing for the ratchet, the
usual method is to clamp or bolt a brace or "old man" near the
point where the hole is to be drilled. This brace has an adjustable
arm which is clamped at the proper height, and the conical point
of the ratchet feed-screw is engaged with one of the numerous
center holes which are usually formed on the lower side of the
arm. Some ratchet drills are designed to rotate the drill in one
direction only, whereas others are reversible.

,
Ratchet Gearing. Ratchet gearing in its simplest form con-
sists of a toothed ratchet wheel a (see diagram A), and a pawl
or detent 6, and it may be used to transmit intermittent motion
or to prevent relative motion between two parts except in one
direction. The pawl 6 is pivoted to lever c which, when given an
oscillating movement, imparts an intermittent rotary movement
to ratchet wheel a. Diagram B illustrates another application of
the ordinary ratchet and pawl mechanism. In this instance, the
pawl is pivoted to a stationary member and its only function is
to prevent the ratchet wheel from rotating backward. With the
stationary design, illustrated at C, the pawl prevents the ratchet
wheel from rotating in either direction, so long as it is in en-
gagement with the wheel. The principle of the multiple-pawl
ratchet gearing is illustrated at D, which illustrates the use of
two pawls. As will be seen, one of these pawls is longer than the
other, by an amount equal to one-half the pitch of the ratchet-
wheel teeth, so that the practical effect is that of reducing the
pitch one-half. By placing a number of driving pawls side by
side and proportioning their lengths according to the pitch of the
teeth, a very fine feed can be obtained with a ratchet wheel of
comparatively coarse pitch.
The type of ratchet gearing shown at E is sometimes employed
to impart a rotary movement to the ratchet wheel for both the
forward and backward motions of the lever to which the two
pawls are attached. A simple form of reversing ratchet is illus-
R-1036
trated at F. The teeth of the wheel are so shaped that either side
may be used for driving by simply changing the position of the
double-ended pawl, as indicated by the full and dotted lines. An-
other form of reversible ratchet gearing for shapers is illustrated
at G. The pawl, in this case, instead of being a pivoted latch, is
in the form of a plunger which is free to move in the direction
of its axis, but is normally held into engagement with the ratchet

Different Forms of Ratchet Gearing

wheel by a small spring. When the pawl is lifted and turned one-
half revolution, the driving face then engages the opposite sides
of the teeth and the ratchet wheel is given an intermittent rotary
motion in the opposite direction.
The frictioncd type of ratchet gearing differs from the designs
previously referred to, in that there is no positive engagement
between the driving and driven members of the ratchet mechan-
ism, the motion being transmitted by frictional resistance. One
 1037 -R
type of frictional ratchet gearing is illustrated at H. Boilers or
balls are placed between the ratchet wheel and an outer ring
which, when turned in one direction, causes the rollers or balls
to wedge between the wheel and ring as they move up the inclined
edges of the teeth. Diagram / illustrates one method of utilizing
ratchet gearing for moving the driven member in a straight line,
as in the case of a lifting jack. The pawl g is pivoted to the
operating lever of the jack and does the lifting, whereas the
pawl h holds the load while the lifting pawl g is being returned
preparatory to another lifting movement.
Rate of Combustion for Boilers. The weight of coal burned
in a per square foot of grate surface per hour is called the
boiler,
rate of combustion. This rate commonly varies from 12 to
25 pounds in the case of power plants operating under natural
draft, increasing to 30 pounds or more when forced draft is em-
ployed. With heating boilers, the combustion is somewhat less, as
it is unusual to force the boilers so much, except in large plants.
Here the rate drops to 8 or 10 pounds in boilers of medium size,
and to 6 or 7 in those of small size, depending upon the care they
receive and the strength of chimney draft.

Rate of Evaporation. The weight of dry steam evaporated

in a boiler per pound of coal is called the rate of evaporation.
This rate varies with the character of the heating surface and
its relation to the grate area. In power boilers of good design,
the rate of evaporation generally varies from 9 to 10 pounds,
while in the case of heating boilers, it is more commonly 7 or
8 pounds.

Ratio. The ratio between two quantities is the quotient ob-

tained by dividing the first quantity by the second. For example,
the ratio between 3 and 12 is %, and the ratio between 12 and 3
is 4. Ratio is generally indicated by the sign ( :) ; thus 12 : 3 in-
dicates the ratio 12 to 3. A reciprocal or inverse ratio is the
reciprocal of the original ratio. Thus, the inverse ratio of 5 : 7
is 7 : 5.

Ratio of Expansion. The ratio of expansion in a steam en-

gine cylinder is the reciprocal of the cut-off, that is, if the cut-
off is %, the ratio of expansion is 4. In other words, it is the
ratio of the final volume of the steam at the end of the stroke
to its volume at the point of cut-off. For example, a cylinder
takes steam at boiler pressure until the piston has moved one-
fourth the length of its stroke; the valve now closes and expan-
sion takes place until the stroke is completed. The one-fourth
cylinderful of steam has expanded to four times its original
volume, 333.3 the ratio of expansion is said to be 4.
R-1038
The most economical ratio of expansion depends largely upon
the type of the engine. In the case of simple engines, the ratio
is limited to 4 or 5, on account of excessive cylinder condensation
in case of larger ratios. This limits the initial pressure to an
average of about 90 pounds for engines of this type. In the case
of compound engines, a ratio of from 8 to 10 is commonly em-
ployed to advantage, while, with triple-expansion engines, ratios
of 12 to 15 have given good results.

Ratio of Slenderness. In the calculation of columns an ex-

pression "ratio of slenderness" is frequently used. This ratio is
obtained by dividing the length of the column by the radius of
gyration, and is simply a number which indicates the length of a
column as compared with the important dimensions based upon its
cross-section. The ratio of slenderness determines evidently to a
considerable extent the load to which a column may be subjected.
This load also depends to a large extent upon whether the ends
of the column are fixed or hinged.

Ratios, Speed-Changing Mechanisms. See under Speed-

changing Mechanisms.
Reactance. When alternating current flows in a circuit com-
posed of elements having either inductance or capacity (theoreti-
cally, all elements have both, if only in a minute degree) , there is
set up an opposition to the flow of current, in addition to that
provided by any resistance therein, which has been given the
name of reactance. The amount of reactance depends upon the
amounts of inductance and capacity in the circuit or element and
also is a function of the current frequency. It is measured in
ohms, the same as resistance, and is equal to the component of
the impressed electromotive force at right angles to the current
divided by the current.
Inductive reactance, such as that provided by a wire coil, is
opposite in effect to capacitive reactance, such as that provided
by a condenser, in that the former causes a current to lag behind
the voltage producing it, while the latter causes the current to
lead the voltage which produces it. Both inductive and capacitive
reactance are in quadrature with resistance.
Reactance Coils. Reactance coils are designed to have a high
amount of inductive reactance for a given frequency range and
thus tend to limit the flow of alternating current through them
at such frequencies. Reactance coils are used in power systems
to limit the flow of current in case of short circuit while the
damaged part is being isolated. They are used extensively in
telephone and radio circuits as choke and filter coils in associa-
tion with resistances and condensers. When so used, they prevent
the passage of unwanted currents at certain frequencies while
 1039 -R
permitting the passage of other currents at desired frequencies.
This is possible because the reactive values of both coils and
condensers vary with the frequency, and they may be combined in
such a way as to offer little or no reactance at certain frequencies,
while, at the same time, offering extremely high reactance to
other frequencies.

Reading Mechanical Drawings. The expression "reading a

drawing" simply means obtaining a clear understanding of it, by
referring to the different views. Experienced draftsmen, ma-
chinists, toolmakers, and patternmakers are all able to read draw-
ings, although it does not follow that they could make a suitable
drawing. Everyone can understand an ordinary perspective
drawing, because it represents the object as it would actually ap-
pear to the eye, but a mechanical drawing with its different views,
numerous full and dotted lines, dimensions, symbols or abbrevia-
tions is comparatively complex, although it shows to the trained
eye a great deal more than would be possible, in most cases, by
a perspective drawing. The first step in learning how to read
drawings is to study elementary mechanical drawing principles;
the use of different views for representing different sides of a
mechanical device and the use of other features common to me-
chanical drawings, such as dotted lines to represent concealed
parts, sections, and the meaning of certain abbreviations. The
best plan is to begin with simple drawings and then practice
reading more complex ones, securing as great a variety as pos-
sible. In reading a drawing, it is advisable to visualize the ob-
ject as far as possible, or see it in the mind's eye as it would
appear when constructed. This is where the imagination comes
into play and also the ability to grasp readily the relation between
the different views by glancing from one view to the other. For
instance, if there are front, plan, and side views, these separate
views on the drawing are combined mentally so that the mental
picture corresponds to that of the object.

Reagent. A reagent, in chemistry, is any substance which

isused to effect a chemical change in another substance for the
purpose of chemical analysis.
Realgar. Realgar a compound of arsenic and sulphur
is

(chemical formula, As2 S 2 )

. It occurs in nature in prismatic cry-
stals and has a specific gravity of 3.5. It is prepared artificially
by fusing together arsenic and sulphur, but the resulting product
varies somewhat in composition.

Reamer. Reamers are used for two purposes: (1) for pro-
ducing a hole that is smooth and true to size, and (2) for en-
larging cored or drilled holes. With reference to the manner in
which reamers are made, they may be divided into solid and in-
R-1040
serted-blade reamers, the latter usually being adjustable for size.
Hand reamers include straight reamers intended to be used by
hand for producing holes that are smooth and true to size. Fluted
chucking reamers are used in machines for enlarging holes and
finishing them smooth and true to size. Rose chucking reamers
are used in machines for enlarging cored holes and are so con-
structed that they are able to remove a considerable amount of
metal. Shell reamers are provided with a hole through the center
in order to save the material which otherwise would be used for
the reamer shank, and are mounted by means of this hole on
arbors. Shell reamers may be either of the fluted chucking or the
rose chucking reamer type. Taper reamers are used for reaming
the holes for standard taper sockets, standard taper pins, and, in
general, tapered holes that must be true as regards size and taper.
Pipe reamers constitute a large class of taper reamers ; they are
used for reaming taper holes previous to tapping the taper pipe
taps. Center reamers are used for reaming the center holes in
work that is to be held between the centers in different types of
machine tools. Jobbers' reamers are similar to hand reamers and
are used for similar purposes, but are provided with a taper shank
so that they may be used in machines. Taper bridge reamers are
a special type of reamers used for reaming rivet holes in struc-
tural construction work. Grooved chucking reamers are used for
enlarging cored holes. They are fluted with spiral grooves like a
twist drill and may be said to occupy a place on the boundary
between reamers and drills.
Reamers used on cast iron and steel usually are fluted so that
the teeth are either radial or slightly ahead of the center. If the
faces of the teeth are ahead of the center, this provides negative
rake, which is desirable for reamers used on brass work.
Reamer Clearance. A reamer having proper clearance cuts
freely and smoothly. There are three kinds of clearance, which
may be described in the following order: 1. Longitudinal, which
nearly all reamers should have to some extent. This is a slight
taper which makes the reamer smaller toward the shank in order
to prevent the back end from enlarging the hole or dragging and
thereby roughing up the hole. 2, The clearance on the entering
end of the teeth which every reamer ought to have, 3. The clear-
ance along the sides of the teeth or on the peripheral part of the
reamer. The latter is sometimes called radial clearance or relief.
Reamer Teeth Spacing. There are three methods of spacing
reamer teeth. First, they may be spaced evenly around the en-
tire surface; second, the spacing may be irregular but with one
half of the circumference corresponding to the other half, so that
the cutting edges are diametrically opposite; and third, the spac-
ing may be irregular around the entire circumference. The object
 1041 -R
of uneven spacing is to eliminate chatter and produce smoother
holes than are obtained with uniformly spaced teeth. Some con-
tend that a reamer spaced according to the second method is liable
to chatter and that no two cutting edges should be diametrically
opposite.
It is undoubtedly true that an odd number of teeth in a reamer
favors smoother work than an even number of equally spaced
teeth. The reason for this is as follows In a reamer having an
:

even number of teeth, any ridge or hard spot in the work tends
to push the tooth away at that point and the action is transmitted
diametrically across the reamer to the opposite side of the hole.
Tf the reamer has an odd number of teeth, the effect is trans-
mitted across the hole to two teeth instead of one and is, there-
fore, less than if concentrated on one tooth. In other words, the
irregularities are not see-sawed back and forth across the hole by
the action of the teeth as much with an uneven number of teeth
as with an even number. The average manufacturer, however,
prefers reamers with an even number of teeth because of the dif-
ficulty of measuring those with an odd number of teeth. Reamers
that have an even number of teeth, but with the spacing broken
up so that it is irregular, can be made to ream a hole as true as
an odd-toothed reamer.
Reaumur Thermometer. The thermometer which is most
commonly used for general purposes in Germany and other Ger-
man speaking countries is the Keaumur thermometer, introduced
about 1730 by the French scientist Reaumur. On the Reaumur
scale, the freezing point of water is located at 0, and the boiling
point of water, at atmospheric pressure, at 80 degrees. The fol-
lowing formulas may be used for converting temperatures given
on the Reaumur scale to temperatures on the Centigrade and
Fahrenheit scales :

_ __
Degrees Reaumur t=
4 X degrees C.
= *
5
_ 4 V (degrees F* 82)
Degrees Reaumur e= 5
" *

For scientific work the Centigrade scale is used almost exclu-

sively in all countries.

Recalescence Point. The recalescence point, sometimes des-

ignated Ar. 1, is the temperature at which the internal structure
of steel which has been heated above the decalescence point and
then allowed to cool slowly, changes back to the structural condi-
tion existing before the steel was heated above the decalescence
point. When a piece of steel has been heated above the hardening
temperature and is permitted to cool slowly, its temperature falls
uniformly until the recalescence point is reached, but here the
R-1042
internal changes of the carbon and iron that take place evolve a
certain amount of heat, so that the temperature remains sta-
tionary for a short time, and sometimes even rises slightly. After
the internal changes have taken place, the steel will continue to
cool off gradually. The recalescence point for different kinds of
steel varies, but is about from 1325 to 1400 degrees P.

Recarburizing. Eecarburizing is the process of adding carbon

to the charge in a Bessemer converter. The usual recarburizers
are ferro-manganese, spiegeleisen, ferro-silicon, and silico-spiegel.

Receiver, Air. See Air Eeceiver.

Recessing Tool. A recessing tool is a cutting tool intended

for cutting an internal groove or recess in a machine part. Re-
cesses are often cut on the inside of castings and forgings in
places which may be rather inaccessible. Special tool-holders and
devices, all of which are generally classified as "recessing tools/'
are sometimes used for this purpose.

Rectifier. Rectifiers are devices which are so designed as to

permit an appreciable flow of current through them in one direc-
tion only. They are used for the purpose of rectifying alternat-
ing current, i.e., changing it into direct current. For supplying
power in any quantity, some form of mercury rectifier is generally
used. The mercury arc type consists of a tube containing mer-
cury vapor under low pressure, together with a pool of mercury
which acts as a cold cathode and an anode usually of graphite.
Operation of the rectifier is based on the observed fact that the
passage of current from the anode to the cathode may be easily
effected, but high resistance is offered to the passage of current
in the opposite direction. A different type of mercury rectifier
with a hot cathode is known as the "Phanatron," while a third
type has a grid in addition to the hot cathode and this is called
a "Thyratron." This latter type may be used to rectify alternat-
ing current at any frequency or for converting the frequency of
alternating current or for converting direct current into alternat-
ing current. Considerable attention has been given to developing
the use of the Thyratron rectifier for supplying direct current for
long distance transmission at high voltages.
There are several other types of rectifiers which are used where
power requirements are small, The Tungar rectifier, which con-
sists essentially of a two-element electronic tube, is one of these.
The so-called disc type of rectifier utilizes copper oxide, copper
sulphide, or some similar type of coated disc which offers a high
resistance to the passage of current in one direction but not in
the other. Certain electrolytes and crystals have similar proper-
ties, but their current-carrying capacities are usually small.
 1043 -R
Rectilinear Crane. This is a crane in which the load is first
moved in a straight line in one direction and then in a straight
line in a direction at right angles to the first. The over-head
traveling crane is an example of this type. Some rectilinear
cranes are provided with movement for the load in one direction
only.

Red Brass. The alloy known as "red brass," contains 85 per

cent of copper, 5 per cent of tin, 5 per cent of lead, and 5 per
cent of zinc. This is the recognized standard red brass. There
are numerous modifications, for various purposes. A
metal used
widely for pump bodies, valves, and similar parts, known as red
composition or ounce metal has the same composition as red brass.
For general service, this is regarded as an excellent bearing
metal.

Red Hardness. A term sometimes applied in connection

with high-speed steel because of its property of retaining a suf-
ficient hardness for cutting metals even when heated to a tem-
perature high enough to cause dull redness. The property of red
hardness is conferred upon the steel by the presence of tungsten
and by the heat-treatment to which it is subjected. See High-
speed Steel.

Red Hematite Ore. See Hematite Ore.

Red Lead. Bed lead is a bright red pigment made either by

oxidizing litharge in furnaces or by heating it with sodium nitrate
in iron pots. The color varies somewhat according to the condi-
tions of manufacture and other details. It is widely used for the
protection of iron, and is considered to be one of the best pig-
ments known. It is generally mixed with oil, when required for
use, in the proportion of 30 pounds of pigment to a gallon of oil.
It exerts such a drying action on the oil that no other drier is
necessary. Sulphurous gases tend to turn it brown, and it is often
mixed with certain inert materials.

Reducer, Reducers may be classified as follows (1) A fitting

:

having a larger size at one end than at the other. Some have tried
to establish the term "increaser" thinking of direction of flow-
but this has been due to a misunderstanding of the trade custom
of always giving the largest size of run of a fitting first; hence,
all fittings having more than one size are reducers. They are

always threaded inside, unless specified flanged or for some spe-

cial joint. (2) Threaded type, made with abrupt reduction. (8)
Flanged pattern with taper body. (4) Flanged eccentric pattern
with taper body, but flanges at 90 degrees to one side of body.
The term reducer is misapplied at times to a reducing coupling.
R-1044

Reducing Agent. The term is applied to a substance that re-

moves oxygen or elements similar to it. See Oxidizing and
Reducing Agents.

Reducing Presses. Reducing presses are used for reducing

in diameter cups or shells previously cut and formed in double-
action presses, in order to form tubes which may vary more 01
less in length. Reducing presses are used more especially in the
manufacture of such articles as cartridges, ferrules, pencil tubes,
pencil cases, pen holders, burner tubes, and large variety of othei
articles made of brass and silverware. These presses are also
extensively used for forming, bending, and finishing operations on
deep work. They are built in different types and sizes and, in
some cases, have automatic dial feeding mechanisms.

Reduction of Area. See Elongation and Reduction of Area

Reference Cages. Reference gages are made to test or check

the dimensions of inspection gages. The tendency is toward re-
ducing the cost of gaging systems by making reference gages
only when standard measuring plugs or other simple and accurate
measuring means cannot be conveniently used. When a compara-
tively small number of pieces are to be made, it is also more eco-
nomical not to make reference gages. When the inspection gages
and working gages are made to different tolerances, reference
gages are not provided for the working gages, due to the fact
that it would require a separate set of reference gages, which is
unnecessary and which would merely involve an additional expense.
Reference gages are generally made the reverse or opposite to
the inspection gages; that is, female reference gages are made
for male inspection gages, and vice versa. As a rule, it is best
to make the reference gages so that they fit the gaging and locat-
ing surfaces of the inspection gage to the same extent that the
work fitsthe inspection gage. In this way, wear of the gage is
more easily detected. It is not customary, however, to make a
ring gage as a reference gage for a plug inspection gage, but a
snap gage is used instead. The reference gage for a snap in-
spection gage, again, is usually a cylindrical plug gage, not a
flat plug gage. By a flat plug gage is meant a plug gage that is
rectangular in cross-section.
While it is the general practice to make reference gages op-
posite to the inspection gages, this is not always the case. It is,
for example, most convenient to compare a plug gage with an-
other plug gage, and this holds true especially with thread gages,
because it is much easier to compare the diameters of a plug
thread gage with another plug thread gage than to do the check-
ing with a ring gage.
 1045 -R
While a reference gage for a snap gage will have both maxi-
mum and minimum limits, the general practice is to make only
one reference gage for contour gages, flush-pin gages, and similar
types, in order to minimize the expense. The reference gage in
that case ought to be made to correspond to the basic, or, gen-
erally speaking, to the maximum metal dimension on the drawing
of the component part for which the gages are used.

Regenerative Braking. When regenerative braking is used

on an electric motor (either direct- or alternating-current), the
motor is connected for the desired direction of rotation as a sep-
arately excited generator to a constant voltage supply system,
and if the machinery to which the motor is connected attempts to
drive it at greater than full speed, it will generate electric power
and supply it to the power system in the same way as a central
station generator would do. This regenerative electric power
causes the motor to produce a holding back or braking effect on
the machinery to which it is connected. See Dynamic Braking.

Regular Lay. This term indicates the direction of twist in

wire ropes. In ropes having regular lay, the wires of the strands
are twisted in one direction and the strands are laid into the
rope in the opposite direction. This type of rope, in the United
States, at least, may be considered as the standard.

Regulating Pole Converter. This is a synchronous converter

used for producing a variable direct-current voltage. The regu-
lating pole converter differs from the ordinary converter in that
the field poles are divided into two parts, a main pole and a regu-
lating pole. The ratio between the direct- and the alternating-
current voltages may be changed by varying the excitation of the
regulating poles by using a field rheostat for controlling the ex-
citing current. It is sometimes called a split-pole converter.

Reheader. A reheader is a cold-heading machine in which

pieces that have been partly formed in an ordinary heading ma-
chine are completed. By means of an automatic hopper feed, the
pieces are placed in the heading dies and the subsequent operations
performed.
Reinforced Concrete. Reinforced concrete consists of con-
crete in which steel bars of various forms, or special forms of
steel wire mesh are imbedded. The object is to make concrete
able to resist tensile stresses as well as compressive stresses. The
steel bars are usually fixed at the ends by being built into col-
umns, walls, etc., and should preferably be continuous from the
immediate supports.
Relative Velocity. The rate of motion of a body with rela-
tion to another moving body is the relative velocity, the term be-
R-1046
ing used to distinguish between relative and absolute velocity, the
latter being the velocity of a body with reference to some object
which is considered completely at rest. The piston of a locomotive
cylinder has a relative velocity with reference to the cylinder
walls, but its absolute velocity is its rate of motion with reference
to the rails and equals that of the train plus or minus the relative
velocity of the piston with reference to the cylinder, the relative
velocity being added to the train velocity when the piston moves
in the direction of the train, and subtracted from the train velocity
when the piston moves opposite to the motion of the train.
Relays. For the most part, relays may be considered to be
specialized types of remote control switches for opening and clos-
ing electrical circuits. A few types are, however, designed to
perform some simple mechanical function such as counting, sort-
ing, measuring, etc. By far, the majority of relays in use are of
the electromagnetic type wherein the moving arm, or armature,
which performs the switching operation is actuated by an elec-
tromagnet. In the so-called clapper type, the armature is hinged
at one end and moves to and from the face of the magnet core.
In the solenoid type, the armature is moved back and forth inside
the magnet coil. Variations in design provide for contact closure
in a vacuum sealed tube, mercury contact, as well as the regular
open-air contacts of special alloys which resist pitting and "freez-
ing." In some low-voltage types, 200 or more circuits may be
by a single relay.
controlled
One important type of relay provides for actuation after a
given time delay. Synchronous motors, clock mechanisms, gas
chambers with bleeder valves, condenser-charging and thermal
elements are all used as a means of controlling the time of
operation.
Thermostats are special types of relays which are actuated by
heat to open or close a circuit. Photo-electric relays are similarly
actuated by light and acoustic relays by sound. Certain elec-
tronic tubes are also used as very sensitive relays.
Relays are widely used for the protection of motors against
overload, overheating and excessive speed. Their widest use is for
signalling and communication circuit control. One recent appli-
cation of interest is the control of artificial light in accordance
with the intensity of sunlight entering a room or building in-
terior. They may be used in connection with the automatic trip-
ping of circuit-breakers or oil switches when predetermined
abnormal conditions occur. Oil switches and air-break circuit-
breakers that are tripped automatically are provided with alter-
nating- or direct-current trip coils to which the contacts of the
relay may be electrically connected, or with tripping mechanisms
on which the movable part of the relay may act directly. As so
 TO47-R
used, their usual purpose is to assist in disconnecting that part
of an electrical system in which a fault has occurred, from the
rest of the system, with the least practicable delay; and to limit
such disconnecting to that part of the system that is in trouble.

Relief of Taps. A tap is said to be relieved when the por-

tions of the land back of the cutting edge are so cut away that
the heel of the land is nearer to the axis of the tap than is the
cutting edge. The object of this relief is to enable the tap to cut
more by giving it a keener cutting edge, and by reducing
freely,
to a minimum the friction between the teeth of the tap and the
work being tapped. It is apparent that taps may be relieved both
on the outside diameter and in the angle (and then also at the
root) of the thread, or they may be relieved only on the top of
the thread, but not in the angle (or at the root) of the thread.
A number of different methods have been used for relieving
straight or non-tapering taps. In many instances, no relief at
all has been given to the full threads, but the tops of the threads
of the chamfered portion at the end of the tap have been relieved
in a manner similar to that used for milling cutters. In other
instances, the thread has been relieved both on the top and in the
angle, clear from the cutting edge to the heel.
The method of relieving the tap both on the top and in the
angle of the thread clear from the cutting edge to the heel has
the objection that the tap will lose its size as soon as it is ground
on the face of the cutting edge which is the correct method of
sharpening. Furthermore, it is claimed that taps thus relieved
cannot cut a perfectly round and smooth hole, because they are
not sufficiently supported while cutting, as the surface of con-
tact between the tap and the work is practically limited to a
number of points. To overcome the objection of having only point
supports, taps have been manufactured with relief in the angle
of the thread only, while the outside was left the full diameter
of the thread from the cutting edge to the heel.
On account of the many objections to the various kinds of re-
liefon straight-threaded taps, most manufacturers have adopted
the practice of providing their taps with "back taper"; that is,
the diameter of the thread both in the angle and on the outside
is made a very small amount less at the end of the thread joining
the shank than at the point. When taps are made in this way, the
cutting size of the tap will be at the; large end of the chamfered
portion. At the shank end of the thread, the diameter will be
anywhere from 0.0005 to 0.0025 inch smaller than at the point,
according to the size of the tap.

Relieving. Relieving, also known as backing off, is the process

of removing, by turning, grinding, or milling, some of the metal
R-1048
behind the cutting edge of a cutting tool in order to provide
clearance; applied specifically to milling cutters, taps, dies, ream-
ers, and drills. Many milling cutters for gear cutting and form
milling are so relieved that the cutting edges retain the same
shape or curvature, as the front faces of the teeth are ground
repeatedly for sharpening.

Relieving Attachments. A relieving attachment is a device

applied to lathes (especially those used in tool-rooms) for im-
parting a reciprocating motion to the tool-slide and tool, in order
to provide relief or clearance for the cutting edges of milling
cutters, taps, hobs, etc. For example, in making a milling cutter
of the formed type, such as is used for cutting gears, it is essen-
tial to provide clearance for the teeth and so form them that they

may be ground repeatedly without changing the contour or shape

of the cutting edge. This may be accomplished by using a reliev-
ing attachment. The tool for "backing off" or giving clearance
to the teeth corresponds to the shape required, and it is given a
certain amount of reciprocating movement, so that it forms a
surface back of each cutting edge, which is of uniform cross-
section on a radial plane but eccentric to the axis of the cutter
sufficiently to provide the necessary clearance for the cutting
edges.

Reluctance. When a material is subjected to a magnetomo-

tive force, its reluctance is that property which opposes the estab-
lishment of magnetic flux and in this respect is analogous to
resistance which tends to oppose the flow of electric current.
Thus, in a simple closed magnetic circuit, it can be said that
reluctance is equal to magnetomotive force in that circuit divided
by flux. Since unvarying flux is thought of as a static condition,
1

one should not think of reluctance as producing an energy loss,

however, as does resistance. In a magnetic material, the re-
luctance is not a constant quantity, since it is a function of
permeability which varies with magnetizing force and flux density.
The unit of reluctance (which used to be the oersted but to
which no name is now assigned) is the reluctance offered by a
portion of a magnetic circuit 1 centimeter long by 1 square cen-
timeter in cross-section, and of unit permeability. The reciprocal
of reluctance is permeance.

Repeated-Stress Tests. With the repeated-stress method of

testing, a test specimen is held firmly, and a load not sufficient
to rupture it is applied, released, and applied again, this proce-
dure being rapidly repeated a large number of times; or the
specimen may be strained in one direction, released, and strained
in the opposite direction, then released again and strained in the
first direction, this procedure being repeated a great number of
 1049 -R
times. A record is made of the method of loading and the num-
ber of alternations necessary to cause breakage or, as it is com-
monly termed, "failure." The object of repeated-stress tests is to
determine as nearly as possible the probable action or life of a
given material under assumed working conditions. The methods
used vary greatly.

Replacement Value. The replacement value of a machine or

other unit the actual cost of replacing the unit with one of the
is
same type, at prevailing market prices at the time of appraisal.
Replacement value, then, is the market price with freight and cost
of installation added. In the case of large machine tools, the
freight and installation items are large enough to be well worth
considering, especially when expensive foundations are necessary.
In appraising medium-size machinery, an allowance of five per
cent of the market price of the machine is made to cover freight
and ten per cent to cover installation. In appraising small parts
of machinery and small tools, these items are practically negligible
when considering individual tools. Of course, in appraising the
contents of a tool-room, where large quantities of tools have been
purchased in bulk, some allowance should be made for freight.
Resistance. Resistance is the property of a substance that
opposes the flow of an electric current. For a given current, it
determines the rate at which electrical energy is converted into
heat or radiant energy. The electrical resistance of a homogeneous
conductor varies directly with its length, and, inversely with its
cross-sectional area. For metal conductors, it also increases with
the temperature. The "specific resistance*' is the resistance per
mil-foot of a material; it is also sometimes termed "resistivity."
The practical unit of resistance is the ohm. According to Ohm's
law, in a circuit in which continuous current is flowing, the re-
sistance in ohms is equal to the electromotive force (or potential
difference) in volts divided by the current in amperes.

Resistance, Air. See Air Resistance; also Air Resistance,

Racing Car.
Resistance Materials, Electrical. Materials which offer a
high resistance to the flow of electric current are used for two
purposes: (1) For the reduction of current flow and (2) for
the production of heat. For current control, copper or carbon
is commonly used, although other materials such as iron and
silicon carbide find specialized applications. For the production
of heat, pure iron, nickel, or some form of nickel alloy contain-
ing chromium, copper, iron, manganese as additional elements
are generally used. The nickel-chromium alloys, such as Chromd,
Nichrome and Tophet, provide high working temperatures of
1000 degrees C. or more. Copper-nickel alloys, such as Advance,
R-1050
Constantan, and Manganin, offer remarkably stable resistance
values at widely different temperatures and are also utilized where
constant resistance is needed, as, for example, in certain nteas-
<uring instruments and resistance standards.
Silicon-carbide resistances in rod or tube form are used in in-
dustrial applications and have a continuous operating tempera-
.ture limit of2400 degrees F., or more. Composition resistance
materials are also used in some cases where a non-inductive
resistance of high value is required.

Resistance Welds, Classes. The various types of resistance

yieldsmay be described as follows:
A lap spot weld is a spot weld made by the spot-welding process
wherein a lap joint is used.
A bridge spot weld is a spot weld made by the spot-welding
process wherein tne parts are joined by the spot welding of disks
or strips across * butt joint. (Sometimes called "tie welding.")
A button spot weld is a spot weld made by the spot-welding
process wherein the parts are joined by spot-welding disks or
buttons between the overlapping joint edges.
A disk depression weld is a spot weld made by the spot-welding
process wherein one or both of the overlapping parts to be joined
i^/are provided with annular grooves for the reception of disks
or buttons to localize the heat.
Aprojection weld is a spot weld made by the spot-welding
process wherein stamped projections to localize the heat are pro-
vided in one or both of the overlapping parts to be joined.
Amultiple projection weld is a projection spot weld wherein
the contact points cover two or more of the projections in the
parts to be joined.
-
Aridge projection weld is a projection weld made by the spot-
welding process wherein the parts to be welded are provided with
ridges which intersect, thus localizing the heat at points.
A multiple-electrode spot weld is a spot weld made by the spot-
welding process wherein several contact points are simultaneously
operated.
Atee spot weld is a spot weld made by the spot-welding process
wherein the parts to be welded form a tee, one of the parts being
held in a hollow electrode.
Aduplex spot weld, is a spot weld made by the spot-welding
v

process wherein two spots are welded simultaneously by the simul-

taneous use of two transformers on opposite sides of the sheets
to be welded, the current passing through two secondaries.
: Amash w&ld is a spot weld made by the spot-welding process
wherein overlapping rods, wires, strips, etc., are welded between
relatively large contact points.
 1051- R

Abutt seam weld is a seam weld made by the seam-welding

process wherein a butt joint is used and the edges progressively
welded.
Alap seam weld is a seam weld made by the seam-welding
process wherein a lap joint is used.
Abridge seam weld is a seam weld made by the seam-welding
process wherein a strap is welded across a butt joint.
Atee butt weld is a butt weld made by the resistance butt-
welding process wherein flat strips, bars, etc., are welded at right
angles in the form of a tee. Sometimes a portion of one piece is
preheated by the welding current prior to welding.
Ajump butt weld is a form of tee butt weld wherein one of the
parts joined is relatively small compared with the part to which
it is joined as, for example, in the end welding of a nail or screw
to a strip or plate.
An
angle butt weld is a butt weld made by the resistance butt-
welding process wherein the parts are welded at an angle.
Resistance Welding Methods. The various methods of re-
sistance welding may be described as follows:
Pressure welding is a process of welding metals in the highly
plastic and/or fluid states by the aid of mechanical pressure. This
process includes the resistance welding form of electric welding
and the pressure type of thermit welding.
Spot welding is a resistance welding process wherein the weld
is made in one or more spots by the localization of the electric
current between contact points.
Resistance butt welding is a resistance welding process wherein
a butt joint is employed.
Upset welding is a resistance butt welding process wherein the
surfaces to be welded are brought together in firm contact before
the electrical circuit is closed; and when said surfaces have been
raised to the desired welding temperature, the electrical circuit
is opened and the upset pressure applied. The operation of the
machine may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automatic.
Flash welding is a resistance butt welding process wherein
the welding heat is developed by the passage of current in the
form of an arc across a short gap between the surfaces to be
welded, these surfaces being kept slightly separated until they
have flashed off to parallelism and have reached the desired tem-
perature. The electrical circuit is then opened and the upsetting
movement takes place. The operation of the machine may be
manual, semi-automatic, or fully automatic. The name "flash"
arises from the fact that during the heating period oxidizing
metal is thrown off in a shower of sparks.
Flask-upset welding is a combination of the flash and upset
butt welding processes. This process starts as a flash weld and
R-1052
ends as an upset weld, the electrical circuit remaining dosed for
a short interval during the upsetting movement. The operation
of the machine may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automatic.
Seam welding is a resistance welding process wherein the weld
is made linearly between two contact rollers or a contact roller
and a contact bar.
Percussive welding is a resistance welding process wherein
electric energy is suddenly discharged across the contact area or
areas to be welded, and a hammer blow is applied simultaneously
with or immediately following the electrical discharge.
Electro-static percussive welding is a percussive welding process
wherein a condenser is used to supply the energy.

Electro-magnetic percussive welding is a percussive welding

process wherein the stored energy in a magnetic field is trans-
formed by the collapse of the field to supply the energy.
Induction resistance welding is a resistance welding process
wherein the heating current is caused to flow in the parts to be
welded by electro-magnetic induction without any electrical
contact between the source and the work.
Progressive induction seam welding is an induction resistance
welding process wherein the heating current is caused to flow in
the parts to be welded and to cross the seam of the weld in a
localized zone while there is relative progressive traversing move-
ment of the parts to be welded and the welding zone along the
seam.

Resistoflex. Tubing made in sizes up to and including

1/2 inch inside diameter, from a flexible synthetic resin, in-
soluble in gasoline, oil, ether, and alcohol. Has extreme lightness
(weight about one-half that of aluminum) , great toughness and
strength, good elasticity, and a high degree of flexibility. Used
chiefly in fuel and brake lines; in lubrication systems for auto-
motive equipment, Diesel engines, and aircraft; in chemical and
process industries for conveying solvents and oils; in hydraulic
lines; and in fuel and oil handling equipment.

Resistor. A resistor consists of an electrical conductor which,

because of its physical dimensions and the type of material of
which it is made, limits the current in an electric circuit by trans-
forming a portion of the electrical energy into heat, which may
be stored temporarily in the resistor, but is ultimately dissipated
to the surrounding medium, which is usually the atmosphere. The
property of dissipating the absorbed energy by the transference
of heat to the surrounding medium is known as the "radiating
capacity," and the property of absorbing energy by storing it in
the form of heat, as the "thermal capacity" of the resistor.
 1053 -R
Resistors are the basis for a wide range of controlling devices
for motors. For this purpose they are made in the following dif-
ferent types: The tube type which consists of a tube of fireproof
insulating material such as porcelain on which the resistance
wire is wound; the bar type, which consists of a flattened tube or
an iron bar insulated with a fireproof material on which the re-
sistance wire is wound; the ventilated wire type, which consists
of an insulated support on which the resistance wire is wound;
the edgewise type, which consists of a conductor of narrow ribbon
wound edgewise on a suitable mandrel, after which it is dipped
in a thin mixture of fireclay or other fireproof insulating ma-
terial; the plate type, which consists of a molded plate of insulat-
ing material in which the resistor wire is imbedded, the contact
points projecting through the surface of the plate; the cast-iron
grid type, which consists of a special grade of cast iron of suit-
able shape, so as to insure sufficient length and mechanical
strength.
Small resistors which are wire-wound on porcelain or composi-
tion forms are widely used in communication and other low-
current circuits. A coating of cement or vitreous enamel is often
applied over the windings for insulation and mechanical protec-
tion. Composition resistors, such as the silicon-carbide type, are
used to obtain high resistance values, and metallized resistances
consisting of a homogeneous resistance film on an insulating
base such as glass or porcelain are used for high voltage and
ultra high frequency applications. There are also many special
types: resistances which are extremely accurate in value, re-
sistances which vary little in value with temperature changes,
resistances which are practically non-inductive, etc.

Resolution of Forces. This expression, which is used by

mechanics, relates to the finding of two or more components of
a given force. See Force.

Resonance. In alternating current circuits containing re-

sistance, inductance and capacity, it may happen that at certain
frequencies the positive reactance of the inductance becomes
equal in value to, and is neutralized by, the negative reactance
of the capacity. This is called a resonance condition, under which
the current flow with a given electromotive force is limited solely
by the resistance of the circuit. For small resistance values, the
current may, therefore, reach very high values.
Resonance is an important factor in communication circuit
design and the values of inductive and capacitive reactances are
carefully chosen to produce or avoid resonance conditions at cer-
tain frequencies. A resonant condition in power circuits may
result in considerable damage due to excessive current flow.
R-1054
Return Traps. Return traps are used for returning the watei
of condensation from a heating system back to the boiler, and for
handling the water from both open and closed heaters. The prin-
ciple of operation is that of allowing water under a low pressure
to enter a chamber elevated above the boiler, and, when filled, oi
closing the connection with the low-pressure system and admit-
ting steam at boiler pressure, thus causing the water to flow into
the boiler by gravity. These operations are all automatic.

Reverse-Current Trip. A reverse-current trip is an arrange-

ment for tripping a circuit-breaker when the current flowing
through the circuit in a direction the reverse of that in which it
flows under normal conditions, has reached a predetermined value,
The tripping may be accomplished by either the attracting or the
releasing of the armature of the magnetic circuit, depending upon
the arrangement of the series and potential coils. It will be easily
understood that the direction of current in the potential coil will
always be the same, regardless of whether the current is flowing
from a generator to a battery, or from a battery to a generator,
and tending to motor it. On they other hand, the direction of the
current in the series coil will be reversed under similar conditions,

Revolite. Flexible form of laminated cloth or paper treated

with Bakelite resinoid differing from the usual laminated sheets
in that the flexibility is much greater. Laminations 1/8 inch
thick can be bent over a 1/4-inch bar without cracking or split-
ting. Among the applications are acid-proof linings; packing
rings; transformer parts; vacuum-brake parts; gaskets; belting;
upholstery for automobiles, trolley cars, buses, and airplanes;
table covers, desk tops, etc.

Revolution Counter. See Speed Indicators.

Rex. Rex is the trade name for an aluminum oxide abrasive
which is used for grinding either soft or hardened steel. Rex
is a product of the electric furnace, the process of manufacture

being similar to that of alundum.

Rheostat. A rheostat is an adjustable resistor so constructed
that its resistance may be changed without opening the circuit
in which it is connected. Resistors in electrical circuits can be
made adjustable in a number of ways. One way is by short-
circuiting sections of a resistance; another way is by shifting
the terminals so as to include between them more or less re-
sistance. A resistance device that is used for controlling electric
current is called a rheostat; these instruments are usually ad-
justable. A rheostat switch is usually a part of the rheostat and
consists of an insulating base on which are mounted, on the cir-
cumference of the circle, a number of stationary contacts and an
 1055 -R
arm pivoted at the center of the circle which carries a contact
that makes connection with the stationary contacts. The sta-
tionary contacts are connected to various sections of the re-
sistance of the rheostat, and the switch is used for cutting these
sections of resistance in and out of circuit. In small rheostats
the moving contact may slide along a bare section of the wind-
ing. A carbon rheostat is composed of disks or granules of
carbon. By rotating the control knob a varying degree of pres-
sure forces the carbon pieces closer together, thus increasing the
number of points of contact and decreasing the resistance. A
convenient form of rheostat, when large currents are to be con-
trolled, is the water rheostat, which is usually a tank containing
a solution of either salt or soda in which metal plates are
suspended. The resistance of the rheostat is controlled by the
depth to which the plates are submerged.
Rice Coal. Rice coal is of such size that the pieces will not
pass a screen of 3/16-inch mesh, but pass a screen of %-inch
mesh. Eice coal is often used for power plant purposes,

Riedler Pump. The difficulty of operating pumps at high

speed when they are equipped with ordinary self-closing valves in
the pump cylinder is due to slip and fractional resistance, result-
ing from the flow of the water through the valves at high velocity.
The Riedler pump (invented by Prof. Riedler) is designed espe-
cially for high-speed operation. One large valve is used instead
of a number of small ones, thus decreasing the friction of the
water in the valve passages. The first pump equipped with
Riedler valves was constructed in 1884. The suction and discharge
valves are practically the same and are composed of three con-
centric bronze rings, which serve to open and close a like number
of concentric openings in the valve-seat. The valves have a high
lift and the area through them is such as to reduce the velocity
of the water enough to prevent excessive frictional resistance.
The closing of the valves is positively controlled by an eccentric
which transmits motion through an oscillating wrist plate and
connecting-rods. The valves open automatically and remain open
during practically the entire stroke, and then the closing is ef-
fected quickly and positively by the valve-gear. These pumps are
adapted to various classes of service as well as for large capacities
and high pressures.
What is known as the Riedler express pump isdesigned for
much higher speeds than the ordinary type, and differsfrom the
latter in regard to the arrangement and operation of the valves.
The suction valve is the principal feature. This valve is concentric
mth the plunger and is annular in form.
R-K>56
Rifflers. Bifflers are small files which may be obtained in
bent
a large variety of shapes, and cuts (see illustration) . In
sizes,
use, the riffler is held lightly in the hand and is worked back and
forth over the surface to be smoothed; thus, it is filing on a small
1

scale. The most common form is the "spoon" riffler, which comes
in many different grades of curves, its name
describing its shape
perfectly. Next in point of usefulness, is the flat riffler, which is
made in different shapes and widths to take care of the flat sur-
faces and panels in the die impressions. Other styles are the
"hook" riffler, the "knife" riffler, and the "round taper" riffler.

Die-sinkers' Rifflers Lengths from 6 to 7 Inches

Rln. A Japanese measure of weight equal to 0.0375 gram or

0.579 grain. One rin equals 10 mos.
Ring Gage. This type of gage, as the name implies, is in the
form of a ring and it is used for checking shafts, plugs, or other
external diameters. The American gage design standard includes
plain ring gages in sizes above 0.059 to and including 12.260
inches.
The ring type of gage is widely used for checking external
screw threads. The hole in the gage is threaded and a limited
amount of adjustment is provided. The American gage design
standard has an adjusting screw and a locking screw which pro-
vides a positive lock without introducing stresses in the gage
body which might tend to cause distortion.
 1057 -R

Fig. 1. Ring-oiled Bearing

B C D

Fig. Oil-rings of Different Cross-section

Ring Oiling. The ring method of oiling a bearing is so

named because the oil is carried from a reservoir in the base of
the bearing, up over the journal or shaft, by a loose-fitting ring
which receives a rotary motion as the shaft revolves. The lower
section of this ring is immersed in the oil so that the entire ring
is flooded whenever it is revolved. The two sectional views
(Fig. 1) give an example of a long bearing (for a disk grinder),
with a ring, and grooved bearing brasses. A
well is cored out
and has a draining pipe, which is turned downwards to empty
the well. When in the vertical position indicated, the well isi filled
until the pipe is filled nearly to the top, and the inlet is then
plugged. The square shoulders on the pulley collar and the disk
throw the into the annular recesses whence it drains down
oil off
into the well. No ribsor other projections should be fitted on the
rings, as such arrangements produce a resistance to their passage
through the oil bath, and bring them to a standstill. At high
speeds, the centrifugal force renders the flow of oil from the ring
to the journal difficult, and scrapers are used for diverting the
oilinto the oil channels. These, however, should never touch the
ring," as they will then stop its motion. Self-oiling bearings
having rings fast on the shaft are not much used.
 R-1058
Oil-ring Design: As an oil-ring-lubricated journal must be
started dry or nearly dry, an oil-ring should be so designed that
it will start promptly when the shaft begins to rotate. After the
ring has once started, it should continue to rotate as long as the
shaft turns. On a poorly designed bearing, it is not uncommon
to see a ring start, stop, and repeat this action in regular cycles.
When the oil gets on the ring, the coefficient of friction drops
,rapidly, but it should still remain high enough to rotate the ring.
Other causes of rings sticking are unbalance in the rings due to
blow-holes, lumps of solder, unsymmetrical design, or egg-shaped
rings. As a general rule, the oil-ring should be made at least
twice the diameter of the shaft. The oil cellar should be so pro-
portioned and the oil overflow so located that, with a maximum
oil level, the ring will dip into the oil to a depth equal to about
lone-third the diameter of the shaft. A
ring should be heavy
enough to stand up under production cuts.
The cross-sectional shape of the ring is important.
'

A
plain
rectangular cross-section, such as shown at A
(see Fig. 2), is
often used. Rings of this kind can be easily machined from
tubing. A
better shape than the rectangle for the cross-section
of an oil-ring is the trapezoid shown at B. It is sometimes neces-
sary to have a ring fit the slot rather closely, and this shaped
ring is less likely to bind in the slot if the machine happens to
be a little out of level axially. A further refinement may be made
by chamfering the bore as at C. For small light rings, this is
.particularly good, as it increases the specific pressure between
the shaft and ring, thus enabling the ring, even though light in
weight, to cut through the oil and get a better bite on the shaft.
The contour of the cross-section shown at D, effectively prevents
oil-throwing. The oil collects at the two outer edges, and when
thrown off, strikes the sides of the oil-ring slot, which prevents
it from leaving the pedestal.
A fairly hard brass is a desirable material for small and me-
dium sized oil-rings. Cast iron has been used with success, but
this is not generally favored. It is claimed that washers of sheet
metal, several of them running in one ring slot, have given satis-
factory results. Very soft compositions or dead soft brass should
be avoided, for if the oil becomes gritty, the rings will be charged
like a lap, and will wear grooves in the journal.

Ring-Wound Armature. In electric generators or motors, a

ring-wound armature is an armature in which the conductors are
laid: side by side and connected by threading the wire through the
cdater of a ring-shaped armature core. This type has been
superseded by the "drum-wound armature."
Risers and Feeders* Risers are openings in molds, similar to
pouring gates, in which the metal rises and floats the dirt out of
 1059-R
the mold. They should be placed where the dirt is most likely to
accumulate. On large castings where there is considerable shrink-
age, the riser is made large in order to supply metal to com-
pensate for the shrinkage, and is known as a feeder, header, or
shrink-head. The riser or feeder must be large enough so that it
will not set before the casting. Linings and rolls are sometimes
made longer than necessary in order to feed the shrinkage and
catch the dirt. The surplus metal is called a sinking head and is
cut off in the machine shop. A riser is not required when the
dirt and shrinkage are taken care of in this way.

Rivet Driving. In driving cone-head or button-head rivets,

they should be "plugged" squarely into the hole, care being taken
not to bend over the point of the rivet but to upset it, filling the
hole its entire length. A riveting hammer should be powerful
enough to form a perfect head without rocking the hammer to
work down the edges. The hammer should be started lightly until
the rivet has settled into the hole somewhat, to prevent bending to
one side. In driving any kind of rivets held or backed up by a
dolly-bar or hand-hammer, the riveter must learn to run the ham-
mer slowly until enough head is formed to hold the rivet in the
hole, as otherwise the holder-on will have difficulty in keeping the
hammer or dolly-bar on the rivet. Getting the rivets into the
holes hot and "getting the heads up" is a necessary preliminary
to obtaining tight work. For holding the rivet in position, there
must be sufficient weight behind it to form a solid anvil against
which it may be headed.
Riveted Joint Calking. See Calking.
Riveted Joints Classified. When plates to be joined by rivet-
ing overlap each other and are held together by one or more rows
of rivets, a "lap joint" is formed. In a "butt joint" the plates
are in the same plane and are united by a cover plate or butt
strap, which is riveted to each plate. A combination lap joint
consists of a cover plate inside or outside the lap, and three rows
of rivets, the central row passing through the two plates and the
cover, and having twice as many rivets as the other two rows.
The term "single riveting" means one row of rivets in a lap joint
or one row on each side of a butt joint; "double riveting" means
two rows of rivets in a lap joint or two rows on each side of the
joint in butt riveting. Joints are also triple and quadruple riveted.

Riveter, Electric Type. The "electric riveting*' process con-

sists in firstheating the rivet by electrical means and then sub-
jecting it to sufficient pressure to form the head. The machine
used resembles the well-known spot-welder, and in its simplest
form is provided with two opposing copper electrodes, the upper
of which is movable vertically. After the rivet is in position, the,
R-1060
upper electrode is brought down into contact with it Tha cur-
rent induced in the secondary winding of a transformer then
flows through the rivet, quickly heating it to the required tem-
perature; then the current is cut off and a greatly increased pres-
sure applied, thus upsetting the rivet and forming the head. The
heating of the rivet occurs so rapidly that there is little loss by
radiation or conduction. Another type of electric riveter utilizes
an electrode for heating and a separate set for forming the head.

Riveter, Hydraulic Type. Many riveters, especially of the

large sizes used for boiler work, are operated by hydraulic pres-
sure. Some riveters of this general type have a frame which is
composed of two sections. The side which carries the cylinder
and movable die is known as the frame, whereas the opposite side
which carries the stationary die is known as the stake. The ar-
rangement of the hydraulic cylinder on riveters of different make
varies considerably. In general, there is a piston or plunger of
comparatively large area which provides the necessary riveting
pressure, and a smaller auxiliary plunger for returning the die
preparatory to driving another rivet. Many hydraulic riveters
are so arranged that two or three pressures may be obtained and,
in some cases, there is a larger range of pressures.
Hydraulic Toggle Riveter: This type of hydraulic riveter is
provided with a toggle mechanism through which motion is
transmitted from the piston to the riveting plunger. The con-
struction is similar in principle to that employed on many pneu-
matic riveters, but, instead of using air pressure, the piston is
operated by water pressure. The advantage claimed for a riveter
of this type as compared with a direct-acting hydraulic riveter
is that a much smaller cylinder is required, because the necessary
increase of pressure for riveting is obtained by means of the
toggle mechanism; consequently, the riveter occupies less space,
is lighter in weight, and requires considerably less power to drive
it than one of the direct-acting type.

Riveter, Pneumatic Type. One design of pneumatic riveter

is so arranged that the piston of the air cylinder imparts motion
to the riveting plunger through a combination of levers and tog-
gles which give a gradually increasing pressure until the desired
pressure is reached ; then, by means of a simple lever movement,
approximately the maximum pressure is maintained throughout
the remainder of the die travel. This movement of the die under
maximum pressure is sufficient to allow for ordinary variations
in the length of rivets, size of holes, or thickness of plates after
the machine has once been adjusted for a certain riveting opera-
tion. The hydropneumatic compression riveter is operated both
by air and hydraulic pressure, as the name indicates. The air
 1061 -R
pressure is utilized for moving the plunger down to the rivet and
then the pressure is greatly increased by hydraulic means.

Riveter, Rotary Vibrating Type. The rotary vibrating type

of riveter may be operated in close corners or other places where
there is not sufficient room for the rotating rolls, such as are used
on rivet-spinning machines. These machines are also used for
general riveting operations. The spindle of a well-known design
is vibrated by an eccentric mechanism which transmits motion to
the spindle by means of a hickory helve. A rubber ball is inter-
posed between the top of the spindle and the end of the helve to
absorb vibration. In addition to the vibrating motion, the spin-
dle is positively rotated by means of a worm and gear, and provi-
sion is made for varying the speed of the spindle in order to
secure smooth work. It sometimes happens that, with a fixed
number of blows per second at a certain rotating speed, the
spindle will strike in the same relative position, thereby causing
a series of indentations on the rivet heads; hence, provision is
made for varying the spindle speed in order to secure smooth
work.

Riveter, Turret Type. This type of riveter is adapted for

cold riveting. The
principal feature of this riveter is a rotating
turret-head on which four horns or noses are mounted. Any one
of these noses may be indexed to bring a stationary rivet die into
alignment with the movable die mounted on the plunger or ram.

Riveting Machines. The tools and machines designed for

upsetting and forming rivet heads include several distinct types.
These special tools or machines for riveting may be divided into
several general types. First, they may be classified according to
the method of forming the rivet head, which may be either by
(1) compression; (2) by a succession of rapid blows; (3) by
rapid blows accompanied by rotary motion of the rivet set; (4) by
combined compressive and rolling or spinning action; (5) or
by the application of pressure to an electrically-heated rivet.
"Riveting machines/' according to common usage, differ from
"riveters" in that the riveting operation with a machine is ef-
fected by a succession of blows or by a compressive rotating
action, whereas a riveter merely subjects the rivet to compres-
sion. These compression riveters may be classified according to
the power used for operating the riveting plunger. Thus there
are hydraulic, pneumatic, hydropneumatic, and other types.
Rivets. Rivets are used as permanent means for fastening or
joining together parts of metal structures. There is a head on
each end of the rivet, one head being formed after assembling the
parts, either by the application of pressure or a succession of
blows. The form of the head varies, but is generally spherical
 R-1062

COUNTERSUNK
HEAD

Fig. 1. Names of Rivet Heads

A\
STEEPLE BUTTON OR CONE COUNTERSUNK
ROUND

Fig. 2. Rivet Head Dimensions

or conical, the apex of the cone usually being cut off so that the
head has the shape of a frustrum. Sometimes the head is coun-
tersunk in the plates held together by the rivet Fig. 1 shows a
number of different types of rivet heads. In order to form the
head and fill the clearance space in the rivet hole, the rivet should
have a length in excess of the thickness of the plate equal to about
three-fourths the diameter for the countersunk head, and from
1.3 to 1.7 times the diameter for ordinary riveting. It is ad-
visable to make the rivets of the same material as the plates in
which they are used, to prevent corrosion from galvanic action ;

that is, iron rivets should be used for iron plates, steel rivets
for steel plates, and copper rivets for copper plates.
Proportions which have been used extensively for the com-
mon types of rivet heads, are as follows: Steeple head: Diam-
i eter A (see Fig. 2) of the head equals twice the rivet diameter D,
and height C of the head is equal to diameter D. Button or round
head: Diameter A of the head equals 1.75 times rivet diameter Z),
and height C of the head equals 0.75 times diameter D. Cone
 1063 -R
head: The large diameter A of the head equals 1.75 times rivet
diameter D, the small diameter B equals 0.9375 times diameter JD,
and the height C equals 0.875 times the diameter D. Counter-
sunk head: The diameter Aof the head equals 1.844 times rivet
diameter D, and the height Kequals 0.5 times diameter D. These
proportions are based upon an included angle of 80 degrees. Ac-
cording to the American Standard, the included angle is 78 de-
grees and A = 1.81 D; K= 0.5 D. An included angle of 60 de-
grees is the common standard for bridge and structural work.
Rivets, Cold Formed. In permanently assembling various
light parts, it is often possible to greatly reduce the cost and yet
secure sufficient strength by cold forming in an assembling die,

Rivets and Dowels Die-formed on Assembled Part

the rivet or rivets as an integral part of one of the assembled

sections. Diagrams A, B and C illustrate how a steel spring is
cold riveted to the heavier section. Plain round punches descend
and form the rivets by forcing metal down through the holes in
the spring (see diagram #) ; the metal at the edge is tiien turned
back by the die as at C, thus completing the riveting at one
stroke of the press. In this particular case, about sixty assemblies
per minute are obtained.
Embossed Dowels and Hubs: When dowel-pins are required to
insure the accurate location of parts relative to each other, small
projections or bosses may be formed directly on many die-made
products, the projection being an integral part of tiie work and
serving as a dowel-pin. Diagram D illustrates how the dowel is
formed. The method may be described as a partial punching
operation, as a punch penetrates about one-half the stock thick-
R-1064
ness and forces the boss into a pocket in the die which controls
the diameter and compresses the metal, thus forming a stronger
projection than would be obtained otherwise. The height h of
the dowel or boss should not exceed one-half of the dowel diam-
eter d and h should not exceed one-half of the stock thickness t.
This is a practical rule which may be applied either to steel or
non-ferrous metals, such as brass.

Rivet-Spinning Machines. The rotary rivet-spinning ma-

chine forms the rivet heads by means of twin rolls which are
carried at the end of a rapidly revolving spindle and are pressed
against the rivet head. Four different forms of riveting rolls and
the shape of the rivet heads which they produce are shown by

Rolls Used on Rivet-spinning Machines

the diagrams. A pair of these rolls is mounted upon a pin in

the roll holder, and as they are pressed against a rivet head each
roll revolves independently, thus rolling or spinning a rivet head
to a form corresponding to the shape of the rolls. The spindle
revolves quite rapidly, the speed for a machine having a maximum
capacity of % inch being about 1000 R.P.M. In the case of a
machine having a maximum capacity of 3/16 inch, the speed
would be increased to about 2000 R.P.M. The spindle is pressed
downward by means of a foot-treadle. Special designs of multi-
ple-spindle rivet-spinning machines are sometimes used for
duplicate work having a number of rivets which may all be
riveted at the same time. One feature of rivet-spinning ma-
chines is the absence of noise which is characteristic of hammer-
riveting.
 1065 -R
Rivets, Pitch of. See Pitch of Eivets; also Back Pitch of
Riveted Joint.

Rivet Steel. According to A.S.T.M. standard specifications,

both structural and boiler rivet steel is made either by the open-
hearth or electric furnace processes, or by both of these processes.
Structural Rivet Steel: The tensile strength, according to
standard specifications, is from 52,000 to 62,000 pounds per
square inch; the minimum yield point is one-half the tensile
strength, but not less than 28,000 pounds per square inch; and
the minimum percentage of elongation in 8 inches equals 1,500,000
divided by the tensile strength. The phosphorus content must
not exceed 0.06 per cent (acid) or 0.04 per cent (basic) . The
sulphur content is limited to 0.05 per cent; and if copper steel
is specified, there should be not less than 0.20 per cent copper.
The test specimen must withstand cold bending to 180 degrees
flat on itself without cracking on the outside of the bent por-
tion. This test specimen must be the full diameter of the bar
as rolled.
Boiler Rivet Steel: The standard strength requirements are
as follows : Tensile strength, 45,000 to 55,000 pounds per square
inch; minimum yield point, one-half the tensile strength; mini-
mum percentage of elongation, 1,500,000 divided by the tensile
strength, but it need not exceed 30 per cent. The manganese
content is 0.30 to 0.50; the maximum phosphorus content, 0.04;
and the maximum sulphur, 0.05 per cent. The cold-bend test
requires bending the test specimen to 180 degrees flat on itself
without cracking on the outside of the bent portion. The quench-
bend test requires heating the test specimen to a light cherry
red as seen in the dark (not less than 1200 degrees F.) and
quenching in water, the temperature of which is between 80 and
90 degrees F. The quench specimen then is bent to 180 degrees
flat on itself and must withstand this without cracking on the
outside of the bent portion.

Rock Drill Bits. Detachable rock drill bits are made in

three general types, as shown in the accompanying illustration.
These are known as the Carr, or two-point, the four-point, and
the six-point types. All types are made in sizes ranging from
1^ to 3% inches in diameter, by increments of % inch. The
four-point bit is the most popular. Probably 90 per cent of the
detachable rock drill bits used today are of this'type.
The service rendered by a bit before it is necessary to re-
sharpen it depends upon the accuracy with which it has been
ground, the angle of the cutting edge, and the character of rock
being drilled. On four-point bits the included angle of the face
is generally 120 degrees, and on six-point bits, 60 degrees; but
R-1066
this anglemay be increased or decreased in accordance with the
degree of hardness of the rock.

Rockwell Hardness Test. The Eockwell hardness tester is

essentially amachine that measures hardness by determining the
depth of penetration of a penetrator into the specimen under
certain fixed conditions of test. The penetrator may be either a
steel ball or a diamond sphero-conical penetrator. The hardness
number is related to the depth of indentation and the number is
higher the harder the material. A
minor load of 10 kg. is first
applied which causes an the dial is set at
initial penetration;
zero on the black-figure scale, and the major load is applied. This
major load is customarily 60 kg. or 100 kg. when a steel ball is
used as a penetrator, but other loads may be used when found

CARR 4 POINT 6 POINT

Three Types of Detachable Rock Drill Bits

necessary. The ball penetrator is 1/16 inch in diameter normally;

but other penetrators of larger diameter, such as %
inch, may
be employed for soft metals. When a diamond sphero-conical
penetrator is employed the load usually is 150 kg. Experience
decides the best combination of load and penetrator for use.
After the major load is applied and removed, according to stand-
ard procedure, the reading is taken while the minor load is still
applied. The letters B and C were adopted for the two standard
Rockwell scales, the letter B applying to tests with a ball pene-
trator of 1/16 inch diameter and a 100-kilogram major load, for
testing relatively soft metals, and the letter C to tests with the
diamond penetrator having a rounded point and a 150-kilogram
;

major load. There are several other Rockwell scales.

Rod/ A "rod" as the term is applied in rolling mill practice,
is generally understood to be a round bar. The United States
 1067-R
Government limits wire rods to sizes larger than No. 6 B. W. G.
(0.203 inch) in diameter; all smaller sizes are termed wires.
In length measure, one rod =
5.5 yards =16.5 feet =25 links.
Rodding. In core making, rodding is the process of putting
bars or rods in cores in order to strengthen them, so that they
may be handled with less risk of being broken. Either loose
rods placed in the core or rods held in a cast frame or skeleton
may be used.
Rod Cages. See Gages for Bods.

Roebling Wire Gage. See Steel Wire Gage.

Rolled Joint. This form of pipe joint consists of flanges oh
the pipes, which flanges are clamped between larger flanges by
means of bolts. See Van Stone or Rolled Joint

Bearing for Radial Bearing for Radial and

Load Thrust Loads

Roller Bearing. The load on roller bearings is supported by

cylindrical or conical rollers interposed between two races, one
race being mounted on the shaft and one other in the bearing
proper. There are three principal designs of roller bearings.
One for straight radial loads, the lines of contact of the rollers
is
with the races being parallel with the shaft axis, as shown by
the left-hand diagram; another design is for combined radial
and thrust loads (see right-hand diagram). With this design,
the rollers are tapering so that the lines of contact of the rollers
with the races, and the axis of the rollers, will intersect, if ex-
tended, at the same point on the shaft axis. A third design is
intended for thrust or axial loads exclusively. Bearings for
radial loads may have solid rollers, or the hollow helically-wound
type such as is used in the Hyatt bearing. Although anti-friction
bearings have replaced a great many plain or sliding bearings,
the trend is toward a much wider application, and evidently will
R-1068
include eventually the heaviest classes of service since modern
anti-friction bearings not only greatly reduce friction losses, but
lower maintenance and repair costs.

Roller Bearing Capacities. It is impracticable to give a

general formula for determining the load capacities of roller or
other anti-friction bearings. Different makes of bearings have
basic load ratings which represent average or typical conditions,
but these basic ratings vary according to the type and make of
bearing and the operating conditions under which they have been
established. Bearing capacities are influenced by such condi-
tions as mountings, adjustment, lubrication, and protection
against dust or other foreign matter. Because of the variations
mentioned, bearing capacities should be based upon the manufac-
turer's recommendation so that the working loads will be in ac-
cordance with records of actual performance, which, in many
instances, extend over long periods. According to one prominent
manufacturer, a basic capacity rating of 100 per cent, suitable
for general or typical machinery applications, might have to be
reduced 20 or 30 per cent when bearings are subjected to severe
shocks, as with the crankshafts of internal combustion engines
or when used continuously for exceptionally high speeds.
In determining the capacity of roller bearings, one prominent
manufacturer considers the speed; the shaft hardness, when no
inner race is used; whether the shaft rotates and the outer race
remains stationary, or vice versa; and finally, the nature of the
service. The basic capacity of bearings decreases as the speed
increases. The hardness of the running surfaces also affects
capacity, so that shaft hardness is a factor when there is no in-
ner race. If the application is such that the shaft remains sta-
tionary and the outer race revolves, the load relationship is not
the same as with the revolving shaft, especially for bearings
operating directly on the shaft where different shaft hardnesses
are used. The nature of the service takes into account such fac-
tors as whether it is continuous or intermittent, whether the load
is steady or fluctuating, whether the bearing is subjected to shock,
overloads and vibrations. The protection from grit or other
foreign matter and the attention in regard to lubrication are
other service factors.

Roller Blind Guard. This is an arrangement that is used to

a limited extent for protecting the slides of machine tools from
chips and grit. It consists of a wide roller mounted at the end
of the bed of the machine, having a spring action so that it auto-
matically winds up (similarly to a window shade), a strip of
water-and-oil proof material which is attached to the roller at one
end and to the moving slide at the other end. As the slide travels,
 1069 -R
the blind is drawn out or wound up, thus keeping the ways cov-
ered at all times. The arrangement has been applied to planers
and surface grinding machines.
Roller Chain. A
roller chain differs from a block chain in
that bushings and rollers are inserted between the links instead
of solid blocks. The rollers are mounted on bushings, and rivets
(which pass through the bushings) hold the side links in place.
Roller chains of the detachable type are so constructed that the
links may be taken apart readily. Boiler chains are much stronger
than block chains and are used very extensively. They are adapted
to higher speeds than block chains and are generally employed
when the amount of power to be transmitted is comparatively
high.

Roller Chain Nomenclature. The following nomenclature

for roller chains conforms to the practice recommended by the
Society of Automotive Engineers : A
roller link is an inside link
consisting of two inside plates, two bushings and two rollers; a
pin link is an outside link consisting of two pin-link plates as-
sembled with two pins ; an inside plate is one of the plates forming
the tension members of a roller link; a pin-link plate is one of the
plates forming the tension members of a pin link; a pin is a stud
articulating within a bushing of an inside link and secured at its
ends by the pin-link plates; a bushing is a cylindrical bearing in
which the pin turns; a roller is a ring or thimble which turns
over a bushing; assembled pins are two pins assembled with one
pin-link plate; a connecting link is a pin-link with one side plate
detachable; a connecting-link plate is the detachable pin-link
plate belonging to a connecting link; an offset link is a link con-
sisting of two offset side plates assembled with a bushing and
roller at one end and an offset-link pin at the other; an offset-link
pin is a pin used in offset links.
Roller Chain Speeds. The maximum speeds for roller chain
transmissions have commonly been related to the speed of the
chain but scientific observations made by a prominent chain man-
ufacturing company have demonstrated that the destructive ac-
tion between chains and sprockets is not due to high chain speed
(feet per minute) so much as to high sprocket speed (revolutions
per minute) . Thus the difference in the behavior of two drives
is not necessarily due to the difference in chain velocity. The de-
structive action due to impact between roller and sprocket is
proportional to the weight of a chain link and to the square of the
velocity with which the roller strikes the sprocket, and inversely
proportional to the weight of a chain link and to the square of the
impact between roller and sprocket is proportional to the product
of the pitch times the number of revolutions per minute.
R-1070
If P s= pitch; Sr=s maximum number of sprocket revolutions,
per minute; A = W=
projected area of roller; weight per foot
of chain, then

P
rn
\WP
where C is a constant to be determined by tests. Experience
shows that when C is equal to 2000 this formula gives the maxi-
mum sprocket speeds for satisfactory results, and that, in general,
it is desirable to use sprocket speeds not greater than 80 per
cent of the maximum speed S.
When one keeps within the proper range with respect to the
number of revolutions per minute, there is no known limit to the
permissible chain velocities except where centrifugal force be-
comes great enough to stress the chain beyond its proper working
load. By using a sufficiently large number of teeth on the
sprockets, roller chains have been driven at velocities as high as
4000 feet per minute, transmitting five times their ordinary rated
horsepower at that speed. Such drives, of course, require special
attention.
High-speed roller chains are essentially double-roller chains.
The weight, pin bearing area, and width of these chains is double
that of a single-roller chain of the same pitch, and they are
capable of transmitting twice the power at the same speed. The
sprocket teeth are cut with the same cutters as are used for single
chains of the same pitch and roller diameter. The very satisfac-
tory performance of these double chains, coupled with their lov;
cost, has greatly extended the field of usefulness of the roller
chain, and except where extreme quietness of action is required,
they will fill all ordinary requirements for either low or high
speeds.

Roller Chain Sprocket Design. See Sprocket.

Roller Follower. This is the part of a cam-operated device

which is directly actuated by the cam. A
roller at one end of
the follower or driven member presses against the cam surface
in order to reduce the frictional resistance.

Roll Feed Mechanism. When a power press is used for pro-

ducing plain blanks or shallow; drawn or formed parts from strip
stock, a roll feed mechanism is commonly used. The stock passes
between two rolls mounted one above the other, which feed it
under the dies a predetermined amount for each stroke of the
press. These rolls are geared together and rotated by a ratchet-
and-pawl mechanism. The ratchet wheel is mounted at the end
of one roll and is operated by a rod connecting with a crank at-
tached to the end of the crankshaft. By varying the position of
 1071 -R
the crankpin, the feeding movement of the stock can be changed
as may be required. These feeding rolls may be located so as to
feed the stock laterally or between the sides of the press frame;
that is, the feeding mechanism may be located at either side of
the press table or at the front or rear. The feed-rolls of presses
are commonly provided with an automatic release. This release
is so arranged that the grip of the rolls upon the stock is momen-

tarily released at every stroke as the punch descends, and is a

desirable feature when pilots are used in the ends of the punches,
in order that the stock will be free to move slightly in case the
pilots are not in exact alignment with the pierced locating holes.
See also Power Press Eoll Feeds.

Rolling Friction. Boiling friction is the force that retards

the motion of a body rolling over a surface. See Friction.

VALVE SPINDLE

ECCENTRIC ROD

CENTER LINE OF
ECCENTRIC ROD

Rolling Lever of the Single- Rolling Lever of the Double-

lever Type Itver Typt

Rolling Levers. So-called "rolling levers" may be classified

as .a special form of cams. Rolling levers are employed to actuate
vhe valves of large gas engines as well as the poppet-type valves
of steam engines. These levers may be divided into two classes
the single-lever type .( see illustration) and the double-lever
type. In the first case the lever rolls on a fixed guide, and thus
has a continuously moving fulcrum, which travels from one end
of tlie guide to the other. In the second case the levers are ful-
crumed at fixed points, as at C'and N, and roll upon each other.
The levers should have a pure rolling motion in order to insure
a minimum of wear. The valves should be opened quickly and
should close with a constantly decreasing velocity, so as to seat
quietly and without shock.

Rolling Mills. The term "rolling mill" is applied to machines

used for rolling bars, rails, sheets, etc., and also to the plant in
which the rolling mill operations are conducted Considering the
R-1072
machines, rolling mills are used for producing steel or wrought-
iron bars of uniform cross-section and flat sheets or plates, by
passing a short heavy piece of stock between rolls which gradu-
ally reduce it to the required form. The rolls are either cast-
iron or steel cylinders which, for rolling bars, rails, etc., have
a series of grooves for gradually reducing a heated ingot, billet,
or bloom to the cross-sectional shape required. For rolling flat
sheets or plates, plain cylindrical rolls are employed. After the
stock is caught between the rolls, it is drawn through by friction,
and the reduction in thickness resulting from each pass causes
a corresponding increase in length. The change in cross-sectional
shape of a bar or the reduction in thickness of a flat plate due
to one passage through the rolls is comparatively small, so that
several passes are required.

Action of Three- and Two-high Rolling Mills

Boiling mills of the "two-high" and "three-high" types are

shown diagrammatically by the accompanying illustration. In
the two-high mill, the metal is acted upon on its forward pass,
but not on its return; in the three-high type, the metal is acted
upon on both passes. To avoid the idle pass, two-high rolls are
often made reversing. In that case, as soon as the bar is passed
through the rolls, the direction of the rolls is reversed and the
bar is passed through in the opposite direction. In the two-high
non-reversing mill, all impurities are worked toward one end of
the bar, because the metal passes through in the same direction
each time, but in the three-high and the reversing two-high mills,
the impurities are worked toward the middle of the bar, as the
bar is rolled from each end.
Blooming mills are used to reduce ingots to blooms, billets, or
slabs. Billet mills are used to reduce the blooms to a section
 1073 -R
iy2 inch square or larger so that these billets may be used for
bars and rods. Sheet-bar mills reduce slabs and blooms to sheet
bars so that they may be used in sheet and tin mills. Beam mills
are used for heavy beams and channels 12 inches and over. Uni-
versal mitts have vertical and horizontal rolls, so that all four
sides are rolled simultaneously, and are adapted for rolling
square-edged plates and various wide-flanged shapes.
Rolling Screw Threads. See Thread Rolling.

Ronay Process. This is a method for briquetting metal chips

without the use of a binding material. The material to be
briquetted is subjected to a heavy hydraulic pressure, approxi-
mating 35,000 pounds per square inch. Cast iron, steel, brass,
bronze, aluminum, and copper chips, borings, and filings, as well
as graphite, ore, flue dust, etc., may be briquetted in this way.

Rontgen Rays. See X-ray.

Root. In mathematics, a root of a given quantity, is the quan-
tity which, when repeated as a factor a number of times equal
to the index of the root, will give as a product a given number.
For example, -^/^Sl =
3, because 3 repeated as a factor 4 times
gives 81 as the product.
Root Diameter of Screw Thread. The root diameter is the
diameter of a screw across the bottom or root of the thread,
measured at right angles to the axis of the screw. The root is the
bottom of the groove which forms a thread, whether the thread
be external or internal. According to the American Standard
definitions for screw threads, the terms "root diameter** and
"core diameter" have been replaced by the term "minor diam-
eter," which also replaces "inside diameter" as applied to the
thread of a nut. The minor diameter is the smallest diameter of
an external or internal screw thread.
Root-Mean-Square (RMS.)r The square root of the mean
of the squares of the instantaneous values for one complete cycle
of an alternating current is the root-mean-square or effective
value and it is usually abbreviated nns. Unless otherwise speci-
fied, the numerical value of an alternating current refers to its
rms. value. The rms. value of a sinusoidal wave is equal to
its maximum, or crest value, divided by \/~2. The word "virtual"
is sometimes used in place of rms., particularly in Great Britain.
Root-Mean-Square Value Applied to Quality of Finish.
What is known as the r&ot-mean-square (rms) value is a definite
indication of surface quality as related to smoothness of finish.
All metal surfaces which have been finished by turning, grind-
ing, honing, or other means, consist of more or less minute ir-
regularities. If, from a central reference line, the heights
and
R-1074
depths of these irregularities are measured at equally spaced
intervals, and if the sum of such measurements is divided by the
number of points at which measurements arei made, the resulting
average might be used in comparing the roughness of this sur-
face with that of another having an average value obtained in a
similar manner. If these measurements are in micro-inches
(1 micro-inch equals 0.000001 inch), and if each measurement is
squared, then averaged as explained, the square root of this
average yields a figure indicative of surface roughness which is
much more convenient to use in practical work. The irregulari-
ties on any surface vary in size and the root mean square average
value gives the larger profile values greater weight than the
smaller ones, which is desirable in a surface profile roughness
number. This root mean square value may be utilized to indicate
surface roughness. This has been made possible by the develop-
ment of an instrument for determining readily in the shop or
inspecting department the equivalent of this rms. value, or, in
ether words, a practical and precise roughness value. See also
Finish or Surface Quality.

Rope. See Arc Light Hope; Cable-laid Rope; Haulage Rope;

Hemp Rope; Hoisting Rope; Manila Rope Strength; Wire Rope.

Rope-Lay Cable. In electricity, this is a single-conductor

cable composed of a central core which is surrounded by one or
more layers of spirally- or helically-laid groups of wires. A
rope-lay cable differs from a concentric-lay cable in that in the
former the main strands are stranded.

Rope, Non-Spinning. Non-spinning rope is a special type

of wire rope made from eighteen strands of seven wires each.
The object of so-called "non-spinning" hoisting rope is to prevent
a free load suspended at the end of a single line of rope from
rotating. The spinning of a rope endangers the life of workmen,
and the constant attention required to guide the load is difficult
and expensive. Non-spinning hoisting rope is constructed by
first placing six strands of seven wires each (Lang's lay) around
a hemp core. These six strands are then covered with an outer
layer composed of twelve strands with seven wires to the strand
laid in "regular" lay that is, the wires in the strands are twisted
to the left, but the strands themselves are twisted to the right or
wound around the wire rope in the direction of a right-hand
screw thread. Ropes of this type are made from various ma-
terials, according to the strength required for the service for
which they are intended.

Rope Splicing. When two pieces of rope are joined by un-

laying the strands and weaving or intertwining the strands of
end with those of the other, the operation is known as splicing.
 TO75-R
Short Splice: The first step in making a short splice is to un-
lay or untwist the strands at the end of each rope. After the
ropes are placed together, as shown at A (see Fig. 1) the strands
on one side, as shown at d, e, and /, are either held together by
the left hand or are fastened together with twine, in case the
rope is too large to be held by the hand. The splicing operation
is started by taking one of the strands as at a, and passing it
across or over the adjacent strand d and then under the next
strand e, after having made an opening beneath strand e. The
strands 6 and c are next treated in the same manner, first one
and then the other being passed over its adjoining strand and
then under the next successive one. These same operations are
then repeated for the strands d, e and / of the other rope. The
splice will now appear as shown at B. In order to make it
stronger and more secure, the projecting strands of each rope are
again passed diagonally over the adjoining strands and under the
next successive ones. The splice should then be subjected to a
strong pull, in order to tighten the strands and make them more
compact. The projecting ends of the strands should then be cut
off, thus completing the splice as shown at C. For making the
openings beneath the strands on the rope, what is known as a
marlin spike is generally used. This is merely a tapering, pointed
pin made of wood or iron.
Long Splice: When a rope has to pass through pulley blocks,
or in case any increase in the size of the rope would be objection-
able, the short splice is not suitable and the long splice should be
employed. The diameter of a long splice is the same as that of
the rope and, if the work is done carefully, the place where the
ends are joined can scarcely be distinguished from the rest of
the rope. The ends of each rope are first unlaid or untwisted the
same as when making a short splice, but for a distance about
three times as long. These ends are then placed together so that
each strand lies between two strands of the other rope, the same
as for a short splice. One of the strands is next unlaid and then
a strand from the other rope is curled around into the groove
thus made, as indicated at A (see Fig. 2), strand a having been
unlaid and strand 6 from the other rope end, put into its place.
Care should be taken to twist strand b so that it will lie in its
natural position into the groove previously occupied by strand 0,
as the neatness of the splice will depend partly upon the care
with which this part of the work is done. This operation is then
repeated in connection with strands c and d, strand c being un-
laid and strand d twisted around to occupy the groove thus^ made.
The splice will now be as shown at B, and the next step is that
of disposing of the protruding ends of the strands. After these
strands have been cut to about the length shown at B t two of
R-1076

Fig. 1. Method of Making a Short Splice

Fig. 2. How a Long Splice IB Made

the strands, as at a and 6, are first reduced in size by removing

about one-third of the fiber ; these ends are then tied by an over-
hand knot as shown at e. After tightening this knot, the pro-
truding ends may be disposed of the same as when making a
short splice, or by passing them over the adjoining strand and
through the rope, under the next one. By gradually removing the
fiber each time the end is passed across an adjoining strand, the
enlargement of the rope at this point may be made very slight
and scarcely noticeable. The strands / and g which remain in
their original positions in the center of the splice, and also the
strands c and d are disposed of in a similar manner, thus
completing the splice as shown at C. See Eye-splice.
 1077 ~ R

Rope, Steel-Clad Hoisting. This is a wire rope which has

each strand covered with flat steel strips wound spirally around
them in order to provide additional wearing surface. These
ropes are used in cases where the rope is subjected to extreme
wear, and give additional wearing surface without sacrificing
the flexibility. The life of the wire rope exposed to great wear
may be increased from 50 to 100 per cent by this construction.
Rope Transmissions. Transmission of power by means of
ropes operating over grooved sheaves or pulleys has been replaced
largely by motor drives or motors in conjunction with short-
center belt drives. The rope method, which has been used chiefly
in textile mills, was designed especially for comparatively long
center-to-center distances. There are two systems of rope trans-
mission which are known as the American or continuous system
and the English or multiple system. In the American or continue
ous system of rope driving, one long rope is wound around the
driving and driven pulleys several times or until all of the pulley
grooves have been filled; the rope is then conducted from the last
groove of the driven to the opposite groove of the driving pulley
by means of an idler, which is held at the required angle. The
English or multiple system differs from the American system in
that a number of parallel ropes, one in each groove in the pulleys,
are used instead of a single rope that is wound around the pulleys
continuously. The required tension is obtained by the weights of
the ropes, no tension carriage being employed; hence, in the multi-
ple system, the driving and driven sheaves should be located far
enough apart to obtain the required tension.
Ropes: Cotton ropes are generally considered better than
Manila ropes for power transmission because they will transmit
more power and will wear longer. The initial cost, however, is
greater. The life of driving ropes depend upon their size and the
conditions under which they work. The most economical diam-
eters for cotton ropes range from iy2 to 1% inches, the larger
size being commonly used for transmitting considerable power.
Regarding the relative merits of the three- and four-strand ropes,
the former is superior in that it will transmit the same power
with a fewer number of ropes. The four-strand rope, however,
has the advantage of stretching less, and there is a larger surface
in contact with the pulley grooves; it is also capable of a stronger
splice. A well-made four-strand rope is, moreover, nearly as
strong as a three-strand rope, but it requires more skill to splice
it. A three-strand rope rotates once for every nine feet of travel;
a four-strand rope rotates once for every twelve feet of travel;
and a six-strand rope rotates once for every twenty-four feet of
travel.
R-1078
Rope Speeds: The speed of driving ropes usually varies from
2000 to 5000 feet per minute. The most economical speed is be-
tween 4500 and 5000 feet per minute. If the speed is too low,
the ropes are likely to slip, and if it is too high, the action due
to centrifugal force affects the efficiency. As the ropes operate
in V-shaped grooves, the loss due to centrifugal force is less than
with belt drives hence, ropes are adapted to higher velocities.
;

Wire Rope Transmission: The application of wire rope for the

purpose of transmitting power was first made in 1850, in Switzer-
land. With this system of transmission, an endless wire rope is
employed which runs over large sheaves, the grooves of which are
usually filled with rubber or wood. Ordinarily, the sheaves are
of cast iron and are made as light as possible. In addition to the
rubber and wood fillers, various other materials have been used
for filling the grooves, such as tarred oakum, jute yarn, and
leather. With rubber and leather fillings, considerably more power
can be transmitted than when using wood-filled sheaves. As a
general rule, this system of transmission should not be used for
shorter center-to-center distances than 50 feet, and it may be
employed without supporting idler sheaves, for distances up to
300 feet. For greater distances, guide sheaves should be used
at points 300 feet apart or less. Double-groove sheaves are also
used in some cases; these are spaced 300 feet apart and serve
to divide the transmission system or rope into a number of
independent sections.

Rose Chucking Reamer. This is an end-cutting reamer used

for enlarging cored or drilled holes. The cylindrical part of the
reamer has no cutting edges, but merely grooves cut for the full
length of the reamer body, providing a way for the chips to
escape and a channel for lubricant to reach the cutting edges.
There is no relief on the cylindrical surface of the body part, but
it is slightly back-tapered so that the diameter at the point with
the beveled cutting edges is slightly larger than the diameter
further back. The back-taper should not exceed 0.001 inch per
inch. This form of reamer usually produces holes slightly larger
than its size and is, therefore, always made from 0.005 to 0.010
inch smaller than its nominal size, so that it may be followed by
a fluted reamer for finishing.

Rotary Blower. A
rotary blower, also known as a "positive
blower," is a blower consisting of a casing in which two moving
elements revolve in opposite directions, one or both of which are
called impellers. The impellers are of double-lobe cycloidal form,
so that they engage with each other and force air between them,
as they rotate, from the inlet to the outlet. Eotary blowers are
positive in their action and are used for furnishing blast for
 1079 -R
cupolas, gas and oil burners, furnaces, ash conveyors, pneumatic
tube service, etc.

Rotary Carburizing. See Carburking by Rotary Method.

Rotary Converter. This is an electrical machine used for con-

verting alternating current into direct current. See Synchronous
Converter.

Rotary Engine. The rotary type of steam engine differs from

the reciprocating type in that the steam pressure is applied to
some form of piston, or series of pistons, which is connected
directly to the main shaft and revolves about the axis of the
cylinder. Many attempts have been made to design a rotary
engine that could compete with reciprocating engines. The chief
theoretical advantage of the rotary principle is that the power
is utilized directly to produce rotary motion without any inter-

vening mechanism, thus eliminating a reciprocating piston and

cross-head, and an oscillating connecting-rod, with their mass,
inertia and vibration. The object of inventors has been to design
-a rotary engine that would not only possess the advantage of

directness in the application of power, but, in addition, compact-

ness and simplicity of construction. The principal disadvantages
of most designs have been leakage, internal resistance or friction,
and failure to use the steam expansively, all of which result in
excessive steam consumption. The importance of the rotary type
has become much less since the development of the steam turbine.
The chief distinction between the rotary engine and the turbine
is that the former is operated by pressure action, whereas, in the
turbine, the kinetic energy of a mass of steam moving at high
velocity imparts motion to the rotor or rotating member.

Rotary Files. Files of the rotary type are made in either

cylindrical, conical, spherical, concave, or special shapes for finish-
ing the edges or surfaces of punches, dies, metal patterns, and
various other classes of work. The file may be rotated by insert-
ing it in a drilling machine spindle, as for finishing the edges
of punches or dies, or by using a flexible shaft drive, as when
the position of the file must be varied by hand control.

Rotary Milling Machine. Castings or forgings which are so

shaped as to be readily clamped or released from a fixture are
sometimes milled by a continuous circular milling operation. The
continuous rotary milling machine is intended for milling large
quantities of duplicate parts. The castings or forgings to be
milled are held in a fixture near the edge of the table and, as the
latter revolves, one piece after another passes beneath the revolv-
ing cutter (or cutters) and is milled or faced. As the finished
parts come around to the front of the machine, they are removed
R-1080
by the operator and replaced by rough pieces without stopping
the machine, so that the milling operation is practically continu*
ous. A fixture for continuous circular milling must be designed
so that the work can be removed quickly and without stopping the
rotation of the table. The increased production that has been
effected in many cases by substituting continuous rotary milling
for some other method is due to reducing the non-productive time
of the machine by avoiding the necessity of stopping to set up
work and then restarting the machine; by avoiding the need ol
returning the table to the starting point after each traverse;
and by overcoming the necessity of having the machine idle while
the operator is setting up work, or the operator idle while the
machine is running.

Rotary Planers. The rotary planer or "end milling machine,"

as it is sometimes called, is especially adapted to the planing of
slab milling of heavy castings or forgings. The distinguishing
feature of a rotary planer is the large circular cutter head which
carries inserted tools or cutters which successively cut away the
metal as the cutter head revolves. The slide which carries the
cutter head and driving mechanism of some rotary planers, is
mounted on a horizontal bed and automatically feeds along this
bed, when the machine is in operation. The part to be planed or
milled is attached to a stationary work-table. Other rotary
planers have a cutter head which remains stationary and a work-
table which is given an automatic feeding movement. This type
may have either a fixed cutter head or one that can be adjusted
vertically. There are also several other variations in the design
of rotary planers. Some machines are mounted upon a circular
sub-base so that the bed carrying the cutter-slide can be swiveled,
for planing the ends of long heavy parts at an angle. For finish-
ing both ends or sides of the work at the same time, duplex rotary
planers are used. This form consists of two planers mounted on
one bed. One cutter head may be attached to a fixed base and
the other to a swiveling base, or both heads may have fixed bases.
The size or rated capacity of a rotary planer is equivalent to the
diameter of the circle described by the tools in the cutter head.

Rotary Pumps. Rotary pumps are designed to operate with

a continuous rotary motion instead of a reciprocating movement
In these pumps, the liquid is trapped between the revolving blades
or wings of an impeller and the outer pump casing, and is forced
around from the suction side to the discharge side. Pumps ol
this class may have either two or more lobes on each impeller.
Rotary pumps, when properly designed, are simple and reliable,
but usually the percentage of slip is comparatively high and
leakage is liable to become excessive as the result of wear, espe-
 1081 -R
cially when pumping against considerable pressure. Pumps of
this type are used principally for thick or heavy liquids, or for
liquids containing pulp, malt, or similar materials. They have
also been applied to many machine tools for supplying oil to the
cutting tools.

Rotary Shears. Rotary or circular shears are so named be-

cause the shear blades are in the form of disks. These disks are
mounted on parallel shafts which rotate in unison. Shears of
this kind are used for cutting curved sheets or for circular work.
For the latter, the sheet or plate is held at the center of the disk
to be cut, by a clamp which allows the sheet to revolve when the
shears are cutting.
Rotor. When an important member of a machine revolves
within a stationary casing or outer member, the rotating part is
often called a rotor. For example, in a centrifugal pump, the
rotor is a rotating element provided with vanes, which draws in
air or liquid at the center and expels it at a high velocity at the
periphery. The rotor of a steam turbine revolves within its casing
as the steam impinges alternately against the rotor blades and
the stationary casing blades. The rotating member of a generator
or a motor is often referred to as a rotor. Various other rotating
parts are known as rotors.
Roto Shaving. This term is applied to a special method of
machining surfaces by means of cutters having helical teeth of
fine pitch. Both the cutter and the work rotate, and this method
is applicable in sizing and truing cylindrical surfaces and also the
flat or end surfaces of shoulders or flanges. The stock removed
by this process usually ranges from 0.010 to 0.015 inch on the
flat or end surfaces, and about 0.020 inch on the diameter of
cylindrical parts. The cutters are about 7 inches in diameter and
usually are beveled. In some cases, a double-beveled form is used
for machining, simultaneously, a cylindrical surface and an ad-
jacent flat surface on a shoulder or flange. If a cylindrical sur-
face is longer than the cutter width, the cutter may be traversed
axially; and on long cylindrical parts of uniform diameter, the
cutter axis usually inclines relative to the work axis in order to
concentrate the maximum cutting action in a restricted area at
the point of intersection. The roto shaving process is applied to
certain jobs in place of grinding where the hardness does not
exceed 38 Rockwell. Roto shaving is done in machines designed
especially for this purpose.
Round Chisel. This chisel is intended for the cutting of oil
grooves or other grooves having a round bottom. The point of the
chisel is round and the end surface is ground off at an angle to
produce a cutting edge.
R-1082
Round File. Round files (also called "rat-tail") are made
both in the taper and blunt forms, and the cut is mostly bastard.
Round files are used either for enlarging round holes or shaping
internal surfaces for which quadrangular sections would be un-
suitable. The blunt shape is ordinarily used for the heavier classes
of work. Both square and round files are made in "slim" forms,
which are of regular length but of smaller cross-section.

Routing. Routing is a name given the operation of milling

when the feeding movements of the work are controlled by hand,
in order to follow an irregular outline, as when roughing out the
impressions in drop-forging dies, etc.

Royalties on Patents. The customary royalty paid by manu-

facturers for the privilege of manufacturing and marketing
patented mechanical devices may be either a certain percentage
of the selling price or a certain fixed amount for each article
manufactured, but the amount varies in almost every case because
of the endless variety of conditions that affect royalties. It is not
feasible to give general figures, as a royalty which is too high in
one case may be entirely too low in another. For instance, when
the manufacturer must invest in new equipment, and when the
cost of selling a product is likely to be high, it is apparent that
the manufacturer should have a larger royalty than would be
required if the risk assumed were less. Because of these variable
factors, 5 per cent royalty might be fair to both patentee and
manufacturer under given conditions, and too low under other
conditions. In other words, it is not feasible to establish the
royalty by considering what someone else has done, but rather
to establish it on a business basis, considering the facts covering
the particular case under consideration.

Royalty Contracts. Royalty contracts are usually made on

the basis of the inventor receiving a certain per cent of the retail
selling price, or in some cases a percentage of the price obtained
by the manufacturer. A much better arrangement is an agreed
amount per article. In some cases the inventor agrees to take
a certain proportion of the profits. This is usually a very poor
arrangement, as the inventor is in effect and usually in fact a
partner, and may become liable for the debts of the business; and
in any case he has to find out what the profits are, which is often
a matter for much argument and contention. The manufacturer
should agree to keep an accurate account of the number of articles
sold and to report and remit at stated times. He should also agree
to allow the inventor free access to his books during business
hours, and should agree to swear to the correctness of the books
and the reports if required to do so by the inventor. Some-
times it is possible to give the articles consecutive serial num-
 1083 -R
bers, which makes the accounting easier, and sometimes the
inventor furnishes name-plates or labels at so much apiece, which
the licensee affixes to the article. The main considerations are to
see that the contract is definite as to what is to be done, and the
exact time that it is to be done, and to provide that if it is not
done, all rights shall revert to the inventor.

Rubber. Rubber is obtained from certain trees and bushes

found in the tropical regions of America, Africa, and Asia. Com-
mercial rubber contains a number of foreign substances which
can be removed by mechanical washing and drying. The washed
and dried rubber is then treated according to the purpose for
which it is to be used. In engineering, one of the most common
uses of rubber is for electrical insulation. When rubber is to be
used for this purpose, the washed and dried product is passed
between rollers and pressed into sheets, after which it is cut up
into pieces, again passed through the rollers, and compounded
with various mineral substances, hydrocarbons, and sulphur, this
process being known as "compounding." From 60 to 70 per cent
of mineral substances may be added to the rubber gum before the
essential qualities of the rubber cease to predominate. Commer-
cial insulating rubber, for example, generally contains only about
30 per cent of rubber, while it may contain from 30 to 65 per cent
of zinc oxide, up to 30 per cent of whiting, from 1 to 12 per cent
of litharge, from 2 to 4 per cent of paraffin, and from 2 to 4 per
cent of sulphur. Anumber of other substances are also present
in small quantities."Hard rubber" is defined as a rubber com-
pound hard enough to be machined and polished. Hard rubber is
vulcanized that is, the soft rubber has been treated with sulphur
so as to change it into a harder product than the original rubber.
Synthetic Rubber: Synthetic rubber production in the United
States is based chiefly on the use of petroleum and alcohol.
Natural rubber is made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
Hydrocarbons for making synthetic rubber may be obtained
from petroleum and from carbohydrates such as molasses, pota-
toes, grains, and other fermentable materials. The carbohydrates
are first fermented to obtain alcohol which is converted into a
hydrocarbon. The alcohol is obtained from raw materials such
as natural gas, potatoes, grains, sugar, and molasses. The most
important of the synthetic rubbers is the "Buna S" type. Buna S
rubber is made from butadiene (about 75 per cent) and from
Styrene (about 25 per cent). Butadiene can be obtained from
oil refineries, natural gas, alcohol, or acetylene. The alcohol for
making the butadiene may be made by fermenting grains, pota-
toes, etc., or it may be made from refinery gas. Butadiene is a
hydrocarbon substance very similar to the chief constituent of
natural rubber but it is not rubber* The butadiene molecules,
R-1084
once obtained, must be linked together in a chain or structure
called a "polymer" (meaning "many molecules" as against a
"monomer" or "single molecule") . This linking together of the
butadiene molecules would take place if the butadiene was
allowed to set for several weeks untouched ; but as this would be
too slow for production purposes, another chemical is added to
speed the process. This new chemical is called a "catalytic
agent" and the process of polymerization is known as catalysis.
To improve the quality of the synthetic rubber, other chemicals
are added and polymerized with butadiene. This is called
"copolymerization." After polymerization, a synthetic latex is
obtained from which synthetic rubber can be obtained by co-
agulation with an acid, the same as with natural rubber. In
other words, a "rubber polymer" is made synthetically, which
has much the same characteristics and uses as natural rubber,
and it can be vulcanized, compounded, and mixed with other
materials. There are various other kinds of synthetic rubber
such as Butyl, Neoprene, Buna N, Thiokol, etc.
Rubber Belts. Rubber belts generally are made up of 28-,
32-, and 36-ounce duck, and their ultimate tensile strength varies
from 900 to 1500 pounds per square inch according to the fabric
used. The higher frictional resistance of rubber belting, as com-
pared with leather, is offset by the heavier weight (0.0478 pound
per cubic inch, as against 0.038 pound per cubic inch for leather
belts) which results in centrifugal force having a greater effect.
Owing to the nature of a rubber belt (which is made up of plies)
it is desirable to avoid extremely small pulleys whenever possible.
Rubber belts are made either with a special friction surface or
with a rubber cover and in almost any width. The number of
plies ranges from two to fourteen. The various brands vary
slightly in tensile strength and weight. The average weight of
rubber belting per square foot and ply is: 0.3699 pound for
28-ounce duck; 0.3893 pound for 32-ounce duck; and 0.4923 pound
for 36-ounce duck. To find the weight per lineal foot of a rubber
belt, multiply the weight per square foot and ply by the number
of plies and the width of the belt, in inches, and divide by 12.
Rubber Belt Velocities. Owing to the greater effect of cen-
trifugal force, the velocity of a rubber belt varies according to
the cotton fabric used. The following are the most effective speeds
for different cotton fabrics: 3000 feet per minute for belts made
of 28-ounce duck; 2700 feet per minute for belts made of 32-ounce
duck; and 2400 feet per minute for belts made of 36-ounce duck.
These velocities cannot be exceeded without decreasing the effec-
tive pull. The limiting velocities at which the effective pull of a
rubber belt equals the working stress minus the centrifugal force
are as follows: 3800 feet per minute for belts made of 28-ounce
 1085-R
duck; 3500 feet per minute for belts made of 32-ounce duck; and
3200 feet per minute for belts made of 36-ounce duck.

Rubber Bond Grinding Wheel. Kubber wheels are bonded

with special mixtures of rubber, and then vulcanized. Wheels of
this class have substantially the same advantages as elastic
wheels, except that they can be made harder and thinner to meet
more severe conditions. Both elastic and vulcanized wheels are
used for cutting off tubing, wire, thin sheets of steel or brass,
and parts that are difficult to hold while cutting off with the
commonly used tools. See also Bonding Processes for Grinding
Wheels.

Rubbing Machine. Convex, flat, and concave surfaces of

wood and metal can be sanded, rubbed, or otherwise finished and
polished by means of a portable rubbing machine. This machine
is made in both floor and ceiling types.

Rugan's Experiments. These were a series of experiments

undertaken in England by Prof. H. P. Rugan for the purpose of
determining the conditions connected with the growth of cast
iron and its causes. See Cast-iron Growth.

Ruhmkorff Coil. See Induction Coil.

Run, The following are definitions of the term "run" as

given by the National Tube Co.: (1) A length of pipe that is
made of more than one piece of pipe. (2) The portion of any
fittinghaving its ends "in line" or nearly so, in contradistinction
to the branch or side opening, as of a tee. The two main open-
ings of an elbow also Indicate its run, and when there is a third
opening on an elbow, the fitting is a side outlet or back outlet
elbow, except that when all three openings are in one plane and
the back outlet is in line with one of the run openings, the fit-
ting is a heel outlet elbow or a single-sweep tee or sometimes a
branch tee.

Running Balance. When a part such as a drum, rotor, crank-

shaft, pulley, etc., is properly tested for balance while revolving,
and any appreciable lack of balance is corrected on the basis of
such test, the part is said to be in running or dynamic balance.
Special balancing machines are used to determine the magnitude
and location of unbalanced masses while the part is revolving;
hence, the test is applied under operating conditions, which is
not true of the test for static or standing balance.

Running Flange. This is a central guide-link used on silent

chains for keeping the chain on the wheel. This guide-link is
inserted in every alternate link or pitch of the chain and a groove
is turned on the wheel into which this link will fit. The running
R-1086

flange may also be provided at the outside edges of the chain,

overlapping the edges of the wheel.
Running Rope. This term is applied to wire rope consist-
ing of 6 strands with 12 wires each. It has a hemp core in the
center of every strand with the 12 wires arranged around the
core, and then a central hemp core about which the 6 strands
are arranged. The construction produces a rope more flexible than
the regular 6 by 19 hoisting rope, but for the same diameter the
running rope has only two-thirds the strength of the hoisting
rope. It is used for hawsers and mooring lines.
Rust. See Oxidation.
Rust Joint. This is a kind of joint employed to secure a
permanent connection that is either steam-, gas-, or water-tight
connection. The joint is made by using a stiff paste which oxi-
dizes the iron, the whole rusting together and hardening into a
solid mass. It cannot generally be separated except by destroy-
ing some of the pieces. One recipe is 80 pounds of cast-iron
borings or filings; 1 pound of sal-ammoniac; and 2 pounds of
flowers of sulphur, mixed to a paste with water. See also Cements
for Joints.
Rust Prevention. When the atmosphere, sea water, acids,
or similar substances with which iron or steel comes into contact,
attack the iron by forming oxides or rust upon its surface, cor-
rosion is said to take place. Iron and steel cannot stand exposure
to the atmosphere, particularly when excessive moisture is con-
tained in the air, for any length of time, without the protection
of some covering or coating which excludes the moisture and
which, in itself, is not attacked by the influence of the atmosphere.
The various preventives which follow have been recommended
by different men in the mechanical field.
Resin and Oil: Melt 4 ounces of resin in 1 quart of linseed oil
and mix with 2 gallons of kerosene oil. The mixture is readily
applied with a cloth or brush, and can be easily removed.
Caoutchouc, Turpentine and Oil: To preserve steel from rust,
dissolve 1 part caoutchouc and 16 parts turpentine with a gentle
heat, then add 8 parts boiled oil, and mix by bringing them to the
heat of boiling water. Apply to the steel with a brush, the same
as varnish. It can be removed again with a cloth soaked in
turpentine.
Varnish and Turpentine: To make a mixture that will prevent
hardware and machinists' tools from rusting, take one-half pint
of Demar white varnish and mix it well with one gallon of tur-
pentine. When the polished surfaces are thoroughly covered with
a thin coat, the varnish will scarcely show, but will preserve the
polish for years, if it is not scraped off with something very hard.
 1087 -R

Vaseline and Blue Ointment: In one pound of vaseline melt

2 ounces of blue ointment what druggists call one-third and
add, to give it a pleasant odor, a few drops of oil of wintergreen,
cinnamon, or sassafras. When thoroughly mixed, pour into a tin
can.
Alcohol and Oil: To make a preservative oil, use high
Sperm
test grain alcohol and best grade of sperm oil, equal parts. Keep
in a tightly-corked bottle, and shake well before using, as the
alcohol and oil separate after standing. Any moisture on a tool
or gun at the time of application is quickly absorbed by the alco-
hol, which in a short time evaporates, leaving a good coat of
sperm oil to protect the surface from rust.
Soda Solution: Rust formation takes place on tools within a
few hours after they have been hardened in brine or in any of the
numerous hardening solutions containing different salts used for
this purpose. To counteract this rusting of tools, they should be
boiled ina strong solution of soda water for fifteen or twenty
minutes after having been hardened. Sal soda (common wash-
ing soda) is the kind to use for the solution. A
kettle holding
about six or eight gallons of water may be used. About five
pounds of soda are put in at the start, and after that about one
to one and one-half pounds is added every day. In this way the
strength of the solution is kept about right.
The addition of soda is necessary on account of the overflow
which is required because of the method used for heating, the
solution being brought to the boiling point by introducing steam.
The work should always be boiled before being put into the tem-
pering furnace and the latter should be at a temperature of about
212 degrees F., when the tools are changed from the soda kettle to
the furnace. A basket arrangement with windlass may be used
for raising and lowering the work, to prevent scalding the hands.
The direction given, if followed, will prove of advantage in hard-
ening and tempering tools, in that the formation of rust will be
prevented.
Oil and Graphite: To prevent screws from getting rusty and
sticking tight, instead of using ordinary oil only, add some
graphite. After years you will be able to unscrew them with
ease, and them as bright as new, even if they have been
find
exposed to very damp air.
Camphor, Lard and Black Lead: A formula for an anti-rust
compound is made as follows: Dissolve 1 ounce of camphor in
1 pound of melted lard; take off the scum, and mix in as much
fine black lead as will give it color. Clean the machinery, and
smear it with the mixture, and after 24 hours rub clean with
a soft linen cloth. The machinery will keep clean, under ordinary
circumstances, for a long time.
R-1088
White Lead and Tallow: In order to keep white lead and tal-
low soft in winter and summer alike, so that it can be applied
with a brush to finished parts of machinery before shipping them,
and for use in fitting keys, etc., prepare a mixture composed of
five pounds of white lead and fifteen pounds of tallow. Heat this
in a suitable receptacle, and stir until the ingredients are thor-
oughly mixed. Then remove the mixture to a cool place, and add
two quarts of linseed oil, continuing to stir the composition until
it becomes cold, as otherwise the white lead will settle at the bot-
tom. This mixture will always remain of the same consistency
at all temperatures.

Red-lead Paint for Structural Steel: Structural steel is gen-

erally protected from rust by painting. A rust-retarding coat of
paint may be suitably compounded from red lead mixed with pure
linseed oil. The average stock mixture consists of from 25 to
30 pounds of red lead to a gallon of oil. This mixture can be
reduced to the proper consistency at the time of application. A
small amount of turpentine added to this brush coating will
greatly assist in its manipulation, and will also provide for proper
penetration. Red lead should be mixed at the time of its ap-
plication, as it settles quite readily, being an extremely heavy
pigment.
Rust Removal. Tools which have become very rusty may be
treated with a chemical solution, instead of trying to scour the
rust off by means of an abrasive cloth. A good solution for re-
moving rust may be made as follows : Into one quart of distilled
water dissolve, little by little, sufficient chloride of tin to obtain
a saturated solution, that is, until the water will not dissolve any
more of the salts. Put the tool into a receptacle containing the
solution and let it stand overnight. In the morning rinse the
solution off in running water and dry thoroughly with a piece of
chamois or cloth.
Sweet Oil and Lime: A good method for removing rust from
steel is to firstrub the object with sweet oil, and then, after a
day or two, rub it with finely powdered unslaked lime until the
rust disappears. Then give it again a coating of oil with a woolen
cloth, and put it in a dry place.
Tin Putty, Buckshom, and Spirits of Wine: A very effective
mixture for removing rust from polished surfaces may be made
ets follows: Ten parts of tin putty (putty-powder or jewelers'

putty), 8 parts of prepared buckshorn, and 250 parts of spirits

of wine. These ingredients are mixed to a soft paste, and rubbed
in on the surface until the rust disappears. When no trace of
rust seems to remain, the surface is polished with a dry, soft cloth.
Sulphuric Acid: Rust may be removed from small steel parts
such as screws, nuts, pins, etc., when they are not badly pitted,
 1089 -R

by dipping them into a dilute solution of sulphuric acii To pre-

pare the acid bath, pour the acid, little by little, into a bowl
partly filled with water. After each addition of acid, try one of
the rusted parts, and continue trying until the proper strength
is obtained to eat the rust off clean. Let the parts remain in
the acid bath until cleaned of rust, then remove and wash in soda
water, and then in benzine. Finally, dry the parts and brighten
in sawdust.
Muriatic Acid: A quick method of removing rust from steel
parts is by rubbing the surface with muriatic acid. A convenient
way to do this is to dip a small stick into the acid and rub it over
the surface of the work. This procedure is continued for several
minutes, dipping the stick in as often as necessary to obtain a
sufficient quantity of acid. After this treatment has been com-
pleted, the work should be washed with a solution of common
washing soda and water and then dried in sawdust
Removing Rust before Electroplating; A simple method of re-
moving rust from surfaces that are afterwards to be electroplated
consists in dipping the articles first into a strong hot potash bath,
for about half an hour, and then in a cold muriatic-acid pickling
solution, composed of 2 parts of water to 1 of acid. This solution
removes the rust in a few minutes, leaving the metal apparently
attacked but very little. The previous soaking in the strong hot
potash solution is responsible for this rapid pickling, as tests
have shown that, without previous dipping, 65 minutes is required
by the acid bath, against four minutes when previously treated
in the potash bath.
Rust Resistance of Iron and Steel. Silicon in iron increases
greatly its tendency to corrode; 0.3 per cent of silicon will make
iron rust 20 per cent more rapidly than would ordinary iron free
from silicon. On the other hand, alloying steel with nickel or
copper gives it increased resistance to corrosion; 0.20 per cent
of copper in steel produces a material which is attacked by acids
at one-tenth the rate of ordinary iron. The corrosion in the
atmosphere is only one-third that of iron free from copper. An
increase of copper above 0.20 per cent does not add to the
corrosion resisting qualities of the iron.
These results have been obtained not merely by laboratory ex-
periments, but in practice. Roofs have been covered in and
around Pittsburg with ordinary sheet steel and also with a sheet
steel containing 0.20 per cent of copper. The copper alloy roofs
were in good condition when the ordinary sheet iron roofs were
completely corroded. These experiments also showed that the
metals are less attacked in rural districts than in cities, which,
probably, is due to the carbon and acid fumes present in the
city atmosphere.
 Sabin Process. The Sabin process is a method used for coat-
ing pipe in order to protect it against moisture. The coating
consists of a mixture of asphaltum and linseed oil. After having
been dipped in this coating, the pipe is allowed to drain for about
half an hour, and is then baked in an oven at a temperature of
about 300 degrees F. for two hours.
Saddle. A machine tool saddle is a slide which is mounted
upon the ways of a bed, cross-rail, arm, or other guiding surfaces,
and the saddle usually supports one or more secondary slides for
holding either metal-cutting tools or a work-holding table. On
a knee-type milling machine the saddle is that part which slides
upon the knee and which supports the work-holding table. The
saddle of a planer or boring mill is mounted upon the cross-rail
and supports the tool-holding slide. The saddle of a lathe is that
part of a carriage which slides directly upon the lathe bed and
supports the cross-slide.
Saddle Key. This form of key has parallel sides and is
curved on its under side to fit the shaft. It is slightly tapered
on top so that, when it is driven tightly in place, the shaft is held
by frictional resistance. This key should be fitted so that it bears
lightly on the sides and heavily between the shaft and hub
throughout its entire length. As the drive with this type of key
is not positive, it is only used where there is little power to trans-
mit. It is an inexpensive method of keying, as the shaft does not
need to be machined.
S.A.E. Standard Screw Thread. The screw thread standard
of the Society of Automotive Engineers (S.A.E.) is intended for
use in the automotive industries of the United States. The
S.A.E. Standard includes a Coarse series, a Fine series, an
8-thread series, a 12-thread series, a 16-thread series, an Extra-
and a Special-pitch series. The Coarse and Fine series,
fine series,
and also the S-, 12- and 16-thread series, are exactly the same as
corresponding series in the American Standard. The Extra-fine
and Special-pitch series are S.A.E. Standards only.
The American Standard thread form (or the form previously
known as the U. S. Standard) is applied to all S.A.E. Standard
screw threads. The Extra-fine series has a total of six pitches
ranging from 32 down to 16 threads per inch. The 16 threads
per inch in the Extra-fine series, applies to all diameters from
1% up to 6 inches. This Extra-fine series is intended for use on
1090
 1091-S

relatively light sections; on parts requiring fine adjustment;

where jar and vibration are important factors; when the thick-
ness of a threaded section is relatively small as in tubing, and
where assembly is made without the use of wrenches.
The S.A.E. Special pitches include some which are finer than
any in the Extra-fine series. The special pitches apply to a range
of diameters extending from No. 10 (0.1900 inch) up to 6 inches.
Each diameter has a range of pitches varying from five to eight
For example, a %-inch diameter has six pitches ranging from
24 to 56 threads per inch, whereas a 6-inch diameter has eight
pitches ranging from 4 to 16 threads per inch. These various
S.A.E. Standard series are intended to provide adequate screw
thread specifications for all uses in the automotive industries.

S.A.E. Steel. This abbreviated term means that the steel is

one of the standard compositions approved by the Society of
Automotive Engineers, Inc. A system of numbering is used to
indicate the general class of steel and the approximate percentages
of the chief elements.

Safety Coupling. A safety coupling is a coupling so arranged

that, if thepower to be transmitted exceeds the normal require-
ments, the driven member will be permitted to slip.
Salt Baths for Heat-Treating Operations. Molten baths
of various salt mixtures or compounds are used extensively for
heat-treating operations such as hardening and tempering; they
are also utilized for annealing ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Commercial salt-bath mixtures are available which meet a wide
range of temperature and other metallurgical requirements. For
example, there are neutral baths for heating tool and die steels
without carburizing the surfaces; baths for carburizing the sur-
faces of low-carbon steel parts; baths adapted for the usual tem-
pering temperatures of, say, 300 to 1100 degrees P.; and baths
which may be heated to temperatures up to approximately
2400 degrees P. for hardening high-speed steels. Salt baths
are also adapted for local or selective hardening, the type of bath
being selected to suit the requirements. For example, a neutral
bath may be used for annealing the ends of tubing or other parts,
or an activated cyanide bath for carburizing the ends of shafts
or other parts. Surfaces which are not to be carburized are pro-
tected by copper plating. When the work is immersed, the
unplated parts are subjected to the carburizing action.
Baths may consist of a mixture of sodium, potassium, barium,
and calcium chlorides or nitrates of sodium, potassium, barium,
and calcium in varying proportions, to which sodium carbonate
and sodium cyanide are sometimes added to prevent decarburiza-
tion. Various proportions of these salts provide baths of different
S-1092

properties. The specific gravity of a salt bath is not as high as

that of a lead bath ; consequently, the work may be suspended in
a salt bath and doea not have to be held below the surface as in
a lead bath.

Sand Blasting. The foundry sand-blast was developed for

the cleaning of castings, and its advantages for cleaning or sur-
facing in many branches of metal working, plating, and finishing
have been so fully demonstrated, that it has become an important
process in different lines of manufacture. Thoroughly sand-
blasted castings can be machined more rapidly and at reduced
expense. In sand-blasting, sand or some other abrasive is forced
through a nozzle, under pressure, against the surface to be
treated. The sand-blast machine may have single or multiple
nozzles, the size of each opening, together with the pressure
maintained, governing the air volume required. The sand-blasting
process is used, not only in cleaning iron and steel castings, but
also for brass and aluminum, when the pressure and nozzles are
properly adapted to these softer materials. Sheet-metal parts
are frequently prepared for plating, galvanizing, enameling, or
painting by sand-blasting. The process is also employed for matt-
surfacing metals, roughing handles of instruments, lettering or
frosting glass, lettering marble, blasting: wood for the purpose of
bringing out the grain, and many other uses too numerous to
mention here.
Air, compressed to varying pressures, is commonly employed
in all sand-blasting equipments, but the pressure is applied in
different ways. The three systems in use are generally designated
as the direct-pressure system, the suction or syphon system, and
the gravity system. In the direct-pressure system the air and
the abrasive are combined in and discharged from a closed tank
through a nozzle. In the suction system, the abrasive is carried
to the nozzle by a suction created by a jet of compressed air,
which, in passing through the nozzle, carries the abrasive with
it. In the gravity system, the abrasive is carried by mechanical
means to a place above the nozzle and is fed down by gravity.
At the nozzle, the abrasive and compressed air combine and are
discharged. For some classes of work a small nozzle opening,
that is, a fine strong jet, may be desirable; for other work a
broader stream, covering a larger surface but working at a lower
pressure may be best. The pressure that should be used depends
upon the nature of the work. The following figures will give an
idea of the pressures generally used. For cleaning light castings,
such as stove castings, etc., use from 5 to 10 pounds; for medium-
and heavy-grade iron castings, from 15 to 20 pounds; for steel
castings, from 30 to 75 pounds; for buildings and steel structures,
from 5 to 30 pounds, depending upon the height.
 1093-S

Sand-Blasting Abrasives. Sand is the most commonly used

abrasive for sand-blasting on account of its relatively low price.
Ordinary lake or river sand is inferior to sea sand and silica
sand, as the two latter possess greater hardness and are therefore
more lasting. River sand results in more or less dust, and it dis-
integrates rapidly. Abrasives such as steel grit and shot are
used to a certain extent, and the use of these more expensive
abrasives is warranted under certain conditions. For classes of
work such as electroplating or galvanizing, the metallic dust ad-
hering to the work would make its use prohibitive, because it
prevents perfect galvanizing, although no difficulty is experienced
in this respect with sand. There is no one abrasive that is best
adapted to all classes of work A selection must be made with
due regard to reclaiming means, to greatest economy in operation,
and to maximum production. All abrasives should be screened
each time before using, to remove particles large enough to clog
the nozzle, and also to eliminate fine particles which only produce
dust and have no abrasive quality, but which consume some of the
pressure. Screen separators, frequently operated by compressed
air, may be used for this purpose.

Sand-BIast Abrasive Screens. In reference to screens for

sand-blast abrasives, the number of the mesh gives the number
of openings to the linear inch. For example, No. 10 mesh means
that there are ten openings or meshes to the inch, or one hundred
openings to the square inch. Ocean sands, which are largely used
in the eastern states, would be graded about as follows:

Sand No. Passes Screen Remains on Screen

1 20 mesh 40 mesh
2 14 mesh 20 mesh
3 8 mesh 14 mesh
4 5 mesh 8 mesh

The weight of the wire used for the screens is governed by the
weight and character of the material to be screened, so that the
size or gage of the wire often varies for the same number of
screen, and this, in turn, somewhat determines the size of the
openings or meshes. The nature of the sand-blast apparatus is
such that precise grading is not necessary.

Sand-Buffing. See Buffing.

Sand-Hole. In a casting, a sand-hole is a section of the? cast-

ing in which sand has been entrapped. The sand is eroded from
the mold by the entering current of molten iron and floats to the
top, but the iron may have been partially solidified
before the
sand reaches the top, and as a result it win remain imprisoned in
5-1094
the body of the casting. Occasionally large cavities are formed
in this way which impair the strength of the casting.
Sanding Machine. These are wood-working machines and
they are made in two general types The revolving disk or face
:

plate type and the traveling belt type. Both are faced with sand
paper or other abrasive material. The stock is smoothed by
bringing it in contact with the working surface. The disk machine
is the one usually found in the pattern shops.

Sand, Molding. See Molding Sand.

Saponification Value of Oil. The saponification value of an

oil isthe number of milligrams of caustic potash required to com-
pletely saponify one gram of the fat or oil, A low saponification
value generally indicates adulteration with mineral oil.

Saturated Air. See Air, Saturated.

Sawdust as a Fire Extinguisher. Sawdust is effective for

extinguishing small fires in oils and other inflammable liquids.
This is due to the fact that the sawdust-particles pack together
closely, and prevent the air from penetrating the surface freely
enough to actively support the combustion beneath; thus sawdust
smothers the flames in the same manner as a blanket, by exclud-
ing the air. Sawdust may be successfully used for extinguishing
burning gasoline that has been spilled on floors or on the ground;
but it is of comparatively little value in the treatment of gasoline
fires in large tanks, because it is almost impossible to spread the
sawdust over the entire surface before some of it sinks to the
bottom, exposing the surface at these points and allowing the
liquid to reignite. It is far more useful in connection with liquids
such as heavy oils, lacquer, japan, and melted wax, because it
floats upon the surface of fluids of this type, and blankets them
quite effectually. The value of sawdust as an extinguishing agent
can be considerably increased by the addition of a certain propor-
tion of bicarbonate of soda (generally known as "baking soda") .

This substance, when exposed to heat, gives off carbon dioxide

gas, which materially assists in preventing the access of air. A
mixture composed of 10 pounds of bicarbonate to 1 bushel of
sawdust has proved satisfactory.

Saybolt Viscosimeter. The Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter

is in general use in the United States for testing the viscosity
of lubricating oils. It consists of an oil tube surrounded by a
bath for temperature control. There is an overflow cup at the
top of the tube and a small outlet near the bottom. An enlarged
section just below the outlet tube is closed with a cork or stopper
which is withdrawn at the instant the test is started. The sur-
 1095-S
rounding bath is equipped with means for heating or cooling to
one of the standard testing temperatures of 70, 100, 130 or 210
degrees F. Below the outlet, there is a glass receiving flask of
standard form and size. This has a capacity up to its gradua-
tion mark of 60 ml (milliliters) at 68 degrees F. The Saybolt
viscosity at the testing temperature is indicated by the time in
seconds required to fill this receiving flask up to the graduation
mark, assuming that the test is conducted according to a stand-
ard procedure. The Saybolt Furol Viscosimeter is used for fuel
and road oils.

Scabbiness. Scabbiness is a defect on the surface of cast-

ings caused by the erosive action of the molten metal on the mold,
the iron eating away fillets or partitions or scouring away patches
of sand as it flows into the mold. As a result, the casting will
not be of the proper form, but will have its angles partly filled
up and unsightly projections on its surface.
Scale Annealing Furnace. This is a type of furnace used
in connection with the cold-rolling of sheet metal, in which the
coils of sheet steel are exposed to the action of an oxidizing
atmosphere while being heated. This method of annealing is only
employed in the case of steel which has been decarburized on the
surface, and the "scale anneal" serves to remove the decarburized
metal.

Scale, Boiler. See Boiler Scale.

Scale in Mechanical Drawing. The term "scale" is applied

(1) to the graduated rule or instrument used in measuring linear
dimensions and (2) the "scale of a drawing" indicates its size
relative to the actual size as, for example, when the scale of the
drawing is such that 3 inches on the drawing is equivalent to an
actual dimension of one foot. The scales or measuring instru-
ments used by draftsmen have two general classes of graduations.
The first consists of regular standard graduations for "full size"
drawings, which are drawings made the same size as the actual
parts they represent; the second covers graduations that are
adapted for drawings made on a scale much smaller than the
parts represented. In the first class, the inches may be divided
into eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds, and sixty-fourths, or in
tenths and hundredths; in the second class, the main graduations
represent feet, and one foot on these reduced scales may actually
measure 1% inches, 3 inches, or some other fractional part of a
foot.
How to Use a Draftsman's Scale: When drawings are made
in inches and sub-
full-size, a scale is used which is graduated
divisions of an inch, in the usual manner. This scale is also
S-1096
for half-size drawings or those drawn to a scale of 6 inches
= 1 foot. The half-inch divisions on the scale are then considered
the same as inches, and the sixteenth divisions correspond to
eighths of an inch on the half-size drawing. If a half-size draw-
ing is too large to go on a standard sheet and a still greater re-
duction of size is required, then a scale having special graduations
is used. The reduced scales generally used on mechanical drawings
are as follows:

Scale of 6 inches t= 1 foot (% size)

Scale of 3 inches = 1 foot (% size)
Scale of 1% inches s= 1 foot (% size)
Scale of 1 inch e= 1 foot (1/12 size)
Scale of % inch E= 1 foot (1/16 size)

Adraftsman's scale has one or more of these reduced gradua-

tions, representing some reduced scale such as %, 1%, or 3 inches
to the foot. The method of reading and using one of these scales
will be explained by considering the scale of 3 inches to the foot.
A length of 3 inches along one edge of the measuring scale is
divided into twelve equal parts representing inches and each of
these inch divisions is further divided into eighths. This 3-inch
section of the scale is considered the same as though it were
1 foot long, since it represents a length of 1 foot on the reduced
scale of the drawing. See also Drawing Sizes.

Scale Sensibility. The quality of accuracy in a weighing

scale is not alone sufficient to insure its suitability for a given
purpose. It must also have a proper sensibility. The sensibility
of a scale or of any engineering instrument is its ability to re-
spond to small variations in the quantity which it is to measure.
It is usually expressed in terms of the distance or angle traversed
by the pointer or other reading or indicating device for a unit
change in the quantity being measured. In a weighing-scale, it
is found convenient and advantageous for a number of reasons to
invert the ratio and use the term "sensibility reciprocal." In
scales provided with a beam and trig-loop, the sensibility re-
ciprocal is the weight required to be placed upon the platform to
turn the beam from a horizontal position of equilibrium in the
middle of the trig-loop to a position of equilibrium at the top of
the loop. The sensibility reciprocal may be determined by sub-
tracting the weight instead of adding it, thereby causing the
beam to assume a position of equilibrium at the bottom of the
loop; or, indirectly, by moving the sliding poise on the beam the
required amount in either direction, to obtain the specified change
in the position of equilibrium of the beam; or by adding or sub-
tracting small weights to or from the counterpoise until the
 1097-S
specified change is obtained, and determining the equivalent of
the small weights used, in terms of weight on the platform.
The sensibility and accuracy of scales are often confused, as
the user is likely to assume that a scale which responds readily
to slight changes of load is an accurate scale. The sensibility of
a scale is not directly a measure of its accuracy. It indicates
only to what degree of precision readings may be taken, provided
proper allowance be made for the error or correction of the scale
at that reading, the effect of friction being considered eliminated.

Scalping of Crucibles. Although crucibles are free from

moisture when removed from the kiln, they rapidly absorb it,
and many take up 5 per cent of moisture during shipment from
maker to user. If, instead of eliminating the moisture by a
gradual annealing, the damp crucible is put directly into a hot
furnace, or into a cold one and heated too rapidly, the moisture
will be changed into steam so that the steam evolved will blow
pieces of the crucible off bodily; that is, the crucible will "scalp,"
To prevent this, it must be raised very gradually from room tem-
perature to a temperature somewhat above the boiling point of
water, so that the moisture may be slowly driven off without
"scalping."

Schedule Numbers for Pipe. ^See Pipe Schedule Numbers.

Schiele Curve. Same as Tractrix.

Scientific Management. In general, scientific management

aims to correlate and systematize all the best modern methods
and developments in factory administration and work, and to ad-
here strictly to the results of investigations carried out in a
scientific manner. Management under this system is not content
to rely upon records or upon the judgment of the most experi-
enced workmen, but brings to its aid all the resources of scientific
investigation. Methods of performing work are carefully an-
alyzed, and the best elements of all of these combined in order
to develop a new method. Having established the best methods,
workmen under scientific management are instructed in regard
to approved methods of working, and some incentive or reward is
offered for carrying out the work in the prescribed manner.

Sclerometer. The Turner sclerometer is an instrument for

testing hardness, which is adapted primarily for laboratory use.
A diamond point is used to scratch a line on the work under a
known pressure, after which the width of this line is read and
converted into arbitrary figures. The work must have a bright
surface to facilitate reading. The operation is slow, but this
method allows minute laboratory studies to be made.
S-1098

Scleroscope. The scleroscope is an instrument which meas-

ures the hardness of the work in arbitrary terms of elasticity.
A diamond-tipped hammer is allowed to drop from a known
height on the metal to be tested. As this hammer strikes the
metal, it rebounds, and the harder the metal, the greater the
rebound. The extreme height of the rebound is noted, or with
the latest type of machine, recorded, and an average of a number
of readings taken on a single piece will give a good indication
of the hardness of the work. The surface smoothness of the work
affects the reading of the instrument, and between a filed surface
and a surface on the same work polished there may be a difference
of ten points. The readings are also affected by the contour and
mass of the work and the depth of the case, in carburized work,
the soft core of light-depth carburizing, pack-hardening, or
cyanide hardening, absorbing the force of the hammer fall and
decreasing the rebound,
Dial Type: This improved type of instrument is provided with
a dial, the hand of which remains fixed an indefinite length of
time after making a test, instead of obtaining a momentary read-
ing as with the older design of scleroscope. The hammer differs
from that of the earlier models in that it is longer, heavier, and
drops and rebounds a comparatively short distance. The hard-
ness values obtained with this instrument agree with those
indicated by the vertical scale *of the older design.

Scotch Yoke. The irregularity in the motion of a cross-

head of an engine relative to its crank in the simple form of crank
mechanism, which irregular-
ity is due to the fact that
one-half of the crankpin circle
curves toward the cross-head,
whereas the other half curves
away from it, has an im-
portant effect on the design
of steam-engine valve-gears,
and it is objectionable in
some types of mechanism. A
simple form of mechanism
for eliminating the irregu-
larity of cross - head motion
is known as a "crank and Scotch Yoke or Slotted
Cross-head
slotted cross -head" or the
Scotch yoke. The cross-
head a (see diagram) has a slot which is at right angles to the
center-line xx representing the direction of rectilinear movement.
The crankpin carries a block, which is a sliding fit in this slot,
and is free to revolve about the pin. As the crank revolves, the
 1099-S
distance which the crankpin moves, as measured in a horizontal
direction, will be the same as the movement of the cross-head.
This mechanism is sometimes called a harmonic motion, because
if the crank rotates uniformly, the cross-head will be given a
harmonic motion. When a point, as at 6, moves with uniform
velocity along a circular path, point c will have a harmonic mo-
tion along the center-line xx.

Scraping Machine Parts. In metal working, slight errors

in plane or curved surfaces are often corrected by the use of hand
scrapers; scraping is also employed to produce ornamental ef-
fects on exposed surfaces. For correcting errors, the part to be
scraped is ordinarily applied to whatever surface it is being fitted;
the bearing marks or '*high spots*' are then noted and removed
by scraping. By repeatedly obtaining these bearing marks and
then removing them, a more evenly distributed bearing is secured.
In this way, bearing boxes are often fitted to their shafts after
having been bored. Small flat surfaces are scraped to make them
more accurate, the method being to first apply the work to a
standard surface plate, note the bearing marks and, if there is
unevenness, correct the error by scraping. In fitting two flat
parts together, it is common practice to first scrape one member
to secure as true a surface as possible, and then use it as a
standard while fitting the other part. In order to make the bear-
ing marks show clearly, some kind of red or black marking ma-
terial is generally used. A thin coating is applied to the bearing
shaft, surface plate, or whatever surface the work is to be scraped
to fit. The work is then rubbed over this surface and the mark-
ing material shows just where the high spots are. It is important
to keep the marking material in a covered box in order to exclude
all grit or chips. The scraper should be made "glass hard" and be

given a fine edge by the use of an oilstone. The materials com-

monly used to show the bearing marks are oil mixed with
lampblack, Prussian blue, or red lead.
Scrapers: The different forms of scrapers commonly used in
fitting machine parts, etc., are shown by the accompanying illus-
tration. The flat scraper A is almost invariably used for plane
surfaces. For ordinary purposes, the scraper blade is about
3/16 inch thick, from 1 to 1% inches wide, and is drawn out at
the point to a thickness of about 1/16 inch. The cutting end is
as hard as possible and is rounded slightly, in grinding, so that
the outer corners will not score the surface being scraped. The
grinding should be done, preferably, on a wet grindstone, the
edge being finished with an oilstone. The hook scraper S
is also
used on flat surfaces. It is preferred by some workmen for ob-
taining a fine, smooth surface and can be used, occasionally, in
narrow spaces where there would not be room enough for a
5-1100

straight, flat scraper. Straight and curved scrapers of the "half-

round" type are shown at C and D. These are used for scraping
bearings, etc., the sides forming the cutting edges. The curved
type D is more convenient to use on large half-bearings, as it is
held at an angle and the scraping is done by the curved edge. The
three-cornered or three-square scraper shown at E is also used to
some extent on curved surfaces. When the end is beveled, as
shown in the detail view to the left, this form of scraper is con-
venient for producing sharp corners or for "relieving" them
slightly. The two-handled scraper shown at F is an excellent
form for scraping bearing boxes and all curved surfaces which
are so located that this type can be used. This style of scraper is

Different Forms of Hand Scrapers

much superior to the form shown at C and Z), especially for large
work. The straight or curved half-round type works very well on
soft bearing metals such as babbitt metal, but on brass or bronze,
it cuts slowly and, as soon as the edge is slightly dulled, consider-
able downward pressure is necessary. The type F requires very
much less effort on the part of the workman, and it will cut rap-
idly. As there are two handles instead of a single handle at
one end, the blade can be pressed against the work with little
exertion. This form of scraper is largely used for the heavy
scraping required in fitting large connecting-rod brasses, etc.
The sides are sometimes ground slightly concave (to give the
cutting edges "rake") by holding them against the face of the
grinding wheel.
 -S
Spotter: Flat finished surfaces on the ways of machine tods,
etc.,are often finished by spotting, frosting or flaking, partly to
obtain an ornamental appearance and also because the spotted
surface holds lubricant more effectively. One type of spotter
placed on the market is so arranged that the scraper, as it Is
pushed across a guide placed upon the work, receives a rocking
motion so that the blade produces a uniform half-moon effect
without skill or experience on the part of the workman. By ad-
justing a small thumb screw, different shaped spots may be
obtained.

Scraping, Power, For scraping flat surfaces on machine

tools to an accurate bearing, a power scraper is efficient The
scraper tool of a design on the market is mounted on an arm,
and a reciprocating movement is imparted to it by a rack and
pinion drive. The motor is coupled to the scraper tool through
gears and clutches in such a manner that when the operator
pushes a control sleeve forward, the scraper tool is driven for-
ward. When the operator pulls the sleeve backward at the end
of the forward stroke, a reverse drive is engaged to pull the tool
back. With this arrangement, the scraper is operated in the same
manner as a hand tool, except that no manual effort is required.
With the sleeve held forward or back, any desired length of stroke
may be imparted to the scraper tool. The forward stroke is at
the rate of 60 feet per minute, and the return stroke at the rate
of 90 feet per minute. With the sleeve in the neutral position,
the drive is disengaged and the scraper arm can be pulled for-
ward or pushed back over a range of 5 feet, in order to bring the
tool into the required position. With a machine of this type,
it is

possible to scrape faster than by hand,

and the fatigue factor is
entirely eliminated. The arm on which the scraper
tool is

mounted can be instantly pushed or pulled the length of 5 feet.

There is also a power-driven screw, engaged by means of a hand-
lever,which provides for raising or lowering the head to bring
the tool to the most convenient angle for scraping. A ball-bearing
swivel on the column permits the tool to be easily swung aronnd
a complete circle.

a machine is the actual cash

Scrap Value. The scrap value of
return brought by the sale of the materials (iron, copper, etc.)
less cost
of which the machine is made, at current market prices,
be high in the case of large
of junking. The cost of junking will
and unwieldy machines, and, in some cases, will offset the return
from the sale of scrap, making the net scrap value zero or even
a negative quantity.
Screw. A screw be defined as a cylinder around which
may
a thread is wound in successive coils or helices, all turns being
$-1102

equally spaced. The lead of a single-threaded screw is the dis-

tance between like points on successive threads measured on a
line parallel to the axis of the screw. The amount that a screw
advances in one turn is equal to the lead, and in fractional turns
it is equal to the same fraction of the lead; thus, if a screw is

given one-fourth turn, it advances one-fourth of the lead. Con-

sidered as a machine element, the screw is classed as one of the
"mechanical powers." In the case of the screw, the initial force,
tending to turn it, moves through the circumference of a circle,
the point of application usually being at the end of a crank or
bar, at the surface of a pulley or handwheel. Hence, the applied
force multiplied by t^e circumference of the circle described by
the force equals the resistance multiplied by the lead.

Screw Brake. This is an automatic mechanical brake used

largely on overhead traveling cranes. It is so arranged that
when lifting the load the whole brake revolves without resistance,
but as soon as the lifting effort ceases and a slight reverse has
taken place, the load is held securely by friction. In order to
lower the load, the motor must be reversed, thus reducing the
pressure on the friction faces and allowing the load to slip steadily.

Screw Conveyors. The screw or worm conveyor is one of

the oldest types. Screw conveyors are built up of sectional screw
flights, that are fixed to a central shaft or spindle by means of
a shank, which is tapped and fitted with a nut. The spindle is
usually made of pipe in lengths of about 8 feet, the different
lengths being coupled together. The continuous screw conveyor
consists of a spindle and screw all rolled in one continuous screw
into sections of about 10 feet. Screw conveyors are fitted into a
trough, so as to leave a clearance of between % and %inch. Too
long a run should not be used for the conveyor without "break-
ing in" for a drive say, not over 200 feet for a 6-inch screw,
and not over 300 feet for a 9-inch screw conveyor. If possible,
the drive should always be placed so as to
pull the material
toward the drive instead of pushing the material away from
the drive.

Screw-Driving Machine. For driving either wood screws or

machine screws in large numbers, a power-driven automatic
screw-driving machine is efficient. In the operation of the
Reynolds machine the screws are thrown at random into a maga-
zine from which they are delivered
through an inclined chute to
the lower end of the spindle, in the
proper position for driving.
As the spindle is lowered by operating a foot lever, a screw driver
bit in the spindle engages the screw lost and drives the screw
with great rapidity.
 1103-S
Screw Machines and Turret Lathes. When a machine is
referred to as a turret lathe, this is generally understood to be a
horizontal machine designed either for handling bar stock, chuck
work, or both for bar and chuck work, and the turret may or may
not have a power-feeding movement A turret lathe that is de-
signed more particularly for turning comparatively small screws,
pins, etc., from steel rods or bar stock, is commonly (although
not invariably) known as a hand screw machine, or as a turret
screw machine. According to the practice of some manufacturers,
the name screw machine is applied to small turret lathes which
have a collet chuck in the spindle and a "wire feed** or a mechan-
ism for feeding a wire rod or bar stock through the spindle
When the machine is intended for either bar or chuck work, or
for chuck work exclusively, the name turret lathe is commonly
used, and such a machine may or may not have a stock-feeding
mechanism which operates in conjunction with the spindle chuck
The foregoing method of distinguishing between the two types,
however, is not universal, and there is no general agreement in
the use of these names. See also Automatic Screw Machine.

Screw Machine Taps. The taps known in the tap manufac-

turing business as screw machine taps are, as the name indi-
cates, used for tapping in automatic screw machines. The thread
to be cut is usually short and the taps, therefore, are essentially
different from other taps used for nut tapping in machines. The
chamfered end of the thread of these taps is usually very short,
as in most cases the tap is required to tap down to the bottom
of a hole. The thread is relieved only on the top of the thread
of the chamfered portion.

Screw Pitch Cage. This type of gage is used for determin-

ing the number of threads per inch on a screw, and consists of a
holder which has pivoted at each end a number of leaves that are
notched to conform to different thread pitches, the number of
threads being stamped upon each leaf.

Screw Pump. The screw pump is a special form of the

rotary type. One design has two parallel shafts and on each
shaft there are right- and left-hand screws of coarse pitch so
arranged that the threads of one screw mesh with the thread
groove of the screw on the opposite shaft These screws fit closely
into the pump casing or cylinder. When the pump is in operation,
the liquid flows from the suction pipe to the two ends of the
cylinder and is forced toward the center by the action of the two
pairs of intermeshing threads, the discharge being at the center
and on the opposite side from the suction opening.

Screws, Collar-Head. See Collar-head Screws.

S-1104

Screw, Self-Tapping. See Self-tapping Screw.

Screws, Multiple. Considerable confusion is often caused by

indefinite designation of multiple-thread (double, triple, quad-
ruple, etc.) screws. One way of expressing that a double-thread
screw is required is to say, for instance: "3 threads per inch

double," which means that the screw has 3 double threads, or

6 threads per inch, counting the threads by a scale placed along-
side of the screw. The pitch of this screw is 1/6 inch, and the
lead twice this, or 1/3 inch. To cut this screw, the lathe will be
geared to cut 3 threads per inch, but the thread will be cut only
to the depth required for 6 threads per inch. "Four threads per
inch triple" means that there are 4 times 3, or 12 threads along
one inch of the screw, when counted by a scale; the pitch of the
screw is 1/12 inch, but, being a triple screw, the lead of the
thread is 3 times the pitch, or % inch. The best way of ex-
pressing that a multiple-thread screw is to be cut, when the lead
and the pitch have been figured, is, for example: "% inch lead,
1/12 inch pitch, triple thread."

Screws, Power Transmission. The square form of thread

has a somewhat higher efficiency than threads with sloping sides,
although when the angle of the thread form is comparatively
small, as in the case of an Acme thread, there is little increase in
frictional losses. The Acme thread has superseded the square
form on many classes of equipment requiring lead-screws or other
power transmitting screws, because the former has practical ad-
vantages in regard to cutting and also in compensating for wear
between the screw and nut. Multiple - thread screws are much
more efficient than single-thread screws, as the efficiency is af-
fected by the helix angle of the thread. The notation which fol-
lows applies to the formulas in the next paragraph. F t= force
applied at end of lever-arm; L t= load moved by screw; R
t=
length of lever-arm; Z t= lead of screw thread; r c= mean or
pitch radius of screw; p. =coefficient of friction.
Force Required to Turn Screw: In determining the force which
must be applied at the end of a given lever-arm in order to turn
a screw (or nut surrounding it) , there are two conditions to be
considered: (1) When rotation is such that the load resists the
movement of the screw, as in raising a load with a screw jack;
(2) when rotation is such that the load assists the movement of
the screw, as in lowering a load.
When the motion is opposite the thrust of the load which resists
the screw movement:
-
= LlX 2r3.1416
.

$ XR
_
 1105 -S
When the motion is in the same direction as the thrust of the
load which assists the screw movement:

-*
x R
If lead I is large in proportion to the diameter so that the helix
angle is large, F will have a negative value, which indicates that
the screw will turn due to the load alone, unless prevented by a
force F which is great enough to prevent rotation of a non-locMng
screw.
Coefficients of Friction: According to experiments by Profes-
sor Kingsbury made with square-threaded screws, a coefficient of
0.10 is about right for pressures less than 3000 pounds per square
inch and velocities above 50 feet per minute, assuming that fair
lubrication is maintained. If the pressures vary from 3000 to
10,000 pounds per square inch, a coefficient of 0.15 is recom-
mended for low velocities. The coefficient of friction varies ac-
cording to lubrication and the materials used for the screw and
nut. For pressures of 3000 pounds per square inch and using
heavy machinery oil as a lubricant, the coefficients were as fol-
lows: Mild steel screw and cast-iron nut, 0.132; mild steel nut,
0.147; cast brass nut, 0.127. For pressures of 10,000 pounds per
square inch using a mild steel screw, the coefficients were, for a
cast-iron nut, 0.136; for a mild steel nut, 0.141; for a cast brass
nut, 0.136. For dry screws, the coefficient may be 0,3 to 0.4 or
higher.
Coefficient of Friction for Angular Thread Forms: Frictional
resistance is proportional to the normal pressure, and for a thread
of angular form, the increase in the coefficient of friction is
equivalent practically to /* sec ft, in which equals one-half the
included thread angle; hence, lor a U. S. Standard thread, a
coefficient of 1.155 p* may be used.

Effect of Helix Angle on Efficiency: The efficiency between a

screw and nut increases quite rapidly for helix angles up to 10 or
15 degrees (measured from a plane perpendicular to the screw
axis). The efficiency remains nearly constant for angles between
about 25 and 65 degrees, and the angle of maximum efficiency is
between 40 and 50 degrees. A screw will not be self-locking if
the efficiency exceeds 50 per cent. For example, the screw of a
jack or other lifting or hoisting appliance would turn under the
Action of the load if the efficiency were over 50 per cent It is
evident that maximum efficiency for power transmission screws
often is impracticable, as for example, when the smaller helix
angles are required to permit moving a given load by the applica-
tion of a smaller force or turning moment than would be needed
for a multiple screw thread.
 S-1106

Efficiency Formula: In determining the efficiency of a screw

and a nut, the helix angle of the thread and the coefficient of
friction are the important factors. If E equals the efficiency,
A equals the helix angle, measured from a plane perpendicular to
the screw axis, and ^ equals the coefficient of friction between
the screw thread and nut, then the efficiency may be determined
by the following formula, which does not take into account any
additional friction losses, such as may occur between a thrust
collar and its bearing surfaces:

E tan A (1 j*tan A)
tan A + /i

This formula would be suitable for a screw having ball-bearing

thrust collars. Where collar friction should be taken into ac-
count, a fair approximation may be obtained by changing the
denominator of the foregoing formula to tan A 2/*. +
Otherwise
the formula remains the same.
Screw Stock. The composition of ordinary screw stock
should be, in general, about as follows: Carbon, from 0.08 to
0.20 per cent; manganese, 0.30 to 0.80 per cent;
phosphorus, not
to exceed 0.12 per cent; sulphur, 0.06 to 0.12
per cent. Screw
stock is easily machined and cheap, but lacks
strength and tough-
ness and is not safe for vital parts. Screws made from hot-
rolled bars of this material should be heat-treated and not used
in an annealed condition. Screws made from cold-rolled bars are
much stronger.
S.A.E. 1111: This steel is made by the Bessemer
process and
is often called screw stock. It is of excellent
machining proper-
ties, but has an unfavorable property of cold
shortness; hence,
should not used for vital parts. In the cold-drawn or cold-
^be
rolled condition, it has excellent
strength, being nearly equal to
No. 1030 in the sizes below 1 inch. It may be carburized and
cyanided, but open-hearth steels are recommended when heat-
treating is necessary. This steel is used for studs, screws, and
automatic machine products.
S.A.E. 1112 (old No. x I**): This is a higher sulphur type
of Bessemer steel than No. 1111 and there is an
improvement in
machinability.
S.AJB. No. 111S: The highest sulphur variant of
Bessemer
screw steel in which sulphur is added to
improve finish and
machinability. This steel is used where production, speed and
finish are paramount. It should not be used
for vital parts, anrf
heat-treatments are not recommended.
S.A.E. 1115: This steel is
commonly known in the trade as
"open-hearth screw stock." It is somewhat inferior to Bessemer
steel
^in machining properties, but possesses a decidedly better
combination of strength and toughness and is more
dependable
 1107-S
for use in casehardened parts and for such operations as bending,
swaging, riveting, and forming.

Screw-Thread Comparator. The Hartness screw-thread

comparator is a projection type of apparatus designed to show
the magnitude and kind of errors in screw, threads. When the
thread shadow is projected upon the standard tolerance chart,
the relative positions of the shadow and chart not only show the
resultant effect of lead errors, the pitch diameter, the finish and
form of the thread, but also whether the tolerance is within the
limits that are required in interchangeable manufacture.

Screw Thread Fits. The American Standard includes a sys-

tem of allowances and tolerances for both internal and external
threads. For the external threads there are Classes 1A, 2, 2A,
3, and 3A and for the internal threads there are Classes IB, 2,
2B, 3, and 3B. Class 1A and IB replace Class 1 of the former
American Standard and are, in general, based upon values equal
to 1.5 times the tolerance for Classes 2A and 2B. Tolerances
represented by Classes 2A and 2B, although smaller than Classes
1A and IB, also provide clearance under all conditions, They
are the recognized standard for normal production of screws,
bolts and nuts. Pitch diameter tolerances of Classes 3A and
3B threads are, in general, 75 per cent of those allowed in
Classes 2A and 2B, major diameter tolerances are the same as
those allowed in Classes 2A and 2B. Classes 2 and 3 have the
same limiting dimensions as Classes 2 and 3 of the former Amer-
ican Standard. In selecting tolerances, Class 2A does not have
to be used with Class 2B only, but may be combined with some
other class such as IB, 3B, 2, or 3. Such interchangeable usage
provides great flexibility.

Screw Threads. Different screw-thread forms and standards

have been originated and adopted at various times, either because
they were considered superior to other forms or because of the
special requirements of screws used on a certain class of work.
Some of the more important and desirable features of a screw
thread are as follows: 1. The thread should be of such a shape
that the tool for producing it can be easily made. 2. The cutting
edges of the tool should not be so pointed or delicate that they
are easily worn away by the cutting action. 3. It should be pos-
sible to test the diameter and form of the thread with a minimum
of measuring and gaging. 4. The form should be such that a good
bearing between a screw and nut may be obtained without un-
necessary care and refinement in cutting and measuring. 5. The
angles of the sides should be as acute as is consistent with the
required strength, because the greater the angle, the greater the
S-H08

Diagram IllustratingMeaning of Terms Applied to

Screw Threads

frictionbetween the threads of a bolt and nut and also the greater
the force tending to burst the nut.
For information about different standard threads and thread
forms, refer to name of thread or standard. See Acme Thread;
American Standard Screw Thread System; British Association
Thread; British Standard Fine Screw Thread; French and In-
ternational Thread; Harvey Grip Thread; Lowenherz Thread;
Pipe Thread; S. A. E. Standard Screw Thread; V-thread; Whit-
worth Standard Thread; Worm Thread.

Screw Thread Definitions. The definitions which follow in-

clude only the more important terms. See also accompanying
illustration.
Major Diameter: The largest diameter of a screw thread. The
term major diameter applies to both internal ajid external threads
and replaces the term "outside diameter" as applied to the thread
of a screw and also the term "full diameter" as applied to the
thread of a nut
Minor Diameter: The smallest diameter of a screw thread.
The term minor diameter applies to both internal and external
 H09-S
threads and replaces the terms "core diameter" and "root diam-
eter" as applied to the thread of a screw and also the term "inside
diameter" as applied to the thread of a nut
Pitch Diameter: The diameter of an imaginary cylinder the
surface of which would pass through the threads at such points
as to make equal the width of the threads and the width of the
spaces cut by the surface of the cylinder.
Pitch: The distance from a point on a screw thread to a cor-
responding point on the next thread measured parallel to the axis
Lead: The distance a screw thread advances axially in one
turn. On a single-thread screw, the lead and pitch are identical;
on a double-thread screw, the lead is twice the pitch; on a triple-
thread screw, the lead is three times the pitch, etc.
Angle of Thread: The angle included between the sides of the
thread measured in an axial plane.
Helix Angle: The angle made by the helix of the thread at the
pitch diameter with a plane perpendicular to the axis.
Crest: The top surface joining the two sides of a thread.
Root: The bottom surface joining the sides of two adjacent
threads.
Depth of Thread: The distance between the crest and the root
of thread measured normal to the axis.
Depth of Engagement: The depth of thread contact of two
mating parts, measured radially.
Basic: The theoretical or nominal standard size from which
all variations are made.

Crest Clearance: Defined on a screw form as the space between

the crest of a thread and the root of its mating thread.
Allowance: An intentional difference in the dimensions of mat-
ing parts. It is the minimum clearance or the maximum inter-
ference which is intended between mating parts.
Tolerance: The amount of variation permitted in the size of
a part.
Neutral Zone: A positive allowance. (See "Allowance.")
Limits: The extreme permissible dimensions of a part.
Multiple Thread: A screw thread that is formed of two or
more single threads. For instance, a double thread is a multiple
form having two separate or single threads starting diametrically
opposite or at points 180 degrees apart; a triple thread has three
single threads starting at points 120 degrees apart; and a quad-
ruple thread has four single threads starting at points 90 degrees
apart A multiple thread is used to increase the lead of a screw
without weakening it by cutting a coarse single thread.
Standard Screw Thread: A thread which conforms to an
adopted standard in regard to the form or contour of the thread
S-mo
itself, and as to the pitch or number of threads per inch for a
given screw diameter*
Special Screw Thread: A screw thread having either a modi-
fied form or a standard form but a pitch which is either greater
or less for a given screw diameter than the adopted standard.

Scribner Rule. This is a rule employed for finding the board

measure of logs, and is as follows: Deduct 4 inches from the
diameter of the log, square one-fourth of the remainder, and
multiply the result by the length of the log in feet; usually the
diameter inside of the log at the small end is measured.

Scroll Chuck. This type of chuck, used in lathes and similar

types of turning machines, is one in which the jaws for clamping
the work move together and remain at the same distance from
the center, the jaws being moved radially by a spiral scroll which
engages teeth on the back of the jaws. When the scroll is rotated,
the jaws are moved in or out by the action of the spiral engaging
the teeth on the jaws. On most "scroll chucks," the rotation of
the scroll is effected by turning a bevel pinion which meshes
with bevel gear teeth cut on the back of the scroll. On some
chucks, the scroll is turned either by direct hand or lever pres-
sure. In one design of scroll chuck, the scroll is revolved by
worm gearing, and another design is equipped with spur gearing,
in which a spur pinion engages a spur gear cut on the edge
of the scroll. Some scroll chucks are equipped with reversible
jaws, the teeth on the jaws which engage the spiral scroll being
formed so as to permit reversal.
Scroll Lathe. The scroll lathe is a special type designed for
cutting spirals or scrolls used for operating the jaws of scroll
chucks, and for work of a similar nature.

Seale-Type Wire Rope. This rope is made from 6 strands

of 19 wires each, and is also known as a "Seale hoisting rope."
Sometimes this rope is made with a 6 by 12 construction, but
this type is not recommended.

Seamless Brass and Copper Tubing. Seamless drawn brass

and copper tubes are made in sizes varying from % to 8 or
10 inches in diameter. The sizes do not correspond with any uni-
versal standard, but usually increase by %-inch increments up to
3 inches, and by %-inch increments for larger diameters. The
nominal diameter of tubes may be either the inside or outside
diameter, brass and copper tubes being made to conform with
both methods of measurement. The term "diameter," as applied
to tubes, however, is generally understood to mean outside diam-
eter. The thickness of the tube walls conforms to Birmingham
wire gage.
 mi-S
Seamless Steel Tubing. Seamless tubing of circular cross-
section is made in a large range of sizes, and there are also a
number of special shapes (see illustration). There are four dif-
ferent processes of producing seamless steel tubes for pipes:
1. By piercing a solid billet or forcing a punch through its center
while in a red-hot state, and then rolling or hot-drawing the hol-
low billet thus formed, in order to reduce the wall thickness and
elongate it to secure the necessary tube lengths. 2. By drawing
from a circular flat plate a shallow cup, which is elongated by a
successive series of hot-drawing operations over a solid mandrel
and through a series of dies, thus reducing the wall thfoVnAgfl
and increasing the length. 3. By using a hollow cast-steel billet
of tubular form which is reduced and elongated by rolling over a
mandrel, or by hot-drawing operations similar to those referred
to. 4. By piercing a solid billet which, by means of angular rolls,
is given a high rotative speed and a slow advancing movement

Some Special Shapes in which Seamless Tubes

are Manufactured

over a pointed mandrel, thus changing the billet from a solid to

a tubular form. The Birmingham wire gage is used for seamless
steel tubing, to gage the wall thickness (see Mannesmami
Process) .

Season Cracks. In brass and other alloys, season cracks are

defects due to molecular changes produced by mechanical deforma-
tion. These cracks become visible some time after rolling.

Seasoning Steel and Cast Iron. It is a well-known fact

that hardened pieces of steel will undergo minute but measurable
changes in form during a long period of time after the hard-
ening has taken place. These changes are due to the internal
stresses produced by the hardening process, which are slowly and
gradually relieved. In order to eliminate slight inaccuracies which
might result from these changes, steel used for gages and other
tools requiring a high degree of accuracy is allowed to season be-
fore it is finally ground and lapped to the finished dimensions.
The time allowed for this seasoning varies considerably among
S-1H2

Electric windings,
Cast iron electro-magnets,
resistance, etc.

Steel Concrete

Bronze, brass, copper, Brick and stone

and compositions masonry

White metal, zinc,

Marble, slate, glass,
lead, babbitt, and
porcelain, etc.
alloys

Magnesium, alumi- Water and other

num, and aluminum
liquids
alloys

Electric insulation, Wood

vulcanite, fiber, mica
gram

Bakelite and other Wood-

With grain

Sound or heat
Earth
insulation cork

Asbestos, magnesia,
Rock
packing, etc.

Flexible material,
fabric, felt, rubber, Sand
leather, linoleum

Firebrick and
Wire mesh
refractory material

American Standard Section Lines used on Mechanical Drawings

to Indicate General Classes of Structural Materials
 1113 -S
different toolmakers and also depends upon the form of the work
and the degree of accuracy which is necessary in the finished
product. Some toolmakers rough-grind the hardened part quite
close to the finished size and then allow it to season or "age" for
three or four months, and, in some cases, a year or more. Cast-
ings will often change their shape slightly after being planed,
especially if the planed surface represents a large proportion of
the total surface. To prevent errors from such changes, eastings
are sometimes allowed to season for several weeks or months,
after taking the roughing cuts and before finishing. A common
method of avoiding the long seasoning period is to anneal the
castings. Artificial seasoning is also applied to steel parts by
subjecting them repeatedly to alternate heating and cooling.
Secant of Angle. See Functions of Angles.
Sectional Dies. See Dies, Sectional Type.
Section Lines for Drawings. Various kinds of metals and
other materials are used in machine construction and, when sec-
tional views are made, it is convenient to have some standard
method of cross-sectioning the different parts so as to indicate
the kind of metal or material. The accompanying chart shows the
lines and symbols which have been adopted as the American
Standard.
Section Modulus. The section modulus of the cross-sectional
area of a rod, bar, or beam is a value used in the calculation of
the bending stresses in a beam subjected to load. The section
modulus is equal to the moment of inertia of the cross-section,
divided by the distance of the extreme fiber of the cross-section
from the neutral axis. Generally the section modulus is denoted
by Z; the moment of inertia, I; and the distance from the neutral
axis to the extreme fiber, y. Then:

V
The polar section modulus, also known as the section modulus
of torsion, equals, for circular sections, the polar moment of in-
ertia divided by the distance from the center of gravity to tbe
most remote fiber. This rule applies also with fair accuracy to
sections that are nearly circular. For other cross-sections, the
section modulus of torsion is not equal to the polar moment of
inertia divided by the distance from the center of gravity to the
most remote fiber. Methods have not yet been developed by
means of which the modulus of torsion may be calculated
section
for cross-sections other than circular. Experiments have been
made, however, and the section modulus of torsion has been de-
termined in this manner for the most common cross-sections
$-1114

Seger Temperature Cones. The fusible cone is a means

for determining high temperatures in which the unequal fusi-
bility of clay or earthenware blocks of varied composition is used.
This means for determining temperatures is in use in pottery
works and similar industries. The most well-known cones are
known as the Seger temperature cones, also known as the Sen-
tinel temperature cones. The Seger temperature cones are in the
form of triangular pyramids (about 3 inches high), composed
of metallic and mineral substances which fuse at certain tem-
peratures. They are made in series, each successive cone having
a fusing temperature that differs slightly from the one above or
below in the scale; that is, if the series were placed in a furnace
and the temperature gradually raised, one cone after another
would melt as its melting point was reached. These cones are
sometimes used in pairs to determine the minimum and maxi-
mum temperatures for a given process, one cone being selected
for the lowest and another for the highest temperature required.
Tests have shown that this method for determining temperatures
is very trustworthy within 35 degrees P.

Segregation. Segregation is that natural phenomenon in the

solidification of steel ingots in which various components of the
steel having the lowest freezing points are concentrated in parts
of the ingot last to solidify. This concentration at different loca-
tions results in such a distribution in the ingot that certain
areas contain more, while others contain less, of a given element
than the average composition of the ingot as a whole. In the
case of some ingots segregation alone is not the sole cause of
uneven distribution of desirable and undesirable elements, but
in addition the chemical reactions between components of the
steel which take place due to conditions developed in the cooling
and solidification may be contributing causes.
Segregation varies in amount or degree, the chief determining
factors being (1) rate of freezing of the metal, which is condi-
tional upon the size and to some extent the form of the ingot;
(2) composition of the steel; (3) type of steel desired: rimmed,
semi-killed or killed. It is apparent that these factors which
determine the amount of segregation are related to the size and
kind of product ordered,
,
>

Seizing. The term seizing is used with reference to bearings

to designate the condition when the shaft will not move freely,
or at all, within the bearing, on account of lack of lubricant. In
the absence of lubricant, the shaft and bearing are likely to
scratch and score each other, and the increase in friction sud-
denly produces a high temperature which causes an expansion
of the shaft and of the interior parts of the bearing, so that the
 1115 -S
bearing box grips the shaft with an enormous pressure, or
"seizes" the shaft

Selective Assembly. Selective assembly consists of select-

ing by trial mating members of a mechanism that will give the
desired fit at assembly, with little or no further machining or
fitting. Companion parts made to the extreme limits are not sup-
posed to interchange. For instance, a shaft or pin of TnayfTnnm
size may not assemble with a mating part of minimum size, al-
though the maximum shaft and maximum hole and also the mini-
mum shaft and hole must interchange. A good example of this
selective method of assembling is found in the production of ball
bearings. The balls are sorted into groups, according to their
size, to facilitate the assembly of any bearing with balls of uni-
form size. Nearly every so-called "interchangeable" mechanism
represents a combination of interchangeable and selective methods
of quantity production.

Selenium. Selenium is a non-metallic chemical element. It

possesses the peculiar quality or property of having its conduc-
tivity greatly increased by light. This property has been the
basis of various electrical inventions, as for example, in various
forms of apparatus for transmitting photographs by wire.
Selenium has also been used in instruments for measuring the
Koentgen rays used in therapeutic applications; in a form of
Wheatstone bridge; in appliances intended to light and ex-
tinguish automatically the flame on gas buoys; in controlling
street lights, electric signs, and moving pictures; in burglar
alarms; and in controlling submarine boats. Selenium is used
very largely in the making of glass, to which it gives a red color.
It is also used to give a bright red color to enamels used on
"enameled ware." The atomic weight of selenium is 79.2. Its
specific gravity is 4.8, and it melts at a temperature of 217 de-
grees C. (423 degrees F.). Its specific heat varies from 0.072
to 0.115.

Self-Aligning. This term is applied to machine members that

are so mounted that they can adjust themselves within certain
limits. The self-aligning principle, for example, is employed in
certain bearings which are so mounted that the bearing can
adjust itself to the alignment of the shaft.

Self-Opening Dies. See Dies for Thread-cutting.

Self-Starter. In electric motor operation, a self-starter is an
automatic starting device in which the starting box or controller
is automatically operated or capable of being started by pushing
a button or closing a switch at some remote point. Self-starters
prevent the starting of motors too suddenly, and when combined
S-1116

with float switches, pressure regulators, and limit switches, the

motor may be started and stopped automatically at the proper
time. These devices are most commonly used in connection with
motor-driven pumps and air compressors.

Self-Tapping Screw. The self-tapping screw is designed to

cut its own thread in die- or sand-cast parts of gray iron and
softer metals. The screw has a V-thread of fairly coarse pitch
and a cylindrical pilot which steadies the thread while it seats
itself in the metal. See illustration. In using this screw, a hole
is first drilled in the piece which would ordinarily be tapped, a
few thousandths of an inch larger than the pilot, and the piece
to be assembled is drilled sufficiently large to provide clearance
for the threads of the screw. A common method of setting is to

Self-tapping Screw

make a few turns with a screwdriver,

insert the pilot in the hole,
and then drive the screw into place. The entire screw is hard-
ened and heat-treated so that the thread cuts into the metal.

Sellers Drive for Planers. There are two general methods

of driving a planer table. The most common form of drive is that
in which the motion is transmitted from the driving shaft through
spur gearing to a "bull-wheel" or spur gear, which meshes with
a rack attached to the under side of the planer table. planerA
driven in this way is known as a "spur-geared" type to dis-
tinguish it from the "spiral-geared" planer. With a spiral-gear
drive (also known as the Setters drive) the motion is transmitted
from the source of power through bevel gears to a shaft B which
extends under the bed diagonally and carries a spiral pinion or
worm A, which meshes with the table rack. See illustration.
Sellers Muff Coupling. This is a coupling consisting of two
split sleeves, conical on the outside, forced together over the ends
 1fl7~-$

of the shafts by bolts. An outside sleeve, tapered to fit the

conical bushings, is provided for closing up the split cones when
the nuts on the bolts are tightened.

Sellers Screw Thread. The Sellers screw thread, later known

as the "United States standard thread/* and now as the "American
Standard," is the most commonly used screw thread in the United
States. It was originated by William Sellers, of Philadelphia,
and first proposed by him in a paper read before the Franklin

Plan of Sellers Planer Drive

Institute, in April, 1864. In 1868, it was adopted by the United

States Navy and has since become the generally accepted standard
screw thread in the United States.
Semi-Anthracite Coal. This is a kind of coal similar to, but
not as hard as, regular anthracite, being less shiny and burning
more rapidly. It contains from 85 to 90 per cent of carbon. The
heating value varies from 14,500 to 15,500 B.T.U. per pound of
combustible.

Semi-Automatic Machine. This term is generally under-

stood to describe a machine which performs a complete cycle of
operations automatically, but which requires the attention of an
operator each time a part is finished. Many machine tools which
actually are semi-automatic are classed as "automatic" by their
manufacturers.
S-1H8
Semi-Bituminous Coal. This coal is softer than anthracite
and has a tendency to produce more smoke. It contains from
75 to 85 per cent of carbon and has a heating value of from
15,500 to 16,000 B.T.U. per pound of combustible. It is one of
the best coals for power plant purposes.

Semi-High-Speed Steel. The so-called semi-high-speed or

intermediate steel was produced to meet the demand for a steel
which could be used just as well as high-speed steel for certain
purposes, and still be much lower in price. The quality of this
steel, as far as cutting speed is concerned, is somewhere between
ordinary carbon steel and the modern high-speed steel. It con-
tains a much smaller percentage of tungsten than regular
high-speed steels, and is sometimes called a low-tungsten steel
Semi-Steel. Semi-steel is made by adding mild steel to the
pig iron and scrap in the cupola. The proportion of steel used
varies from 15 per cent for light castings to 40 per cent for
heavy castings. The resulting metal is a high-grade cast iron
with fewer impurities and better physical structure than ordinary
cast iron, and while this metal has practically no elongation or
ductility, it is stronger than gray cast iron under transverse,
tensile, compression, and impact tests, and is superior in elas-
ticity, toughness, and resistance to shock and wear. When prop-
erly made, it is close-grained, homogeneous, and free from hard
spots and blow-holes. It is greatly superior to gray iron for
machinery, and takes on a finer polish, and permits the cutting
of clean screw threads. It is especially good for such castings
as cylinders, pistons, and gears, and other parts which are sub-
jected to wear and friction. The 20 per cent mixture usually gives
the desired results for machine tool work.

Semi-Vitrified Grinding Wheels. The term "semi-vitrified"

is sometimes applied to grinding wheels made by the silicate
bonding process. See Silicate Bonding Process.
Sensitive Drilling Machine. See Drilling Machines.
Sentinel Pyrometers. These consist of different metallic salts
which are made up in mixtures that will melt at various specified
temperatures ranging from 220 to 1330 degrees C. (428 to 2426
degrees F.). This method of measuring temperatures is intended
to replace more costly pyrometers and also for the
purpose of
checking the indications of pyrometers. See also Seger
Temperature Cones.
Separators, Chip, Oil, and Work. See Chip and Oil Sepa-
rators; also Chip and Work Separators.

Separators, Steam. See Steam Separators.

 1119-$

Septivalent This term is used to indicate that an atom of

one element will combine with seven atoms of another element.
Series Connection. In any electrical circuit, two or more
elements such as resistances, inductances, condensers, lamps, mo-
tors, etc., are said to be connected in series when they are so
joined that an electric current in flowing around the circuit must
pass through each one successively.
Electric batteries are connected in series when the positive or
plus (+) terminal of one cell is connected to the negative or
minus ( ) terminal of the next cell. This connection increases
the internal resistance, making it equal to the resistance of one
cell multiplied by the number of cells. The electromotive force
of the whole battery also equals that of one cell multiplied by the
number of cells, but the amount
of current of the whole battery
remains the same as that of a
single cell. See also Parallel
Connection.
Series-Wound Generator. This
is a direct-current generator in
which the field winding connected
in series with its armature wind-
ing and the external circuit, as
shown by the diagram. The whole
current delivered by the ma-
chine flows through the field
winding and the voltage varies
Diagram of Series-wound with the load, increasing as
Generator
the load increases, and vice
versa. The usefulness of a series
generator is, therefore, confined mainly to such services as re-
quire a fairly constant current, such as series arc-lamp circuits.
The field winding is composed of heavy wire or strap in order to
carry the large current without undue heating.
Series- Wound Motor. The three types ofdirect-current mo-
tors are series-wound, shunt-wound, and compound-wound motors.
The series-wound motor is one in which the field winding is in
series with, or forms a direct continuation of, the armature cir-
cuit,so that all of the current that passes through the armature
passes also through the fields. The amount of current drawn from
the line by a motor depends upon the work, or horsepower, which
the motor is developing. It therefore follows that in the series
motor the strength of the fields will depend upon the load which
is placed on the motor, and, as the speed of the motor depends

inversely upon the field strength, the speed of the series motor
will be inversely proportional to the load. Since the speed of a
S-1120
motor also depends upon the voltage that is impressed upon the
armature, the speed of a series motor may be controlled by intro-
ducing resistance in series with the armature, and this is accom-
plished by means of a controller which is used also for starting
the motor. The use of the controller enables the operator to
start the motor slowly under light loads, and also prevents too
great a flow of current when starting under heavy loads. The
characteristics of the series motor are heavy starting torque
and a speed dependent upon the load.
Serrated Shaft Ends. The present S.A.E. standard involute
serrations replace the straight type formerly included in the
recommended practice. These involute serrations are multiple
keys in the general form of internal and external involute gear
teeth, as used for permanent fits between shafts and parts
mounted upon them. The purpose of this standard is to provide
a uniform, easily fabricated set of serrations that can be made
by several manufacturing processes.
The pitches range from 10/20 (ten/twenty) to 128/256, and
the standard includes a wide range of tooth numbers or ser-
rations. The basic dimensions are Diametral Pitch, Pitch
Diameter, Circular Pitch, Major Diameter (of External Ser-
ration), Minor Diameter (of External Serration) and Addendum
(of External Serration). The special dimensions are circular
tooth thickness and width of space, and both major and minor
diameter of the internal serration. The dimensions for the inter-
nal serration are held the same for all fits, and the external
serration is varied to obtain the desired fit. Modifications are
made to obtain equal strength teeth in both members and at the
same time retain even steps of major diameter in well known
fractions. The basic formulas are as follows :

T.M.T.TX.
Pitch Diam. =-=^ __
No. of Teeth _.
"Diametral Pitch
, _.. ,
-Circular Pitch ===
3.1416
Diametral Pitch
The diametral pitch in these formulas is the first figure which
is used to designate the pitch (as, for example, 10 in 10/20) and
this pitch value determines the pitch diameter. The pressure
angle for all serrations is 45 degrees. There are three classes
of fits ("loose," "close" and "press"), which are designated in
the standard as Classes A, B and C, respectively.
Tooth thickness is determined by measuring over pins for the
external, and between pins for the internal serrations. The
diameter of the pins is optional within a narrow range because
it is not necessary that a pin contact exactly at the Pitch Circle.
For the sake 'of uniformity, however, this standard incorporates
a recommended diameter.
Set-Screws. The principal difference between a set-screw
and a cap-screw is that the former bears on its point, whereas
 1121 -S

SQUARE-HEAD CUP POINT SOCKET FLAT POIKT

8et-tcrewt

a cap-screw bears on its head. Set-screws are generally used to

prevent relative motion between two machine parts, as, for exam-
ple, when a set-screw passes through a tapped hole in the hub of
a pulley and bears against a shaft which drives the pulley, Keys
are preferable to set-screws for locking pulleys, gears, etc., to
their shafts, and for similar work, although set-screws may serve
the purpose when not subjected to heavy loads; they are used
principally on the cheaper grades of machinery. Set-screws are
not only used for locking parts together, but also as a means of
obtaining slight adjustments, either to eliminate unnecessary
play by means of gibs, or for changing the location of a tod or
other part. The illustration shows some common forms. On
account of the danger caused by the projecting head of set-screws,
hollow or "safety" set-screws are now used extensively. These
have either a hexagon socket or a fluted socket in the end for a
wrench, instead of a projecting head.

Sewing Machine. The development and general introduction

of the sewing machine was due largely to the work of Elias
Howe, who secured a patent in 1846. In 1790 an English patent
was granted to Thomas Saint for a crude form of sewing
S-1122

chine, and in 1826 a United States patent was granted to Lye,

but the records were destroyed by fire in 1836. Various other
patents were granted prior to the introduction of the Howe
machine. Attempts were made to break the Howe patent, the
claim being that his invention was anticipated by the experi-
ments by Walter Hunt in 1834. The court upheld the Howe
patent and infringers were obliged to pay him royalties. In 1852
a patent was granted to A. B. Wilson for inventing the rotary
hook for carrying the bobbin to replace the reciprocating shuttle.

Sexivalent. This is a term used to indicate that an atom of

one element will combine with six atoms of another element
It is also known as hexavalent.

(A) Shaft Hanger for Celling. (B) Wall Bracket

or Post Hanger

Shaft Cleaners, A simple but effective method of keeping

shafting dean is by the traversing-ring method. The ring is
somewhat larger in diameter than the shaft, and it automatically
travels to and fro between pulleys or bearings, the reversal being
due to the change in the angular position of the ring when the
leading side strikes a pulley hub or bearing at either end of its
travel As the ring is. continually moving along the shaft, the
latter is kept clean. These rings of the "homemade" variety are
usually made of some material such as fiber or leather* A
com-
mercial type of ring is made of four semicircular stampings of
heavy nickel-plated sheet zinc. The ring has a circular recess
which is filled with felt for gathering and distributing any drops
of oil that collect on the shaft, ths object being to spread the oil
thinly on the shaft BO that it will osddize and scale off.
 1123-$
Shaft Couplings, See Couplings for Shafts; also Flexible
Couplings-
Shaft Hangers. A
shaft hanger is composed of a frame and
a bearing for supporting a shaft The hanger shown at Ain the
accompanying illustration is designed to be attached to the ceil-
ing, whereas the form shown at B
is applied to the side of a post
The latter design is usually known either as a wall bracket or a
post hanger. Some hangers of the type shown at A are made
much shorter and heavier, especially when they are to support
heavy shafting carrying main driving pulleys that transmit con-
siderable power. Hangers of the suspended type shown at A are
sometimes placed in an inverted position on the floor after turn-
ing over the bearing, and, when used in this way, they are usu-
ally known as floor stands, since they serve the same purpose as
regular floor stands or pedestal bearings. The hanger bearings
axe also self-adjusting, so that they readily conform to the
jxosi-
tion of the shaft. The ball- and socket-bearing is
extensively used
for hangers.

Shafting. Shafting is used for transmitting power from one

point to another and for supporting the means employed in power
transmission, such as gears, pulleys, chain wheels, clutches, etc.
The stresses to which shafts are subjected may be chiefly tor-
sional stresses, chiefly bending stresses, or combined torsional and
bending stresses. Shafts which simply transmit power from one
point to another will, if supported by a sufficient number of bear-
ings, be subjected chiefly to torsional stresses. Shafting of this
type is found in the line-shafting in shops and factories. If,
however, heavy pulleys and gears are supported by the shaft and
especially if they are not located close to the bearings, the shaft
may be subjected to severe bending stresses in addition to the
torsional stresses due to the transmission of
power. The axles of
large water wheels are subjected chiefly to bending stresses and,
for a short section only, to torsional stresses.

Shafting, Cold-Drawn. See Cold-drawing.

^
Shafting Diameters. The diameter of shafting for transmit-
ting a given amount of power may be determined by the following
formulas which are taken from the American Standards Associa-
tion's Code for the Design of Transmission
Shafting. In these
formulas:
D= outside diameter of shaft in inches;
JTm =
combined shock and fatigue factor to be applied in every
case to the computed bending moment (for rotating shafts,
K m tt= 1.5 for gradually applied or steady loads; 1.5 to 2 for sud-
denly applied loads and minor shocks only; 2 to 3 for suddenly
applied loads and heavy shocks) ;
S-H24
K t
= combined shock and fatigue factor to be applied in every
case to the computed torsional moment (for rotating shafts and
1

gradually applied or steady loads t s=l; for suddenly applied

loads and minor shocks only K =1 to 1.6; for suddenly applied

loads and heavy shocks K =t

1.5 to 3) ;
Jf= t
maximum bending moment in inch pounds;
N= revolutions per minute ;
P= maximum number of horsepower to be transmitted by the
shaft;
p = maximum shearing stress in pounds per square inch (the
maximum shearing stress p, under combined load = 8000 pounds
per square inch for "commercial steel" shafting without allow-
ance for keyways, and 6000 pounds per square inch with allow-
ance for keyways. p = 30 per cent of the elastic limit in tension,
but not more than 18 per cent of the ultimate tensile strength for
shafting steel purchased under definite physical specifications) ;
SB = maximum permissible torsional shearing stress in pounds
per square inch (the values for S B are the same as just given
for p) ;
T s= maximum torsional moment in inch pounds.
If a solid circular shaft is subjected to a pure torsional load

321,000 KP
t

sjr
If a solid circular shaft is subjected to combined torsion and
bending

Distance between Bearings: The bearings for shafting should

be located close enough to limit the maximum deflection of the
shaft to about 0,010 inch per foot of length. For average condi-
tions the maximum distance between shaft bearings in feet may
be determined by the following rules: For bare shafts, extract
the cube root of the square of the shaft diameter in inches, and
multiply this root by 6.3. For shafts carrying pulleys, etc., the
cube root of the square of the shaft diameter in inches is
multiplied by 6.2.

Shafting Diameters, Standard. American Standard diam-

eters for finished shafting include "transmission shafting" and
"machinery shafting." There are eighteen standard sizes for
transmission shafting ranging from 15/16 inch up to 8 inches.
There are forty standard sizes of machinery shafting ranging
from 1/2 inch up to 8 inches. The stock lengths of finished trans-
mission shafting are 16, 20, and 24 feet
 1125-$
Shafting, Flexible. See Flexible Shafting.
Shaftless Motor. A shaftless motor is usually designed to be
an integral part of some machine. It differs from the usual type
of motor in that it has no shaft of its own, but has its rotor
mounted directly on the shaft of the machine to be driven. This
obviates need for any form of transmission between motor and
machine. This type of motor is used in machine tools and wood-
working machines where extreme compactness is desired*
Shaku. This is the Japanese unit of length, equal to 303.03
millimeters or 0.9942 foot

Shale Oil. See Oil Shale.

Shao. This is a Chinese capacity measure, legalized in 1908,
equal to 0.0104 liter or 0.0109 quart

Shaper Classification. The shaper, like the planer, is used

principally for producing flat or plane surfaces, but it is intended
for smaller work than is ordinarily done on a planer. The shaper
is preferable to the planer for work within its capacity, because
it is less cumbersome to handle and quicker in its movement

Shapers are classified in several different ways. For instance,

the name applied to a given design may indicate the action of the
machine when in operation, the type of driving mechanism, or
other constructional features. The crank shaper is a very com-
mon design, and the name relates to the crank-driving mechan-
ism for the rain. There are also geared or rack shapers, which
are so named because the ram is driven through gearing and a
rack attached to the ram. The crank-driven type is the one that
is used principally. The details of different makes of the same
type vary to some extent, but all shapers of the same class have
certain essential features that are quite similar.
Friction Shaker: The name "friction shaper" is sometimes ap-
plied to a geared shaper which is equipped with friction clutches
for reversing the movement of the ram, instead of using shifting
belts. There are two pulleys rotating in opposite directions, and
these are alternately engaged by friction clutches which are
operated by the tappets or dogs attached to the rant These
shapers avoid the shifting of the driving belts, and operate on the
same principle as clutch-driven planers.
Traveling-head Shapers: The traveling-head or traverse shaper
differs radically from the standard type. The machine is equipped
with a rather long box-shaped bed upon which the ram is mounted.
This ram is carried by a saddle which feeds along the top of the
bed when the shaper is in operation. The feeding movement of
the saddle is at right angles to the traversing motion of tie ram.
Some shapers of this ijype are equipped with two shaper heads
$-1126
instead of one. A machine of the duplex type is very efficient for
planing certain classes of work, especially if the parts are quite
heavy or unwieldy, because the work remains stationary and it
may be supported either by the adjustable tables or be placed
upon the floor. Obviously the double-head machines may be used
for planing separate parts, or, at times, the two heads may be
used for planing each end of a long casting at one setting of
the work.
Openrside Shaper: A Richards or open-side shaper has a sad-
dle which is traversed along the top of the bed by a screw, and
the tool-slide is mounted upon a cross-rail located at right angles
to the bed. When the shaper is in motion, the saddle and its
attached head traverses to and fro along the bed, and the tool-
slide is fed laterally, either by hand or automatically. The open-
side shaper is superior to either the column or traverse shaper
for many classes of work, especially when long and comparatively
narrow surfaces need to be planed.
Draw-cut Shaper: A shaper of the draw-cut type differs from
the ordinary design in that the tool cuts when it is moving to-
ward the column of the machine. In other words, the tool is
pulled or drawn through the metal on the cutting stroke instead
of being pushed. For this reason, the name "draw-cut" is ap-
plied to a shaper of this type. The planing tool is set with the
cutting edge reversed. The object in designing a shaper to take
a draw cut is to secure greater rigidity and, consequently, a
higher degree of accuracy. The thrust of the cut is toward the
column and this tends to relieve the cross-rail and other bearings
from excessive strains, especially when taking deep cuts. As the
ram is subjected to a tensile stress, it is claimed that vibrations
are practically eliminated and that the tendency to vibrate
diminishes as the depth of cut increases.
Vertical Shaper: This machine resembles a slotter in many
respects, but it is known as a vertical shaper and is adapted for
classes of work that are done on horizontal shapers and regular
slotting machines. The work-table of this shaper can be given a
transverse, longitudinal, or rotary movement. The ram which
carries the planing or slotting tool moves vertically, while the
table is fed either by hand or automatically in whatever direction
is required. The ram can be placed perpendicular to the table
or at an angle for slotting dies, etc. It is mounted in an inde-
pendent bearing, the upper part of which is pivoted, so that both
the bearing and ram can be adjusted to an angular position,
which is indicated by degree graduations. Work can often be
completed at one setting by a shaper of this type, as it may be
used for machining either straight, curved, or irregular surfaces.

Shaper, Gear. See Gear Shaper.

 1127 -S
Shaper Invention. The shaper for planing metals, was in-
vented by James Nasmyth who was one of Maudslay^s pupils.
Maudslay perceived that Nasmyth was an extraordinarily skillful
workman, and he not only employed him, but took him into his
own office as his personal assistant Nasmyth stayed for several
years or until Maudslay's death, in 1831, when he started in
business for himself. He became one of the foremost tool build-
ers in England, and invented the shaper in 1836 which was long
known as Nasmyth's "steel arm/* The "quick return" was first
applied to the shaper by Whitworth.

Sharp Sand. Sharp sand is lake or seashore sand, river sand,

bank sand, or silica or fire sand, used in the making of cores for
the foundry. The sand is mixed in varying proportions with fine
grades of molding sand.
Shaving Dies. Dies of this class are sometimes used for fin-
ishing the edges of comparatively thick blanks which have been
cut out in a regular blanking die. A blanking die used for cut-
ting heavy stock must have a certain amount of clearance between
the punch and die opening, the amount depending upon the thick-
ness and kind of material. As the result of this clearance (which
lessens the danger of breaking the punch and reduces the pres-
sure required for the punching operation), the edges of thick
blanks are somewhat rough and also tapering. To secure smooth,
square edges, shaving dies are used in some cases.

Shaving Gear Teeth. The shaving process is employed for

finishing the teeth of precision gears. The gear to be finished
is rolled relative either to a rack-shaped or rotary form of cutter,
while the gear and the finishing tool are moved laterally relative
to each other. This shaving process is used extensively in the
automotive industry and also for such precision work as finish-
ing turbine or other reduction gear units. Shaving is a cutting
rather than cold-working process, although a very small amount
of metal is removed in correcting the tooth profile. This process
is applied to unhardened gears, the hardness of material usually
varying from 25 to 30 Rockwell C scale. In the aircraft industry,
it is a general practice at the present time to finish gear teeth by

grinding after hardening. While the distortion resulting from

hardening might be controlled to a certain extent by the design
of the gear and the material used, it cannot be fully eliminated;
hence, the present practice is to grind aircraft gears notwith-
standing the cost of this process as compared with the shaving
method of finishing. See Gear-Finishing Machines; also Gear-
Tooth Grinding.

Shaving Tools. When forming work of irregular contour,

in the automatic screw machine it is common practice to use a
S-1128

shaving tool which operated tangentially to the work and

is

passes either under or over it as conditions may require. It

it
is customary to place the shaving tool on the rear cross-slide, so
that the shaving operation can be accomplished at the same time
as the turret operations, when the spindle is running forward.
The chief use of this tool is for finishing work after it has been
rough-formed with a circular form or other external cutting tool
Shearing Machines. The shears or shearing machines used
in boiler shops, shipyards,machine shops, etc., for splitting or
trimming steel plates and for cutting off bars and structural
material, are made both in hand- and power-operated types, and
in many different designs. The machines used for shearing are,

'

Pin Subjected to Shearing Stresses

in many adapted to punching operations by replacing

cases, also
the shear blades with one or more punches and dies. There are
also combination designs having a punch on one side and a shear
on tEe other. A shearing machine of the ordinary type is
equipped with one fixed blade and one movable blade which re-
ceives motion from a mechanism designed to give a powerful
cutting movement The blades intended for different classes of
work vary in form and the motion of the blade relative to the
material being sheared also varies on different types of machines.
One of the simplest and oldest types of power-driven shearing
machines is known either as a lever sfrear, an alligator shear, or
a crocodile shear. It is adapted to the shearing of scrap, or for
cutting billets, muck bars, and sheet bars in rolling mills, and for
similar work. Another design of shearing machine is known as
a vertical type. The upper or movable shear, instead of being
attached to a pivoted lever, is bolted to a slide which is given a
vertical reciprocating motion. The vertical design is often
 1129 -$
preferred to the horizontal machine where economy of floor space
is important. Some shears have a vertical reciprocating slide
which is operated by a lever connected by a pitman with a
crankshaft at the rear.

Shearing Stresses. The pin E (see diagram) is subjected to

a shearing stress. Parts G and B are held together by the pin
and tend to shear it off at C and D. The areas resisting the
shearing action are equal to the cross-sectional areas of the pin
at these points. The general formula for shear is : Load 6= cross-
sectional area X working stress. The permissible working stress
for shear is assumed as four-fifths or five-sixths of the permis-
sible working stress in tension. If a pin is subjected to shear so
that two surfaces, as at C and D, must fail by shearing before
breakage takes place, the areas of both surfaces must be taken
into consideration when calculating the strength. The pin is then
said to be in double shear. If the lower part F of connecting-
rod B were removed, so that member G were connected with B
by a pin subjected to shear at C only, the pin would be said to
be in single shear.
Shear of Punches and Dies. When the cutting face of a
die is inclined each way from the center, or is made hollow, it is
said to have shear. The cutting faces of dies are given shear for
the same reason that the teeth of some mining cutters are made
helical or spiral, in that the shear makes it possible to cut the
blank from the sheet with less expenditure of power and, there-
fore, reduces the strain on the punch and die. Whether a die
should be given shear or not depends upon the thickness of the
stock to be cut and, in some cases, upon the power of the press
available. When shear is required it is advisable sometimes to
leave the face of the die flat and give shear to the punch instead.
In general, the shear is given to the punch when the stock around
the hole is the desired product and the material removed by the
punch is the scrap. The face of the die is sheared when the
blank or that part which is cut out by the punch is the product.

Shears, Squaring. See Squaring Shears.

Shear Steel. This steel is usually in the form of bars, and
is made from blister steel, by shearing it into short lengths, ar-

ranging in piles, and welding these piles by rolling or hammer-

ing at a welding heat If this process of shearing, etc., is re-
peated, the product is called "double-shear steel." Shear steel is
made principally in England and is used for articles of cutlery, etc.
Shear Theory, Maximum. See under Stress Theories.
Sheet. A finished rolling mill product known as a "sheet" is
*
produced by rolling sheet bars in sheet mills. The term "sheet*
S-1130
isapplied to material having a thickness less than No. 12 gage.
(The United States Government limits the thickness of sheets to
No. 10 U. S. Standard gage.) Ordinarily, sheet mills do not roll
stock thinner than No. 30 gage.
Sheet Bar. A "sheet bar" is a semi-finished rolling mill

product that is flat and less than 2 inches thick, and from 6 to
12 inches wide.
Sheet Iron. Sheet iron may be either black or galvanized.
Galvanized sheets should be thoroughly and evenly coated, of
bright appearance, and free from blisters, ragged edges, or other
defects. The zinc coating should not flake or peel off when scraped
with a knife, or when the sheet is bent sharply to right angles.
The sheet should never be re-rolled after leaving the galvanizing
bath, except for the purpose of straightening. The zinc used for
galvanizing should contain at least 98 per cent pure zinc. The
minimum zinc coating per square foot for galvanized plates
should vary from 1.35 to 1.65 ounce, the smaller value being
used for the thinnest sheets and the higher value for the heavier
sheets.
Sheet Metal Gages. Sheet metal gages or gaging systems
vary for different classes of materials, such as ferrous and non-
ferrous metals. Gage numbers and equivalent thicknesses are
given in engineering handbooks. See Sheet Steel; also Gages
for Sheet Metals.
Sheet-Metal Testing. Tensile strength tests are unsatis-
factory for determining the quality of thin sheet metal that is
to be worked in power presses, etc., because of two reasons : in
the first place, such tests do not yield reliable data for very thin
sheets; second, the quality of metal which is to be worked by
drawing, stamping, folding, etc., is dependent upon ductility and
similar properties rather than upon tensile strength. A machine
has been developed for determining what is known as the
Erichsen value, i.e., the depth in millimeters before the metal is
torn, of an impression made by forcing the sheet metal through
a die. See Erichsen Value.
Sheet Steel. Sheet steel is made from soft steel containing
a low percentage of carbon. The Manufacturers' Standard plate
gage sizes most generally considered under the heading of "sheet
steel" are those from No. 10 (0.1345 inch thick) down to No. 30
(0.012 inch thick). Sheets corresponding to the various gage
numbers between these limits are made in widths of 24, 26, 28,
and 30 inches, and in lengths of 72, 84, 96, and 120 inches.
Nos. 10 to 16, inclusive, are also made in widths of 36, 40, 42,
and 48 inches, and in lengths of 144 inches, and Nos. 17 to 24,
inclusive, are also made in sizes 36 inches in width and 144 inches
long. See Cold-rolled Sheet Steel.
 H31-S
Shellac, Pattern. See Pattern Varnish or Shellac.

Shelling. Shelling is the rupturing of the surface or shell

surrounding the inner core of bar stock, which sometimes occurs
when cold-drawing large sizes.
Shell Reamers. Shell reamers have a hole through the cen-
ter by means of which they are mounted on arbors, or detach-
able shanks. By making the reamers in this manner, one arbor
can be used for a number of sizes. The negative front rake on
shell reamers should not be more than about 3 degrees. The
corners at the end of the fluted shell reamer are slightly rounded.

Sheng. This is a Chinese capacity measure, legalized in 1908,

equal to 1.035 liter or 1.094 quart

Sherardizing Process. The sherardizing process was origi-

nated in England by Sherard Cowper-Coles about 1904. Ths
process is applicable not only in all cases where hot or cold gal-
vanizing can be used, but in numberless other cases where they
cannot. Briefly, the process consists in packing the articles to
be covered with the zinc coating into a closed drum, box, or other
suitable receptacle in contact with the ordinary zinc dust of com-
merce. The receptacle is then put into an oven and gradually
heated to the required temperature of about from 500 to 700 de-
grees F., for a period of four or five hours. At the same time,
the retorts are turned intermittently so as to give the zinc dust
access to all parts of the work. After holding this heat for sev-
eral hours, the exact time depending upon the thickness of the
coating desired, the drums are withdrawn from the furnace and
allowed to cool down to a temperature convenient for handling,
when its contents are dumped upon a screen, which allows the
zinc dust to fall freely into the chamber below, from which it
can be drawn for use again. The articles are found to be evenly
coated with pure zinc. A sherardized surface is light gray in
color, and the finish imparted is a fine matted surface resembling
that obtained by sand-blasting.
The preparation of the surfaces of articles to be sherardized is
important, if good results are to be assured. The presence of
rust or scale greatly interferes with the sherardizing action. To
prevent the articles from rusting after cleaning with acid by
pickling they should be thoroughly neutralized by placing them
in a boiling solution of cyanide, allowing 5 to 6 pounds of cyanide
crystals to 100 gallons of water. If the articles are cleaned by
sand-blasting there is no danger of rust. If sand-blasting cannot
be done for some reason then correct pickling and after treat-
ment are necessary before placing the articles in the sherardizing
drum. Agood pickling bath for cleaning iron or steel castings
S-1132
consists of 10 per cent each of hydrofluoric and
sulphuric acid
with 80 per cent water. The acids should be separately diluted
before being added to the bath. A diluted sulphuric acid bath
is sometimes used as a pickling solution for iron
castings. After
pickling with hydrofluoric or sulphuric acid, the castings should
be washed in water, followed by an immersion in an alkaline
(soda) solution to neutralize any remaining traces of acid. After
being thoroughly cleaned the castings should be immediately
transferred to a tank of clean water so as to preserve them from
oxidation. When the sherardizing equipment is ready the cleansed
castings may be put into the drums wet, as they come directly
from the water tank.

Shi. This is a Japanese measure of weight, equal to 0.000375

gram or 0.0058 grain.

Shim. In mechanical work a shim is a thin sheet of material

(usually brass, steel or some other metal) which is sometimes
applied^
between parts to provide convenient means of mak-
ing adjustment either to compensate for wear or for other
reasons. When a bearing, for example, is in the form of two
half sections, a shim may be placed between these
sections to
provide later for adjustment either by inserting a thinner shim
or by reducing the thickness of the one
originally used. By thus
reducing the thickness, the bearing sections are located closer
together and play due to wear may be eliminated. The laminated
shim is an improved form consisting of layers of metal which
can be peeled off to obtain the desired thickness. This laminated
form provides a quick and accurate method of
obtaining adjust-
ments by the shim method.

Shipping Measure. For measuring entire internal capacity

of a vessel: 1 register ton = 100 cubic feet. For measurement
of cargo approximately 40 cubic feet of
merchandise is considered
a shipping ton, unless that bulk would
weigh more than 2000
pounds, in which case the freight charge may be based
weight 40 cubic feet
bushels.
= 32.143 U. S. bushels = upon
31.16 Imperial

Shock. In mechanics, shock is the sudden application of a

load to a structural or machine member. Machine parts subjected
to shock must be
stronger in proportion to the load which they
carry than machine parts which are subjected to a
steady load
or to a load which gradually increases or
diminishes.
Shore Scleroscope. See Scleroscope.
Short Circuit. A short circuit is an electrical connection of
low resistance which diverts the flow of
current from the de-
 1133 ~$
vice or equipment through which it would normally pass, along
a shorter path. Such a connection may be established delib-
erately to cut out a certain piece of equipment or an element such
as a coil, resistance, or condenser from the circuit, or it may be
established accidentally as in the breakdown of defective
insulation.

Short-Lap Belt. A short-lap belt is a leather belt made en-

tirelyfrom that part of the hide which comes from the back of
the animal and in which the strips are not long enough to include
any portion of the neck stock. This is the best kind of belting,
Short-Lead Attachment. In cutting- screw threads or heli-
cal grooves of long lead in an engine lathe, it is well known that
the gearing is subjected to severe stresses because of the high
ratio of gearing required to traverse the carriage a distance per
revolution of the spindle, equal to the lead of the groove being
cut. The same difficulty is encountered in milling helical grooves,
but in the case of the milling machine it is the short leads that
impose severe stresses upon the change-gears* This is due to the
fact that the milling of a short lead requires a comparatively
rapid rotation of the work, since the latter must make erne revolu-
tion while the table is traversing a distance equal to the lead.
Attachments are made for both lathes and milling machines
which are designed to overcome this difficulty.
One design of short-lead attachment for a mining machine is
arranged to drive the worm-shaft of the spiral head from the
main spindle of the machine, instead of from the slowly re-
volving feed-screw, as is done ordinarily. The feed-screw is
disengaged from the power feed mechanism while using the
short-lead attachment. With this arrangement, the rotation of
the work is independent of the feed-screw, and the latter rotates
with and is driven from the work-spindle.

Shovel-Nose Tool. A shovel-nose tool is a tool, used in a

lathe,boring mill, or similar type of machine tool, which is wider
at the point than at the base where it joins the shank, and which
has a broad, flat cutting surface. It commonly is used for boring
and facing pockets or recesses in the face or side of a casting
or other machine part.

Shrinkage Allowance for Patterns. See Pattern Shrinkage

Allowance.

Shrinkage Cracks. In castings, shrinkage cracks are due to

the excessive shrinkage of the metal upon solidification, caused
either by a poor arrangement of the mold, poor design of the
casting, or, in certain alloys, to the extreme brittleness at a
temperature just below that of solidification.
S-1134

Shrinkage Fits, A cylindrical part which is to be held in

position by a shrinkage fit is first turned a few thousandths of
an inch larger than the hole in which it is to fit; the diameter
of the latter is then increased by heating, and after the part is
inserted, the heated outer member is cooled, causing it to grip
the pin or shaft with tremendous pressure.
General practice seems to favor a smaller allowance for shrink-
age fits than for forced fits, although in many shops the allow-
ances are practically the same in each case, and for some classes
of work, shrinkage allowances exceed those for forced fits. In
any case, the shrinkage allowance varies to a great extent with
the form and construction of the part which has to be shrunk
into place. The thickness or amount of metal around the hole is
the most important factor. The way in which the metal is dis-
tributed also has an influence on the results. Whether parts are
to be assembled by forced or shrinkage fits depends upon condi-
tions. For example, to press a steel tire over its wheel center,
without heating, would ordinarily be a rather awkward and diffi-
cult job. On the other hand, pins, etc., are easily and quickly
forced into place with a hydraulic press and there is the addi-
tional advantage of knowing the exact pressure required in as-
sembling, whereas there is more or less uncertainty connected
with a shrinkage fit, unless the stresses are calculated.
Tests to determine the difference in the quality of shrinkage and
forced fits showed that the resistance of a shrinkage fit to slip-
page was, for an axial pull, 3.66 times greater than that of a
forced fit, and, in rotation or torsion, 3.2 times greater. In each
comparative test, the dimensions and allowances were the same.
The most important point to consider when calculating shrink-
age fits is the stress in the hub at the bore, which depends chiefly
upon the shrinkage allowance. If the allowance is excessive, the
elastic limit of the material will be exceeded and permanent set
will occur, or, in extreme cases, the ultimate strength of the metal
will be exceeded and the hub will burst See Expansion Fits;
also Forced Fits.

Shrinkage Rule. Except in unusual cases, a pattern-maker

does not figure shrinkage by adding it to dimensions measured
by the standard rule, but uses a shrinkage rule instead. These
rules can be procured in standard shrinkages; they are over-
all
size the amount of shrinkage per
foot. A
two-foot rule, having
an allowance equivalent to 3/16 inch shrinkage per foot, will
measure 24 3/8 inches by the standard rule. These shrinkage
rules do not differ in appearance from standard rules. They
are graduated on the four edges in sixteenths, eighths, tenths,
and twelfths.
 1135 -S
Shrinkage Strains. Shrinkage strains are produced in cast-
ings by the solidification of some parts of it sooner than others.
In a casting, the thinner sections will solidify first in the mold;
when the heavier sections solidify, they often create stresses in
the other sections. One way to minimize these stresses is to
arrange the thickness in the various parts of the casting as far
as possible so that the entire casting will solidify at the same
time.

Shrink-Holes in Castings. A
shrink-hole is a cavity caused
by the shrinking away of the metal in cooling. This defect is
most likely to occur in those parts of a casting which are ex-
cessively thick. If practicable, avoid sudden changes in the
thickness of a section.
Shrouded Gears. The teeth of some cast gears are joined
together at the ends by a flange or wall of metal in order to
strengthen the teeth. Gear teeth which are reinforced in this
way are said to be shrouded. If this shroud or supporting wall
only extends to one-half of the height of the teeth, instead of to
the tops, the gear is known as a semi-shrouded form.
Shunt Trip. A
shunt trip is an arrangement for tripping cir-
cuit-breakers. The shunt trip has its coil normally disconnected
from the circuit and trips as soon as the coil is connected in the
circuit. It is generally used to trip a
circuit-breaker from a distant point by
the closing of a switch or similar device
Shunt-Wound Generator. This is a
direct-current generator in which the
field winding is connected to the brushes
N of tlie mac*line and *s t*lus * n P^alk*
(CP)) 5
_l\l/ll II
^th
I
I I
the armature winding, forming a
shunt to the same, as shown by the dia-
gram. This shunt is a comparatively fine
wire of high resistance, thus limiting the
field current to a small percentage of the
total current, although the number of
Diagram of Shunt- turns proportionately higher. The
is
wound Generator voltage of such a generator is maxi-
mum at no load and, unless regulated,
decreases as the load increases. Regulation is accomplished by
inserting an adjustable resistance or rheostat in the field circuit;
if resistance is cut out, the field current is increased and also the
voltage of the machine, and vice versa. Modern shunt-wound
generators with commutating poles have a very dose inherent
regulation, so that a very small change is required in the position
of the rheostat between no load and full load.
S-1136

Shunt-Wound Motor. The shunt-wound motor is one in which

the field winding is connected across the main lines, or is said to
be in shunt with the armature circuit. The amount of current
passing through the field is inversely proportional to its resist-
ance, and, except in the ease of the variable-speed type of shunt-
wound motor, remains practically constant under all conditions
of load. This results in a constant-speed motor the output of
which, in horsepower, is dependent upon the current, in amperes,
which passes through the armature. The characteristic of the
shunt-wound motor is approximately constant speed under all con-
ditions of load. See also Motor Selection, Direct Current
1'
Shut Height of Press. The term "shut height as applied to
power presses, indicates the die space when the slide is at the
bottom of its stroke and the slide connection has been adjusted
upward as far as possible. The "shut height" is the distance from
the lower face of the slide, either to the top of the bed or to the
top of the bolster plate, there being two methods of determining
it; hence, this term should always be accompanied by a definition
explaining its meaning. According to one press manufacturer,
the safest plan is to define "shut height" as the distance from
the top of the bolster to the bottom of the slide, with the stroke
down and the adjustment up, because most dies are mounted on
bolster plates of standard thickness, and a misunderstanding
which results in providing too much die space is less serious than
having insufficient die space. It is believed that the expression
"shut height" was applied first to dies rather than to presses, the
shut height of a die being the distance from the bottom of the
lower section to the top of the upper section or punch, excluding
the shank, and measured when the punch or upper section is in
the lowest working position.

Sicromo. A corrosion-resistant steel for high-temperature

service having at 85 degrees F. an ultimate tensile strength of
74,000 pounds per square inch with a yield point of 40,000 pounds
per square inch; at 750 degrees F., 62,000 and 26,500 pounds, re-
spectively; at 1100 degrees F., 36,500 pounds and 20,000 pounds,
respectively; and at 1400 degrees F., 13,000 pounds and 7500
pounds per square inch, respectively. Suitable for applications
where corrosion resistance is of major consideration, but where
conditions do not warrant the use of the higher-priced 4 to 6
per cent chromium-molybdenum steels* Especially intended for
cracking-furnace tubes, vapor and hot oil lines, superheater
tubes, etc.

Side Milling Cutters. A side milling cutter is provided with

teeth on both sides as well as on the periphery of the cylindrical
surface. Side milling cutters are used for cutting grooves or
 1137 -$
slots, as well as for many other operations. They are often used
in conjunction with other forms of cutters for milling special
shapes in a single operation.
Side-Tools. Side-tools are used in lathes for facing the ends
of shafts, collars, etc. A
right side-tool operates on the right-
hand end or side of a shaft or collar, whereas the left side-tool is
used on the opposite side. Side-tools are also bent to the right or
left because the cutting edge of a straight tool cannot always be
located properly for facing certain surfaces. See also Lathe
Tools, Right- and Left-hand.

Siemens-Martin Process. The open-hearth process of mak-

ing steel has been designated by various terms. In connection
with the original open-hearth process (acid) developed by <X W*
Siemens, pig iron was used without scrap, and ore was added to
oxidize the impurities; hence, the name "pig and ore process,1*
The addition of scrap to molten pig iron without ore was a de-
velopment of the Martin brothers; consequently, the origin of
the terms "Siemens-Martin process,'* "Martin process," and ''pig
and scrap process/* In the United States the term "open-hearth
process" is generally used, the name being based upon the type
of furnace employed.

Silent Chain Transmission. The silent or "inverted-tooth"

type of driving chain has the following distinguishing features:
The chain passes over the face of the wheel like a belt and the
wheel teeth do not project through it; the chain engages the
wheel by means of teeth extending across the full width of the
under side, with the exception of those chains having a central
guide link; the chain teeth and wheel teeth are of such a shape
that as the chain pitch increases through wear at the joints, the
chain shifts outward upon the teeth, thus engaging the wheel on
a pitch circle of increasing diameter; the result of this action is
that the pitch of the wheel teeth increases at the same rate as the
chain pitch. Another distinguishing feature of the silent chain
is that the power is transmitted by and to all the teeth in the arc
of contact, irrespective of the increasing pitch due to elongation.
The links have no sliding action either on or off the teeth, which
results in a smooth and practically noiseless action, the chain be-
ing originally designed for the transmission of power at higher
speeds than are suitable for roller chains.
The efficiency of the silent chain itself may be as high as 99 per
cent, and for the complete drive, from 96 to 97 per cent, under
favorable conditions; from 94 to 96 per cent can be secured with
well-designed drives under average conditions. While the name
"silent chain" is derived from the fact that the operation is prac-
tically noiseless, the term is not applicable to other types which
S-1138

may run silently, but is used to designate the inverted-tooth form

of chain. The distinguishing feature of different makes of silent
chain is in the joint, the other characteristics being practically
the same, except for variations in regard to accuracy ana
manufacturing methods.
Silica. Silica is amorphous silicon dioxide (Si0 2 ) and con*
stitutes the greatest part of sand and sandy rocks. It occurs
naturally as quartz and tridymite, which, when colored, forms
some of the gem stones. When prepared artificially, it is a fine,
white, tasteless, odorless powder that is soluble only in hydro-
fluoric acid, and is fused by alkaline carbonates. Silica, or quartz,
crushed and graded to various sizes, is used in making sandpaper
and sand belts, for frosting glass with sand-blast apparatus, and
for other abrasive purposes. It may also be fused in the electric
furnace to produce laboratory crucibles.

Silicate Bonding Process. Silicate grindingwheels derive

their name from the fact that soda or water glass is
silicate of
the principal ingredient used in the bond. These wheels are also
sometimes referred to as semi-vitrified wheels. Ordinarily, they
cut smoothly and with comparatively little heat, and for grind-
ing operations requiring the lowest wheel wear, compatible with
cool cutting, silicate wheels are often used. Their grade is also
dependable and much larger wheels can be made by this bonding
process than by the vitrified process. Some of the grinding opera-
tions for which silicate wheels have been found to be especially
adapted are as follows: For grinding high-speed steel machine
shop tools, such as reamers, milling cutters, etc.; for hand-
grinding lathe and planer tools; for surface grinding with ma-
chines of the vertical ring-wheel type; and for operations requir-
ing dish-shaped wheels and cool cutting. These wheels are
unequaled for wet grinding on hardened steel and for wet tool
grinding. They are easily recognized by their light gray color.

Silicon Bronze. Silicon bronze is an alloy made from vary-

ing proportions of copper and silicon, often containing small per-
centages of zinc and tin. It is made by heating fluosilicate of
potash, granulated glass, chloride of sodium and calcium, and
carbonate of soda and lime in a plumbago crucible. This mixture,
after reaction takes place, is added to molten bronze. Silicon-
bronze wire has a high electric conductivity, amounting to from
40 to 98 per cent of that of copper wire, or four times greater
than that of iron. Its tensile strength is also high, varying from
55,000 to 110,000 pounds per square inch. The electrical conduc-
tivity decreases as the tensile strength increases, so that wire
having a conductivity of 95 per cent of that of pure copper has
a tensile strength of 55,000 pounds per square inch, while wire
 1139-5

having a conductivity of 40 per cent of that of pure copper has

a strength of about 100,000 pounds per square inch. The wire
resists oxidation to a considerable extent, and has been largely
used for telegraph wires. Ordinary drawn and annealed copper
wire has a strength of only from 30,000 to 40,000 pounds per
square inch.
Silicon Carbide. This
is a general class of abrasive which is

produced the electric furnace; it is a chemical com-

artificially in
bination of the two elements, carbon and silicon and is given
various trade names such as "Carborundum," "Crystohm," "Car-
bolite," "Carbolon," "Carbonite," "Carborite," "Carbowalt,"
"Electrolon," "Natalon," "Silicar," "Staralon," "Silizit" The
principal materials used are coke, which supplies the carbon de-
ment, and sand, which supplies the silicon. The coke is crushed
in a mill and is then mixed with the sand. To the mixture of sand
and coke is added a quantity of sawdust, in order to make the
mixture porous, thus allowing the gases to escape freely. After
suitable treatment, the mass of raw material is placed in an dec-
trie furnace. The temperature of the surrounding mass of coke
and sand is raised to a point between 7000 and 7500 degrees P,
As the result of this high temperature, objectionable impurities
in the coke and sand are destroyed or driven off in gaseous form,
leaving only the carbon and silicon which unite, thus forming the
abrasive, carborundum. The crystalline masses are crushed and
reduced to individual crystals or grains which are carefully
washed, dried, and graded through screens of different mesh, thus
obtaining different grade numbers. Wheels made from this abra-
sive are adapted for grinding materials of low tensile strength,
such as soft brasses and bronzes, cast and chilled iron, aluminum,
copper, marble, granite, leather, and other non-metallic substances.

Silicones. This group of organic rubbery materials is used

over a wide temperature range, from below degrees F. to 600
degrees F. depending upon its form and application. Liquid
silicones are used for impregnating fabrics and coating glass
and ceramics to make these materials waterproof, as parting
agents in molding, baking, etc., and as high-temperature lubri-
cants. Silicones in the form of greases provide both chemical
and heat resistance combined with lubrication properties. In
the usual rubber-like form, the silicones are used as electrical
insulation materials in the making of motors and as gasket
materials where heat and chemical resistance are a requisite.

Silundum. Silundum is a trade name for silicified carbon

obtained by heating carbon rods in silicon vapor in an electric
furnace. Being a form of carborundum, it has the same proper-
ties ; it is very hard and acid-proof and resists high temperatures.
$-1140
It can be heated in the air to 1600 degrees C. (2912 degrees F.)
without oxidation. Silundum rods have about three times the
resistance of carbon; they are used in electrical heating and
cooking devices, and are made in round, flat, and square bars or
tubes and in the form of grids.

Silver. Silver is the most malleable and ductile of all metals,

with the exception of gold. Its specific gravity varies from 10.51
to 10.62. The average value is 10.53, making the weight per cubic
inch 0.38 pound. Silver melts at a temperature of 961 degrees C.
(1762 degrees F.) .Its specific heat is about 0.056. Its coefficient
of linear expansion per unit length, per degree F., equals
0.0000108. Its thermal conductivity is higher than that of any
other metal, and is generally taken as the standard with which
the heat conductivity of other materials is compared, that of
silver being assumed as 100. As compared with copper, its heat
conductivity is in the ratio of 100 to 74, and as compared with
gold, in the ratio of 100 to 54. Silver is also the most perfect
conductor of electricity, and is assumed as the standard with
which all other conductors are compared, the conductivity of
silver being assumed as 100. As compared with copper, its con-
ductivity for electricity is in the ratio of 100 to 75, and as com-
pared with gold, 100 to 73. In hardness, silver is superior to
gold, but it is not as hard as copper. Fifteen grains of silver
have been drawn into a wire nearly 600 feet long, and silver leaves
have been beaten out to a thickness of only 0.00001 inch.
Silver-Bronze, Manganese. See Manganese Silver-bronze.
Silver Finish on Brass. A
method of silvering that is ap-
plicable to such work as gage or clock dials, etc., consists of grind-
ing together in a mortar 1 ounce of very dry chloride of silver;
2 ounces of cream of tartar; and 3 ounces of common salt. Then
add enough water to make it of the desired consistency and rub
it on the work with a soft cloth. This will give brass or bronze
surfaces a dead-white thin silver coating, but it will tarnish and
wear if not given a coat of lacquer. The ordinary silver lacquers
that can be applied cold are the best. The mixture, as it leaves
the mortar before adding the water, can be kept a long time if
put in very dark-colored bottles, but, if left where it will be
attacked by light, it will decompose.

Silver-Plating. Silver is not deposited in smooth coherent

layers from all solutions. Silver deposits from a silver-nitrate
solution, for example, is in a loose crystalline form, entirely use-
less for plating. From cyanide baths, which are
universally used
the deposit is smooth, coherent, and of a milk-
for^ silver-plating,
white color, which, on polishing, takes the appearance of ordinary
silver. The bath may be made as follows: potassium cyanide,
 T141-S
98 per cent, from 6 1/3 to 7 ounces; potassium silver tyanide,
crystallized, KAgCCu)^ 17% ounces; distilled water, 10 quarts.
The current density is from 1 to 4.2 amperes per square foot, at
about 1 volt, and pure silver anodes are used. Silver is deposited
only on surfaces of copper or of copper alloys; if other metals are
to be silver-plated, a layer of copper or brass is first produced,
and the silver is deposited on this. After this surface has been
cleaned and pickled, it is amalgamated by immersing in a quick-
ening solution, which is made as follows: potassium mercury
cyanide, 0.9 ounce; potassium cyanide, 0.9 ounce; water, 1 quart
The object remains in this solution only long enough to acquire
a uniform white coating of mercury, when it is rinsed in clean
water and placed in the silver-plating bath. In order to make
the silver adhere more firmly, the object is plated first for a few
seconds in a striking solution with a relatively high current
density, and then finished in the bath just given. The striking
solution used by a prominent manufacturer of silverware is as
follows: Potassium cyanide, 6 ounces; potassium silver cyanide,
0.9 ounce; water, 1 gallon. It is advantageous to agitate the
solution by keeping the articles in motion while in the bath. See
also Electroplating.

Silver-Ply. Mild steel sheets and plates of flange quality,

bonded with stainless steel of 3 to 50 per cent of the total thick-
ness. These sheets can be bent, spun into deep heads, deep-drawn,
drilled, and otherwise worked with greater ease than solid stain-
less steel. Useful for manufacture of cooking vessels, storage
tanks, marine equipment, and other applications where corrosion
and erosion is a problem.

Silver Solder. Silver solders are made in strip, sheet, and

granular form, and in a number of different grades of fusibility.
The melting points of silver solders vary between 1250 and
1500 degrees F, One of the best silver solders used is made of
61 per cent silver, 29 per cent copper, and 10 per cent zinc. Many
alloys of low silver content are used, in which the silver ranges
from 5 to 50 per cent Silver solder is especially suitable for
jointing monel metal, nickel, and stainless steel, since it gives
the necessary whiteness to the seam or joint, whereas with
ordinary brazing solder, a red or yellow color is noticeable at
the joint.
For successful silver soldering, it is essential that the parts be
maintained throughout the operation in close, firm contact. This
insures the ready flow of the solder, and results in a neat and
exceedingly strong joint. Silver soldering is usually done by
means of an air-acetylene blowpipe, or atmospheric gas blowpipe,
and powdered borax is generally used as a flux Borax, in paste
S-1142

form, is the cleanest and most convenient flux. The paste is pro-
duced by moistening the borax in clean water. The flux can be
applied to the parts to be jointed with a small brush.
The work should be heated gradually at first, so as to harden
the borax flux; then heating should be continued with a clean
flame until a red heat is reached, at which temperature the solder
will run and penetrate interstices which ordinary hard solders
would fail to fill. As soon as the joint has been completed, the
source of heat should be removed and the work quickly plunged
in clean cold water. This method of procedure disintegrates the
flux and scale which, if left to cool slowly, would set in a very
hard vitreous film that is extremely difficult to remove.

Silver-White Alloy. A white metal alloy of high luster,

capable of taking a brilliant polish and closely resembling silver
in appearance, consists of 70 per cent copper, 15 per cent nickel,
9 per cent zinc, 4.3 per cent tin, and 1.7 per cent lead. The alloy
is made as follows: The nickel is first melted with a flux of silica,
and half of the copper is added gradually and mixed, after
which the remainder of copper is added. The zinc is then quickly
plunged beneath the surface of the molten metal which is stirred
rapidly until the whole is melted. The lead and tin are added last
while liquid. The metal is stirred and brought to a temperature
of about 1700 degrees F., after which it is poured into ingot molds.

Silvery Pig Iron. See Ferrosilicon.

Sine, Arc. See Arc Sine and Tangent.
Sine-Bar. The sine-bar, or sine-protractor, as it is sometimes
called, is used either for measuring angles accurately or for
locating work to a given angle in connection with such work as
surface grinding operations on templets, gages and other angular
work requiring great accuracy. Sine-bars are commonly used by
toolmakers and gage-makers because they provide a very precise
method of measuring or checking angles. A common form of
sine-bar is illustrated by the diagram. This particular form is
notched at the ends for receiving cylindrical plugs D. These
plugs must be lapped to the same diameter and the distance C
between their centers usually is either 5 or 10 inches to simplify
the use of the sine-bar, as shown later by an example. This cen-
ter distance should be as accurate as possible and the upper and
lower edges of the bar should be parallel with a plane intersecting
the axes of the plugs. The sine-bar is always used in conjunc-
tion with some true surface B from which measurements can
be taken.
The angle A to which the sine-bar is set depends upon the
height H of one plug above the surface B upon which the other
 1143 -S

Method of setting Sine-bar to Given Angle A

plug rests. The sine-bar frequently is set to the required height H

by using gage-blocks to obtain great accuracy. If the sine-bar
is to be set to a given angle, height H
for this angle is determined
by using the sine of the angle; hence, the name "sine-bar/*
Rule: To set a sine-bar to a given angle, find the sine of this
angle in a table containing the sines of angles; multiply this sine
by the center distance C to obtain height H.
Sine Law. See Law of Sines and Cosines.

Sine of Angle. See Functions of Angles.

Sine Wave. The sine wave (see diagram) may be defined as

follows: If, as the spoke of a wheel revolves at a uniform *ate

Vector and Sine Wave

S-1144
around its hub, a curve is plotted on rectangular coordinates to
show the relation between the angle the spoke makes with the
origin, and the distance from the end of the spoke to a horizontal
line drawn through the hub, the curve so drawn will be a sine
curve. The spoke is called the vector and the height of the peak
of the wave is equal to the length of the vector. One revolution
of the vector forms a cycle, which includes two "alternations"
and two *Tialf-waves," one positive and one negative. In order
to specify a sine wave, it is sufficient to know the value of the
vector and the number of cycles that take place per second. An
alternating current not only reverses in direction, but changes to
maximum and minimum values and in direction of flow according
to a definite cycle, which is usually a close approximation of a
sine wave; and, in dealing mathematically with alternating
current, the cycle is assumed to be exactly a sine wave.

Single-Phase Motors. Single-phase alternating-current mo-

tors are designed for operation on a single-phase power line and
most designs have some special arrangement for providing start-
ing torque. Thus, a switch may be provided for splitting the
stator winding into two parts with different reactance character-
istics or an auxiliary winding is used, so that during the starting
period there are two currents which are out of phase with each
other flowing in the stator windings.
Single-phase motors may be grouped into several types:
Capacitor, repulsion, shaded-pole, series commutator (universal)
and split phase.
The capacitor motor has a main winding arranged for direct
connection to a source of power and an auxiliary winding con-
nected in series with a capacitor. The capacitor may be con-
nected into the circuit through a transformer and its value may
be varied between starting and running. A similar type called a
capacitor-start motor has a split-phase winding with a capacitor
connected in series with the auxiliary winding. This auxiliary
circuit is opened when the motor has attained a predetermined
speed. The capacitor type of motor is noted for its quiet operation.
The repulsion motor has a stator winding arranged for connec-
tion to a source of power and a rotor winding connected to a
commutator. The brushes which bear on the commutator are
short circuited and are so placed that the magnetic axis of the
rotor winding is inclined to the magnetic axis of the stator
winding, This type of motor has a varying speed characteristic.
The repulsion-induction motor is a form of repulsion motor
which has a squirrel-cage winding in the rotor in addition to the
repulsion motor winding. In starting, the current largely passes
through the repulsion winding but as the motor gets up to speed
the squirrel-cage winding assumes more of the
load, making for
 1145 -5
smooth starting and running. A motor of this type may have
either a constant speed or a varying speed characteristic.
Similar to this is the repulsion-start induction motor, which
has the same windings as a propulsion motor but at a prede-
termined speed the rotor winding is short circuited or otherwise
connected to give the equivalent of a squirrel-cage winding. This
type of motor has high starting torque, low starting current and
constant speed. One modification of the repulsion-induction
motor is designed for obtaining speed variation by shifting the
brush position and is called an adjustable-speed, brush shifting
motor.
The series-wound universal motor is a commutator motor in
which the field circuit and armature circuit are connected in
series. They are called universal motors because they may be
operated on either alternating current or direct current. Their
speed varies inversely with the load. They are designed for high-
speed operation (5000 to 10,000 R.P.M.) and their no-load speed
may reach 16,000 R.P.M.
The shaded pole motor is provided with an uninsulated and
permanently short-circuited auxiliary winding displaced in
magnetic position from the main winding.
The split~phase motor is equipped with an auxiliary winding,
displaced in magnetic position from, and connected in parallel
with the main winding. Ordinarily this auxiliary circuit is
opened when the motor has reached a predetermined speed. The
auxiliary winding may be used without impedance, or it may be
connected in series with a reactor or a resistance, in which case
the terms reactor-start motor or resistance-start motor are used.
Split-phase motors are characterized by comparatively high start-
ing current and low starting torque so that they are used where
starting is accomplished under little or no load.
Single-phase motors are widely used in fractional horsepower
sizes and in some cases up to five- and ten-horsepower sizes for
domestic appliance and small industrial drives.

Single-Purpose Machine Tools. Many modern developments

in the machine tool field pertain to designs that are more or less
special. These machines range from "manufacturing types," re-
sembling simplified standard designs of unusual rigidity and
power, to "single purpose" machines built specifically for one
operation. The semi-single-purpose type of machine is now re-
garded favorably, particularly for certain operations in the
automotive industry. Such machines, while designed for a given
part, are arranged to accommodate different sizes, the idea, in
some instances, being to care for possible future changes in the
design of a car or other product.
S-H46
Sinterloy. A powdered metal that can be pressed into prac-
tically any shape and sintered to produce a dense, homogeneous
steel. The forming pressure is 50 tons per square inch, and sin-
tering is usually accomplished at 1965 to 2100 degrees F. Suit-
able for production of such parts as gears, cams, pump rotors,
washers, pins, rivets, and splined shafts. It is said to compare
well with cast steel and cast alloy steel.

Siphon Barometer. This is an instrument used for measur-

ing the pressure of the atmosphere. It consists of a tube bent
to a U-shape, one leg of the tube being about 36 inches long and
hermetically sealed at its upper end where a vacuum is formed;
the remainder of the tube contains mercury. The pressure of
the atmosphere is indicated by the difference between the levels
of the mercury in the two vertical legs of the U-tube. See also
Barometer.

Siphon-Barometric Condenser. A
barometric condenser is
not equipped with an air pump but is connected with a discharge
or tail pipe having an elevation of at least 34 feet above the
surface of the hot-well. See Condenser.

Siphon Cup. An oil cup having a wick which feeds lubricant

continually to bearings by capillary action, is called a siphon cup.

Skelp Plates. The plates used in the manufacture of welded

tubes and pipes are known as "skelp plates." These plates are
rolled to such a width and thickness as will produce the desired
diameter and strength of tubing. The edges are generally sheared
for large sizes of pipe. Grooved skelp plates are rolled in mills
having grooves cut into the rolls equal to the width of the plates.
Skew Bevel Gears. Skew bevel gears may be used to con-
nect two shafts which are not parallel and which are not in the
same plane, and which, in addition, are so close together that
spiral or worm gearing cannot be satisfactorily applied. Skew
bevel gears have straight teeth which bear on each other along
a straight line, but these teeth do not converge or point to a
common center, as in the case of ordinary bevel gears; they are,
instead, inclined to a plane passing through the axis of the gear
(see illustration). A
plane through the center of the tooth in-
tersects the axis of the gear instead of passing through the axis
as in ordinary bevel gearing. For offset drives, either
spiral bevel
or hypoid gears are preferable to skew bevel gears. See
Hypoid
Gears and also Spiral Bevel Gears.
Skin-Dried Molds. Green sand molds are said to be skin-
dried when only the interior surface is dried. This may be done
to avoid the use of dry sand or loam
molds, or, in some cases,
because the sand used requires drying in order to withstand the
 H47-S
heat and "wash" of the metal. Molds that are to be skin-dried
should have a facing sand that will withstand drying like a dry
sand mold. The facing sand is backed with ordinary heap or
floor sand.

Skull Cracker. A drop weight, used for breaking scrap cast-

ings, etc., into smaller pieces, is called a skull cracker. The
spherical weight or ball is hoisted above the scrap and released
by pulling a rope attached to the releasing latch or trigger.
Slab. A "slab/' according to the usage of the term in rolling
mill practice, is flat and at least 2 inches thick and 12 inches wide.

Skew Bevel Gears

Slabbing Machines. Horizontal milling machines of the

planer type are often termed slabbing machines, especially when
they are used chiefly for the milling of plane surfaces or for
"slabbing" operations. Some manufacturers classify their slab-
bing machines as vertical or horizontal types, depending upon
the position of the milling spindle or spindles, as the case may
be. Others do not distinguish between the horizontal and the
vertical types, but apply the name "slabbing machine" regardless
of the position of the spindles. Rotary planers are sometimes
called slabbing machines.

Slack of Screenings. This is a finely pulverized coal which

passes through a screen of 3/16 inch mesh. This coal is often
known as culm or culm coal and is frequently used in power plants.
Slag Cement. A cement made by mixing granulated basic
blast furnace slag and hydrated lime and then grinding the
mixture. It is the same as Pozzuolanic cement.
S-H48
Slavianoff Welding Process. This electric welding process is
a modification of the Bernardos arc process. Instead of using
a carbon electrode, the electrode is of the same material as the
metal to be welded, this change being made in order to prevent
the hard welds which sometimes result with the Bernardos or
Zerener processes, owing, principally, to the transfer of carbon
from the electrode to the weld.

Sledge Hammers. The weight of sledge hammers varies ac-

cording to the size and weight of the work for which they are
used; some hammers only weigh 8 pounds, while others weigh
20 pounds or over. Smaller hammers of the same pattern, weigh-
ing less than 8 pounds, are called quarter hammers, and those
used for the very lightest work, generally are made with a
ball-peen like a hand hammer and are called backing hammers.

Slenderness Ratio. See Ratio of Slenderness.

Slide-Rest Development. Devices for clamping metal cut-

ting tools in a fixed position were employed comparatively early,
but the first record of the slide-rest dates from 1772. Complete
drawings and details of an excellent slide-rest were given in that
year in a French encyclopedia. As early as in 1741, Hindley, a
York clockmaker, produced a screw-cutting lathe with change-
gears. This was a very small machine used in the clock-
making trade only. None of these early developments, however,
have had any commercial importance, or, apparently, any direct
influence on the development of machine tools. The real founda-
tion of modern machine tools was laid about 1794 by Maudslay
who developed the first slide-rest to receive general practical ap-
plication. Apparently Maudslay was not acquainted with the
French slide-rests that had been in use previous to 1772, and,
on account of the development that has followed the design of
slide-rest made by him, the credit for the development of the
slide-rest is generally given to Henry Maudslay, of London. Up
to about the time of Maudslay*s design of slide-rest, the best
lathes in existence were substantially like the present pattern-
makers' speed lathe, having a light headstock and tailstock, and
an adjustable rest for a hand tool, which was used for metal as
well as for wood. Any refinement that had been made in previ-
ous years belonged apparently only to very small machines used
by clockmakers, who in those days seemed to have the monopoly
in mechanical ingenuity. About 1800, Maudslay provided his
lathe with lead-screw and change-gears, in addition to a slide-rest,
and from then onward the development of the modern machine
tool has been continuous and rapid.

Slide-Rest of Compound Type. The compound type of slide-

rest for lathes hag angular adjustment in a horizontal plane and
 H49-S
itenables a tool to be fed at right angles to the lathe bed, paral-
lelwith it, or at any intermediate angle. There is a lower slide
which is adjustable at right angles to the ways of the bed, and
an upper slide which may be set in any angular position for
boring taper holes, turning taper surfaces, etc. The circular base
of the upper slide is graduated in degrees.

Slide-Rule. The slide-rule is an instrument by the aid of

which various calculations may be made mechanically, with
greater ease and rapidity than by ordinary arithmetical means,
and usually with a sufficient degree of accuracy to meet all prac-
tical requirements. It is used most extensively for performing
multiplication and division of numbers, but it may be used for
finding powers, roots, logarithms, and trigonometric functions,
and for various other purposes. The operation of a slide-rule is
based on the use of logarithmic scales. Those who are familiar
with logarithms will recall that to multiply two numbers to-
gether it is only necessary to take the logarithm of each number,
add them together and find the equivalent number (anti-log)
represented by the resulting total logarithm. This multiplication
of numbers by the addition of their logarithms can be readily
accomplished with the aid of suitable logarithmic scales. Thus,
if a scale were laid out on paper so that the distance from the
beginning of the scale to any number on the scale is equal or
proportional to the logarithm of the number, one could, by adding
the distance of one number from the beginning of lie scale to
the distance of another number from the beginning of the scale
(which would, in fact, be adding together the logarithms of the
two numbers) read their product directly on the scale. This
was actually done by Gunter in 1620 who laid out a logarithmic
scale and used dividers to add up the scale distances or in other
words to multiply the scale numbers. In 1627 these logarithmic
scales were drawn by Wingate on two separate wooden rules
sliding against each other so that the use of dividers was un-
necessary and in 1657 Partridge brought out the slide rule in
itspresent form.
Construction of Slide Rule: In its most common form, as
shown in the upper diagram, the slide-rule is a rule about
11 inches long, 1% inches wide, and % inch thick, and consists of
three main parts: The body E, usually referred to as the rule;
the slide F, which has tongues that fit into grooves in the body
and thus allow it to be moved smoothly and easily in either direc-
tion; and the runner G, sometimes called the "cursor," which is
a light metal frame that may be slid endwise along the rule and
that carries a plate of glass about one inch square, on the under
surface of which is a fine scratch H, called the "hair-line." This
line is at right angles to the direction of motion of both the slide
S-1150

$
CO

i 3
Q.
5
I

is
II

i
?
01

T3
ft.

Q.
 1151-S

and the runner, no matter where the runner is placed along the
rule. A tongue that fits a groove in the bottom edge of the rule
holds the runner to the rule, and a light spring that bears against
the upper edge keeps the runner snugly in place.
The upper faces of the rule and slide are inscribed with suit-
able logarithmic scales which, in the common form of rule, are
designated as A, B, C, and D, as illustrated. Scales C and D are
exactly the same and are used in combination for the operations
of multiplication and division.
Multiplication and Division: Thus, as shown in the middle dia-
gram, when one end of the scale C is set at some figure on the
D scale, say 3.36, it is actually at a point which is a proportional
distance from the left end of the D scale equal to the logarithm
of 3.36. Now if the cursor is moved to some number on the
C scale, say 2.64, it will actually be a proportional distance from
the left-hand end of the C scale equal to the logarithm of 2.64 or
at a proportional distance from the left-hand end of the D scale
equal to the logarithm of 3.36 plus the logarithm of 2.64. The
D scale reading of 8.87 at this point is, therefore, equal to the
product of 3.36 times 2.64. In division, this operation is per-
formed in reverse. As shown in the lower diagram, the divisor
2.16 on the C scale is set against the dividend 9.00 on the D scale.
The left-hand end of the C scale is now at a proportional dis-
tance from the left-hand end of the D scale equal to the logarithm
of 9.00 minus the logarithm of 2.16 and the reading at this point
on the D by 2.16 or 4.16.
scale is equal to 9.00 divided
Squares and Square Roots: The logarithmic A and B scales,
which are exactly the same, are called square root scales and they
are so laid out that any point on the A scale has a logarithmic
value equal to twice that of a point which is directly below it
on the D scale. (The same relation holds true with respect to
points on the B scale compared with points directly below on the
C scale.) Thus if the cursor hair-line is set on any number on
the D scale it will indicate the square of that number on the
A scale* This is based on the fact that to find the square of any
number you multiply its logarithm by 2 and find the correspond-
ing number (anti-log) of the resulting logarithm. In correspond-
ing manner by setting the cursor hair-line at some number on the
A scale the square root of that number can be immediately read
where the hair-line crosses the D scale directly below. The
A and B scales virtually repeat themselves so that on each, *
complete scale from 1 to 10 extends from the left hand end to
the middle and another complete scale from 1 to 10 extends from
the middle to the right-hand end. Here the problem arises as to
which scale should be used in finding the square root of a given
number. The left-hand scale is used where the number has an
S-1152
odd number of digits, if it is an integer, or an odd number of
zeros immediately following the decimal point, if it is a decimal
of less than 1. The right-hand scale is used where the number
has an even number of digits, if it is an integer, or no zeros or
an even number of zeros immediately following the decimal point,
if it is a decimal of less than 1. For decimals greater than 1,
the rule for integers is followed and only the digits to the left
of the decimal point are counted.
Scale Values: The scale numbers on a slide rule may be as-
signed arbitrary values equivalent to any multiple of ten. Thus
the number 4 on the scale may stand for 0.04; 0.4; 4; 4,000;
4,000,000; etc. However, when a given multiple is used in any
calculation it must be applied to all settings and scale readings
for that calculation. Usually, a slide rule of this type and size
is considered to be accurate to three places, i.e., the first three

significant figures of any number, although in many cases the

third figure in a reading or setting may be an estimate.
Types of Slide Rules: More extensive slide rules are available
which provide scales for finding any root or any power of a num-
2
ber; for solving special equations such as \f x* -f- y at one set-
ting; for finding the values of various trigonometric functions
or to perform a variety of special mathematical operations such
as stadia slide rules for calculating horizontal distance and verti-
cal height when the rod reading and elevation of telescope are
known; horsepower slide rules for obtaining the indicated horse^
power of an engine and hydraulic rules for finding the velocity
of the flow of water through pipes. Slide rules of circular shape,
which afford greater compactness, or of cylindrical shape, which
afford greater accuracy, are also available.

Slide Valve. The simplest form of valve for steam engines is

that known as the plain slide valve. Fig. 1 shows a longitudinal
section of a slide valve with the ports, bridges, etc. The valve is
shown in mid-position in order that certain points relating to it
may be more easily understood. The valve V consists of a hollow
casting, with ends projecting beyond the ports as shown; the
lower face is smoothly finished and fitted to the valve seat AB.
In operation, it slides back and forth, opening and closing the
ports which connect the steam chest with the cylinder. Steam is
admitted to the cylinder when either port CD or DC is opened,
and is released when the ports are brought into communication
with the exhaust port MN. This is accomplished by the move-
ment of the valve, which brings one of the cylinder ports and the
exhaust port both under the hollow arch K. The portions DM
and ND of the valve-seat are called the bridges. It will be seen
that the portions OI and 10 are wider than the ports which they
cover. This extra width is called the lap OC being the outside lap
t
 1153 -S

Fig. 1. Longitudinal Section of a Steam Engine

Slide Valve and Ports

Fig. 2. Slide Valve having Auxiliary Cut-off Valve

and DI the inside or exhaust lap. The object of the outside lap is
that the steam may be shut off after the piston has moved for-
ward a certain distance, and be expanded during the remainder
of the stroke. If there were no outside lap, steam would be ad-
mitted throughout the entire stroke and there would be no expan-
sion. If there were no inside lap, exhaust would take place
throughout the whole stroke, and the advantages of premature
release and compression would be lost. Hence, outside lap affects
the cut-off, and inside lap affects release and compression.
Balanced Slide Valve: Many of the slide valves now in use
are of the balanced type, which means that the steain pressure is
excluded from most of the upper surface of the valve to reduce
the pressure on the valve seat and the resistance to movement.
There are different designs of balanced valves.
Riding Cut-off Valves: If a steam engine is equipped with a
single slide valve, any change in the point of cut-off will cause a
corresponding change in the point of admission, thus varying
$-1154
the lead, release, and compression; hence, on many modern en-
gines, the cut-off is varied independently by a separate auxiliary
valve. The type of cut-off valve commonly used slides upon a
bearing surface of the main or distribution valve, and, therefore,
is often referred to as a "riding" valve. The main valve is op-
erated by a fixed eccentric, and the riding valve by the eccentric
of a shaft or flywheel type of governor, which varies the point
of cut-off automatically, according to speed. For instance, if the
engine speeds up, the position of the eccentric is changed with
relation to the crank, so that the steam is cut off earlier, thus
decreasing the speed, whereas, if the engine slows down as the
result of an increase in load, the cut-off occurs later, which in-
creases the power and brings the speed back to normal. This
action of the governor, however, does not affect the operation of
the main valve.
A simple form of riding cut-off valve is shown by the sectional
view, Fig. 2. The main valve contains ports A, through which the
steam is admitted to the cylinder, and the riding valve B serves
to cut off the steam. The latter may be controlled by any of the
different types of shaft governors in common use. Another valve
mechanism which operates on the same principle, differs consider-
ably in form, as both the main and cut-off valves are cylindrical,
the cut-off valve working within the main valve. The inner or
cut-off valve is operated by the eccentric controlled by the gov-
ernor, and the main valve by the separate eccentric attached to
the main shaft.
When setting riding or auxiliary cut-off valves, the general
practice is to set the main valve the same as an ordinary slide
valve, or so that it has equal port openings or lead at each end
of the stroke, assuming that there is lead. The riding valve is
usually set to give an equal cut-off for the forward and return
strokes. When the riding valve is controlled by a shaft governor,
which is the method commonly employed, the cut-off is
equalized
either at the middle of the range of the governor or at the point
where it is expected that the engine will run most of the time.
The exact method of procedure in setting the valves on engines
of different design depends somewhat upon the arrangement of
the valve-gear and governing mechanism, in each particular case.

Slide- Valve Lead. See Lead of Slide-valve.

Slide- Valve, Meyer. See Meyer Valve.
Slim Taper Slim handsaw taper or slim taper files are
File.
like the ordinary handsaw files, but
considerably lighter. They
have largely superseded the regular handsaw files, the principal
advantage being the greater sweep or stroke obtainable from the
same section. There is also the extra-slim taper which is of
 1155 -S
lighter stock than the slim taper. Handsaw files are sometimes
made in a blunt shape.
Slings. Slings are used in connection with hoisting apparatus
for lifting loads and they are made either of chains, wire rope, or
manila rope. Of these, chain slings are probably the most com-
monly used, but wire rope is employed at the present time more
than formerly, and there are certain conditions under which
manila rope is preferable.

Slip. The slip of an induction machine is the difference be-

tween its synchronous speed and its operating speed. Slip may
be expressed (a) as a percentage of synchronous speed; (b) as
a decimal fraction of synchronous speed; or (c) directly in
revolutions per minute.

Slitting Cutters. Metal slitting cutters or slitting saws are

used for cutting off stock or for milling narrow slots, like the
screw-driver slots in screw-heads, and for similar purposes.

Slitting Files. A
slitting file is a type that is similar to the
feather-edge, although the taper is less abrupt and the edges
are sharper.

Slotting Attachment. A slotting attachment is sometimes

used for adapting a milling machine to slotting. The tool-slide,
which has a reciprocating movement like the ram of a slotter, is
driven from the main spindle of the machine by an adjustable
crank which enables the stroke to be varied. These varying
strokes are indicated by a graduated scale on the front of the
attachment. When the attachment is in use, a slotting tool of
the required shape is clamped to the end of the slide. The slide
swivels about the machine spindle and can be set at any angle
from the vertical to the horizontal without affecting the length
of the stroke. The setting is indicated by graduations on the side
of the swivel-head. These angular adjustments are especially
desirable when slotting out dies, in order to obtain the necessary
clearance. Attachments of this type are largely used in con-
nection with diemaking and tool-making, for slotting out small
blanking dies, box tools for screw machines, etc.

Slotting Machines. The slotting machine or "slotter," as it

is commonly called, operates on the same general principle as a
shaper, except that the ram which carries the planing tool moves
in a vertical direction and at right angles to the work-table.
Blotters are used for finishing slots or other enclosed parts which
could not be planed by the tool of a horizontal machine like a
planer or shaper. The slotter is also used for various other
classes of work requiring flat or curved surfaces which can be
machined to better advantage by a tool which moves vertically.
S-1156
The slotting machine was originally designed for cutting keyways
in pulleys, but practice soon demonstrated the adaptability of this
machine for other branches of work. Therefore, while the pri-
mary purpose of the machine has been changed, the original name
is still retained. The additional name applied to slotting machines

usually indicates the design of the driving mechanism, or the

nature of the work for which the slotter is used in case of special
machines; thus there are crank slotting machines which have a
crank drive, geared slotting machines which are equipped with
gearing instead of a crank-driving mechanism, whereas die slot-
ters and locomotive frame Blotters are examples of the special
machines designed for certain classes of work See also Die
Blotters.

Slush-Castings. The process known as slush-casting is em-

ployed extensively in the production of ornamental objects made
of spelter or zinc. In this process the metal in the mold is poured
back into the ladle as soon as a thin layer next to the mold has
set; thus hollow and, therefore, relatively light castings are pro-
duced. The molds used are of metal, usually bronze or brass,
which can be machined evenly and which will not be injured by
the molten metal. The process is substantially as follows: The
metal is poured into the hollow mold until it is full, and then the
mold is immediately emptied, leaving a thin-walled casting chilled
upon the inside surface. The mold is usually mounted upon trun-
nions or otherwise arranged to facilitate rapid emptying. Be-
cause of the extensive use for ornamental purposes, castings so
produced are often plated, stained, or treated in other ways to
produce color effects.

Slushing Oils. Slushing oils are materials used for protect-

ing bright metal where it is not feasible to use paint, varnish,
or other fixed coatings. An ideal slushing oil is one that can
be easily applied to all kinds of metal surfaces by a variety of
methods. It should coat the surfaces with a sufficiently thick
and impervious film to exclude moisture and air (to prevent
rusting), should remain in position for an indefinite length of
time, and yet be completely removable from the surface without
undue labor. The material should itself have no corrosive action
on any kind of metal.

Small Tools. The expression "small tools" is generally used

in the metal-working industries and is understood to mean such
tools as taps, dies, reamers, milling cutters, drills, and counter-
bores; but the expression is not descriptive and it has been pro-
posed that tools of this kind be called "metal-cutting tools," and
the industry making them, the "metal-cutting tool industry."
The latter name appears to be sufficiently descriptive. It has a
 1157 -S
definitemeaning, not only within the machine-building industry,
but also outside of that field.
Smelter Coke. This is a coke fuel containing more than
1.2 per cent of sulphur and, therefore, not used for the smelting
or melting of iron or steel, but often employed in the smelting of
non-ferrous ores.

Smelting. Smelting is the process of obtaining a metal from

its ore by means of melting the ore and reducing the impurities,
so that a nearly pure metal is obtained.

Smyrna Emery. Smyrna emery, also known as Turkish

emery, is an abrasive obtained from the vicinity of Smyrna in
Asia Minor. The value of the emery as an abrasive depends on
the percentage of crystalline aluminum oxide that it contains-
Smyrna emery contains about 57 per cent of this material, and,
hence, is not as good as the best emery obtainable, that from
Naxos, which contains 63 per cent.
Snagging Castings. The removal of gates, sprues, fins, or
other projections on castings, either by grinding or chipping and
filing, is commonly known as "snagging." Grinding wheels are
ordinarily used for this work, especially in foundries and wherever
castings are produced in large quantities. The type of grinder
that should be used for this work depends upon the size and shape
of the castings. In general, castings weighing less than from
50 to 75 pounds are ordinarily ground on grinders of the floor-
stand type or disk grinders, whereas heavier castings are ground
either by swinging-frame or flexible-shaft grinders, because,
when the castings are large and heavy, it is much more con-
venient to move the grinding wheel over the casting than to
present the work to the wheel. When a floor-stand type of grinder
is used, the castings are ordinarily supported on rests while being

ground. In some cases, however, ordinary work-rests are not

suitable, and it is preferable to support the castings by a chain
or hoist suspended from an overhead trolley. Disk grinders are
usually equipped with adjustable fixtures, and are used principally
for grinding castings that are fairly uniform in size.

Snap Flasks. See Flasks for Molding.

Snub Pulley. This is a pulley used in a belt conveyor in-
stallation to support the returning idle part of the belt.
Soaking. When steel is kept in a furnace in order to insure
thorough and uniform heating at a given temperature, this is
commonly known as "soaking," the steel being allowed to "soak"
at whatever temperature is required. In steel mills, a soaking
pit is an underground furnace in which ingots are placed to
obtain a uniform temperature preparatory to rolling.
S-115&

Soapstone. Same as Talc,

Socket Wrenches. Wrenches of this type are so named be-

cause the nut end is in the form of a socket. The single-head
straight socket wrench A is made for confined situations, as in
a hole, or in any other
position where a wrench
of the ordinary kind
could not be used. In
tightening jaws on a
chuck, when the heads of j
the bolts are set flush,
this type is generally
used. It may be ma-
chined at the nut end for
either hexagon or square- Socket Wrenches
head The offset
bolts.
socket wrench B is useful in many cases for setting up bolts or
nuts when the slipping of an ordinary wrench might break some
part, or when the position of the bolt is such that it would be
difficult to reach it with the ordinary type of wrench.

Soda Cleaning Solution. A

soda solution which may be used
for removing oil or grease from machine parts should contain
about one-half pound of sal soda to each gallon of water. If old
paint is to be removed, the solution should consist of about one-
quarter pound of caustic soda to each gallon of water. As caustic
soda is a strong alkali, care should be taken to prevent it from
getting onto the hands. These solutions should be heated to the
boiling point beforeimmersing the parts to be cleaned; then the
work dry quickly after being removed, and will not rust. A
will
wire basket or perforated bucket is convenient for washing small
pieces. The time required for cleaning depends somewhat upon
the nature of the grease and to what extent it has dried and
hardened.
Soda ash, the chemical formula of which is NaaC0 8 , has largely
superseded potash solutions for cleaning purposes, because it is
cheaper and, for most work, better than potash. The value of
soda ash and potash solutions for cleaning purposes is that these
chemicals combine with grease and, therefore, act as cleansing
agents.

Sodium. Sodium is one of the metallic elements belonging to

the alkali metal group, the chemical symbol of which is Na, and
the atomic weight, 23.0. It is an element found in
abundantly
nature, but always in combination with other elements. Sodium
possesses a silvery color, but, if exposed to the air, the surface is
rapidly covered with a layer of hydroxide. The specific gravity
 1159 -5
is 0.98, making the weight per cubic inch 0.035 pound. Sodium
melts at a temperature of 97 degrees C. (207 degrees F,), and
boils at about 875 degrees C. (about 1600 degrees F.). The
specific heat at 32 degrees F. is 0.293. At ordinary temperatures,
sodium is as soft as wax and can be cut with a knife, but it
hardens at very low temperatures. It ranks next to silver, cop-
per, gold, and aluminum as a conductor of electricity, its electrical
conductivity (silver = 100) being 32. It burns on heating in
air with a yellow flame. With potassium, sodium forms a liquid
alloy resembling mercury, which has been employed in high-
temperature thermometers.

Sodium Cooling of Exhaust Valves. Excessive heating of

exhaust valves, particularly in aircraft engines, reduces greatly
the valve life and has resulted in the development of special means
of cooling. The exhaust valve temperature increases with both
engine speed and valve diameter. Aircraft engines not only
operate at high speeds but also have larger bores than other high-
speed engines and, consequently, require larger valves. Owing
to its comparative length and small cross section, the valve stem
naturally offers considerable resistance to heat flow; hence, the
idea of improving the heat-flow conditions by forming a cham-
ber in the stem and partly filling this chamber with a liquid of
high heat capacity, which would be reciprocated therein by the
alternate opening and closing motions of the valve.
The search for an effective cooling medium finally led to the
adoption of metallic sodium, which has a much lower melting
point (208 deg. F.) and a much higher boiling point (1615
deg. F.) than the salts previously used and whose specific gravity
is less than one (sodium floating on water). In the early in-
ternally cooled valves only the stems where hollow, but at present
both the stem and head are made hollow; hence, the cooling
medium comes closer to all points at which heat is absorbed, and
the cooling action is more effective. At present practically all
aircraft engines of more than 300 horsepower have sodium-cooled
valves, and such valves are used also in certain other heavy-duty
engines.

Sodium Cyanide. When steel is heated in a salt bath prepara-

tory to hardening, sodium cyanide is often used. See Salt Baths
for Heat-treating Operations.

Sodium Vapor Lamps. See Vapor Lamps.

Soft Coal. This coal contains from 50 to 75 per cent carbon

and a large percentage of volatile matter, varying from 25 to
50 per cent. It is the same as Bituminous CoaL
S-1160

Soft Coke. Soft coke, also known as heating coke or jamb

the coke obtained next to the back and front of the coke
coke, is
oven and around the oven doors when producing regular foundry
and furnace coke.

Softening Plants for Water. See Water Softening Plants.

Soft Hammers. "Soft hammers" are used in machine shops

either to prevent marring finished surfaces or to avoid upsetting
the ends of arbors, bolts, etc. Soft hammers are made of copper,
babbitt metal, rawhide, or brass. A rawhide hammer is illus-
trated at Ain the accompanying illustration. In this particular
case the rawhide heads or faces are inserted in pockets formed
in the body of the hammer, so that they may readily be renewed.
Diagram B illustrates a babbitt metal or lead hammer. In this

Soft Hammers or Mallets

case the lead or babbitt metal faces are held in the dove-tailed
pockets shown. While a heavy blow may be struck with one of
these soft hammers, a finished surface will not be marred by
dents, because of the relative softness of the hammer face.

Soil Load Capacity. See under Foundations for Machinery.

Soil Weight Per Cubic Foot See Earth or Soil Weight.
Solder, Brazing. See Brazing, Spelter Solder.
Solder, Cadmium. See Cadmium Solder.

Soldering. Soldering is a process of joining metals together

by means of an alloy which is melted into the joint, after the ap-
plication of a suitable flux, and unites with the metals. The solder
has a lower melting point than the metal to be joined. There are
two general methods of soldering, namely, soft soldering and hard
soldering. Ordinarily, soft solders are used when soldering with
 1161 -S
a heated copper bit or "iron" and the solder is an alloy of tin and
lead, which melts at comparatively low temperatures. Hard
solders are alloys of silver, copper, zinc, etc., and melt at very
much higher temperatures than the soft solders. The hard solder-
ing of copper, iron, etc., is generally known as brazing, and the
solder, as spelter.
Solder: Solder is almost always composed of an alloy of two
or more metals. The solder used should have a lower melting
point than the metals to be joined by it, but the fusing point of
the solder should approach as nearly as possible to that of the
metals to be joined so that a more tenacious junction is effected.
Soft solder consists chiefly of lead and tin, although other metals
are occasionally added to lower the melting point. The fusibility
of lead-tin alloys increases with the percentage of tin up to a cer-
tain point, but when the tin exceeds 67 per cent, the melting
point rises gradually to the melting point of tin. Soft solders
are termed common, medium, and fine, according to the tin con-
tent, those containing the most lead being the cheapest and hav-
ing the highest melting points. Fine or "best" solder is largely
used for soldering Britannia metal, brass, and tin-plate articles.
The soft solder called "common" is used by plumbers for ordinary
work, this solder containing two parts of lead to one part of tin.
Fine solder is also used for soldering cast iron, steel, copper, and
many alloys. Solder composed of two parts of lead and one part
of tin is termed, in England, "plumbers' sealed solder/' Sard
solders for brazing are composed of copper and zinc, the composi-
tion varying according to the metal to be brazed.
Strongest Soft Solder: Tests of tensile strength, based upon
east bars, sticks, and wires, indicate that the higher the tin, up
to 73 per cent tin and 27 per cent lead, the greater the breaking
strength. In the case of two pieces of tinned steel soldered to-
gether, the maximum strength is obtained with a solder contain-
ing about 60 per cent tin. Experience has shown that the strong-
est mixture for general soldering purposes is a solder composed
of 57 per cent tin and 43 per cent lead, particularly if ^ to
% per cent of antimony is added to the mixture. For mechanical
soldering, 45 per cent should be the highest tin content, and for
most dipping bath work, it has been demonstrated that tin from
35 to 40 per cent, according to the nature of the work, will give
ample satisfaction, provided the solder is properly made.
Solder Wire: The term "solder wire" is applied to wire which
is extensively used in the manufacture of jewelry and which con-
sists of a metal suitable for forming such objects as chain links,
etc., and of a solder embedded in the wire either as a solid core
or otherwise, to serve as the binding element. Metals commonly
used in the manufacture of solder wire are pinchbeck, German
S-1162

silver, tin and so-called platinin and goldin metal, as well as gold
and silver. Pinchbeck is the name applied to certain alloys which
are closely related to brass alloysi but contain less zinc. Common
classes of pinchbeck alloys include similor, mannheim gold, oveide
and chrysorin.
Solder for Aluminum: According to investigation by the
Bureau of Standards, solder for aluminum should consist of a tin
base with an addition of zinc, or zinc and aluminum. The func-
tion of the alloys is principally to produce a fluid mixture within
the range of soldering temperatures. A high temperature is ad-
vised to secure adhesion of the tinned surface. For tin-zinc
solders, the following composition is suggested : Zinc, 15 to 50 per
cent, and the remainder tin. For tin-zinc-aluminum solders, the
composition suggested is: Zinc, 8 to 15 per cent; aluminum, 5 to
12 per cent; and the remainder tin. By using the higher values
of the zinc and aluminum percentages, the solder will be too stiff
at the lower temperatures to flow readily. A
higher temperature
will secure a better joint. Solders should be applied without a
flux after preliminary cleaning and tinning of the surfaces to be
joined. Good aluminum solder should not be brittle. The tensile
strength of the better grades of aluminum solder is about 7000
pounds per square inch. The strength of the joint, however, is
dependent upon the workmanship. All metals used for aluminum
soldering are electrolytically negative to aluminum. A
soldered
joint for this reason is attacked by electrolysis and destroyed
when exposed to moisture; hence, it is recommended that the
soldered joint be protected by paint or varnish.

Soldering Aluminum. See Aluminum Soldering.

Soldering, Electric. See Electric Soldering.

Soldering Fluxes. In order to obtain a good joint by means

of soldering, it is necessary that there be more than mere ad-
hesion between the solder and the metaL There must be an alloy
formed between the metal and the solder, and, in order that this
alloy may be formed, the surface of the metal must be entirely
free from foreign substances, such as
oxides, oils, or various
kinds of solid matter. This is accomplished by using a flux that
the fusing temperature of the solder and thus excludes
melt^at
the air. The flux used in any case
depends somewhat upon the
nature of the work. The fluxes generally used for soft
soldering
are resin, sal-ammoniac, and zinc
chloride, although there are
many others employed. For hard soldering or brazing, pulverized
borax or boracic acid in powdered form are
commonly used. An-
other flux that has given good results is made of
equal parts, by
weight, of borax and potash, this mixture being melted and,
when cool, pulverized.
 1163 -S
Soldering Paste: The requirements of electrical work are such
that in some cases an acid soldering flux cannot be used, and it
is common practice to use what is known as a soldering paste.
For soldering copper wires and other electrical conductors, a
paste is unequalled and is especially adapted for work in which
spattering and corrosion are objectionable.

Solder, Silver. See Silver Solder.

Sold-Hour Plan of Distributing Overhead. The sold-hour
plan of distributing expenses provides that the total direct labor
wages in a department be divided by the number of hours worked
in the same period to get a flat average cost per hour for labor.
The time in hours consumed on any job is valued at this flat rate
per hour, and the result is called the direct labor cost. The ex-
pense is applied on the man-hour method. This sold-hour method
is not in very general use.

Solenoid. A solenoid is a coil of wire commonly wound in the

form of a helix which exhibits the powers of attraction and
repulsion at each end usually associated with a magnet. It may
or may not have an iron core. In some cases, where a core is
used it moves as an armature to perform some simple mechanical
function. Solenoids are used for the operation of both direct-
current and alternating-current equipment

Solenoid Brake. One type of solenoid brake adapted for mill,

crane and hoist motors and similar classes of service, is so ar-
ranged that the brake mechanism is held in the off or release
position by a coil and plunger. The action is as follows: When
power is applied to the motor the coil is energized and, conse-
quently, the brake is released; when the power is shut off a
spring-setting device forces the mechanism into the closed or
braking position. Either a direct-current series solenoid or an
alternating-current shunt solenoid can be mounted on the brake
mechanism, these solenoids being interchangeable to permit
operation either with alternating or direct current.
Solid. In physics, the term solid is used to designate a sub-
stance in which the attractive force between the molecules is so
strong that the form of the substance cannot be easily changed.
Popularly defined, a solid substance is, therefore, one that has a
definite form and a definite volume.
In mathematics, a solid is a body having three dimensions
such as height, width, and length; the term "solid" is used in
distinction to surface, which is a mathematical quantity which
has width and length, but no height or thickness.
Soluble Oils for Cutting Tools. The soda water mixtures
which formerly were used so extensively on metal-cutting tools to
5-1164
avoid some of the objections to the use of plain water, were at
firstmixtures of sal-soda and soft soap, combined with water in
various proportions, the soft soap being added to give the re-
quired body to the mixture rather than for its lubricating quali-
ties. As machine speeds increased, it was discovered that lubrica-
tion was required as well as cooling service, so it has become
quite general practice to add some lard oil to the soda water. The
addition of lard oil improved the lubricating capacity of the soda
water cutting lubricants, but there are objections to its use on
account of the free fatty acid developed, particularly in the
presence of heat; the deterioration if used repeatedly as a cut-
ting lubricant; the high cost; and the loss in the cooling capacity
after repeated use. Soda water has little more lubricating value
than has plain water; hence, the lubricating qualities of various
other oils would be as efficacious if the oils were simply emulsified
with water. In fact, better results are obtained by compounding
various oils which blend (that is, form stable emulsions) immedi-
ately with cold water. These soluble cutting oils are used exten-
sively for machining operations requiring flooded lubrication of
cutting tools*
Sorbite. Sorbite is a constituent obtained in steel when draw-
ing the temper of hardened steel to a temperature somewhere
between 400 and 800 degrees C. (750 and 1470 degrees F.). It
reaches its maximum at 600 degrees C. (1110 degrees F.) See
also Steels.

Spacing Tables. In order to avoid laying out rivet holes in

plates prior to punching, spacing mechanisms are often used in
conjunction with punching machines. The plate or other part to
be punched is carried by a table that is shifted an amount equal
to the spacing required between the holes. This spacing table
may have either a hand or automatic feed. The mechanism of an
automatic spacing table is so designed that the table is shifted
as soon as the punch has moved up far enough to clear the work,
the movement being completed before the punch again engages
the stock. For girder work, where the rivet spacing may vary
in each row, the problem of spacing is more difficult than in the
case of boiler work, where the spacing is uniform on each seam*
Mechanical spacing devices for girder work may be partly auto-
matic so that the machine continues a given spacing until it is
changed by the operator or the machine may follow a templet
previously set for the required spacing and be entirely automatic,

Spam This is an old length measure, equal to 9 inches.

Spandrel. A spandrel (or fillet) is a plane figure or surface

enclosed between a circular arc, equal to one-fourth of the com-
plete circle, and two tangents to the circle at the extreme ends
 1165 -S
of the arc. If the radius of the circular arc equals r, then the
area of the spandrel equals 0.215 r2 .

Spanner Wrenches. Cylindrical nuts are occasionally pro-

vided with shoulders or milled slots for purposes of adjustment,
and, in cases of this kind, a hook-type spanner wrench, such as
that shown at A, is needed.
The 'portion a is so made that
it will enter any one of the
slots and serve as a means for
tightening the nuts. The sin-
gle pin-type of wrench, B, is
used for the same kind of
work as style A; radially
drilled holes around the per-
iphery of the nut are provided,
so that the pin will enter any
one of these holes. There are
many cases when a cylindrical
nut is set into some portion
of a machine in such a way
that there is no protruding
Spanner Wrenches portion to which a wrench
of the ordinary type can
be applied. In cases of this kind, several holes may be drilled
in the face of the nut so that the pins in the wrench shown at C
can be used to give the necessary grip, when adjustment is needed.

Spark-PIug Screw Threads. The S.A.E, Standard includes

the following sizes: %-inch nominal diameter with 18 threads
per inch; 18-millimeter nominal diameter with a 1.5-millimeter
pitch; 14-millimeter nominal diameter with a 1.25-millimeter
pitch; 10-millimeter nominal diameter with a 1.0 millimeter pitch;
%-inch nominal diameter with 24 threads per inch; and %-inch
nominal diameter with 32 threads per inch. During manufacture,
in order to keep the wear on the threading tools within permissi-
ble limits, the threads in the spark plug GO (ring) gage should
be truncated to the maximum minor diameter of the spark plug;
and in the tapped hole GO (plug) gage to the minimum major
diameter of the tapped hole.

Spark Tests for Steel. It has long been the practice of tool-
makers and hardeners to judge the grade of steel by observing
the characteristics of the spark produced when a sample is held
against an abrasive wheel. It is doubtful if anyone could esti-
mate within plus or minus 0.10 per cent of carbon, unless the
grinding wheel speed and the type and grade of wheel have been
standardized, and unless analyzed steel standards from the same
S-H66
heat as the steel being tested are available. But if wheel speed
and wheel are standardized and a standard from the same heat
is available, then it is possible to estimate the carbon content to
within plus or minus 0.02 per cent for the lower carbon steels,
and to within plus or minus 0.05 per cent for the higher carbon
steels.
The carbon content of alloy steel may be determined as ac-
curately as for the straight carbon steels, provided the percentage
of alloying elements is not very high, as would be the case, for
instance, in high-speed steel. In addition, the presence of other
elements may be determined. The presence of chromium can
readily be determined within ranges of 0.3 per cent; nickel below
1.5 per cent is somewhat difficult to determine, but nickel from
1.5 to 3.5 per cent is readily discerned. In tungsten steel, one
may discover minute traces of tungsten, and also distinguish be-
tween 2 per cent, 5 per cent, and 8 per cent tungsten steel and
higher. The beginner should become accustomed to the carbon
steels first, for after he has become thoroughly conversant with
these, the examination of other steels will be easier.
Spark Pictures: In looking at the spark picture produced by
carbon steel, when pressed against an abrasive wheel, a series of
streaks and explosions are in evidence. By observing at first,
steels of known composition, and perhaps keeping samples as
standards for comparison, other steels may be classified in a gen-
eral way by the spark test. The piece of steel to be tested should
not be placed against the edge of the wheel. It has been found
more satisfactory to place it against the side surface of the wheel
at a point % %
to inch from the outer periphery. There should
be no obstruction in front of the spark, as it is generally easier
to study the characteristics at a distance from the wheel at a
point where the carrier lines are more separated. A black back-
ground should be used, against which the sparks can be clearly
seen. The best way is to set the wheel in a black painted cabinet,
so that the color and characteristics can be readily seen. The
length of the spark has little to do with the determination of the
grade of steel, because the length usually depends on the size of
the piece being tested and the method of pressing it against the
wheel. The only difference in the method of testing hardened
and annealed work is that more pressure is required to obtain the
same length of spark with an annealed piece of work.

Spatter-Ex. A metal coating to obviate the grinding or chip-

ping of weld spatter from the metal surrounding a weld. The
transparent jelly-like coating prevents the adhesion of spatter.
After the welding operations have been completed, any spatter
on the surrounding surfaces is merely brushed off. The compound
is especially applicable to arc, flash, or
butt-welding operations.
 1167 -S
Spauldite. Material manufactured from tightly woven fabric
thoroughly impregnated with a phenolic binder. The saturated
fabric sheets are forced under heavy pressure and intense heat
into a dense homogeneous mass. Suitable for gears. Gears as
small as % inch pitch diameter, for transmitting 0.06 horsepower
per inch of face at a speed of 100 feet per minute, and gears as
large as 60 inches pitch diameter, for transmitting 58 horsepower
per inch of face at a speed of 3000 feet per minute, have been
made from this material.

Specific Gravity. In the case of solid bodies, specific gravity

is a number indicating how many times a certain volume of a
material is heavier than an equal volume of water. As the density
of water differs slightly at different temperatures, it is the usual
custom to make comparisons on the basis of water at a tempera-
ture of 62 degrees F. The weight of one cubic inch of pure water
at 62 degrees F. is 0.0361 pound. If the specific gravity of any
material is known, the weight of a cubic inch of the material can,
therefore, be found by multiplying its specific gravity by 0.0361.
To find the weight per cubic foot of a material, the specific grav-
ity of which is known, multiply the specific gravity by 62.355.
If the weight of a cubic inch of a material is known, the specific
gravity is found by dividing the weight per cubic inch by 0.0361.
If the weight per cubic foot of a material is known, the specific
gravity found by multiplying this weight by 0.01604. The
is
number which indicates how
specific gravity of liquids is the
much a certain volume of the liquid weighs compared with an
equal volume of water, the same as in the case of solid bodies.
The specific gravity for liquids heavier than water equals
145 ~- (145 degrees Baume) For liquids lighter than water,
.

the specific gravity equals 140 -4- (130 +

degrees Baume). The
specific gravity of gases is the number which indicates their
weight in comparison with that of an equal volume of air. The
specific gravity of air is 1, and the comparison is made at
32 degrees F.

Specific Gravity Measurement See Hydrometer.

Specific Heat The specific heat of a given substance is the

ratio of the heat required to raise the temperature of a certain
weight of the substance one degree F. to that required to raise
the temperature of the same weight of water one degree. As the
specific heat is not constant at all temperatures, it is generally
assumed that it is determined by raising the temperature from
62 to 63 degrees F* For most substances, however, it is prac-
tically constant for temperatures up to 212 degrees F. Consider-
able difficulty has been experienced in determining the specific
heat accurately. In the case of solid bodies and liquids, methods
S-1168
have been developed by means of which the specific heat has been
determined to within an accuracy of probably 0.5 per cent, but
in the case of gases, the specific heats are less accurate, as evi-
denced by the fact that different investigators give somewhat
different values. The fact that slight impurities in solids, liquids,
and gases must also be taken into con-
affect the specific heat
sideration. Hence, the figures given in any table of specific heat
may be expected to vary slightly from figures given in other
tabulations.
Specific Heat of Air: The specific heat of air, or the heat units
required to raise the temperature of one pound of air one degree
Fahrenheit, equals, at constant pressure, 0.2375 B.T.TL (British
Thermal Units), and at constant volume, 0.1689 B.T.U.

Speed-Changing Mechanisms. When speed variations are

essential to the operation of machines such, for example, as are
used for some kinds of manufacturing work, the changes are
usually obtained by hand-controlled speed-changing devices. If
such variations are seldom required, it may be necessary to stop
the machine and make an adjustment, or replace one or more
gears with others of different diameters. When changes of speed
are frequently needed, the machine is generally equipped with
some mechanical device enabling one or more variations to be
obtained rapidly, by simply moving a wheel, lever, or rod which
controls the combination or velocity ratio of the mechanism
through which the motion is transmitted. If the machine is of
the automatic type, the speed may be regulated according to vary-
ing conditions, by the mechanism of the machine itself, which is
constructed or adjusted beforehand to give the proper changes.
The exact arrangement of the details depends, in any case, upon
conditions such as the speed variation required, the importance
of rapid changes, the relation of the speed-controlling mechanism
to other parts of the machine, etc.
Mechanical devices for varying the speed are of special im-
portance on machine tools. In fact, most machine tools are so
constructed that the speed of the cutting tool or of the part being
operated upon can be varied, the range or extent of the variation
depending upon the type of machine. These changes are desir-
able in order to cut different kinds of metal at the most efficient
speed. Another important reason for speed variation is to secure
the proper surface speed for revolving parts, regardless of the
diameter, and the correct cutting speeds for rotating tools of
different sizes.
Types of Speed-changing Mechanisms: When a variation of
speed is obtained by changing the velocity ratio of two or more
parts forming a train of mechanism, one of the following methods
is generally employed: (1) By means of conical pulleys connected
 1169 -S
by a belt or cone-pulleys having "steps" of different diameters
upon which a connecting belt may be shifted; (2) by the use of
cone-pulleys in conjunction with one or more sets of gears; (3) by
means of toothed gears exclusively, with an arrangement that
enables the motion to be transmitted through different ratios or
combinations of gearing; (4) by employing a friction transmis-
sion consisting of driving and driven disks, pulleys, or wheels, so
arranged that one member (or an intermediate connecting de^
vice) can be shifted relative to the axis of the other for varying
the speed. These different types or classes of speed-changing
mechanisms are constructed in various ways.

Double Cone of Gears with "Diving Key" whloh

Controls Speed Changes

When toothed gearing is used exclusively in a speed-changing

mechanism, the most common arrangements may be defined as the
sliding-gear type; the clutch-controlled type; the gear-cone and
sliding-key type; the gear-cone and expanding-dutch type; the
gear-cone and tumbler-gear type; and the multiple crown-gear
and shifting-pinion type.
Double Gear Cone Transmission: Speed changes for many
types of machine tools and other classes of machinery, are ob-
tained by some form of geared transmission. The speed ratio
between the driving and driven shaft usually is obtained either
(1) by shifting gears to bring different combinations into mesh;
(2) by shifting clutches which cause the motion to be trans-
mitted through different combinations; (3) by using a double
gear cone and a shifting key as shown by the illustration. This
S-1170
latter method is often employed (in connection with the feeding
mechanisms of machine tools, etc.) One cone of gears (the num-
.

ber of which is varied according to requirements) is attached to

the driving shaft A, whereas the gears of the other mating cone
are free to rotate upon the shaft B, except when locked to it by
a "diving key" or plunger C which can be moved from one gear
to another by means of a rod D that is shifted in some suitable
way. This rod may simply have a knob on the end, as indicated
in the illustration, so that it can be pulled out or pushed in, or
it may be attached to a hand-lever to facilitate moving it. When
the diving key is in the position shown in the illustration, the
mechanism will give the slowest speed, since the largest gear of
the driven cone is clutched to the shaft B. Obviously, each indi-
vidual gear of the lower cone may be successively locked to the
driven shaft by pulling rod D and key C forward. As the illus-
tration indicates, the key is pivoted at one end, and, as it is
shifted from one gear to another, the beveled edges engage the
wards W, which cause the key to move radially inward out of
engagement with one gear before engaging the next. These wards
are simply washers placed between the different gears, and they
cause the key to be entirely disengaged from one gear before
engaging the next successive one in the cone; moreover, the op-
eration of changing from one speed to another is facilitated by
these wards, inasmuch as the pressure required to disengage the
key radially is somewhat less than would be necessary if the key
were simply moved longitudinally.
Speed Variations and Gear Ratios: Proportioning a train of
gears to obtain a given velocity ratio, or possibly a given series of
speeds, is frequently encountered in the design of geared trans-
missions. When the problem is simply that of obtaining a given
velocity ratio, and when the latter is so large that more than one
pair of gears should be used, a uniform reduction between the
different pairs is conducive to the highest efficiency. Whenever
this arrangement is practicable, the ratio of each pair in a train
may be determined by extracting the root of the total ratio. If
there are two pairs of gears, extract the square root; for three
pairs, extract the cube root, etc. For example, if the total ratio
between the first driving and the last driven gear is to be 125 to 1
and three pairs of gears are to be used, the ratio of each pair
should preferably equal 5 to 1, since ^/125 s=r 5.
In designing gear combinations for varying spindle speeds or
feeding movements, it is general practice, among machine tool
builders particularly, to vary the speeds in geometrical progres-
sion, successive speeds being obtained by multiplying each pre-
ceding term by a ratio or constant multiplier. Thus, if the slowest
speed is 50 revolutions per minute and the ratio is 1.3, the sue-
 1171 -S
ceeding speeds will equal 50 X 1.3 = 66; 65 X I*3 = 84.5;
84.5 X 1-8 t= 109.8.
F
When the fastest speed and the slowest speed S in a series
are known and also the total number of speeds N, the ratio may
be determined by the well-known formula:

Batiot=
Since logarithms would ordinarily be used for the extraction
of this root, the ratio may be obtained as follows:
Rule: Subtract the logarithm of the slowest speed from the
logarithm of the fastest speed and divide the difference by the
total number of speeds minus 1; the result will equal the log-
arithm of the ratio.
In actual practice, the exact progression obtained may be
modified slightly to permit using gears of a certain diametral
pitch. For machine tool transmissions, the speed ratio should,
as a general rule, be between 1.3 and 1.5, as otherwise there will
be either too small or too great a difference between successive
speeds. There would be no practical advantage in a series of
speeds varying by small increments equivalent to a ratio of say,
1.1, whereas, if the ratio were 1.7 or possibly 2, the changes from
one speed to the next would be excessive. Feeding mechanisms
may be designed for ratios of 1.2 or less, depending on the type
of machine.
Speeds of machine tool drives and especially feed changes are
sometimes varied according to "chromatic scale progression/'
with a ratio of either 1.4142 or 1.189 in case a lower ratio is
required. The first ratio is the square root of 2, and the second
the fourth root of 2. The object of using these particular ratios
is to obtain a series of speeds or feeds containing the even ratios,

2, 4, 8, 16, etc.

Speed, Critical. See Critical Speed.

Speed Indicators. The simplest instruments for determining

the speeds of shafts, etc., are commonly called speed indicators
or revolution counters. A
typical form of speed indicator has a
spindle that is held into engagement with the center of a revolv-
ing shaft, thus transmitting rotary motion to a dial or pointer.
Each revolution of this pointer or dial, which turns much slower
than the shaft, is equivalent to a certain number of revolutions
of the shaft. For instance, one turn of a pointer may represent
100 revolutions, and the number of revolutions for any fractional
part of a turn is indicated by suitable graduations. To obtain
the speed in revolutions per minute, this instrument is used in
conjunction with a watch. Another form of speed counter is so
S-1172

arranged that the revolutions made during a given time are indi-
cated by figures which change automatically. For instance, if
the reading is 500 at the instance the spindle of the instrument
is pressed against the shaft and 700 one minute afterward, the
difference between the first and second readings, or 200, indicates
the speed in revolutions per minute. If considered desirable, the
register may be set to zero by holding the point of the spindle
against the revolving shaft for a short time. A more highly de-
veloped instrument known as a tachoscope consists of a revolution
counter and a non-magnetic precision stop-watch which are so
connected that they operate simultaneously the moment a slight
pressure is applied to the spindle which engages the revolving
shaft. As soon as the pressure is released, both the revolution
counter and the watch stop at the same time, thus indicating on
the dials the number of revolutions made and also the time
elapsed. See also Tachometer.

Speed Lathe. The name "speed lathe" is usually applied to

light lathes which have neither back-gears nor a tool carriage,
and are intended for rotating parts rapidly either for polishing,
hand turning, or filing. When turning parts by hand-manipulated
tools, the ends of the tools are supported by a T-shaped rest that
is clamped to the bed. Lathes of this class are sometimes known
as "hand lathes." Many lathes of the "speed" class have either
a lever or a combination lever-and-screw feeding motion for the
tailstock spindle, the lever being very convenient for feeding drills
or reamers which are held in the end of the spindle. The term
"speed lathe" is also applied by some manufacturers to a design
which has a hand-operated carriage, and one that is without
back-gears or a power feeding mechanism.

Speed Range, Chromatic. See Chromatic Speed Range.

Speed Reducers. A speed reducer for obtaining a reduction

of speed between driving and driven shafts consists of a com-
bination of gearing enclosed in a housing to form a self-contained
unit. The housing serves to protect the gearing from dust, etc.,
and to retain lubrication. It also acts as a safeguard by enclosing
the gears. Speed reducers may be classified according to the type
of gearing. For example, some speed reducers have spur gears,
others herringbone gears, and a third class, worm gearing. The
reduction ratios cover a wide range and may vary from 1% or
2 to 1, up to 5000 to 1 or higher in single units. If these units,
however, are combined so that the driven shaft of one unit con-
nects with the driving shaft of another, ratios that are much
higher than ever required in practical work may be obtained
readily. See also Speed-changing Mechanisms.
 1I73-S

Speed-Variator of Electric Type. The General Electric

speed-variator unit operates from an alternating-current line and
provides a wide range of speeds by means of the well-known gen-
erator-voltage-control arrangement. This equipment is adapted
for driving machine tools, pumps, textile and paper machinery,
etc., and is applicable to all kinds of material-handling operations.
Each unit consists of an adjustable-speed, direct-current motor;
an adjustable-voltage motor-generator set with control; and a
separately mounted generator-field rheostat. Standard speed
ranges are available in ratios up to 16 to 1. The motor can be
mounted directly on the driven machine, with the speed-changing
control located nearby. The units are designed to operate from
three-phase, 60-cycle, 220-, 440-, and 550-volt alternating-current
power. The potentiometer type of generator-field rheostat pro-
vides speed changes varying by small increments over a wide
range.

Spellerizing. A process known as "spellerizing" has been de-

veloped to increase the life of pipe steel. By this process, the
steel is treated mechanically and it consists in first subjecting the
skelp, at a proper temperature, to the action of rolls having regu-
larly-shaped projections on their working surface. The skelp is
then subjected to the action of smooth-faced rolls, and by repeat-
ing these rolling operations, the surface of the metal is worked
so as to produce a uniformly dense texture which is better adapted
to resist corrosion, especially in the form of pitting.

Spelter and Spelter Solder. Spelter is a name which, in the

past, was frequently used for zinc, but which, at the present time,
is used only commercially, and then only when it refers to zinc
cast in ingots. Spelter solder, an alloy of copper and zinc, used
in hard soldering or brazing, is also frequently spoken of simply
as "spelter/* but in that case the expression is an abbreviation
of the term "spelter solder/*

Spherical Candle Power. The spherical candle power, or

"mean spherical candle power," of a lamp, is the average candle
power of the lamp in all directions.

Spheroid. A spheroid or an ellipsoid of revolution is formed

by an ellipse rotating about one of its axes, thereby forming a
solid of revolution. A spheroid may also be defined as an ellipsoid
in which two axes are equal.

Spheroidizing. According to the S. A. E. definition, spheroidiz-

ing is the prolonged heating of iron-base alloys at a temperature
near, but generally slightly below, the critical temperature range
followed usually by relatively slow cooling. In the case of small
objects of high-carbon steels, the spheroidizing result is obtained
S-1174
more rapidly by prolonged heating to temperatures alternately
within and slightly below the critical temperature range. The
object of this heat-treatment is to produce a globular condition
of the carbide.

Spiegeleisen. This is an alloy of iron and manganese used

in both Bessemer and open-hearth steel-making practice. The
term is applied commercially to alloys containing up to about
30 per cent manganese. In Bessemer steel practice, molten
spiegeleisen is added to the steel after the blow, for recarburizing
and obtaining the desired manganese content. Spiegeleisen also
is frequently used with scrap and pig iron in the open-hearth
charge in order to raise the manganese content and aid in
cleansing the bath. The term "spiegeleisen" means "mirror iron/'
this name being given to the alloy on account of the brilliancy
of its fracture.

Spike-Holding Qualities of Woods. See Nail-holding Quali-

Woods.
ties of

Spindle. In general, a spindle is a cylindrical machine part,

generally capable of being rotated and, usually, the main or most
important shaft in a machine. A lathe spindle, for example, is
the shaft mounted in the headstock bearings, in the end of which
the live center is held and from which the work in the lathe is
driven.

Spindle, Standard Milling Machine. See Milling Machine,

Standard Spindle.

Spinning Metals. The formation of sheet-metal parts into

circular shapes by means of a lathe, forms and hand tools which
serve to press and shape the metal about the revolving form, is
known as metal spinning. The products of metal spinning are
used in a great many lines of manufacture. Examples of this
work are chandelier parts, cooking utensils, silver and Britannia
hollow-ware, automobile lamps, cane-heads, and many other sheet-
metal specialties. Brass, copper, zinc, aluminum, iron, soft steel,
and, in fact, nearly all metals yield readily to the spinner's skill.
At best, spinning is hard physical work, and the softer the stock,
the easier and quicker the spinner can transform it into the re-
quired product. Successive steps in spinning a copper head-light
reflector are shown by the accompanying diagram.

Spiral and Helix, A spiral may be defined mathematically

as a curve having a constantly increasing radius of curvature.
Spirals are often confused with helices, as for instance, when
speaking of "spiral" gears or "spiral-riveted" pipe, which should
properly be termed "helical" gears and ''helical-riveted" pipe.
 1175 -$
Both the spiral and the helix are exemplified in spring design,
the spiral being represented by a watch spring, while the helix is
represented by a coil spring.

Spiral Bevel Gears. Spiral type bevel gears have been used
widely in automobile rear axle drives in preference to bevel gear-
ing having straight teeth. There has also been an increasing
demand for this type of gearing for other purposes. The spiral
design operates more smoothly than bevel gears with straight
teeth and has certain other advantages. The relation between
spiral and straight tooth bevel gearing is practically the same
as the relation between ordinary spur gears and helical gears

Successive Steps In Spinning a Reflector

applied to parallel shafts. The teeth of spiral bevel gears are not
a true spiral, although the actual curve, when developed on a
plane, closely approximates the spiral curve. Gears of this kind
are cut on machines of the generating type.
Spiral Bevel Gear Capacity: Spiral bevel gears have a load-
carrying capacity that is somewhat greater than that of straight-
tooth bevel gears of similar proportions. The difference in
capacity, however, is not very great, and the formula for straight-
tooth gears may also be applied to the spiral bevel type. One of
the principal reasons why spiral bevel gears are slightly superior
to the straight-tooth form as power transmitters is that there
are more teeth in contact and the load on any one tooth is less.
Another reason is that the load is never concentrated on the point
of a tooth throughout its whole length. When there is contact at
S-1176
the point at one end, the contact is toward the flank at the other
end, and the average height from the root, at which the load is
applied, is much less than the total height of the tooth. The
smoothness of operation is another favorable factor tending to-
ward greater load capacity, as in the case of herringbone or
double-helical gearing for connecting parallel shafts.
The tooth of a spiral bevel gear has to take both the trans-
mitted load and the thrust load. This total load equals the trans-
mitted load divided by the cosine of the spiral angle. For a
30-degree spiral angle, the total load is about 1.15 times the
transmitted load. This additional tooth load on a spiral bevel
gear tooth, as compared with a straight tooth, is more than offset
by the increased number of teeth in contact While the tooth
thickness of the spiral bevel gear is less than that of the straight
gear, the length of the curved tooth is correspondingly greater,
so that the sectional area on the pitch cone surface is prac-
tically the same for the straight and spiral forms of teeth of
corresponding pitch.

Spiral Gearing. Gears which have a pitch surface cylindrical

in shape, and in which the axes of the teeth are not straight lines,
as in spur gearing, but form a helix on the surface of the pitch
cylinder, are often called spiral gears. The terms "spiral" gear
and "helical" gear are synonymous in usage, but the former of
these terms is theoretically incorrect. See Helical Gears.

Spiral Head. A
spiral head is an attachment for milling ma-
chines, used for indexing or dividing and also in connection with
helical milling. See Indexing Attachments.
'

Spiral-Jaw Clutch. A spiral-jaw clutch a positive clutch

is
in which the tops of the tooth surfaces are helicoidal, the front
of the tooth being flat and in the plane of the axis of the clutch.
Clutches of this type can only transmit motion in one direction,
and are, therefore, known as right- and left-hand.

Splicing Rope. See Hope Splicing.

Spline. When the hub of a gear or other part must be free

to slide axially along its shaft,but rotate with the shaft, a feather
.or spline is used. This is simply a form of key, and is either fixed
to the shaft or to the hub. For instance, in some cases, the
feather is sunk into the shaft like an ordinary key, but it is
longer than the hub to allow for axial movement. Small splines
are often dovetailed into the shaft, whereas larger ones are some-
times held in place by countersunk screws. What corresponds to
splines or keys are formed on shafts by milling or hobbing a
series of equally-spaced grooves along the shaft. The protruding
keys thus formed on the shaft engage corresponding grooves in
 1177 -S
the hole of a hub or other external member, thus forming what
is known as a spline or splined fitting. The shaft is usually known
as a spline or splined shaft. A
splined fitting may serve either
to lock the shaft and external part in a fixed position, or one part
may be free to slide relative to the other, in which case the splines
and mating grooves merely prevent rotation of one part relative
to the other. There are two general types of splined fittings.
These are described in the paragraphs which follow.

Splined Fittings, Straight Parallel Sides. One class or type

of splined fitting has splines and grooves with straight sides
which are parallel to a radial line passing through the center of
the spline or groove. This type is shown in the accompanying
illustration. The S.A.E. Standard for splined fittings having
straight or parallel sides, includes fittings having 4, 6, 10 and 16
equally spaced splines. There is a range of diameters for each of

Multiple-spline Shaft Fitting

these four fittings. The standard also gives the limits both for
permanent or fixed fits, and also for fittings intended to slide
either when under load or when not under load. An efficient
method of forming these multiple splines on the shaft, is by hob-
bing. The procedure is the same in principle as hobbing a gear,
but a special form of hob is required. The hob used for gen-
erating straight-sided splines has curved teeth. The required
hob-tooth curvature may be determined either graphically or
mathematically. The mathematical method is more accurate and
rapid. See Hobs, Splined Shafts.

Splined Fittings, Involute. A

second type of splined fitting
has splines and grooves with curved sides. The American Stand-
ard applies to splines of the involute type. The splines of in-
volute form are generated on the shaft by using a hob having
teeth like the basic rack of involute gears. Such a hob is, of
course, easier to make than one having curved teeth. Splines of
involute form can also be fitted readily and be measured ac-
curately by the pin method.
$-1178
These splines or multiple keys are similar in form to internal
and external involute gears having a pressure angle of 30 degrees
The general practice is to form the external splines either by
hobbing or on a gear shaper, and internal splines either by
broaching or on a gear shaper. Involute splines have maximum
strength at the base, they are accurately spaced by the generating
method of cutting and are self centering thus equalizing the
bearing and stresses.
There are 15 pitches ranging from % (one/two) to 48/96.
The secondary pitch in the denominator is, in all cases, double
the pitch in the numerator. The pitch diameter equals the number
of teeth divided by the numerator of the diametral pitch. The
number of splines or teeth ranges from 6 to 50 (1946 revision) ;

hence the pitch diameters for % diametral pitch range from

6 to 50 inches, whereas 48/96 diametral pitch, the pitch diameters
range from 0.125 to 1.0417 inch. Basic dimensions for both
external and internal splines are, pitch diameter, circular pitch,
circular tooth thickness, addendum, dedendum, major diameter
and minor diameter. The internal splines has been held to basic
dimensions because it is formed by broaching, and the external
spline dimensions are varied to control the fit. There are three
methods of fitting the internal and external spline members and
each method includes three classes of fits as follows:
(1) Major Diameter Fit: The major diameter of the external
spline may be varied to obtain a "Sliding Fit" or Class I, a "Close
Fit" or Class II, and a "Press Fit" or Class III. The major
diameter fit is commonly employed.
(2) Fit on Sides of Teeth: The tooth thickness may be varied
to obtain a Sliding Fit or Class A, a Close Fit or Class B, and a
Press Fit or Class C.
(3) Minor Diameter Fit: The minor diameter of the internal
spUne may be varied to obtain a Sliding Fit or Class X, a Close
Fit or Class Y, and a Press Fit or Class Z. Special tooling is
required.
Advantages of Involute Splines: In hobbing involute splines,
the required fit between shaft and fitting may be obtained merely
by adjusting the hob in or out relative to the shaft. With
straight- or parallel-sided splines, the hob is designed for a given
fit and any in or out adjustment for varying the fit would distort

the splines either by undercutting or by increasing the spline

thickness toward the root or base. The general practice in using
straight splines is to have a fit either on the outside diameter
or root diameter in addition to the fit of the splines. In adjusting
an involute splined hob for varying the fit, there is no distortion
of the spline shape which is always a true involute.
 1179 -S
Spline Milling Cutter. The most efficient method of form-
ing splines on shafts is by bobbing, but special milling cutters
are sometimes used for straight splines. Since the cutter^ forms
the space between adjacent splines, it must be made to suit the
number of splines and the root diameter of the shaft. The cutter
angle equals 360 degrees divided by the number of splines. The
following formulas are for determining the chordal width at the
root! of the splines or the chordal width across the point of the
cutter. In these formulas, A = angle between center line of
spline and a radial line coinciding with the intersection of the
root circle and one side of spline; W= width of spline ; d= root
diameter of splined shaft; C chordal width at root circle be-
tween adjacent splines; N e= number of splines.

Sin A = and C = ~A

Split-Pole Converter. See Regulating Pole Converter.

Sponginess. Sponginess in castings is due to the formation

of gas bubbles in iron at the instant of solidification. In all ordi-
nary cases, this is due to an improper mixture of iron. However,
if the casting is very thick at one place, but otherwise thin, it
will be impossible to obtain a mixture which will have satisfactory
properties for general work and not be spongy at the points of
extraordinary thickness.

Spontaneous Combustion. Spontaneous combustion or spon-

taneous ignition is a condition whereby a material ignites with-
out having its temperature increased by applying heat from an
external source. Coal, when stored in large quantities, is likely
to ignite in this manner. Other substances that, under the right
conditions, have been known to generate sufficient heat to cause
spontaneous ignition are coke, lampblack, sawdust, charcoal, oily
rags, cotton, flax, hemp, wool, oils, metallic powders, and dust of
various kinds. Boiled linseed oil is the most dangerous of oils
commonly used in industrial plants. Animal oils have but slight
tendency toward spontaneous ignition, as compared with some
of the vegetable oils which readily combine with the oxygen of
the air. Mineral oils are not considered dangerous in this re-
spect The spontaneous ignition of oil-soaked rags or waste which
has been left in a warm room or in the sun is among the more
common occurrences of this kind. In this case ignition is caused
by the rapid oxidation of the oil spread out over the large surface
S-H80
afforded by the threads in the waste or the folds of the cloth.
As the result of this rapid oxidation, the temperature finally
rises high enough to cause ignition. See Coal Storage.

Spot Facing. This term is generally applied to the operation

of truing a comparatively small surface or spot, as, for example,
when a true seat is formed on a casting or forging for the under
side of a screw head. The spot that is faced true may be a circu-
lar raised pad on a casting or merely the surface around a bolt
hole. Spot facing for screw heads may be done with a counter-
bore or counterboring tool, which then is used merely to remove
enough metal to form a true seat. If this same type of tool is
used to enlarge a hole, as, for example, when the enlarged part
is to receive the fillister head of a machine screw, then the
operation becomes counterboring.
Back Spotfacer: When a hole extends through some part of a
casting or forging so that the surface around the inner end can-
not be spotfaced in the usual manner, a back spotfacer is used,
assuming that such inner surfaces require truing, A back spot-
facer consists of a shank or driving bar which is inserted in the
machine spindle, and a removable facing cutter or spotfacer
which is inserted on the end of a shank after the latter is ad-
vanced through the hole far enough to receive the cutter on the
projecting end. One commercial type of back spotfacer has a
projecting driving pin in the cutter which engages a groove and
pocket of the driving bar. This groove is of the bayonet lock
type, thus permitting the cutter to be attached to or removed
from the bar readily. Back spotfacing cutters may be either of
the single or double type. The double type has cutting teeth on
both sides so that opposed inner surfaces may be trued quickly.
These spotfacing cutters are also made for either right-hand or
left-hand cutting.

Spot Welding. For a number of years, electric welding was

confined to the butt-welding of rods, tubes, etc., and later the
spot welding of fiat stock by means of isolated welds of a limited
area was developed. One method of making a spot-weld is to use
pointed copper dies or electrodes, which are brought into contact
with the work which is welded by the passage of a large volume
of low-voltage current. Another method is to raise projections
above the plane surface of the parts to be welded, which serve
to concentrate or localize the current in order to heat the metal
to the welding point; and a still further development consists in
raising ridges above the plane surfaqes, which, when crossed by
corresponding ridges, give the same practical results as the raised
points, with the additional advantage of ease in assembling the
parts prior to welding.
 1181-S

Spraying Process of Metal-Coating. See Metal-coating by

Spraying Process.

Spring Brass and Bronze. Brass and bronze compositions

are used for both coiled and flat springs especially where re-
sistance to corrosion is essential.
Brass WireS.A.E. Standard No. 80: This wire is used for
making springs. Grade A is intended for severe service, and
Grade B for ordinary conditions.
Composition: Copper, (Grade A) 70 to 74, (Grade B) 64 to
68; lead, max., (Grades Aand B) 0.10; iron, max., (Grade A) 0.06,
(Grade B) 0.07 per cent; zinc, (Grades A
and B) remainder.
Physical Properties: This wire shall have a tensile strength
of at least 100,000 pounds per square inch, and it should be
capable of being bent through an angle of 180 degrees around a
wire of the same diameter without breaking.
Phosphor Bronze WireS.A.E. Standard No. 81 : This wire is
intended primarily for springs.
Composition: Tin, 4 to 6; phosphorus, 0.03 to 0.40; zinc, max.,
0.20; iron, max., 0.10; lead, max., 0.10 per cent; copper, remainder.
Physical Properties: Minimum tensile strength varies from
100,000 to 130,000 pounds per square inch, depending upon the
diameter, the strength in pounds per square inch decreasing as
the diameter increases. This wire should withstand any bend
through an angle of ISO degrees flat back on itself without
fracture on the outside of the bent portion.
Phosphor-Bronze Strips S.A.E. Standard No. 77: This speci-
fication covers bronze strip up to 0.080 inch thick and includes
different tempers in two grades designated as A and B. The
tempers are: Half Hard (2); Hard (4); Extra Hard (6);
Spring (8). The numbers following the temper designations in-
dicate the reductions during rolling in B. & S. gage numbers.
These phosphor bronze strips are used for various kinds of
springs. Grade A spring temper is generally used for flat springs
formed with easy bends across the grain. Grade B, extra hard
temper, is usually employed for flat spring with easy bends either
across or with the grain. Grade B, hard temper, is generally
used for clips or contact springs with difficult bends. Grade A
is also used for friction plates and clutches, and for thrust
washers.
Composition: Tin, (Grade A) 4 to 6, (Grade B) 7 to 9;
phosphorus, (Grade A) 0.03 to 0.40, (Grade B) 0.03 to 0.20;
zinc, max., (Grades A and B) 0.20 ; iron, max., (Grades A and B)
0.10; lead, max., (Grades A and B) 0.10 per cent; copper,
(Grades A and B) remainder.
Physical Properties: Minimum tensile strength, Grade A, half
hard, 55,000; hard, 75,000; extra hard, 85,000; spring, 90,000
S-1182

Fig. 1. Different Types of Spring Ends

pounds per square inch, with elongation varying from 15 per cent
for half hard to 1 per cent for spring temper. Grade B, half
hard, 65,000; hard, 85,000; extra hard, 100,000 pounds per square
inch, with elongation varying from 20 to 1 per cent for half hard
to extra hard.

Spring Caliper. A
spring caliper is a measuring tool used by
machinists. The two legs of a spring caliper are joined by a
spring (instead of a riveted joint) in such a manner that the
bent ends are normally held apart, while a screw and nut are
provided for forcing the measuring points together. Sometimes
the nut is split so as to permit of rapid adjustment to an ap-
proximate dimension, after which the nut is closed and an
accurate adjustment made by turning it on the screw.

Spring Cotter. A spring cotter, also known as split cotter

and split pin, is a piece of wire bent double so as to form an eye
at one end, and used for inserting in a hole drilled through a
stud or shaft for retaining a nut or some other member. The
wire is approximately semi-circular in cross-sections. When in-
serted in the hole, the outer ends of the cotter are spread apart
to retain it in place. Strictly speaking, a spring cotter is a cotter
made from spring steel wire, so that when it is bent over on itself
 1183 -S
itretains enough springing action at the ends, so that these tend
to come apart and thereby bind or hold firmly in the hole into
which the cotter is inserted.
Spring Ends. Extension springs are furnished with many
different kinds of ends, some of which have become so commonly
known in the trade that they are regarded as standard. The two
hooks at opposite ends of a spring may be made in line and in the
same or different planes ; and they may be located at the center
of the spring or on one side. A
further variation may be obtained
by arranging the ends out of line and they may even be located
at right angles to each other. Some common forms of spring
ends are shown by the two illustrations. Referring to Fig. 1,

EXTENSION SPRING WITH REGULAR MACHINE LOOP AND HOOK, IN LINE OR IN SAME PLANE.

EXTENSION SPRING WITH REGULAR MACHINE LOOP AND HOOK, AT RIGHT ANGLES.

EXTENSION SPRING WITH REGULAR HAND LOOP AND HOOK, AT RIGHT ANGLES.

EXTENSION SPRING WITH REGULAR LOOP OF ONE COIL ON SIDE AND SPECIAL CROSSOVER EYE.

EXTENSION SPRING WITH SPECIAL CROSSOVER EYE AND AN EXTENDED EYE FROM CENTER OF COIL

Fig. 2. Additional Examples of Spring Ends

$-1184

spring A has a regular machine hook over thai center; B, a regu-

lar hand loop over the center; C, a double-coil hand loop over the
center; D, a regulatf hand loop at the side; E, a small eye at one
side; F, a small eye over the center; G, a small hook at one side;
H, a plain end; /, a ground end; /, a long hook; K, a long square
hook; L, a V-hook; M, a loop knotted or secured to the spring; N,
a square loop knotted or secured to the spring; 0, a knotted eye;
P, an extended eye; Q, a straight end (usually annealed so that
it can be twisted) ; R, an annealed end, eyed and twisted; S, a

tapered end with an extended swivel eye; T, a tapered end with

a regular swivel eye; Z7, a tapered end with a swivel hook; V,
a tapered end with a swivel bolt; W, a plain end with a plug to
screw into place; and X, a plain end with a hooked plug.

Spring Materials. Different grades and types of steels and

non-ferrous alloys are used for springs because of the different
requirements, such as resistance to fatigue, corrosion, tempera-
ture, etc. While physical properties of different types of spring
materials vary widely, there may also be decided variations in the
same nominal grade or kind of material obtained from different
sources. The information which follows is intended as a general
guide only.
Hard Drawn Spring Wire: This is a steel wire that is gen-
erally used for miscellaneous helical springs. It contains 0.50 to
0.65 carbon, 0.70 to 1.00 manganese, 0.10 to 0.20 silicon. In
making this wire, hot-rolled open-hearth steel rods are annealed
and then cold drawn, thus giving the wire its strength. The
tensile strength for small diameters may vary from 200,000 to
300,000, and the elastic limit from 120,000 to 180,000 pounds
per square inch.
Oil-Tempered Spring Wire: This steel wire is drawn to size
from basic, open hearth rods after annealing. The composition is
similar to hard drawn wire, excepting the carbon content which
varies from 0.60 to 0.70 per cent. The strength is obtained by
heat-treatment rather than by cold working.
Music Wire: This is a high-grade spring wire produced either
in the electric furnace or by the acid open-hearth process, and
it is extensively used for small springs subjected to high stresses.
Music-wire gages range from 0.004 to 0.146 inch. The carbon
content of music wire varies from 0.70 to 1.00, and manganese
from 0.25 to 0.40 per cent. When the diameter is approximately
0.100 inch, the tensile strength is about 250,000 pounds per square
inch. Music wire is more expensive than ordinary hard-drawn
wire, but it can be subjected to higher stresses.
High-Carbon Annealed Wire: This type of wire is used exten-
sively for valve springs and scale springs. It contains from 0.85
to 1.00 carbon, 0.30 to 0.45 manganese, and from 0.10 to 0.20 sili-
 1185 -S
con. It is cold drawn from annealed rods made either by the
electric or open-hearth processes. The springs are heat-treated
after forming. The tensile strength, after heat-treatment, varies
from 250,000 to 350,000, and the elastic limit from 150,000 to
250,000 pounds per square inch, depending upon the diameter.
High-Carbon Hot-Rolled Steel: This steel, which has a carbon
content ranging from 0.90 to 1.05 per cent, is made either by the
electric or open-hearth processes and is formed into springs while
hot. This material is used for springs that are too large to coil
cold and also for large leaf springs. The tensile strength varies
from 175,000 to 195,000, and the elastic limit from 120,000 to
140,000 pounds per square inch.
Silicon-Manganese Steel: Steel of this kind is especially
adapted to springs subjected to fatigue stresses. The ultimate
strength ordinarily ranges from 200,000 to 250,000, and the
elastic limit from 150,000 to 180,000 pounds per square inch. In
the automotive industries, silicon-manganese steels are very gen-
erally used both for the coil and leaf springs. The S.A.E, silicon-
manganese steel No. 9260 contains 0.55-0.65 carbon, 0.60-0.90
manganese, 1.80-2.20 silicon, 0.040 phosphorus (max.), and 0.050
sulphur (max.). It is a general practice to specify manganese
on the high side of the range for leaf spring sections of % inch
or over and the low or medium manganese content for sections
under % inch. Silicon-manganese steel S.A.E. No. 9255 is like
9260, excepting the carbon range which is 0.50-0.60 per cent. The
hardening temperature for these steels is 1500 to 1650 degrees F.,
and oil is the quenching medium.
Chromium-Vanadium Steel: This spring steel is superior to
the straight carbon steel in toughness and when the operating
temperature is too high for carbon steel. It contains from 0.45 to
0.55 carbon, 0.50 to 0.80 manganese, 0.90 to 1.20 chromium, 0.10
to 0.20 silicon, 0.15 to 0.20 vanadium. This steel is supplied
either in the tempered or annealed condition. It is adapted to
valve springs or wherever there are repeated stresses. The tensile
strength varies from 200,000 to 300,000, and the elastic limit
from 160,000 to 250,000 pounds per square inch.
Stainless Steel: This steel not only has high resistance to cor-
rosion, but retains its strength in temperatures up to 700 de-
grees F., or even higher. For hard-drawn wire, the carbon con-
tent is 0.12, with chromium ranging from 17 to 20 and nickel
8 to 10 per cent. If supplied in the annealed condition for heat-
treatment after coiling, the carbon content may vary from 0.30 to
0.40 per cent. The ultimate strength ranges from 150,000 to
280,000, and the elastic limit from 75,000 to 150,000 pounds per
square inch.
$-1186

Phosphor Bronze: A phosphor-bronze alloy may be used where

steel would corrode rapidly. It usually contains about 5 per cent
tin,a trace of phosphorus (added as phosphor-tin to prevent brit-
tleness), and the remainder copper. The tensile strength ob-
tained by cold drawing is about 95,000 pounds per square inch
and the elastic limit about 50,000 pounds per square inch for wire
of No. 8 B & S gage.
S.A.E. No. 80 Brass Wire: This cold-drawn wire is inferior
in strength and corrosion resistance to phosphor bronze, but it
may be used where cost of material is an important factor.
Grade A, intended for severe operating conditions, contains 70 to
1

74 per cent copper, a maximum of 0.10 lead, a maximum of

0.06 iron, and the remainder zinc. Grade B, for ordinary re-
quirements, has practically the same composition excepting the
copper content which is 64 to 68 per cent.
Monel Metal: This alloy has excellent corrosion-resistant
properties and will withstand abnormally high temperatures.
Cold-drawn wire (spring temper) has a tensile strength of
145,000 to 175,000 pounds per square inch for "K" Monel. It
contains 66 per cent nickel, 29 per cent copper, 2.75 per cent
aluminum, 0.9 per cent iron, 0.4 per cent manganese, and 0.25 per
cent silicon.
Inconel: This is another high-nickel alloy which is exception-
ally resistant to high temperatures and corrosion. The nickel
content is 79.5; chromium, 13; iron, 6.5; copper, 0.2; silicon, 0.25;
manganese, 0.25. The tensile strength of cold-drawn spring wire
is 165,000 to 185,000 pounds per square inch.
BeryUiuntrCopper Wire: This alloy contains 2 to 2.25 per cent
beryllium; 0.25 to 0.50 per cent nickel; usually less than 0.1 per
cent iron; and the remainder copper. It has high resistance to
fatigue and corrosion, and also high coefficient of electrical con-
ductivity. The wire is cold drawn, and a low-temperature heat-
treatment gives it a tensile strength of about 200,000 pounds
per square inch.

Spring Plunger. This is a plunger actuated by a helical

spring so that the plunger will always occupy a certain position
except when pulled back by the hand or by some mechanical
means.

Springs. The three principal types of springs are: 1. Flat

springs. 2. Spiral springs. 3. Helical or coil springs. The leaf
spring is simply built up from a number of flat springs of uni-
form rectangular cross-section. By making successive leaves
shorter than each preceding leaf, the spring becomes a modifica-
tion of a beam of uniform strength. These leaf springs are fre-
quently so arranged that they are supported at both ends, having
 1187 -S
the load applied in the center. They are then generally curved,
so that the load, when applied, tends to straighten them.
Elliptic Springs: Six classes of leaf springs are represented bj
the accompanying diagrams: Half or semi-elliptic spring, A;
three-quarter elliptic spring B, consisting of quarter elliptic on
top and half elliptic on bottom joined at one end by a bolt;
elliptic spring C, consisting of half elliptic on top and half elliptic
on bottom joined at both ends by bolts; three-quarter scroll
elliptic spring D, consisting of quarter scroll on top and hali
elliptic on bottom joined at one end by a shackle; scroll elliptic
spring E (one end), consisting of scroll at one end on top, and
half elliptic on bottom joined at one end by a bolt and at the

Different Types of Leaf-springs

other by a shackle; scroll elliptic spring F(both ends), consist-

ing of scroll elliptic at both ends on top, and half elliptic on
bottom joined at both ends by shackles.
Spiral Spring: This type is wound in the form of a spiral;
the most familiar use of this spring being in watches and clocks
Spiral springs are employed where an angular movement Is to be
caused by the spring.
Helical or Coil Springs: Springs of this class are sometimes
although incorrectly, termed spiral springs. Helical springs are
wound into a coil from round, square, or rectangular shaped wire
or bars, the circular shape of wire being the most common. The
conical or helico-spiral coil spring is a form which is often used
on pump valves. Its main advantage as compared with an ordi-
S - 1188
nary coil spring is that it does not easily buckle sidewise. A
conical spring also has the advantage that if successive coils are
enough smaller than those preceding them, it will, upon com-
pression, close up flat between the constraining surfaces.
Springs, Coiling. The method employed for spring winding
ordinarily depends upon the number of springs required and, to
some extent, upon their form. When a comparatively small num-
ber of springs are needed in connection with repair work, etc.,
it is common practice to wind them in a lathe, whereas, when

springs are manufactured in large quantities, special coiling ma-

chines are employed. When springs are wound in a lathe, the
wire is coiled about an arbor the diameter of which should be
determined by trial. Usually the arbor diameter should be about
% of the required inside spring diameter. The arbor may be
mounted between the centers or, in the case of short springs, be
held in a chuck. Both extension or closed springs and compres-
sion or open springs may be wound in this way. For springs
made of wire 1/16 inch or less in diameter, the speed lathe is
commonly used, whereas, for larger wire, it is preferable to use
an engine lathe and drive through the back-gearing.
Some means must be provided in any case for subjecting the
wire to sufficient tension while winding, to coil it tightly about
the arbor. When winding a compression spring, the wire should
also be traversed in the direction of the arbor, so that coils of
uniform pitch will be formed; similarly, when winding an exten-
sion or "tension" spring, the feeding of the wire should be such
that all of the coils will be close together, there being preferably
a slight initial tension between the coils. Different forms of tools
are used for obtaining the necessary tension on the wire and
spacing of the coils while winding. In some cases, the tool is
held rigidly in the lathe toolpost and the wire passes through a
hole or slot so arranged that the friction and tension may be
regulated. The spacing or pitch of the coils can be varied by gear-
ing the lathe the same as for screw cutting, in order to give the
carriage a traversing movement while winding the spring. For
instance, if a compression spring were required having six coils
to the inch, the lathe would be geared for cutting six threads per
inch, the result being that, as the carriage moves along, the wire
is coiled around the arbor at approximately the same
pitch. There
is another type of spring winder which is held
by hand while
the spring is being wound about the arbor, and the tool itself
regulates the coil spacing.
Springs, Coiling Machines. The coiling of springs made in
quantities is accomplished either by a standard spring-coiling
machine, which may be adjusted to suit coil springs of various
dimensions, or if the quantity of a particular type of spring de-
 1189 -S
sired warrants it by a special machine which coils, cuts, and hooks
the spring in a single operation. Such a machine necessarily has
a very limited range, and is found in automobile plants more
often than in shops making springs for the trade in general.
Standard spring-coiling machines may be classified as continuous
coiling machines and coiling and cutting machines. In one ma-
chine of the latter type, designed for handling heavy wire, the
length of the wire is controlled by the movement of a segment
or by gears. The pitch may be automatically controlled so as to
square the ends of the springs. This type of machine is used for
extension springs as well as for compression springs. Conical
and barrel shaped springs as well as springs of constant diameter
and varying pitch also come within its scope. In the special
machines, as in those for general manufacture, the operations
consist of first straightening the wire by drawing it through a
groove or rollers, and then coiling it by making it follow the
course directed by external rollers or by a combination of external
rollers and an internal mandrel. In the coiling operation, the
spring wire is automatically tested for uniformity, since hard
spots in the wire will be indicated by a bumpy or uneven surface
on the coiled spring.
Springs, Diameters. A
helical or coil spring should have an
outside diameter equal to from five to eight times the diameter
of wire or bar from which the spring is made; under no cir-
cumstances should the outside diameter be made less than four
times the diameter of the wire. The effective number of coils in
a compression spring may be considered as two less than the
actual number, owing to the squared ends of the spring.

Springs, Factor of Safety. When a spring acts only occa-

sionally it can be safely designed to carry a load which causes
a fiber stress nearly equal to the elastic limit of the spring, but,
when the compressions or extensions are frequent, a larger fac-
tor of safety must be used. A valve spring in an automobile
motor, for example, which operates, say, 200 times a minute,
should have a factor of safety of at least 4. In other words, a
spring, which ordinarily could be designed for a torsional stress
of 100,000 pounds per square inch, should be designed to work at
a stress not over 25,000 pounds per square inch when used in
service of the kind mentioned. High-class springs, such as valve
springs, should have the ends squared and ground at right angles
to their axis; the outside diameter should be at least one-third
of the length, and it should be supported its entire length, unless
it is very short, in order to prevent buckling, which introduces
bending and twisting strains. High-class valve springs when
placed on end on a flat plate should not vary more than degree %
from the perpendicular.
$-1190

Springs, Formulas for Helical. The formulas which follow

are for calculating the load, deflection, size of wire and fiber
stress in helical springs made from round wire or rod. In these
formulas, P = =
load, in pounds safe working load when S is
within allowable limits t= load required to compress spring solid
when F maximum; F =
deflection is deflection, in inches, caused
by given =
load from
total deflection free to solid length when
P &= S=
solid height load; fiber stress, in pounds per square
inch; D = mean diameter of spring, in inches =
outside diam-
eterminus wire diameter d = diameter
d; of spring wire or rod,
in inchesK = Wahl
;
afactor, correction factor which introduces
greater accuracy into calculations involving fiber stress, espe-

cially where the ratio of -7- is relatively small (see Wahl Factor) ;

N = number of active or effective coils; and G == torsional

modulus of elasticity in pounds per square inch.

;_.
Where S is the allowable safe working stress, its value will

rary for different classes and grades of spring wire as will the
value of G. For more exact calculations, the value of S used will
also be affected by the size of wire. For average grades of ma-
terial and not considering wire size, the following values may be
used as an approximation: For oil-tempered commercial steel
wire, G &= 11,000,000 and S =
100,000 pounds per square inch
for light service; use 80 per cent of this stress value for average
service and 65 per cent of this stress value for severe service.
For music wire, G =
12,000,000 and S =
120 per cent of the
stress values for oil-tempered commercial steel wire. For hard-
drawn steel wire, G =
11,000,000 and S =
80 per cent of the
stress values for oil-tempered commercial steel wire. For stain-
less 18-8 steel, G =10,500,000 and S =
80 per cent of the stress
values for oil-tempered commercial steel wire. For phosphor
bronze, G =
6,000,000 and S =
45 per cent of the stress values
for oil-tempered commercial steel wire. For beryllium copper,
G = 7,000,000 and S =
60 per cent of the stress values for
oil-tempered commercial steel wire. For brass, G =
5,000,000
and S e= 40 per cent of the stress values for oil-tempered com-
mercial steel wire. For Monel metal, G
S = =
9,250,000 and
50 per cent of the stress values for oil-tempered commercial
steel wire.
Helical Springs Made of Square Wire: Helical springs usually
are made of round wire. In some cases, however, wire of square
 1191 -$
cross-section may be used to obtain a higher load-carrying
capacity without increasing the size of the spring. In designing
square wire springs, the load and deflection for a given working
stress may be calculated first for a round wire spring having the
same diameter, number of turns, and a wire diameter equal to
the side of the square cross-section; then the load capacity of the
round wire spring is multiplied by 1.06 and the deflection by
0.739, in order to obtain corresponding values for a spring made
of square wire.
While the load capacity of the square wire spring is 6 per cent
greater than that of one made of round wire, the square wire has,

Double and Triple Coil Concentric Groups, showing Right- and

Left-hand Coiling, to prevent Binding

of course, larger cross-sectional area and more material. If

square wire springs are compared with round wire springs on
the basis of load capacity per unit volume of spring material,
the square wire capacity for a given stress is only about 83^ per
cent of the round wire. The round wire will store about 1.27 times
as much energy as the square wire, notwithstanding its smaller
area. If spring efficiency is expressed as energy stored per unit
volume of spring material, then round wire is 62 per cent more
efficient than square wire.

Springs, Multiple or Group Type. The accompanying illus-

tration shows grouped or "nested" springs. The object is to in-
crease the carrying capacity within a given space. The outer
and inner coils are made with a different direction of helix, in
S-1192
order to prevent binding. In a spring concentrically arranged,
the inner bars are the smaller, and the greatest load is naturally
upon the outer spring. There is a point, however, beyond which
more inner coils will cease to be of advantage owing to the small
gain in capacity. The addition of outer coils is also soon limited
by the impossibility of coiling and tempering large bars. It is,
therefore, evident that the load which may be carried by the
concentric group is limited.
Where greater capacity is desirable than can be obtained by
concentric grouping, several single coils, or several concentric
groups, may be held together between spring plates. Such groups
naturally offer greater stability than concentric groups; but,
where the concentric group affords sufficient capacity and stabil-
ity, it should be used, as it is more economical of space and does
not necessitate the use of spring plates to hold the different coils
together. The designing of groups of this kind consists in the
simple operation of dividing the load into as many parts as there
will be units in the group.

Springs, Nickel Alloy. For springs which are exposed to

dampness or chemicals that cause them to rust and corrode,
monel metal has been used satisfactorily. This metal has a tor-
sional strength of 80,000 pounds per square inch, a torsional
modulus of 9,250,000, a tensile strength of 135,000 pounds per
square inch, and a tensional modulus of 25,000,000. The safe
working stress in torsion for monel metal in cases where fatigue
is not a factor is said to be 70,000 pounds per square inch. In
cases where fatigue is a factor and it is desired that the spring
shall operate 2,000,000 times without fracture, a safe working
stress in torsion of only 30,000 pounds per square inch should
be employed.
Inconel is another high-nickel alloy which is exceptionally re-
sistant to high temperatures and corrosion. The nickel content
is 79.5; chromium, 13; iron, 6.5; copper, 0.2; silicon, 0.25;

manganese, 0.25. The tensile strength of cold-drawn spring wire

is 165,000 to 185,000 pounds per square inch.

Spring Steels. In general, steel wire springs may be divided

into two classes those that are coiled from spring tempered wire
and given no subsequent heat-treatment (unless it be a slight
draw, which partially removes the internal strains produced by
cold working) and those that are coiled from annealed wire and
afterward given a complete thermal treatment to impart the
proper spring temper. The first method is obviously the cheaper,
and hence is used for the majority of machine springs. The latter
method, though more expensive, permits better control of the
final state of the steel, and is used on many of the more expen-
 1193 -S
on practically all springs used
give engine valve springs as well as
in measuring instruments. In both classes of springs the meth-
ods of manufacture, with the exception of the heat-treatment, are
almost identical.
S.A.E. 1060: This grade of steel is used for valve-springs,
hard-drawn spring wire and coil springs for general purposes.
For heat-treated springs, a hardness of 045 to C50, Rockwell, is
usually recommended.
S.AJ3. 1066 (old No. X1065): This steel is applicable to coil
springs of hard-drawn or oil-tempered wire and heat-treated
springs. For heat-treated springs, a hardness of C40 to C48,
Rockwell, is usually recommended.
S.A.E. 1095: This grade of steel is used for carbon steel leaf
springs, and coil springs.
S.A.E. 9260: This steel has been standardized in usage prin-
cipally for leaf springs. It is generally the practice to specify
manganese on the high side of the range for leaf spring sections
of % inch or over and the low and medium manganese for sec-
tions under % inch.
Chromium^Vanadium Steel: This spring steel is superior to
the straight carbon steel in toughness and when the operating
temperature is too high for carbon steel. It contains from 0.45
to 0.55 carbon, 0.50 to 0.80 manganese, 0.90 to 1.20 chromium,
0.10 to 0.20 silicon, 0.15 to 0.20 vanadium. This steel is supplied
either in the tempered or annealed condition. It is adapted to
valve springs or wherever there are repeated stresses. The tensile
strength varies from 200,000 to 300,000, and the elastic limit
from 160,000 to 250,000 pounds per square inch.
Stainless Steel: This steel not only has high resistance to corro-
sion, but retains its strength in temperatures up to 700 degrees F.,
or even higher. For hard-drawn wire, the carbon content is 0.12,
with chromium ranging from 17 to 20 and nickel 8 to 10 per
cent. If supplied in the annealed condition for heat-treatment
after coiling, the carbon content may vary from 0.30 to 0.40 per
cent. The ultimate strength ranges from 150,000 to 280,000, and
the elastic limit from 75,000 to 150,000 pounds per square inch.

Sprocket Adjustable Radially. Sprockets of the adjustable

type have teeth that may be adjusted radially from time to time
to compensate for wear and consequent elongation of chain links.
After the chain has elongated beyond a correct fit on the sprock-
et, nuts are released and eccentric blocks readjusted so as to
expand the teeth to the next larger pitch diameter provided for.
As a rule, adjustments are not required often.

Sprocket, Gap Type. This is a type of sprocket used for

link-belting and employed in cases where the reverse side of the
S-1194

chain runs against the sprocket. When the chain is fitted with
some attachment for specific purposes and a reverse bend is re-
quired, the sprocket must be provided with
a gap or gaps to allow
the attachment to pass.

Sprockets. When a driving and driven shaft are connected

by a chain type of transmission, the chain intermeshes with and
operates over toothed wheels known as sprockets. The pitch of
the sprocket teeth depends upon the pitch of the chain used. The
American Standard for roller chains includes pitches ranging
from %inch up to 3 inches.
Pitch Diameter: The pitch diameter of a sprocket (especially
sprockets having a small number of teeth) must not be figured
in the same way as! that of spur gear diameter based on the cir-
cular pitch. For a sprocket, the pitch length of the chain links
must be considered as a chord, whereas the circular pitch of a
gear is measured along an arc.
Pitch **. .packet _
Outside Diameter: The outside diameter may be determined
by the following formula in which O ess minimum outside diam-
eter; P a=s pitch of chain; N = number of sprocket teeth.

The base or bottom diameter of a roller-chain sprocket equals

the pitch diameter minus the diameter of the roller.
Ccdiper Diameter: If a sprocket has an odd number of teeth,
the modified bottom diameter for calipering the sprocket may be
determined by the following formula, in which D
t= the roller

(90\
diameter:

Pitch diameter X cos

-~pj
D
Roller Diameter: The roller diameters equal or approximately
equal Pitch of chain X
0-625 an d range from 0.200 inch up to
1.90 inch in the American Standard.
Sprocket Cutting: Sprocket teeth may be cut (1) by milling
with a formed cutter; (2) by hobbing; (3) on a Fellows gear
shaper. The American Standard includes the dimensions of
formed milling cutters both "space cutters" and the "straddle"
form. The space cutter mills the space between two teeth. The
straddle cutter straddles a tooth and mills both sides, and that
half of the bottom surface adjacent to the tooth on each side.
Space Cutters: Five cutters of this type will be required to
cut from 7 teeth up for any given roller diameter. The ranges
are respectively 7-8, 9-11, 12-17, 18-34, and 35 teeth and over.
 1195 -S
If less than 7 teeth necessary, special cutters conforming to
is
the required numberof teeth should be used.
Straddle Cutters: Two of these cutters (designated as Aand
Z?) will be required to cut from 7 teeth up for any given pitch
and roller diameter. Cutter A is based on 40 teeth and is designed
to be used for 18 teeth and over. The maximum pressure angle
is 32 degrees and the average pressure angle is 23.7 degrees.
Cutter Ais recommended for less than 18 teeth if a large pres-
sure angle is desired and the arc of contact between chain and
sprocket is fairly large. Cutter B is recommended for 17 teeth
and under, or for more than 17 teeth if a low pressure angle is
desired. Cutter B
is based on 11 teeth. The maximum pressure

angle for new chain is 24.1 degrees and the average pressure
angle is 17.6 degrees.
Hobs: Only one hob will be required to cut any number of
teeth for a given pitch and roller diameter.
Fellows Cutters: These are for use on the Fellows gear shaper.
Not more than two will be required to cut any number of teeth
for a given pitch and roller diameter.

Sprue on Drop-Forging. Drop-forgings ordinarily are made

complete while still a part of the bar of stock. To hold the forg-
ing while being worked, a sprue must be provided. The sprue is
the connecting link between the bar of rough steel and the forg-
ing. To form the sprue, a channel is cut from the front end of
the impression to the edge of the die-block. The size of the sprue
should be governed by the weight of the forging, and in all cases
it should be no heavier than is necessary to support the forging
while being worked and trimmed. The gate is an opening in the
front of the die to receive the bar stock.

Spur Gearing. The type of toothed gearing in which the

teeth are formed on the cylindrical surface of the gear blank and
are parallel to the axis of rotation of the gear, is known as "spur"
gearing. The pitch circles of two spur gears in mesh (which are,
of course, imaginary circles) always intersect the common cen-
ter-line at the point where the line of action crosses this center-
line. The term pitch diameter as ordinarily applied to gearing
means that diameter obtained by dividing the number of teeth
by the diametral pitch; both the pitch diameter and the pressure
angle, as these terms are ordinarily applied, relate to the diam-
eter and angle corresponding to standard center-to-center dis-
tances. The root diameter of a gear is the diameter measured at
the bottom or roots of the teeth. The diametral pitch of a gear
is the number of teeth for each inch of pitch diameter, and is
found by dividing the number of teeth by the pitch diameter. The
circular pitch is the distance from the center of one tooth to the
S-1196
center of the next along the pitch circle. (See diagram.) The
chordal pitch is the distance from the center (on the pitch circle)
of one tooth to the center of the next, measured along a straight
line. The thickness of the tooth is generally understood to be the
thickness at the pitch circle.
The chordal thickness of the tooth is the thickness at the pitch
circle measured along a straight line or chord. The addendum of
a gear tooth is the distance from the pitch circle to the top of the
tooth. The dedendum of a gear tooth is the distance from the
pitch circle to the root of the tooth. The working depth is the
depth to which the teeth in a meshing gear enter into the spaces
between the teeth.
The clearance is the amount by which the tooth space is cut
deeper than the working depth.

Spur Gear Tooth Parts

The face of the tooth is that part of the tooth curve that is be-
tween the outside circumference and the pitch circle.
The flank of the tooth is that part of the working depth of the
tooth which comes inside of the pitch circle.

Spur Gear Power Transmitting Capacity. The amount of

power which can safely be transmitted by a pair of gears run-
ning at a given speed depends upon the allowable tooth load.
This allowable load may be determined with reference to the
strength of the teeth or it may be established with reference to
tooth wear.
Lewis Formula: The Lewis formula (introduced by Wilfred
Lewis in 1892) has been used extensively for determining the
power transmitting capacity of gearing. This formula, which is
based upon the beam strength of the teeth, gives very conserva-
tive values especially when applied to high-speed gearing produced
by the accurate equipment now available. All of the factors re-
quired in determining the power capacity of gearing may be com-
 1197 -$
bined into a single formula like the one following which is based
upon the original Lewis formula and gives the same power rating.

PX 55 X (600 + 7)
In this formula,
V BBS velocity in ft. per min. at pitch diameter
S, = allowable static unit stress for material;
;

F = width of face in inches;

T BBS outline factor;
P BBK diametral pitch (if circular pitch is given, divide
3.1416 by circular pitch to obtain diametral pitch) ;
H.P. o=c maximum safe horsepower.

The power-transmitting capacity as determined by the Lewis

formula usually is less than the actual amount which could be
transmitted safely, and in many eases it is considerably below
the actual capacity. This is particularly true of accurate high-
speed gearing. The formula which follows is less conservative
than the original Lewis formula. It is arranged to reduce the
load as the velocity increases by using the approximate equivalent
of the speed factor 1200 -^- (1200 +
7) instead of the factor
600 H- (600 +7).

PX 27 X (1200 + 7)
Diametral Pitch for Given Power Capacity: The preceding
formulas are arranged to indicate the approximate safe power-
transmitting capacity of a pair of gears. In the design of gear-
ing, however, it may be necessary to determine the pitch or tooth
size required for transmitting a given number of horsepower. If
the power rating is based upon the original Lewis formula,
the equivalent diametral pitch P is found by the following
formula:

H.P. X 55 X (600 + 7)
The face width of a spur gear usually equals three to four times
the circular pitch or face width =
circular pitch * ^th k X
varying from 3 to 4. Theoretically, the power-transmitting
capacity increases in proportion to the face width, but this only
holds true within certain practical limits because very wide gear-
ing may not have proper contact throughout the length of the
teeth, possibly because of deflections or imperfect mounting. If
a face width of 4 times the circular pitch is considered satisfac-
tory, then in the following formula k should equal 4. The formula
S-1198
willthen show the diametral pitch required when the face width
equals 4 times the circular pitch.

3,1416
H.P. X 55 X (600 V) +
Load at Pitch Line When gears
and Equivalent Horsepower:
transmit a given number of horsepower, the equivalent load in
pounds at the pitch line is found as follows:

Load at pitch

also, H.P. = - -line ^H.P. x33,000

load at pitch line

3^^
XV
In the second formula, if the load at the pitch line is the allow-
able or safe load as limited either by tooth strength or tooth wear,
then the second formula will indicate the safe or allowable num-
ber of horsepower which can be transmitted. The main problem,
then, in estimating the power capacity of gearing is to determine
the allowable load. This load depends upon such factors as the
material of which the gear and pinion are made, the heat-
treatment if any, the operating speed, the face width within rea-
sonable or practical limits, the pitch of the teeth and their shape
which varies with the number of teeth.

Spur Gear, "Twisted." See Twisted Spur Gear.

Square Engine. This is a term sometimes employed to de-

scribe an engine that has a stroke equal to the diameter of the
piston. For example, an engine having an 8-inch diameter and
8-inch stroke would be an 8-inch square engine.

Square File. This style of file either tapers from the middle
toward the point or is made of uniform cross-section throughout
The taper square file has double-cut, bastard teeth, and is ex-
tensively used in machine shops generally, principally for en-
larging apertures of a square or rectangular shape. The blunt
form also has double-cut bastard teeth and is employed by engine
builders and in the shops of railroads, ship-yards, etc., for the
rougher work in finishing or enlarging mortises, keyways, or
splines, especially when of considerable length.

Square Hole Drills. See Drills, Angular Hole.

Square-Jaw Clutch. This is a positive clutch provided with
teeth having perpendicular or square sides, so
that, when engaged,
the clutch will drive in either direction. Clutches of this
type
cannot be engaged and disengaged readily unless stationary or
revolving slowly.
 1199 -S
Square Measure. 1 square mile &= 640 acres
=
= 6400 square
chains; 1 acre 10 square chains = 4840 square yards
= 43,560 square feet; 1 square chain = 16 square rods = 484
square yards = 4356 square feet; 1 square rod = 30.25 square
yards =272.25 square feet = 625 square links; 1 square yard
s= 9 square feet; 1 square foot = 144 square inches. An acre
is equal to a square, the side of which is 208.7 feet.

Square Root, The square root of a given number or quantity,

is number or quantity which, when multiplied by itself, will
that
give a product equal to the given number. If the given number
is 81, the square root is 9, because 9 x 9 = 81. The sign >/~
indicates that the square root is to be extracted. Thus V =81 9.

Square Thread. The square thread is so named because the

section is square, the depth, in the case of a screw, being equal
to the width or one-half the pitch. The thread groove in a square-
threaded nut is made a little greater than one-half the pitch in
order to provide a slight clearance for the screw; hence, the tools
used for threading square-threaded taps are a little less in width
at the point than one-half the pitch. The pitch of a square thread
is usually twice the pitch of an American Standard thread of

corresponding diameter. The square thread has been superseded

quite largelyby the Acme form which has several advantages.
See Acme Thread.

Squaring Shears. Squaring shears, for cutting sheet tin,

iron, brass, copper, aluminum, etc., are of the foot-treadle or
power-driven types. They have one fixed cutting blade, which is
usually the lower blade and attached to the bed of the machine,
and one movable blade attached to the cross-head or gate which
is guided in vertical slides. Side gages are provided that can be
bolted square with the cutting blades for guiding the sheet metal
for squaring operations, and long bed gages that can be bolted
parallel to or at an angle to the cutting blades, in the front or in
the rear of the machine, for guiding the cutting of the metal to
the lengths required. On power squaring shears the stroke of
the cross-head is controlled by means of an automatic dutch. The
clutch is tripped with a depression of a foot-treadle, and unless
the treadle is kept depressed the motion of the cross-head will
stop automatically at its highest point When the side housings
or frame of a squaring shear is shaped with a throat or gap so
as to permit the handling of sheets of a width greater than the
width of the machine, the shears are known as gap squaring
shears.

Stage. In air compression, the term stage refers to the dif-

ferent steps in which air is compressed in multi-stage compres-
sors, the air being compressed first in one cylinder to a certain
S-1200
pressure and then passed to another cylinder where it is com-
pressed to a higher pressure. It is generally passed through an
intercooler between the two cylinders, where it is cooled to its
initial temperature before the second stage of compression.

Stagger- Feed Press. A punch press equipped with a stagger

feed is so arranged that the punch cuts blanks in a staggered
relation to one another, thus reducing waste and utilizing the
stock to the greatest extent. Such a feed is especially suitable
for the production of such parts as can tops and bottoms and
other small shells. The sheet stock is held in a carrier which
travels past the reciprocating punch. The stagger feed may be
so designed that it is not necessary for the carrier to be returned
to the starting point after punching 4 row of blanks, because the
moment the end of a row has been reached the action of the car-
rier is automatically reversed and the next row may be punched
as the carrier returns to the starting point.

Stainless Iron. The name "stainless iron" is rather mislead-

ing as it relates to a very mild stainless steel which forms the
lowest carbon member of a series of steels of continuously vary-
ing content which are, in many respects, the counterpart of the
series of ordinary carbon steels ranging from "dead soft" to tool
steels. Because of its greater softness, stainless iron forges more
easily than the harder varieties of stainless material; it works
probably as easily as ordinary steel containing about 0.4 per cent
carbon and hence may readily be forged, rolled, or drop stamped.
Stainless Steel. The expression "stainless steel" is a trade
name that has been applied to a low-carbon alloy steel of high
chromium content, which possesses to a remarkable degree the
property of resisting corrosion. The chromium content of ordi-
nary stainless steel may vary from about 9 to 20 per cent. This
steel was originally developed for use in the cutlery trades, be-
cause it neither rusts nor tarnishes when in contact with food
and many fruit acids; hence, the name "stainless." See Corrosion-
resistant Steels.

Stainless Steel Castings. Castings made from stainless

steel possess the corrosion-resisting characteristics common to
stainless iron and steel in sheet and rolled form. Stainless steel
castings are especially adapted for use in the chemical industry
for resisting various acids and chemicals, or wherever castings
are subjected to unusual corrosion or attacks from injurious ele-
ments. Castings of this kind are commonly used for such parts
as valve bodies, pipe fittings, stirring devices for chemical ap-
paratus, chemical still bottoms, centrifugal pump impellers for
water and corrosive chemicals or liquids, and, owing to corrosive
resistance against the action of sea water, for pump bodies, dock
 1201 -$
sluice gates, etc. Most stainless steel castings have a chromium
content ranging from 13 to 18 per cent. Castings of this kind
may be machined readily and fine finishes obtained. The contrac-
tion of stainless castings is somewhat greater than that of ordi-
nary steels and is about 9/32 inch per foot. Very thin flanges
and webs should be avoided if possible. Under ordinary condi-
tions, the minimum thickness should be % inch, although in
special cases thinner sections can be allowed.
One of the most important properties of stainless steel, espe-
cially in connection with the chemical industries, is its immunity
to attack by nitric acid. Steels of this class also resist oxidation
at temperatures of from 1500 to 1800 degrees F. and even higher
temperatures, depending upon the percentage of chromium in the
alloy. Because of this property, stainless steel castings are espe-
cially adapted for certain furnace parts. In this connection, the
chrome-iron alloys offer a high degree of immunity to sulphur
corrosion. In this respect they are superior to the nickel-
chromium-iron compositions in which nickel is the predominating
alloying element, because the nickel is rapidly converted into
nickel sulphide. This immunity to sulphur corrosion is particu-
larly of importance where furnaces are operated with high sulphur
fuel oil or producer gas from high sulphur coals. According to a
manufacturer of stainless steel castings there is a marked
tendency toward grain growth at temperatures exceeding 1500
degrees F. and when the chromium percentage exceeds 20 per
cent, the castings become very brittle and somewhat unreliable
as to physical properties. These defects may be minimized by
the introduction of a small amount of nickel which is of great
benefit for general commercial applications and does not detract
greatly from the corrosion-resisting qualities of the alloy; how-
ever, even small nickel additions are objectionable for parts sub-
jected to nitric acid. If castings are intended for nitric acid
work, the qualities of ductility and machinability are obtained
by keeping the carbon content under 0.20 per cent and annealing
the casting before machining. Castings containing from 16 to
18 per cent chromium have an ultimate tensile strength, accord-
ing to a manufacturer, close to 100,000 pounds per square inch,
whereas castings of higher chromium content (27 to 30 per cent)
have an ultimate tensile strength of 40,000 to 50,000 pounds per
square inch.
Standard Cell. A primary cell used for obtaining a certain
standard value of electromotive force under given conditions is
known as a standard cell. To avoid polarization, standard cells
are usually connected in series with high resistance, so that only
a small current is obtained. Two common types of standard cells
are the Clark and the Weston.
S-1202
Standard Screw Thread. A standard thread conforms to an
adopted standard in regard to the form or contour of the thread
itself, and as to the pitches or numbers of threads per inch for
different screw diameters. A screw thread having either a modi-
fied form or a pitch which is either greater or less for a given
screw diameter than the adopted standard, is special.
Standard of Length. In 1866, Congress passed a law making
and only measure of length that has been
legal the meter, the first
legalized by the United States Government. In May, 1875, repre-
sentatives of various countries signed a treaty providing for the
establishment and maintenance, at the common expense of the
contracting nations, of a "scientific and permanent International
Bureau of Weights and Measures, the location of which should
be Paris, to be conducted by a general conference for weights and
measures, to be composed of the delegates of all the contracting
governments." This bureau was empowered to construct and
preserve the international standards, to distribute copies to the
several countries, and also to discuss and initiate measures neces-
sary for the determination of the metric system, Thirty-one
metric standards were made, and each country contributing to
the support of the International Bureau received copies. The
distribution was made by lot, the United States receiving Nos. 21
and 27. The international meter adopted by the Bureau was de-
clared, by a formal order of the Secretary of the Treasury in
1893, to be the fundamental unit of length in the United States.
The primary standard is deposited at the International Bureau
of Weights and Measures near Paris. This platinum-iridium bar
has three fine lines at each end; the distance between the middle
each end, when the bar is at a temperature of degree C.,
lines of
isone meter, by definition.
The United States yard is defined by the relation, 1 yard t=
3600
meter. The legal equivalent of the meter for commercial

purposes was fixed as 39.37 inches, by law, in July, 1866, and

experience having shown that this value was exact within the
error of observation, the United States Office of Standard Weights
and Measures was, in 1893, authorized to derive the yard from
the meter by the use of this relation. The United States proto-
type meters Nos. 27 and 21 were received from the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures in 1889. Meter No. 27, sealed
in its metal case, is preserved in a fireproof vault at the Bureau
of Standards. No. 21 is occasionally used to verify the secondary
or working standards of the Bureau, and, in special cases, where
the highest accuracy is required, other meters are compared with
it The Bureau also possesses two other platinum-iridium stand-
ards, known as Nos. 4 and 12. The former is divided into millime-
 1203-5
with a special
ters for its entire length, and, in addition, is ruled
line to define the yard. For the routine work of testing, use is
made of secondary or working standards the values of which are
carefully determined by comparison with prototype meter No. 21,
from time to time, to detect any possible changes. These working
standards include multiples and sub-multiples of the meter and
of the yard. See Light Wave as Length Standard.
Metric Equivalent of Inch: The equivalent of the meter as
legalized by the United States Government, according to which
1 meter = 39.37 inches makes the metric equivalent of 1 inch =
25.4000508 -f or practically 25.4 millimeters. The use in indus-
try of 25.4 millimeters as a simplified practical equivalent of one
inch has been approved by the American Standards Association.
This equivalent has also been adopted by industry in Great
Britain (where the legal equivalent of one inch is 25.39998 milli-
meters) and in Germany, Italy, Eussia, Switzerland, Sweden,
and other countries.
Standards of Weights and Measures. Originally the Bu-
reau of Standards was mainly a government agency that pre-
served for comparison and duplication the standards of length
and weight (mass). This function the Bureau still retains, in
addition to its many other activities. In what is known as the
"standard vault" are preserved the national standards of length
and weight. Here is a standard meter made in 1797, and a yard
made about 1830, as well as standard weights dating back to
the early part of the past century. In addition, there are many
standards made at a later date. The length and weight com-
parators are kept in a "constant temperature room," and are used
for fundamental comparisons of length and mass under condi-
tions controlled so that the highest precision can be obtained. The
standards with which comparisons are made can be kept at a
constant temperature within 0.1 degree F. A comparator is also
available for standardizing precision steel tapes, such as are used
in very accurate surveys. The room in which this work is done
can be kept at any temperature from 32 to 110 degrees F. The
Bureau also cooperates with the state and local authorities for
the inspection of trade weights and measures, by annual con-
ferences with the officials engaged in such work, by the distribu-
tion of handbooks relating to the technical details of weight and
measure inspection work, and by consultation and correspondence.
Standard Wire Gage. This refers to the standard British
wire gage, generally abbreviated S. W. G., legalized in Great
Britain by Order in Council, August 23, 1883. It is also known
as the "New British Standard wire gage," abbreviated N. B. S.,
and as the "British Legal Standard wire gage," and the "Imperial
wire gage/*
S-1204
Standard Balance. This is the same as static balance.

Starting Boxes for Motors. See Motor Starters, and Motor

Speed Regulation.

Starting Switches. See Motors, Control Equipment.

Static Balance. If a circular part, such as a cylindrical drum

or pulley, were mounted in bearings in which friction was prac-
tically eliminated, and with the axle in a horizontal position, it
is evident that if one side were even slightly heavier than the
other this unbalanced side would be at the bottom or lowest point
possible when the drum or pulley came to a state of rest. If this
same part were brought to such a state of balance that it would
remain standing when turned about its axis to any position, it
would be in standing or static balance; it doesnot necessarily
follow, however, that this part would be in a balanced state when
revolving, although if it has a running balance it will also be
balanced statically. See Balancing Methods.

Static Electrical Phenomena. The term static is applied to

certain phenomena of an electrical nature which relate to the
charges or electricity at rest, in contradistinc-
effect of electrical
tion to electricity in motion or electric currents. The unit of
electric charge (or quantity of electricity) is called a coulomb
and an electric charge in motion constitutes an electric current.
Any material or object may be made to carry an electric charge
if a and if it is sufficiently in-
sufficient potential is applied to it
sulated from other materials or objects to which the charge might
be dissipated. Such electric charges may be positive or negative,
and bodies carrying like charges tend to repel each other, while
bodies carrying unlike charges are attracted, in each case in-
versely proportional to the square of the distance between the
charges and directly proportional to the product of the charges.
If two elements carrying an unlike electrical charge are sep-
arated by a non-conductor such as air, a so-called electro-static
field or condition of electrical strain is set up in this medium.
If the static charges producing this field become excessive, the
insulating medium whether solid, liquid or gas will break
down and an electric current will flow. This current will be
momentary if the charge is quickly dissipated, or sustained if a
continued potential difference between the two elements is main-
tained, as in the case of a condenser subjected to continued
excessive voltage in an electric circuit.

Static Pressure. See Blower Pressures.

Static Transformer. See Transformer.

 1205 -S
Stayblade Max. Will resist oxidation in air and steam up to
temperatures as high as 1650 degrees F. Said to be easily ma-
chinable. Contains high percentages of chromium and nickel,
as well as titanium and aluminum. Intended for boiler drums,
turbine casings, high-temperature reaction vessels, and other
equipment operating at high temperatures and under great stress.
Also used for blades in high-temperature turbines.

Staybolt. A
staybolt is a bolt used in boilers and locomotives
for supporting or staying the tube sheets. Staybolts are threaded
throughout their length and are inserted in tapped holes in the
inner and outer sheets. The ends are riveted over to tighten
and strengthen the bolt.

Staybolt Iron. A wrought iron used for boiler staybolts, made

entirelyfrom puddled charcoal iron free from any admixture of
iron scrap or steel, having a tensile strength of from 49,000 to
53,000 pounds per square inch.

Staybolt Steel. A steel employed for boiler staybolts, made

by the open-hearth process, and having a tensile strength of from
50,000 to 60,000 pounds per square inch.

Staybolt Taps. A
tap having 12 threads per inch, provided
with a long shank and reamer section, for use by boiler makers
in tapping boiler sheets preparatory to inserting the staybolts.
It is generally driven by an air drill.
Spindle Staybolt Taps: A short tap with a hole drilled through
its entire length, in which a spindle is fitted and acts as a guide.
The tap is used for tapping holes from the inside of fire boxes
in locomotive work
St. Croix Rule. This is a rule employed for finding the board
measure of logs, as follows Deduct 4 inches from the diameter
:

of the log, square one-fourth of the remainder, and multiply the

result by the length of the log in feet; usually the diameter inside
of the bark at the small end is measured.

Steadyrests for Grinding. Practically all parts that are

ground on centers should be supported by suitable steadyrests or
back-rests, as their use will not only obviate chattering, when
properly applied, but permit taking deeper cuts with coarser
feeds and also increase the "sizing power" of the wheel. In
grinding long and slender parts, such supports are indispensable,
and, even for work which is short and rigid, steadyrests are
desirable to prevent vibration, which increases wheel wear and
affects the quality of the ground surface. These supports are
fastened to the table of the machine and are equipped with shoes
of hardwood or metal which bear against the piece being ground.
The number of steadyrests used depends upon the form and
$-1206
diameter of the work. According to a commonly accepted rule,
the distance between the steadyrests should be from six to ten
times the diameter of the part being ground. Some recommend
the use of as many rests as can conveniently be fixed in position.

Steadyrests for Turning, Occasionally long slender shafts,

rods, etc.,which are to be turned, are so flexible that it is neces-
sary to support them at some point between the lathe centers.
An attachment for the lathe known as a "steadyrest," is often
used for this purpose. The common form of steadyrest is com-
posed of a frame containing three jaws that can be adjusted in
or out radially to suit the diameter of the work. The frame is
hinged at one side, thus allowing the upper half to be swung back
for inserting or removing work. A follow-rest differs from a
steadyrest in that it is attached to and travels with the lathe
carriage so that the support remains adjacent to the turning
tool, which is especially important in turning shafting or other
long parts.

Steam. Steam is water changed to a gaseous form by the

application of heat. It may be either saturated, superheated, dry
or wet. Saturated steain is that which is in the presence of, and
at the same temperature as, the water from which it was evapo-
rated. There is always a definite relation between the pressure
and temperature in lie case of saturated steam. For example,
saturated steam evaporated under atmospheric pressure always
has a temperature of 212 degrees F. Steam evaporated under a
pressure of 5 pounds (gage) has a temperature of 228 degrees F.;
under 10 pounds pressure, 240 degrees F.; under 100 pounds,
388 degrees F., and so on. Superheated steam is that which has
been heated to a temperature above that due to its pressure.
Steam is superheated by passing it through pipes or coils exposed
to the hot gases from the furnace, after it leaves the steam space
of the boiler. Engines and turbines are supplied with super-
heated steam, under favorable conditions, in order to obtain a
higher efficiency. Dry steam is that which contains no moisture.
It may be either saturated or superheated. Wet steam contains
more or less moisture in the form of spray; in other ways it
does not differ from saturated steam, having the same tem-
perature at different pressures.
Steam Quality: The percentage of dry steam in steam con-
taining moisture is called the quality of the steam. For exam-
ple, if a pound of a given sample of steam contains 0.04 pound
of water in the form of spray, and 0.96 pound of dry saturated
steam, the quality is said to be 96 per cent. It is very important
to know the quality of the steam when testing a boiler for capacity
and fuel consumption, as water carried over in the form of spray
 1207 -S
has no value for the generation of power in a steam engine, or for
heating purposes. As the quantity of steam evaporated in a
given time is found by weighing the feed water, it is evident
that the moisture contained in the steam will appear in the re-
sult, unless its percentage is known and the necessary correction
made. The proportion of moisture in steam is found by means
of a device called a calorimeter, which forms an important part
of the equipment used in boiler testing.

Steamboat Coal. This is coal consisting of large pieces

which do not pass through screens of 3%-inch mesh,

Steamboat Origin. Although Robert Pulton was not the

first man to build a steamboat,the Clermont, which he constructed
was the first boat that was a commercial success. Much that
Pulton accomplished was undoubtedly due to the ideas he ob-
tained from those whose experiments antedated the construction
of the Clermont. James Eumsey began experimenting as early
as 1785, and a year later John Pitch is said to have constructed
the first steam-propelled craft which met with any degree of suc-
cess in America. It was a most clumsy contrivance, however,
being propelled by gangs of oars arranged in a frame-work at
the sides. The second American steamboat was run by Fitch on
the Delaware at Philadelphia in 1787. In the same year Rumsey
is said to have built the third boat which operated on the Potomac.
The propulsion of this novel craft was accomplished by sucking
in water at the bow and expelling it at the stern a method which
has been tried in recent times. In the two following years Fitch
built two other steamboats, after which Samuel Morey built a
stern-wheeler, which made a trip from Hartford to New York.
Fitch, who had been conducting his experiments on the Delaware
at Philadelphia, came to New York where he operated the seventh
American steamboat.
John Stevens began his work in steam navigation in 1791. In
1798, a steam-propelled vessel was tried on the Passaic River.
The New York Legislature was petitioned by Stevens for a
monopoly of steam navigation, but the petition was not granted.
In 1804 a 68-foot boat, 14 feet wide, fitted with a single-screw
propeller, was built by Stevens and in 1805 a twin-screw boat was
launched on the North River. The machinery of this boat was
afterward placed in a larger boat, the Phoenix, which was
103 feet 3 inches long, 16 feet wide, and 6 feet 9 inches deep.
While the launching of the Phoenix occurred after that of the
Clermont, if one may judge from models, the lines of Stevens*
craft were much superior to those of the Clermont. The engine
also shows greater simplicity. In the spring of 1809, the Phoenix
made a number of trips between New York and New Brunswick,
S-1208
a distance of 37 miles, in 9% hours including stops. It was de-
cided to sail the Phoenix to the Delaware Eiver by way of the
Atlantic and she left New York on June 8, 1809, arriving at
Philadelphia on June 17. Thus was accomplished the first sea
voyage of a steam-propelled vessel. The Phoenix ran as a pas-
senger boat on the Delaware, stopping at Philadelphia, Borden-
town, and Trenton. After running for a number of years over
this route the Phoenix was wrecked at Trenton in 1814.
The original Clermont was built at Charles Brown's shipyard
near Corlear's Hook, New York. According to a letter written
by Fulton to James Watt, she was 175 feet long, had a beam of
12 feet, and a depth of 8 feet. After making four trips the length
was reduced to 150 feet and the width increased to 18 feet. The
propulsion was by paddle wheels, 15 feet in diameter, which were
placed well forward. These were driven by a single-cylinder con-
densing engine of the side-lever type, which was imported from
England, as the facilities in this country at that time for engine
building or similar work were very poor. This engine with its
driving mechanism was located amidships, and was uncovered.
The cylinder was designed for a working pressure of 20 pounds.
The famous voyage of the original Clermont from New York
to Albany began on August 17, 1807. Leaving New York at one
o'clock in the afternoon, the Clermont arrived at the estate of
Chancellor Livingston, at 10 o'clock on Tuesday, having traveled
110 miles in 24 hours at an average speed of 4.6 miles per hour.
On the remaining 40 miles of the journey to Albany, this speed
was increased to 5 miles per hour, making 32 hours the total
time for the trip.

Steam Calorimeter. This is a device used for determining

the percentage of moisture in steam. See Calorimeters.

Steam Dome. A steam dome is the dome-shaped projection

on the top of steam boiler which acts as a reservoir in which the
steam is comparatively dry; hence, the steam for driving an
engine is obtained from the dome. The throttle valve of a loco-
motive is in the dome and the steam flows forward to the cylinders
through a pipe inside of the boiler.
Steam Drop-Hammers. The steam drop-hammer for pro-
ducing drop-forgings is commonly used in preference to the board
drop-hammer for heavy drop-forging operations, especially when
considerable "breaking down" or drawing is required. The
capacity of steam drop-hammers, such as are used for the average
drop-forging work, varies from 2000 to 5000 pounds, and, for
very heavy forging operations, much larger sizes are used. A
steam drop-hammer is constructed along the same general lines
as a steam hammer, although there are certain variations in the
 1209-S
design which adapt the hammer particularly to drop-forging
work. The reciprocating movement of the ram is controlled by
a piston valve and the hammer is double-acting, steam being ad-
mitted above and below the piston the same as with an ordinary
steam hammer. See also Drop-hammers.
Steam Engine Development. The steam engine was the re-
sult of an evolutionary development which was due to the work
of several inventors. Although the most notable improvements
were made by James Watt, considerable pioneer work had been
done previously. In 1690 Denis Papin originated the first cylin-
der and piston type of steam engine, but the scheme was im-
practicable owing to the fact that both boiler and cylinder were
combined in one vessel Thomas Neweomen, in 1705, made a
practical form of piston engine, although it was very crude and
inefficient and simply provided a reciprocating motion. About
1711 Newcomen's engine was introduced for mine pumping, and
by 1725 it was in common use in collieries and continued in use
for about three-quarters of a century. This engine was of the
atmospheric type, depending for its action upon condensation
of steam and the atmospheric pressure.
In 1763, James Watt, an instrument maker in Glasgow, while
repairing a model of Newcomen's engine, perceived the waste of
steam resulting from alternate chilling and heating of the cylin-
der. The result was the origin of the condensing apparatus, in-
volving the use of a separate condenser, cooling water, and an
air pump for maintaining a partial vacuum, Although this was
a notable improvement, the engine was still suitable only for
pumping, as it was a single-acting type with steam admitted dur-
ing the entire stroke. Motion was transmitted from the piston
to the pump rod through an oscillating '*walking beam," but there
was no rotary motion. In a second patent, issued in 1781, the
sun and planet wheels and other methods of securing a continu-
ous rotary motion are described. Watt had invented the crank
and connecting-rod for this purpose, but meanwhile it had been
patented by Pickard; hence, the sun and planet motion was used
by Watt until the patent on the crank expired. In 1782, Watt
patented two additional improvements of great importance. One
was the double-action principle, whereby pressure is applied alter-
nately to each side of the piston, and the other was in using steam
expansively by stopping its admission when the piston had made
only part of its stroke. Henry Maudslay made further improve-
ments in the steam engine by eliminating the cumbersome wooden
walking beam of the Neweomen and Watt engines, and connect-
ing the cross-head and crank direct
Steam Engine Horsepower Rating. The capacity or power
of a steam engine is rated in horsepower, one horsepower (H.P.)
S-1210

being the equivalent of 33,000 foot-pounds of work done per

minute. The horsepower of a given engine may be computed by
the following formula in which P = mean effective pressure per
square inch; L = length of stroke, in feet; A= area of piston,
in square inches ; N= number of strokes per minute = number
of revolutions X 2-

The derivation of this formula is explained, as follows: The

area of the piston, in square inches, multiplied by the mean ef-
fective pressure, in pounds per square inch, gives the total force
acting on the piston, in pounds. The length of stroke, in feet,
times the number of strokes per minute gives the distance the
piston moves through in feet per minute. The pressure in pounds
multiplied by the distance moved through in feet gives the foot-
pounds of work done. Hence, P X X ^ XN gives the foot-
pounds of work done per minute by a steam engine. If one
horsepower is represented by 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, the
power or rating of the engine will be obtained by dividing the
total foot-pounds of work done per minute by 33,000.

Steam Flow. See Darcy's Formula; also Napier Formula.

Steam Flow Meter. See Flow Meter.

Steam Hammer. Steam hammers are used very extensively

for forging operations on both small and large work, hammers
of this kind being made in a large range of sizes. While "power
hammers* 9 are used in preference to steam hammers on certain
classes of work, especially wherever comparatively light rapid
blows are required, the steam hammer is the type that is best
adapted to general forging operations on the heavier classes of
work. The ram of a steam hammer is moved upward by steam
which is admitted below the piston, and downward both by steam
and the weight of the piston, ram, and die. The force of the
blows may be varied by adjusting this throttle so as to admit a
greater or less amount of steam to the cylinder. On small steam
hammers, this throttle valve is sometimes connected to a foot
lever or treadle, so that one man can operate the hammer with-
out an attendant. While most steam hammers are constructed
to run automatically, only the smaller sizes, varying from about
250 to 600 pounds capacity, can be operated to advantage With
a foot lever connecting with the throttle valve. When forging
comparatively small work, one man can hold the part being forged
and operate a foot lever after the controlling lever has been set
to give blows of the required force, but, for heavier work, it is
necessary to vary the blows more than is possible with the autch
 1211 -S
matic operation, and the turning of a heavy piece upon the anvil
requires the entire attention of one man and makes the foot-lever
control impracticable*

Steam Hammer Invention. The steam hammer was invented

in 1889 by James Nasmyth, an English inventor and tool builder.
Before he had had time to build one, the immediate need for it
passed and he did nothing further with it. His sketch, however,
was shown from time to time to various people, among them
M. Schneider of Creuzot, France. In 1842, three years after the
sketch was made, Schneider showed Nasmyth, when in France,
some wonderful forgings, made, he said, on his steam hammer.
Nasmyth was taken out to the forge shop and was surprised to
see the steam hammer which he had invented. Fortunately he
could still cover the machine by patent, and two months later
one was obtained. The history and the influence of the steam
hammer are well known. This tool enormously increased the
facilities in manufacturing heavy machinery.

Steam Hammer Rating. The capacity of a steam hammer

or its rating is the weight of the ram and its attached parts,
such as the piston and the rod. The steam pressure behind the
piston is not considered, as far as the rating is concerned. For
example, a 1000-pound hammer has reciprocating parts of that
weight. The steam pressures for operating hammers usually vary
from 75 to 100 pounds per square inch. The capacity of a steam
hammer or the proper size to use for working iron and steel of
a given cross-sectional area can be determined approximately by
the following rule: Multiply the area of the largest cross-section
to be worked by 80, if of steel, or 60, if of iron, and the product
will be the required rating of the hammer in pounds. For ex-
ample, the capacity of a hammer for working steel billets 5 inches
square would be determined as follows: 5 X 5 t= 25; and
25 X 80 = 2000, which is the rating of the hammer in pounds.
A hammer rated according to this rule is an economical size to
use, and it can be employed for heavier work.

Steam Metal. Alloys suitable for steam valves and other pur-
poses where the metal is exposed to the action of the steam are
often known as "steam metals." Alloys of copper and zinc are
unsuitable for this purpose, because their strength is materially
reduced at high temperatures and the metal deteriorates by con-
tinued heating and cooling. Alloys of copper with from 10 to
12 per cent of tin are, therefore, used for this purpose. A good
composition consists of 88 per cent of copper, 10 per cent of tin,
and 2 per cent of zinc. This alloy has a tensile strength of about
33,000 pounds per square inch, when cold, and over 30,000
pounds per square inch, when heated to 400 degrees F.
S-1212
Steam Pipe Vibration, See Vibration Due to Steam Plow.
Steam Separators. Steam separators are used in steam
power plants in order to intercept the moisture in the steam and
the water of condensation that flows along with it, before the
steam reaches the engine cylinders or turbines, thus protecting
them from damage by water. It is a well-known fact that steam
engines and turbines operate more economically and at higher
efficiency when supplied with dry steam than when supplied with
moisture-laden steam. For this reason, a steam separator will
effect a saving in fuel and also a considerable saving in oil and
engine repairs.
Steam Tables. Steam tables may be found in many engi-
neering handbooks, and in the catalogues of various kinds of
steam apparatus. They give useful data relating to steam at dif-
ferent pressures, and include such factors as: 1. pressure;
2. temperature; 3. heat in water above 32 degrees F.; 4. internal
latent heat; 5. external latent heat; 6. latent heat of evaporation;
7. total heat of evaporation; 8. weight of a cubic foot of steam,
in pounds; 9. volume of a pound of steam, in cubic feet.

Steam Turbine. See Turbine, Steam.

Steatite. Same as Talc.

Steel Abrasives. Steel abrasives are small globules or parti-

cles of steel made by a method that gives them unusual hardness
and toughness. These abrasives are used in a process similar to
that of sand-blasting, the difference being that the abrasive
action is from the steel particles instead of using sand.
Steel abrasives are first made into round globules or shot by
a blowing process. Each globule, after being blown to shape, is
quenched, the rapid chilling giving it a very close dense struc-
ture. A subsequent heat-treatment reduces the chilling strains
set up by the quenching, so that the shot or abrasive will resist
impact and wear in a satisfactory manner.
Chilled shot, being round, is used when work can be cleaned
by shock. The round globules act like numerous ball-peen ham-
mers. The peening action gives satisfactory results in cleaning
rough work, the surface of which is not intended for subsequent
enameling, galvanizing or plating. For work which is to be sub-
sequently treated by any one of the processes just mentioned,
what is known
as angular steel grit is used. Angular grit is
chilled shotbroken down to produce sharp angular corners. The
angular grit retains the original physical properties of hardness
and toughness, but in blasting operations it has the advantage
of producing both impact and actual cutting action. It cuts like
numerous sharp tools, actually removing minute chips from the
 1213 -S
surface being blasted and producing a matte finished appearance.
The coarseness or fineness of the surface can be controlled by
the size of the angular grit used. The fact that steel abrasive
actually cuts, makes possible much more rapid production than
with sand.
The crushing of shot to make angular grit is an expensive
operation due to the rapid wear of the crushing tools. It is also
impossible to control the sizes in the crushing except in a very
limited way, and a certain loss, therefore, results from pulveriz-
ing part of the crushed material into small unsalable sizes. This
loss, together with the actual cost of the crushing operation,
makes the cost of angular grit somewhat higher than of globular
shot. This, however, is offset by its capacity for faster blasting
production and cleaner work.
Steel abrasive, either in the form of shot or angular grit, can
be used over and over again hundreds of times. It is superior
to sand in that it does not break down like sand does, and one
ton of steel abrasive will do the work of a carload of the very
best sand-blast sand. In general, the relative ultimate cost, based
on work produced by steel abrasive as compared with sand-blast
sand, is only about from one-quarter to one-half of the latter.
The nozzles of the blast also last from two to four times longer
with steel abrasives than with sand. The slower wear of the
orifice also effects a big saving in compressed air. The dust due
to ordinary sand-blasting is practically absent, as there is no
dust from the metal abrasives themselves. Much storage space
is saved as compared with that needed for sand, and the handling
charge is very much reduced.

Steel Belts. Endless steel belts are made of thin strips of

sheet steel and are applied to pulleys like leather belts. See
Belts, Steel.

Steel Castings. Steel castings may be defined as unforged

and unrolled castings made of Bessemer, open-hearth, crucible or
electric-furnace steel. Steel castings are especially adapted for
machine parts that must withstand shocks or heavy loads. They
are stronger than either wrought iron, cast iron, or malleable
iron and are very tough. Steel for comparatively small castings
may be made by the Bessemer or crucible furnaces, whereas for
large castings, the open-hearth furnace is preferable. The elec-
tric furnace is now used considerably, some of the larger sizes
being employed in conjunction with open-hearth furnaces and
Bessemer converters which partially refine the charge.
There are two very general classes of steel castings namely,
the carbon steel and the alloy steel. The carbon steel castings
may have a carbon content ranging from 0.05 to 1.70; manganese,
S-1214
from 0.50 to silicon, from 0.20 to 0.75; phosphorus,
1.00;
0.05 maximum; and sulphur, 0.06 maximum. Low-carbon steels
(containing less than 0.20 per cent carbon) may have a tensile
strength ranging from 40,000 to 70,000 pounds per square inch.
High-carbon steels containing more than 0.40 per cent carbon
may have a tensile strength ranging from 70,000 to 120,000
pounds per square inch. The medium-carbon cast steels with a
carbon content varying from 0.20 to 0.40 may have a tensile
strength varying from 60,000 to 80,000 pounds per square inch.
Alloy cast steels contain special elements, such as chromium,
nickel, molybdenum, tungsten, etc. These various alloys, in con-
junction with suitable heat-treatments, make it possible to secure
steel castings having a wide range of physical properties.

Steel Coloring. Amethod of bluing iron and steel, in order

to obtain pleasing color effects, known as the niter process, con-
sists in melting niter or nitrate of potash, also called "saltpeter,"
in an iron pot at a temperature of about 600 degrees F. The
parts to be blued are cleaned and polished and immersed in the
molten nitrate of potash until a uniform color of the desired
shade has been obtained. This requires only a few seconds. The
articles are then removed, allowed to cool, and the adhering niter
washed off in water. If there is no danger of warping, the parts
may be immersed in the water immediately after having been
removed from the nitrate-of-potash bath. The articles are then
dried in sawdust, and linseed oil is applied to prevent rusting.
To secure uniform colors, a pyrometer should be used to gage
the temperature of the nitrate-of-potash bath, because high heats
will produce darker colors, whereas lower heats will give lighter
shades.
Brown Finish: The following formula is for browning gun
barrels and similar steel articles: Alcohol, 1% ounces; tincture
of iron, 1% ounces; corrosive sublimate, 1% ounces; sweet spirits
of niter, 1% ounces; blue vitriol, 1 ounce; nitric acid, % ounce;
and warm water, 1 quart. Dissolve the above ingredients in the
water and keep in a glass bottle. The gun barrel to be treated is
cleaned with potash of soda to remove the grease, and all stains
are then removed with fine emery cloth, so that an even bright
surface is produced. The bore and vent of the barrel are closed
by plugs of wood. The solution is then applied to the surface of
the steel with a sponge and allowed to dry in the air for 24 hours,
after which the loose rust is rubbed off with a steel scratch
brush. Another coating of the solution is now applied, and
allowed to dry in the same manner, after which the scale is again
rubbed off with a scratch brush. Finally the barrel is washed
in boiling water, dried rapidly, and wiped with boiled linseed oil
or given a coat of shellac. See also Gun-metal Finish on Steel.
 1215 -$
Steel, Constituents or Structure. The word "steel" is ap-
plied to many mixtures which differ greatly from each other in
their chemical as well as physical qualities. The ingredient that
exerts the most influence on steel is carbon. High-grade razor
steel contains about 1.25 per cent of carbon; spring steel, 1 per
cent; steel rails, from 0.50 to 0.75 per cent; and soft steel boiler
plate may have as little as 0.062 per cent of carbon. Steel which
is very low in carbon can easily be welded, but it cannot be hard-
ened; when the carbon is above 0.33 per cent, welding is more
difficultand can be done only by the use of borax or some other
flux, or by the electric or thermit processes. Steel with carbon
above 0.75 per cent can readily be hardened. In tool steel, other
ingredients than carbon are sometimes used to influence its hard-
ness, such as nickel, manganese, chromium, tungsten, etc., the
last named playing an important part in so-called "high-speed
steels," that is, tool steels that will cut metal at a high speed
without losing their temper or hardness. Pig iron and cast iron
contain about 4 per cent of carbon, and wrought iron only a trace
of it, while steel is between these two extremes; hence, in the
manufacture of steel, it is important to obtain the right pro-
portion of carbon. One method is to burn the carbon out of pig
iron, as in the Bessemer and open-hearth processes, and the other
method is to add carbon to wrought iron, as in the crucible
process.
First Steel Made in United States: The first steel produced
in the United States, according to the Geological Survey, De-
partment of the Interior, was probably made in Connecticut in
1728, by Samuel Higley and Joseph Dewey. Crucible steel was
firstsuccessfully produced in the United States in 1832 at the
works of William and John H. Garrard, at Cincinnati, Ohio.
Bessemer steel was first made in this country in September,
1864, by William F. Durfee, at an experimental plant at
Wyandotte, Mich., and open-hearth steel by the New Jersey
Steel& Iron Co. at Trenton, N. J., in the same year as the first
Bessemer steel.
Steel Under the Microscope: In annealed steel, the constituents
that are visible under the microscope are ferrite, pearlite, and
cementite. Ferrite is pure iron, and, when carbon is added to
it, each atom of carbon absorbs three atoms of iron, or combines
with it. This carbide of iron is called cementite. Pearlite is an
intimate mixture of cementite and ferrite, in the definite pro-
portions of 82 parts of ferrite to 5 parts of cementite; thus it
contains 0.90 per cent of carbon. Therefore, when the carbon
content of steel reaches 0.90 per cent, a microscopical examina-
tion will reveal only pearlite.Below this percentage, the surface
will show pearlite and ferrite, with the pearlite constantly de-
S-1216

~0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENTAGE OF PEARLITE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
PERCENTAGE OF FERRITE AND CEMENTITE

Fig. 1. Chart Showing Percentage of Carbon

in Steel from Appearance of Micrograph

HARDENING
O TEMPERATURE
DRAWING TEMPERATURES IN
T
,_
ABOVE THE
TRANSFORMATION
POINT

Fig. 2. Constituents of Steel Seen with Micro-

scope and Their Relation to Hardening
and Drawing Temperatures
 1217 -S
creasing until the carbon content becomes nil, and then the sur-
face will be entirely f erritic. Above a content of 0.90 per cent
of carbon, the polished surface of the steel will show both pearlite
and cementite, until a carbon content of 6.6 per cent is reached
when only cementite will be seen. By using the chart shown in
Fig. 1, the carbon content of steel can be calculated from the
view obtained with the microscope. As an example, if 70 per
cent of the area seen in the microscope shows ferrite and 30 per
cent shows pearlite, the vertical line indicating 30 per cent of
pearlite is followed upward until it intersects the diagonal line
that separates the ferrite from the pearlite. The horizontal line
through this point of intersection is then followed to the left to
find the percentage of carbon in the steel. In this example, it
will be 0.270 per cent of carbon.
Etching Reagents: In preparing specimens for microscopical
examination various methods of etching are resorted to for de-
veloping them. The treatment cuts away certain constituents
and makes others stand out in relief. These raised portions re-
semble hills and plateaus, in miniature, which show white from
the reflected light in the microscope; while the portions cut away
are valleys that receive no light and are thus black. In some
cases, constituents are colored by various etching materials and
are thus distinguished by their color. The three most commonly
used etching materials are picric acid, nitric acid, and tincture
of iodine.
Heat Treated Steel: In heat-treated steels, the constituents
ferrite, pearlite, and cementite are replaced by others, and it is
in the heat-treated steels that the microscope has been of the
greatest practical benefit. Many different constituents are
formed as a result of the various degrees of temperature to which
steels are submitted for annealing, hardening, tempering, and
carburizing, and other etching materials have been found to de-
velop them better. The way in which the metal is affected by
each change in temperature is thus revealed. To give the steel
the correct temper, it is first necessary to obtain the greatest
hardness that the metal is inherently capable of attaining, with-
out a coarsening of the grain. As this leaves the steel quite
brittle, it is afterward drawn enough to bring back the desired
amount of toughness and ductility. When steel is being heated,
it reaches a point where it loses its magnetism. If the heat is
measured with a pyrometer, the pointer that indicates the tem-
perature will halt in its upward travel when this point is reached.
This is due to a transformation that is taking place in the steel.
In other words, a new grain structure is being born and the
temperature of the metal ceases to rise until the transformation
is completed and each crystal has absorbed the required amount
S-1218
of heat to effect this change. In most steels this change of
structure occurs below 810 degrees C. (1490 degrees F.), and,
if the steel is quickly reduced to atmospheric temperature, this
new grain structure will be preserved. It is the finest grain
structure that can be produced in the metal and the steel is as
hard as it can be made without coarsening the grain. The con-
stituent in steel which develops when it is heated to the tem-
perature mentioned is known as martensite.
Austenite: If steel is heated above the transformation point
and suddenly quenched, as in ice water, a constituent called
austenite is developed. The grain is also coarsened, and the
higher the temperature, the coarser will be the grain. The line
of demarcation between the crystals becomes more and more
pronounced as the temperature rises, and this indicates a weak-
ening of the metal, as the substance of which these lines are
composed is very hard and brittle. In fact, when the tempera-
ture is increased very much beyond the transformation point,
the internal strains cause microscopic cracks to appear, and these
develop into distinct cleavages between the crystals. Thus, to
quench steels from above the transformation point has a weak-
ening effect, which is due to the separation of the crystals.
Martensite: When the hardening temperature is too high,
austenite and martensite are both developed. When the tempera-
ture is the correct one, however, only the martensite is seen in
the polished surface of the steel. The martensite formation re-
sembles a mass of needles that intersect one another in the direc-
tion of the sides of an equilateral triangle. All steels that contain
more than 0.16 per cent of carbon and have been hardened will de-
velop the martensitic structure. It is easily retained by any of
the hardening and quenching methods ; and is the hardest of all
the constituents formed in the steel and very brittle. The more
martensite that is present, the greater will be the degree of
hardness of the metal.
Ferrite and Troostite: In the low-carbon steels, free ferrite
develops with the martensite, and the lower the carbon content,
the more ferrite will be present. In large steel pieces, the center
is not affected by the heat-treatment as much as the outer por-

tions, and another constituent, known as troostite, is usually in-

termingled with the martensite. The martensitic structure of
hardened steel is changed into troostite by drawing out a part
of the hardness; this is done by reheating it to temperatures
below 400 degrees C. (750 degrees F.). As the drawing tem-
perature rises up to 400 degrees C. (750 degrees F.) the mar-
tensite gradually disappears and troostite takes its place.
Troostite is almost amorphous and generally appears in irregu-
lar areas that are dark colored. It is sometimes slightly granular.
 1219 -S
The white places that appear are needles of martensite, which
remained in the steel because the drawing temperature was not
high enough to convert it all into troostite. Thus it is called a
troosto^rnartensitic steel. The temperature at which the metal
was drawn can be judged from the amount of each constituent
that is present. When a drawing temperature of about 400 de-
grees C. (750 degrees F.) is reached, the martensite disappears
and the steel is then named osmondite; it is the boundary between
troostite and sorbite, which is developed by higher drawing
temperatures.
Sorbite: When the drawing temperature is approximately be-
tween 400 degrees and 800 degrees C. (750 and 1470 degrees F.),
the constituent called sorbite is developed, which reaches its
maximum at 600 degrees C. (1110 degrees F.), and the polished
surface will then be entirely sorbitic. Hardened steels that have
been reheated for tempering to between 400 degrees and 600 de-
grees C. (750 and 1110 degrees F.) will show both troostite and
sorbite, and these are called troosto-sorbitic steels. The amount
of each constituent that is present will show the temperature at
which the steel was drawn. With the drawing temperature from
600 degrees to 800 degrees C. (1110 to 1470 degrees F.), both
sorbite and pearlits can be seen, while above 800 degrees C. only
the pearlite, ferrite, and cementite, of the thoroughly annealed
steels, are visible. The chart shown in Fig. 2 illustrates how the
various constituents overlap each other and how the use of the
microscope enables one to judge the drawing temperature from
the amount of each constituent that is present. Sorbite is softer
and tougher than troostite, and troostite is softer and tougher
than martensite. Pearlite is softer than any of the others, while
austenite is more brittle. Thus, as these various constituents
intermingle with one another, they impart to the steel the hard-
ness, toughness, ductility, strength, or other properties in the
exact proportion to the amount of each constituent that is present.

Steel, Copperized. Tests made by a committee of the Ameri-

can Society for Testing Materials with the cooperation of the
United States Bureau of Standards, together with other data
available, prove that by alloying from 0.15 to 0.25 per cent copper
with normal open-hearth or Bessemer steel, the rate of corrosion
of steel is very much reduced, where the products are exposed
to alternate attacks of air and moisture. Two heats of basic
open-hearth steel were copperized in varying amounts from about
0.01 per cent up to 0.25 per cent; Sheets from different ingots
were made and exposed to the weather for various lengths of
time. The tests proved that very low amounts of copper in steel
tend to lower the corrosion rate. Copper, to the extent of 0.12 pfcr
cent, is said to be sufficient to neutralize the influence of sulphur
S-1220
amounting to 0.055 per cent. Copper amounting to 0.15 per cent
is sufficient to protect steels even if the sulphur content is much
higher than normal.
Steel, Hot-Pressed. See Hot-pressed Steel Parts.

Steel, Classes. See kind of steel or process: Air-hardening

Steel; Carbon Chromium-vanadium Steel; Cobaltcrom
Steel;
Steel; Crucible Steel; Electric Steel; High-speed Steel; Man-
ganese Steel; Molybdenum Steel; Natural Alloy Steel; Nickel-
chromium Steel; Nickel Steel; Spring Steels; Stainless Steel;
Titanium Steel; Tungsten Steel; Tool Steel; Vanadium Steel;
Bessemer Process; Open-hearth Process; Gear Steels; Drop-
forging Steel.
Steels, Normal and Abnormal. The terms "normal" and
"abnormal" are generally used to differentiate between a steel
that will harden 100 per cent hard and a steel that will have
soft spots after hardening in the ordinary way, without the use
of cyanide or salt baths. It has been demonstrated that it is
often possible to harden an abnormal steel 100 per cent hard by
the use of cyanide or salt baths.

Steels, Production. All commercial iron or steel contains

iron as the chijef constituent, but the percentages of carbon and
other elements and the methods by which iron or steel are pro-
duced, as well as the processes to which they may be subjected,
so change the characteristic properties that there are many dis-
tinct forms of iron and steel, some of which have properties so
different as to appear like different metals. Pig iron is the
product into which the iron ore is first converted in a blast fur-
nace. From pig iron, all commercial irons and steels are made.
Wrought iron is produced by what is known as the "puddling"
process. It contains a lower percentage of carbon than other
forms of iron and steel, and is fibrous, ductile, and malleable.
When heated, it can be formed and shaped readily by forging,
and can easily be welded. Bessemer steel is made from pig iron
in a Bessemer converter; hence, its name. Open-hearth steel is
produced from pig iron in a so-called "regenerative" furnace,
the hearth of which is exposed to the action of the flame. Steel
made by both the Bessemer process and the open-hearth process
is used for rails, and also for structural iron shapes. It is also
often known as "mild steel" or "machine steel." When steel con-
tains enough carbon to permit hardening and tempering, it is
known as tool steel. Such steels are made in an electric furnace
or by the crucible process, excepting the lower grades which are
made by the open-hearth process. Alloy steels may be made by
any of the processes mentioned, by adding other metals, such as
Chromium, nickel, tungsten, etc. Cast iron is generally produced
 1221 -S
from pig iron in what is known as a "cupola" furnace. It con-
tains a larger proportion of carbon than any of the other forms
of iron or steel, and is easily cast in molds, but is neither ductile
nor malleable. Steel castings are made from steel, generally
melted in an open-hearth furnace, electric furnace, or a small
Bessemer converter; crucible steel castings are also made. At
one time, there was quite a distinct line of demarcation between
wrought iron and steel, but now these are distinguished mainly
by their physical characteristics, wrought iron having a fibrous
structure, while steel has more of a grain or crystalline structure.
Bessemer and Open-hearth Steels: Most of the steel used at
the present time for structural purposes is made by the open-
hearth process. The tonnages of the Bessemer and open-hearth
processes were about equal in the United States in 1907, but in
1912 the open-hearth furnace produced approximately ttvice as
much steel as the Bessemer converter and since then the open-
hearth process has been gaining steadily and now a large per-
centage of the total tonnage is made by the open-hearth process.
Better grades of structural steel are made in the open-hearth
furnace, and the process produces a more uniform and reliable
steel than the Bessemer, as the operations are under better con-
trol. For additional information on steel-making refer to the
different processes mentioned.
Steelwiaking by Direct Process: The larger portion of the
steel-making pig iron is transported in molten condition from
the blast furnace to the steel mill and is never marketed in the
form of pig iron at all. Similarly, during the initial stages of
rolling steel products, the ingots, blooms, and slabs are merely
intermediate stages in the production of steel and not ordinarily
commercial products. Thus, before the ingot has lost the heat
acquired in producing the steel itself, it has been rolled into a
bloom, a slab, or a billet and is ready to be rolled into some fin-
ished rolled product, such as rails, plates, or structural shapes.
This saving of heat and the use of automatic machinery in
handling these heavy rolled products keep down the fuel and labor
costs; therefore, the prices of the heavy products are largely con-
trolled by the cost of the crude steel. But in the case of light-
rolled products, such as wire rods and sheets, more rolling is
required, with a corresponding loss of heat and greater use of
hand labor; therefore, the prices of light-rolled products are
largely influenced by the fuel and labor costs.

Steels, Strength. The strength of iron and steel varies con-

siderably according to the quality of the material and the treat-
ment to which it has been subjected. Both mechanical working
and heat-treatment have a decided effect on the strength of steel;
S-1222
hence, the strength figures which follow are given only as a
general guide.
Bessemer and open-hearth mild steels have a tensile strength
of about 60,000 pounds per square inch, and a compressive
strength of practically the same value, with a modulus of elas-
ticity of 29,000,000. This class of steel is that used as structural
steel for beams, etc., or as boiler steel for plates. The strength
of alloy steels varies over a wide range, according to their com-
position and heat-treatment. The tensile strength of a low-carbon
3% per cent heat-treated nickel steel may vary from 75,000 to
150,000 pounds per square inch, depending upon the drawing
temperature. Some nickel-chromium steels vary in tensile
strength from 120,000 to 220,000 pounds per square inch owing
to different heat-treatments, and alloy steels in general commonly
have tensile strength variations ranging from 100,000 to 200,000
pounds per square inch.
Steel wire varies in strength according to its condition and
quality. Annealed steel wire has a tensile strength of 80,000
pounds per square inch; unannealed steel wire, 120,000 pounds
per square inch; crucible wire, 180,000 pounds per square inch;
suspension-bridge wire, 200,000 pounds per square inch; plow-
steel wire, 270,000 pounds per square inch; and piano wire,
300,000 pounds per square inch. Since wire is made in small
sizes only, these high values for strength per square inch would
not apply to a bar actually having an area of one inch square.
Effect of Mechanical Working: The strength of a steel de-
pends upon mechanical working as well as upon its chemical com-
position. A plate 2 inches thick is not as strong and tough,
proportionately, as a plate ^4 inch thick, because the thinner
plate is much more thoroughly worked. Excessive working, on
the other hand, lessens the ductility. For instance, the strength
of a steel may be about doubled by drawing it into wire, but the
ductility will be reduced to a very small fraction of 1 per cent.
When steel is "cold drawn" or "cold rolled," as the process is
frequently, although erroneously, called, its tensile strength may
be increased as much as from 20 to 40 per cent and its elastic
limit from 60 to 100 per cent; but its elongation is reduced. By
this process the steel is given a hard skin or shell, but the core
is unchanged. a large proportion of carbon,
If the steel contains
the marner of cooling after working will also have a very im-
portant effect. Sudden cooling or "hardening" has an effect
similar to that of cold working. Steel worked at a blue or black
heat is injured more than if strained when cold. This property
is known as blue shortness.

Effect of Temperature: Varying temperatures have a decided

effect upon the strength of iron and steel. Intense cold raises
 1223 -S
the limit of elasticity of both iron and steel, but does not affect
their tensile strength. It reduces their resistance to impact,
however. With a rising temperature from that of the normal
temperature of 70 degrees F., there is first an increase in strength
and then a rapid drop. Tests have been made to determine the
strength of iron and steel at high temperatures. The results
show that as the temperature is increased, steel, wrought iron,
and cast iron grow stronger up to a certain point. According to
one test, the maximum strength of wrought iron is reached at
450 degrees F., and the corresponding temperature for steel is
525 degrees F. With further increase in temperature, both the
ultimate and elastic strength decrease rapidly. According to
another test, structural steel has a strength of 132 per cent at
400 degrees F., 122 per cent at 570 degrees F., 86 per cent at
750 degrees F., and 28 per cent at 1100 degrees F. Cast steel
has its highest value of strength of 125 per cent at 400 degrees F.,
which is reduced to 121 per cent at 570 degrees F., to 97 per cent
at 750 degrees F., and to 57 per cent at 930 degrees F. These
figures are, of course, subject to variation, but are given in order
to indicate the probable weakening of various irons and steels
with increasing temperatures.

Steel Wire Gage. This gage is used in the United States for
allbare wire of galvanized and annealed steel and iron, and also
for all tinned and spring steel wire. It is also known as the
United States Steel Wire Gage, Washburn & Moen Wire Gage,
American Steel & Wire Co/s Gage, Roebling Wire Gage, and
National Wire Gage. Steel Wire Gage tables may be found in
Engineering Handbooks.

Steel Wool. Steel wool is made by shaving thin layers of

steel from wire. The wire is pulled, by machinery built
special
for the purpose, past cutting tools or through cutting dies which
shave off chips from the outside. Steel wool consists of long,
relatively strong, and resilient steel shavings having sharp edges.
This characteristic renders it an excellent abrasive. The fact
that the cutting characteristics of steel wool vary with the size
of the fiber, which is readily controlled in manufacture, has
adapted it to many applications.
Metals other than steel have been made into wool by the same
processes as steel, and when so manufactured have the same gen-
eral characteristics. Thus wool has been made from copper, lead,
aluminum, bronze, brass, monel metal, and nickel. The wire from
which steel wool is made may be produced by either the Bessemer,
or the basic or acid open-hearth processes. It should contain
from 0.10 to 0.20 per cent carbon; from 0.50 to 1.00 per cent
manganese; from 0.020 to 0.090 per cent sulphur; from 0.050 to
$-1224
0.120 per cent phosphorus; and from 0.001 to 0.010 per cent
silicon. When drawn on a standard tensile-strength testing ma-
chine, a sample of the steel should show an ultimate strength of
not less than 120,000 pounds per square inch.
Stellite. Haynes Stellite is an alloy of cobalt, chromium and
tungsten and is non-ferrous or without iron in its composition.
The hardness of this alloy is not materially affected by heat up
to 1500 degrees F. and it is actually tougher at red heat than
when cold. This important characteristic explains its wide ap-
plication as a cutting tool material. Haynes Stellite works best
when operated at high speed and with a comparatively light feed.
The resistance of Stellite to shocks adapts it to interrupted cuts.
J-Metal: The cutting tool material known as J-Metal is an
improved grade of Haynes Stellite. The use of J-Metal results
either in higher cutting speeds or in greater production between
tool grindings, J-Metal is adapted to various classes of machin-
ing operations on practically all kinds of machinable materials,
excepting chilled cast iron and manganese steel. The hardness of
J-Metal at room temperature is 600 Brinell or Rockwell C, 60-62.
It is important to note that the hardness of J-Metal is practically
unaffected at red heat and this red hardness is considerably
greater than that of high-speed steel.
Haynes Stellite 2400: This is another cobalt-chromium-
tungsten alloy. Gutting tools made of this material have greater
edge strength and longer economic tool life at even higher speeds
than tools made of J-Metal, without reduction of feed or depth
of cut. In fact, the speeds and feeds recommended are from
10 to 50 per cent greater than those for J-Metal. This alloy may
be used for roughing or finishing cast and forged steels, cast and
malleable irons, nitrided, stainless and other alloy steels.

Step Bolt. A step bolt is a bolt similar to a carriage bolt,

except that the head is much flatter, although of spherical form.

Step-Chuck. The step- or "wheel" chuck is a form having

a series of annular recesses or steps of various diameters, for
holding work which must be located very accurately with refer-
ence to its periphery. These chucks are used for work of larger
diameters than could be held in a collet chuck. The part A (see
illustration) is the chuck proper, and the outer member B is
known as the closer, because it serves to close in the chuck as
the latter is drawn back by the drawback spindle of the lathe.

Stephenson Link Motion. The general arrangement of the

Stephenson link motion for operating engine valves is shown
by the accompanying diagram. The principal parts are the ec-
centrics F and B; the eccentric rods JR; and the link L. Each
eccentric is surrounded by an eccentric strap which is free to
 1225 -S

.JO/
Step-chuck and Closer

revolve so that, as the eccentrics rotate, they act the same as

cranks and impart a reciprocating motion to the slide valve en-
closed in the steam chest. Two eccentrics are necessary, if the
engine must run either forward or backward. By means of the
reversing lever A, the end of the forward motion eccentric rod
can be placed opposite the valve rod connection and then the mo-
tion of the valve will be derived from the forward eccentric.
Similarly, when the link L is shifted by means of the reversing
lever and its connections, the backward motion eccentric actuates
the valve, and the direction of movement is reversed. When the
link is either all the way down or up as far as it will go, the
valve is given the maximum travel, and, as the link is shifted
toward the central or neutral position, the travel gradually de-
creases. This feature is taken advantage of in the running of
locomotives, in order to secure greater economy in the use of
steam.

Sterilkote. A synthetic coating for metals that is sufficiently

adherent and elastic to permit bending, drawing, and other press

Diagram of Reversing Valve Gear of Slotted-llnk Type

S-1226
operations without marring the finish. Applied to metal by
spraying or "roller-coating" and then baked. Recommended as a
lining for beverage and food conveyors, since it is odorless, taste-
less, and non-porous. Also recommended for metal surfaces sub-
jected to hard usage such as washing-machine lids, dispensing
cabinets, and laboratory equipment.
Sterro Metal. Sterro metal is the name formerly used for an
alloy consisting of about three parts of copper to two parts of
zinc, with small percentages of iron and tin. This alloy is

generally known as "Delta metal/'

Stiefel Process. In the Stiefel process of producing seamless

tubes a heated billet is passed between the faces of two parallel
disks which impart to it a rotary and a forward motion, thereby
forcing the billet over and against a piercing mandrel. The work-
ing faces of the disks are shaped in such a manner as to cause a
uniform speed of rotation, so that the parallel longitudinal
arrangement of the fibers is not disturbed.
Stocking Cutters. Roughing cutters which are intended pri-
marily for removing surplus stock are sometimes classed as
"stocking cutters." For example, when the pitch of a gear is large
enough to warrant taking both roughing and finishing cuts, a
"stocking cutter" may be used for removing the bulk of the
metal, leaving a small amount on the sides of the teeth for
finishing. Several different types of stocking or roughing cutters
are in use.

Stone-Sawing Strand. For sawing blocks of sandstone,

limestone, or similar soft stone, a wire strand made by twisting
three wires together is used. The sand-sawing strands should
not be used for sawing marble or granite, as they are not suitable
for these harder stones. The strands are made in five different
sizes, varying from %to about 7/32 inch in diameter, the ap-
proximate gage of the wires used varying from No. 16 to No. 12
steel wire gage.

Stone's English Gear Bronze. This bronze is very service-

able for gears and worm-wheels. It is composed of 89 per cent
of copper and 11 per cent of tin. This bronze is very serviceable
for gears and worm-wheels, where the requirements are severe,
and especially when quiet running is an important feature. The
gear made from this bronze should run with well-finished high-
carbon or alloy steel gears. See also Phosphor-bronze.

Stop Mechanism, "Beaver-Tail." See "Beaver-tail" Stop.

Stop-Pins for Dies. The stop-pin on a die is a device for

controlling the position of the stock as it is fed through for each
 1227 -$
successive stroke of the press, so that the spacing of the openings
cut into the stock will be uniform and a predetermined distance
apart. There are many different types of stop-pins, such as the
plain fixed stop-pin, the bridge stop-pin, the simple latch, the
spring toe latch, the side swing latch, the positive heel-and-toe
latch, etc.These devices, with the exception of the first, can be
used with either hand feed or automatic roll feed.

Storage Batteries. Secondary or storage batteries are de-

viceswhich transform chemical into electrical energy which can
be restored again after having been consumed. The unit of the
battery is the cell, that is, a jar or retainer containing positive
and negative plates (electrodes) and a conductive liquid (elec-
trolyte) . The voltage of a cell depends upon the electro-chemical
properties of the materials used for electrodes and electrolyte,
and is independent of the size of the electrodes or the quantity
of the electrolyte; the current capacity of a cell is dependent upon
the surface of the electrodes submerged in the electrolyte. Sev-
eral cells together form a battery. When after a discharge an
external source of electrical energy is connected to the battery,
and current is forced through it in the direction opposite to that
taken by the discharge current, the electro-chemical process of the
discharge is reversed and the battery is gradually brought back
to the same condition it was in when the discharge started. This
process is called charging the battery* The input during charge
must be somewhat greater than the output required at discharge,
on account of various internal losses and on account of polariza-
tion. The rate of discharge of a storage battery is the number
of amperes that it will supply continuously for a given time. All
charging should be done at the rates given by the manufacturer.
Only direct current can be used to charge storage batteries.
Lead-Acid Batteries: This type of storage battery is commonly
used in automobiles, railway train lighting and air conditioning,
and for emergency standby purposes. The cathode is of lead
peroxide and the anode is of sponge lead with a dilute solution
of sulphuric acid as an electrolyte. The so-called Plante type of
battery has a pure lead plate of large area, while the pasted-
plate type has grids of cast lead-antimony alloy with the active
material applied in the form of a paste. This latter type is the
most widely used.
Alkaline Battery: This type of storage battery, also called
the Edison storage battery, is commonly used for railway signal
systems, electric industrial trucks and tractors, police and fire
alarm systems, and other applications where dependability to-
gether with long service life is important. One electrode con-
sists of a nickel-plated steel grid with perforated tubes of similar
material containing the active material nickel oxide. The other
5-1228
electrode is of similar construction, except that pockets are used
instead of tubes and these contain black oxide of iron. The
electrolyte is a solution of potassium and lithium hydroxide in
water.

Storage Battery History. Gaston Plante in 1860 made the

first practical storage battery. This battery was provided with
lead plates immersed in a 10 per cent solution of sulphuric acid
in water. Credit for a most important storage battery develop-
ment belongs to Camile A. Faure, whose United States patent
was issued in 1882. In this battery the lead plates were covered
with red lead, which on the negative plate was reduced to a
metallic lead, while on the other plate it was oxidized to a state
of peroxide, due to passage of a current of electricity. These
actions were reversed when the charged battery was dis-
charging current. The Faure battery consisted of alternate lay-
ers of sheet lead and a paste of red oxide of lead, all immersed
in a 10 per cent solution of sulphuric acid in water. Subse-
quently hundreds of patents were issued to different inventors
covering various improvements. Patents granted to Brush in
1882 and 1883 covered notable improvements.

Storage Battery Ratings. The following S.A.E. standard

specifications are applied only to lead-acid storage batteries for
automotive purposes.
Batteries for combined starting and lighting service shall have
two ratings. The first rating shall indicate the lighting ability
and shall be the capacity in ampere hours of the battery when
it is discharged continuously to an average final terminal voltage

equivalent to 1.75 per cell at the 20-hour rate for passenger car
and motor truck service, and at the 4-hour rate for motorcoach
service. The temperature of the battery at the beginning of such
discharge shall be exactly 80 degrees F., and an average tempera-
ture of 80 degrees F. shall be maintained during discharge with
a maximum variation of 5 degrees F. The second rating shall
apply only to batteries used in passenger car and motor truck
starting and lighting service. This rating shall indicate the
cranking ability of the battery at low temperatures and shall be
(1) the time in minutes when the battery is discharged continu-
ously at 300 amperes to a final average terminal voltage equiva-
lent to 1.0 volt per cell, the temperature of the battery at the
beginning of such discharge being zero degrees F. ; and (2) the
terminal battery voltage 5 seconds after beginning such discharge.

Stove Bolt. This bolt has been so named because of its use
in stove building. It is made in a number of different forms,
either with a round button, or flat countersunk head, the head
 1229 -S
having a slot for a screwdriver and the threaded end being
provided with a square or hexagon nut.
Stove Coal. This coal is in pieces of such size that they will
not pass a screen of 1%-inch mesh, but will pass a screen of
2-inch mesh.

Straddle Milling. When it is necessary to mill opposite sides

of duplicate parts so that the surfaces will be parallel, two cut-
ters can often be used simultaneously. This is referred to as
straddle milling. The two cutters which form the straddle mill
are mounted on one arbor, and they are held the right distance
apart by one or more collars and washers. Side-mills which
have teeth on the sides, as well as on the periphery, are used for
work of this kind.
Straightedges. Straightedges are used to test flat surfaces
for determining whether or not they are true planes, and also for
testing round parts for bends, or curvatures in a lengthwise
direction. A common form of machinists' straightedge is of
rectangular section. In order to increase the sensitiveness of a
straightedge for showing minute deviations or curvatures, the
testing edge is made narrower by beveling one side, thus decreas-
ing the width to about 1/16 inch. For work requiring extreme
accuracy, the type known as a knife-edge straightedge is used.
The testing edge is very narrow and is of semicircular cross-
section so that a line contact is obtained instead of a surface
contact, as with the form having flat edges. This line contact
shows any minute curvature which may exist, and as the edge
is curved, the accuracy of the test will not be affected if the
straightedge is not held exactly at right angles to the surface
being tested.

Straight-Line Motions. A combination of links arranged to

impart a rectilinear motion to a rod or other part independently
of guides or ways is known either as a straight-line motion or a
parallel motion, the former term being more appropriate. Mech-
anisms of this type were used on steam engines and pumps of
early designs to guide the piston-rods, because machine tools had
not been developed for planing accurate guides. The principal
application of straight-line motions at the present time is on
steam engine indicators for imparting a rectilinear movement to
the pencil or tracing point. Very few straight-line mechanisms
produce a motion which is absolutely straight, and the general
practice is to so design them that the guided part will be on the
line when at the center and extreme ends of the stroke.

Straight-Sided Power Presses. Presses of this type have

neither a gap nor arch in the frame but, as the name implies,
S-1230
have a straight-sided frame. This style is suitable for heavy blank*
ing, piercing, forming, redrawing, reducing, and bending. This
type of press was originally designed for trimming drop-forgings
while either hot or cold. What are known as straight-sided trim*
ming presses are equipped with side cut-off attachments consist-
ing of an outer slide operated by a pitman connecting with a
crank at the outer end of the main crankshaft. This outer slide
may be used either for punching holes or for cutting off and
trimming. Embossing is often done on straight-sided presses.
The term "straight-sided" also implies that the press has a single
crank.

Strain Theory, Maximum. See under Stress Theories.

Stranded Conductor. In electricity, this is a conductor com-
posed of a group of wires or a combination of groups of wires
twisted or braided together, but not insulated from one another.
One wire or group of wires in a stranded conductor is a strand.
Stranded Conductor Sizes. According to the Standardiza-
tion Rules of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers,
the sizes of solid wires shall be stated by their diameter in mils,
the American Wire Gage (Brown & Sharpe) sizes being taken as
standard. The sizes of stranded conductors shall be stated by
their cross-sectional area in circular mils. For brevity, in cases
where the most careful specification is not required, the sizes of
solid wires may be stated by the gage number in the American
Wire Gage, and the sizes of stranded conductors smaller than
250,000 circular mils (i.e., No. 0000 A.W.G. or smaller) may like-
wise be stated by means of the gage number in the American
Wire Gage of a solid wire having the same cross-sectional area.
Furthermore, an exception is made in the case of "flexible
stranded conductors." (Conductors of special flexibility should
ordinarily be made with- wires of regular A.W.G, sizes, the num-
ber of wires and size being given. The approximate gage number
or approximate circular mils of such flexible stranded conductors
may be stated.) In stating large cross-sections, it is sometimes
convenient to use a circular inch (507 sq. mm.) instead of
1,000,000 circular mils.
According to the American Standard Specification for Bare
Concentric Stranded Copper Cable for general use in the manu-
facture of covered or insulated conductors, there are five class
designations :
AA for special cable, also commonly used for bare overhead
conductors.
A for weather-resistant (weatherproof) ; slow burning;
and slow burning, weather-resistant (weatherproof)
cable.
 1231 -S
B for cable insulated with various materials such as
rubber, paper, varnished cloth, asbestos, asbestos-
varnished cloth, and for cable indicated under
Class A where greater flexibility is desired.
C&D for cable where more flexibility is desired than in
previous classes.

The size and number of conductors for each size of cable is

specified in this standard for each of these various classes of cable

Stranded Wire. A group of small wires, used as a single

wire is called a "stranded wire." There is no sharp dividing line
of size between a stranded wire and a cable. If used as a wire,
for example in winding inductance coils or magnets, it is called
a "stranded wire" and not a cable. If it is substantially insulated,
it is called a "cord."

Strap Cam, This is a cam often used for the operation of

automatic screw machines, in which guide strips or straps are
bolted to a cylindrical drum in order to provide the required cam
surface. The object of the strap cam is to make it possible to
easily change the action of the cam by moving the straps to
different positions on the drum or by replacing them when a
different shape is required.

Strenes Metal. A
chromium-nickel-molybdenum alloy that
can be cast to shape, eliminating a large amount of machine work
and stock removal. Up to 500 hours of machining time has been
saved by the use of this metal for a single large die. In the plant
of a refrigerator manufacturer, dies from this metal are said to
have produced more than 1,350,000 refrigerator top stampings
from 0.050-inch material. Suitable for drawing and forming
dies, punches, forming pads, and draw- or pressure-rings.
Strength of Materials. See kind of material
Stress Definitions. A stress is a force acting within a ma-
terial or machine part resisting deformation. Aload tends to
produce deformation and is resisted by the stress which it cre-
ates within the body. A working load is the maximum load
applied to a material under ordinary working conditions. A
working stress is the stress produced in the material by the work-
ing load. A safe working stress is the maximum permissible
working stress under given conditions, as for example, for a
certain material. The total stress is the sum of all the stresses
caused at one section of the body, irrespective of its area in
square inches; whereas the terms stress, working stress, or in-
tensity 'of stress generally mean the number of pounds stress per
square inch of section.
S-1232
Stresses, Compound. See Compound Stresses.

Stresses, Fatigue. See Fatigue Stresses.

Stress Theories. If a part must be designed to withstand

compound stresses, it is essential to consider thecombined effect
of such stresses upon the safe-load capacity of whatever part is
being designed. Opinions differ, however, as to the theory upon
which formulas for combined stress calculations should be based.
Three principal theories have been advanced. These are (1) the
maximum strain theory; (2) the maximum stress theory; and
(3) the maximum shear theory. Formulas based upon all of these
theories are in use, and while the results obtained by these formu-
las may differ considerably, the factor of safety is ordinarily
large enough to more than compensate for whatever differences
or inaccuracies may be due to the particular formula employed.
It does not follow, however, that these different formulas for
compound stresses may be used interchangeably for all classes of
work. For example, a formula based upon the maximum shear
theory applies only to ductile material, such as steel, and would
be unsuitable for cast iron. It is claimed, however, by some in-
vestigators that the maximum shear theory for its particular field
of application is more accurate than the older theories.
Maximum Strain Theory: According to the maximum strain
theory, failure occurs when the maximum unit deformation or
strain in the piece reaches a certain critical value; hence, the
stresses as measured by deformations or the "true stresses"
should be considered. In other words, this theory supposes that
the thing which causes failure and which must be used as a
criterion for safety is the amount of deformation or strain. With
a modulus of elasticity, E, of 30,000,000 there is a deformation
or strain of 0.001 inch in every inch of length with a simple
stress of 30,000 pounds. If now 30,000 pounds is the elastic limit,
then when we have compound stresses, failure will begin to occur
whenever the net strain due to the action of all the stresses to-
gether becomes 0,001 inch per inch. This theory is generally
credited to Saint-Venant but he attributed it to Mariotte. It is
used to a considerable extent in Europe, and to some extent in
the United States.
Maximum Stress Theory: The maximum stress theory sup-
poses that failure and elastic limit are purely matters of stress in
a given direction regardless of the existence of stresses in other
directions. That is to say, if a stress of 30,000 pounds is the
elastic limit for a simple stress in a testing machine, it will also
be the elastic limit in any case of compound stresses if the stress
in one direction is 30,000 pounds and regardless of the existence
of lesser stresses, whether tension or compression, in directions
 1233 -S
at right angles. According to Rankine, the yielding of a material
subjected to combined stresses depends entirely upon the maxi-
mum apparent normal stress, and is independent of the apparent
shear or other stresses which may act at right angles to it. It
has been established, however, that ductile materials such as
shafting steels generally fail in shear and not in tension or com-
pression, the latter being the fundamental assumption of the
maximum-prineipal-stress theory; consequently this maximum
stress theory cannot be applied to such cases. For brittle ma-
terials, on the other hand, failure may, or may not take place in
tension and this theory or a modification thereof may apply.
Maximum Shear Theory: The third and more modern theory
of elastic failure is based on the fundamental assumption that
the maximum intensity of shear in a ductile material is the factor
which determines elastic failure. This maximum-shear theory
agrees very nearly with the results of tests for ductile materials
and is coming more and more into favor. Any case of direct
tension or compression produces a tendency to slide and the fail-
ure is due to this. A compression failure illustrates this directly.
A tension failure if carefully examined will show the same point.
It was also known for many years before Guest's publication of
the maximum shear theory, that at about the time the elastic
limit was reached in a tension specimen, lines at an angle of
45 degrees began to appear, indicating failure by shear. This
indicates that failure by tension and failure by compression are
really only different aspects of failure by shear. Failure means
the beginning of sliding which is not recovered when the stress
is removed and gives permanent set, thus indicating the "elastic
limit." It follows, therefore, that the elastic limit will be the
same for tension as for compression. This is true for steel and
other ductile materials and is in itself a point of evidence in
favor of the maximum shear theory.
Cast iron has no elastic limit and the actions referred to do
not occur, so that elastic failure does not exist in cast iron as
called for by the maximum shear theory. As is well known, the
action of cast iron is quite different in tension and compression.
Some experimental work on cast iron indicates that rupture with
compound stresses occurs when the maximum stress reaches the
value causing rupture with simple tension. This, of course, may
not mean that a safe compound stress with cast iron occurs when
the maximum stress reaches the safe value for tension.
Rules for Maximum Shear Theory: The following rules should
be used in determining failure according to the maximum shear
theory.
When there are stresses in two directions at right angles, with
no stress in the third direction, and with both stresses of the same
$-1234
kind, that is, both compression or both tension, the equivalent
simple stress is equal to the greater of the two stresses. In this
case the maximum stress theory gives exactly the same results.
When there are stresses in two directions at right angles, with
no stress in the third direction, and with the stresses of opposite
kinds, that is, one tension and one compression, the sum of the
numbers giving the two stresses gives the equivalent simple
stress. That is to say, if we have tension of 10,000 pounds in one
direction and compression of 5000 pounds in another direction,
the situation so far as failure is concerned is exactly the same
as if we had a simple stress in a testing machine of 15,000
pounds per square inch.
When there are stresses in all three directions at the same
time and all of the same kind, that is, all tension or all com-
pression, we subtract the minimum from the maximum of the
three stresses to obtain the equivalent simple stress.
When there are stresses in three directions at the same time,
one or more tension and one or more compression, the sum of the
numbers giving maximum compression and maximum tension
stress gives the greatest equivalent simple stress.
In the case of a beam at the point of maximum stress there is
usually stress in a single direction, so that this stress is a simple
one and we need make no use of the maximum shear theory. In
case of a rotating shaft subject to bending and twisting at the
same time, that bending moment, which, if existing alone, would
give the same conditions so far as failure is concerned, is the
square root of the sum of the squares of the actual bending and
twisting moments as shown by the Guest formula. This is also
equal to that twisting moment which, if existing alone, would
give the same conditions so far as failure is concerned. In the
case of a rotating wheel, such as a turbine disk, there are radial
and tangential stresses which are both tensile stresses; hence,
the greater of the two gives the equivalent simple stress, the
same as if the maximum stress theory were used.

Stretch-Forming Sheet-Metal Parts. The stretch-forming

process, which is utilized extensively by aircraft manufacturers,
consists, briefly, in gripping and restraining a sheet or strip along
two of its sides or ends (depending upon the shape of the un-r
formed blank and required contour) and then subjecting it to
the pressure of a punch of the required contour. The forming is
done merely by stretching the sheet around the punch and with-
out the use of a die. The pressure of the punch must be sufficient
to stretch the material within its plastic range so that, when it
conforms to the shape of the punch, excessive spring-back or dis-
tortion upon release will not occur. Since the sheet is gripped
along two sides only, the stretching naturally occurs in one direc-
 1235 -S
tion, and this principle is applied even when a contour must be
formed both crosswise and longitudinally. In cases where a part
has a double contour consisting, for example, of a deep curvature
in, say, a crosswise direction and a shallow curvature in the
longitudinal direction, the general rule is to grip or restrain the
edges which are parallel to the shallow contour. In other words,
the sheet is restrained in the direction of the deeper curvature or
contour. In all stretch-forming operations, the object is to stretch
the material just enough to obtain a permanent set, thus avoid-
ing excessive strain or rupture. The stretching action occurs
throughout the thickness of the sheet; hence spring-back of the
material is minimized.

Striking Points. Striking points are marks made on the guide

of an engine to show where a special mark made on the cross-
head would register with them if the connecting-rod was of such
length that the piston would just strike the cylinder head at the
corresponding end of the stroke.

String Forging. String forging is the process of forging a

number of similar parts at once by means of dies having a
number of depressions side by side.

String Milling Fixture. The term "string milling fixture" is

often applied to that class of fixture in which the castings are
placed in a row on the milling machine table, extending in a
direction parallel to the line of travel of the table. With such an
arrangement, provision is made for milling all of the castings
with a single cutter, or gang of cutters, mounted on the arbor.
In some cases, however, it may be found more desirable to set
up the work in fixtures that provide for holding the castings or
forgings side by side, instead of end to end.

3r Plates. When punches and dies are used to per-

forate "sheet stock, the latter will be carried upward when the
punch ascends, unless there is some device to prevent this. The
simplest arrangement for stripping the stock from the punch and
one that is applied to most blanking dies, consists of a plate which
is attached to the die and has an opening for the punch to pass

through. Beneath this stripper plate there is a passageway or

opening through which the stock is fed. Obviously, the space
between the die-face and stripper plate must be greater than
the thickness of the stock in order to permit the latter to be fed
along easily. As the result of this play between the stripper
plate and the die, the stock is distorted to some extent by the
action of the punch. This distortion, in many cases, does not
cause trouble, especially when the die simply cuts out plain
blanks, but when a follow die is used and flat accurate blanks
S-1236
are required, or when the operation is that of piercing a number
of holes in sheets or flat plates, it is often necessary to hold the
stock firmly against the die while the punches pass through it,
in order to prevent any wrinkling or buckling.
One method of preventing the stock from being wrinkled or
distorted by the action of the punch consists in attaching the
stripper plate to the punch-holder instead of to the die. Owing to
the tendency that stationary stripper plates attached to dies have
to distort pierced sheets, etc., some presses are equipped with
cam-actuated stripper plates. The stripper plate moves up and
down with the punches, so that the latter can be made shorter
than would be possible with a stationary stripper, thus increasing
their rigidity and durability. This method of stripping the stock
is particularly adapted for gang punching and perforating opera-

tions, especially when the punches are small in proportion to the

thickness of the stock and when it is essential to guide them close
to the surface of the work.

Stroboscope. The stroboscope is an instrument, by the aid

of which an observer may examine a point on a fast revolving
mechanism, by a series of quick successive glimpses at that point,
thus giving the mechanism the effect of being stationary. Dur-
ing the brief period of each glimpse, an impression is made on
the retina of the eye, which remains until it is followed by the
next glimpse, the whole succession of glimpses being woven into
a continuous picture; the phenomenon is known as "persistence
of vision."
The earliest form of stroboscope consists of a disk with a
single hole in it, the disk being rotated in front of the mechanism
to be examined, and at the same speed as the mechanism. Once
every revolution the hole will come in the line between the ob-
server's eye and the mechanism, giving the stationary effect.

Strontium. Strontium is one of the metallic chemical ele-

ments, the symbol of which is Sr, and the atomic weight, 87.63.
The metal has a silver-white color. The specific gravity is 2.54.
The melting point is at 830 degrees C. (1525 degrees F.).
Strontium is found in small quantities in various rocks and soils,
and in mineral waters. It is a ductile metal which oxidizes rapidly
in the air and which burns when heated in the air or in oxygen.

Structural Shapes. Steel rolled to standard sections is widely

used in building construction and in the manufacture of rail-
way cars, agricultural implements, automobiles and numerous
other products. By using a standard shape which is on the
market and is adapted to a given structure or design, it is often
possible to secure a stronger, lighter construction and a reduc-
 1237 -S

Structural Steel Shapes Commonly Used

tion of manufacturing cost. Shapes which have been widely

used are shown in the accompanying illustration. There are
many other more or less special shapes for use in the agricultural,
automotive, railway car, ship-building and other large industries.
Structural Beams: The structural or I-beam section is shown
at A. The depths of these beams ordinarily range from 3 to
24 inches, although these figures and others to follow are intended
to give a general idea of the minimum and maximum sizes ordi-
narily rolled, but they do not in all cases represent the absolute
limits. The weights per foot vary from 5.7 pounds to 120 pounds
for the small and large sizes mentioned. Each size, however,
is made in different weights. There is also some variation in
flange widths.
Channels: Structural channels (#), ordinarily range in depth
from 3 to 18 inches, with weights per foot varying from about
4 to 58 pounds. Each channel size is made in three or four dif-
ferent weights. There is also some variation in flange widths.
Ship-building channels have the same general shape as the
structural channels but are somewhat lighter. Car-building
channels (C) have wider flanges in proportion to the depth.
Angles: Equal angles (10 vary ordinarily in size from 1 by
1 inch up to 8 by 8 inches.The small size varies in weight from
0.8 to 1.49
pounds per foot,and the 8 by 8-inch size from 26.4 to
56.9 pounds per foot. Unequal angles (#) vary from 1% by
S-1238
1% inches up to 6 by 8 inches and each size is made in a wide
range of weights. "Square root" angles are similar to equal
angles except that each section of the former is rectangular,
there being no fillet at the intersection or rounding of the outer
corners.
Butt* Angles: Ship-building bulb angles CF) range from a 2%-
by 1%-inch up to the 10- by 3%-inch size. The minimum
size
size mentioned weighs 2.66 pounds per foot and the large sizes
either 33.2 or 35.2 pounds per foot. All except the very small
sizes are made in two or three different weights.
H-beams: An H-beam section (G) is similar to the I-beam
except that the flange width is equal to the beam depth. One
large steel imU lists a minimum size of 4 by 4 inches and a
maximum size of 8 by 8 inches.
Tees: Equal tees (IT) range in size from 1 by 1 inch up to
by 6% inches, and with weights per foot of 0.89 pound and
19.8 pounds, respectively, for the two sizes mentioned. Unequal
tees (7) may have a flange width which exceeds the stem (verti-
cal section) depth, or this order may be reversed.
Zees: The flange widths and web heights of zees (/) range
from 2 11/16 by 3 inches up to 3% by 6 inches. The smallest
zee mentioned weighs either 6.7 or 8.5 pounds per foot and the
largest, from 29.4 to 34.6 pounds per foot. There are three
different weights for each size excepting the very small sizes.
Railroad Rails: Railroad rails ordinarily vary in weight from
75 or 85 pounds per yard up to 140 or 150 pounds per yard.
Weights from 90 to 110 pounds per yard have been used exten-
sively; but on the main lines of the more important railroads
where traffic is heavy, the weights may range from 120 to
150 pounds. The height of a 90-pound rail usually is about
5% or 5% inches, with flanged widths of 5% and 5% inches.
The height of a 150-pound rail is 7% inches, with a flanged
width of 6% inches. According to A.S.T.M. standard specifica-
tions, rails are made by the open-hearth process and of carbon
steel. The carbon content increases as the weight of the rail
increases. For weights from 70 to 84 pounds per yard, the carbon
content is 0.53 to 0.70, whereas, for weights from 121 to
140 pounds per yard, the carbon content ranges from 0.69 to
0.82. The manganese content for the 70- to 84-pound rails is
0.60 to 0.90; and for the 121- to 140-pound rails, 0.70 to
1.00 per cent

Structural Steel. Under the heading structural steel are in-

eluded steels made either by the open-hearth or the Bessemer
process, rolled to standard shapes suitable for structural pur-
poses, and containing a smaller amount of carbon than that
usually found in crucible or tool ateel.
 1239 -$
Structural Attoy Steels: When plain carbon steels are used
for construction purposes, chemical analysis and tensile tests
prove, in general, a fairly satisfactory indication of suitability,
especially when the question of weight of construction is not of
particular importance ; however, the advent of high-powered ma-
chinery, and especially of automobiles and airplanes, has resulted
in a demand for material that will withstand exceptionally high
stresses, and the question of lightness is of prime importance.
These demands have created a wide market for alloy steels which,
incidentally, are used nearly always in the heat-treated condition.
The study of alloy steels, and the specific influence of the metals
entering into them involves, in addition to chemical and tensile
tests, microscopic methods of examination, impact tests, vibra-
tory tests, and various other tests, the object in each case being
to reveal some new information that will assist the engineer in
designing for maximum efficiency and light weight
S.A.E. Standard Steels: The standard steel compositions of
the Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., include a large variety
of both carbon and alloy steels. These steels are considered ade-
quate for practically all parts made of ferrous materials that are
necessary for the production of automotive apparatus, and in-
clude grades that have been found commercially available and
technically adequate for the service required of such parts. Defi-
nite applications of S.A.E. steels are not specified as the selection
of a proper steel for a given part must depend upon an intimate
knowledge of a number of important factors, such as the avail-
ability and price of the material, the detailed design of the part
and the severity of the service to be imposed, whether the part
is to be forged or machined, machinability, and the method of
manufacture.
Low-Alloy Structural Steel: The low-alloy structural steels
now used in the construction of transportation equipment to re-
duce weight and increase the pay load differ from the more
familiar types of alloy steels, such as the S A
E series, in that
they can be employed to advantage in the "as-rolled" condition.
These low-alloy structural steels, of which Mayari R, produced
by the Bethlehem Steel Co., is an example, are used without
heat-treatment, except for the customary annealing of sheets.
Their composition is selected to produce a material that will not
harden appreciably in rapid cooling, so as to insure that thin
sections and welds, or the steel adjacent to welds, will not harden
and require heat-treatment, with its resulting increase in cost.
Although the strength of these steels is appreciably higher than
that of ordinary structural steel, it must not be excessively
high, because of the fabricating difficulties that would be
encountered.
S-1240
The composition of Mayari R steel was selected to give the
following properties: (1) A strength appreciably in excess of
ordinary structural steel; (2) good hot- and cold-working proper-
ties; (3) good welding characteristics; (4) little tendency to
harden on rapid cooling; and (5) high resistance to atmospheric
corrosion.
To attain such a combination of properties, it is necessary
that the carbon content be held low and that the increased
strength be obtained by the use of elements other than carbon.
The carbon content of Mayari R was, therefore, fixed at approxi-
mately 0.10 per cent, and the required strength and corrosion
resistance are obtained by the addition of nickel, chromium,
manganese, silicon, copper, and phosphorus.
Extensive research has indicated that Mayari R steels within
the following ranges of composition have a minimum yield point
of 50,000 pounds per square inch, a minimum tensile strength of
65,000 pounds per square inch, and meet the other requirements
outlined: Carbon, 0.08 to 0.20 per cent; manganese, 0.50 to
1.00 per cent; phosphorus, 0*04 to 0.12 per cent; sulphur,
0.05 maximum; silicon, 0.05 to 0.50 per cent; chromium, 0.20 to
1.00 per cent; nickel, 0.25 to 0.75 per cent; and copper, 0.50 to
0.70 per cent. Tests of several years duration have shown that
the corrosion resistance is about six times that of plain steel.

Structures, Vibration. See Vibration of Structures.

Strut. In engineering, a strut is a structural member the
length of which is considerable in proportion to its width, depth,
or diameter. See Column.

Stub's Iron Wire Cage. Same as Birmingham Wire Gage.

Stub's Steel. Stub's steel is used for small pins, studs,
shafts, screws, etc., requiring strength and toughness. It can
be easily machined and hardened, and has a bright finish. As a
general rule, Stub's steel may economically be used where the
largest diameter does not require further machining. Weight,
0.283 pound per cubic inch; 489 pounds per cubic foot.
Specific
gravity, 7.85. Strength: tension, 70,000 pounds per square inch.
Melting point, 2600 degrees F.
Stub's Steel Wire Gage. This gage is used for drawn steel
wire or drill rods of Stub's make, and also by a number of Ameri-
can drill rod manufacturers. It differs from Stub's iron wire
gage which is the same as the Birmingham Wire Gage. The
gage sizes may be found in MACHINERY'S Handbook.
Stub-Tooth Gears. Most gears used in general machine
construction have a total depth equal to 2.157 divided by diametral
pitch. The stub-tooth form has less depth. There are different
 1241 -S
standards for stub teeth. The American Standard has a total
depth equal to 1.8 divided by the diametral pitch (see Gear Tooth
Standards, American 20-Degree Stub-tooth).
Fellows System: The stub gear teeth introduced by the Pel-
lows Gear Shaper Co. are based on the use of two diametral
pitches. One diametral pitch, say, 8, is used as the basis for
obtaining the dimensions for the addendum and dedendum, while
another diametral pitch, say, 6, is used for obtaining the dimen-
sions of the thickness of the tooth, the number of teeth, and the
pitch diameter. Teeth made according to this system are desig-
nated as 6/8 pitch, 12/14 pitch, etc., the numerator in this frac-
tion indicating the pitch determining the thickness of the tooth
and the number of teeth, and the denominator, the pitch de-
termining the depth of the tooth. The clearance is made greater
than in the ordinary gear-tooth system and equals 0.25 -4-
diametral pitch. The pressure angle is 20 degrees.
Nuttall System: In a system of stub gear teeth originated by
C. H. Logue of the K. D. Nuttall Co., the tooth dimensions are
based directly upon the circular pitch. The addendum is made
equal to 0.250 X the circular pitch, and the dedendum equal to
0.300 X the circular pitch. The pressure angle is 20 degrees.

Studs. Studs or stud-bolts are cylindrical pieces having a

thread on each end. A stud differs from a cap-screw in that a
nut is substituted for a solid head. One end of a stud, as shown
at t (see illustration), is for insertion in a tapped hole and the
longer threaded end n is for receiving
one or two nuts, a second lock-nut
sometimes being used to hold the
other in place. The thread on the
short end is usually a little oversize
to make it fit tightly into the tapped
hole. The nominal length of a stud is
Stud of Common Form the same as the total length. Studs
are extensively used for holding cyl-
inder heads, steam - chest covers, and similar parts in position,
the nuts on the outer ends clamping the head or cover against
the part into which the studs are screwed.
Studs and Cap-screws: Studs are preferable to cap-screws for
holding cylinder heads, covers, etc., for the following reasons:
(1)A stud and nut can generally be screwed tighter than a cap-
screw because of better alignment, smoother threads, and re-
duced effect of torsional elasticity. (2)A stud and nut are less
likely to break than a cap-screw, when making repairs. In case
a nut is rusted fast on a stud, it can be split with a cold chisel,
but a cap-screw "seized" in the easting may be twisted off. This
means that the broken part must be drilled out and a new cap*
S-1242
screw provided to take its place. The loss of time and extra
labor incident to breakages of cap-screws are important disad-
vantages when making repairs. (3) Covers secured with nuts
and studs can be loosened and tightened without serious deteri-
oration of the fastening means. The nuts on studs can be
loosened many times without "appreciable wear of the threads, but
not so with cap-screws. They soon wear the cast-iron threads
and become loose and are likely to strip after being used a few
times. (4) Studs have the advantage of holding gaskets in place
while a cover is being applied. This is an important advantage
in erecting, when the parts are heavy and applied with difficulty.
(5) A stud made from a round bar is stronger than a cap-screw
turned down from a hexagon bar.

Stuffing-boxes

Stud Setting. The screwing of studs into the tapped holes

of some part such as a steam cylinder, pump cylinder, etc., is
known as stud setting. Studs may be screwed into place either
by hand or power. Special stud-setting chucks are often em-
ployed. One type is so arranged that it can be used for either
studs or nuts, and the jaws open automatically and release either
the stud or nut, as the case may be, just like a die of the self-
opening type, and without stopping or reversing the spindle of
the machine. There is also an adjustable friction type of chuck
which must be reversed and screwed off of a stud. When setting
nuts with this type, the machine must be stopped each time to
disengage the holder from the nut.
Stuffing-Box. This term is applied to a cylindrical chamber
which surrounds a rod and is used in conjunction with a gland
and holding device, for retaining packing in such a way as to
prevent leakage. The left-hand diagram shows a common form
of stuffing-box for a piston-rod. The packing p is placed in a
 1243 -$
chamber surrounding the rod and is held in place by the gland g
which may be adjusted by means of the nuts n. The bushing b is
usually made of bronze, which, being softer than the rod pre-
vents it from wear, and is easily replaced when the hole through
it becomes enlarged or oval in form. The bottoms of the stuffing-
box and gland are usually turned to a bevel, as shown, which has
the effect of forcing the packing against the rod when soft or
fibrous kinds are used. A typical stuffing-box for valve rods of
small size is illustrated at the right. This is similar in construc-
tion to the one just described, except that the gland is held in
place by a screw-cap instead of by bolts. The bottoms of the
stuffing-box and gland are square in this case, which is better
for some of the special forms of packing now used.

Sub-Bituminous Coal. This is also known as lignite, black

lignite,brown coal, and lignitic coal. It is a kind of coal con*
taining less than 50 per cent of carbon, resembling bituminous
coal, it being black and shiny, but disintegrating more rapidly
than bituminous coal when exposed to the air. It has a heating
value per pound of combustible of from 11,000 to 13,500 B.T.U.

Submerged Body Weight. See Buoyancy.

Sub-Press. A sub-press cannot be defined as a special class
of die, but merely as a principle which may be applied in con-
structing different kinds of dies. The sub-press principle is sim-
ply that the upper and lower portions of the die are combined
into one self-contained unit so arranged as to always hold the
upper and lower members in exact alignment with each other.
A common form of sub-press construction consists of a base
which is clamped to the press, a frame or "barrel" fitted to the
base, and a plunger which slides vertically in an adjustable bab-
bitt bearing. The plunger head is connected to the press slide.
The compound type of die is commonly used in a sub-press. The
upper die is located in the plunger and the lower die in the base.
This sub-press construction permits of a high degree of accuracy
as it insures an accurate alignment of the various members of
the die.
The sub-press die was originated in watch and clock factories
for performing blanking operations requiring great accuracy,
and, at the present time, dies built on the sub-press principle are
employed for a great variety of work in connection with many
different lines of manufacturing. Sub-presses are largely used
for producing such parts as small wheels and gears and other
delicate parts for clocks, watches, meters, time recorders, and
other similar pieces which must be made with great accuracy
and uniformity. Although, in some cases, one sub-press can be
made to take several sets of punches and dies, it is customary,
$-1244
and generally advisable, to have a separate sub-press for each set,
as one of the advantages gained in using the sub-press is in
being able to quickly change from one die to another; when
separate sub-presses are used this can be done by simply loosen-
ing the clamps, changing the presses and reclamping. In addi-
tion to this advantage, there is no time wasted in aligning the
punches and dies; moreover, the danger of shearing the punch
or die, as a result of careless alignment, is entirely eliminated.
Another advantage of the sub-press, dependent in part upon the
accuracy of alignment provided, and the corresponding accuracy
in fitting which can be given to the cutting edges, is that the
work is remarkably free from fins and burs.
Substations. The term "substation" is applied to a building,
room, or outdoor area equipped for the conversion of electricity
by means of converters, rectifiers, or motor-generator sets; for
the raising or lowering of voltage by means of transformers; for
changing the frequency; or for interconnection, distribution, and
switching. Sometimes a single station will serve all of these pur-
poses. A substation may be manually operated, automatically
controlled, or remote controlled.
Sub-Surface Milling. The term "sub-surface milling" has
sometimes been applied when a tilted type of rotary milling ma-
chine is used in conjunction with an auxiliary reservoir in which
cutters and work can be submerged in a bath of cooling compound
while the milling operation is being performed.
Suction. Pumps for liquids, if located at some point above
the source of supply, perform two separate operations when in
use; first the water or other liquid is made to flow into the pump
cylinder through a "suction pipe," and then it is forced out of the
cylinder through a discharge or delivery pipe leading to any de-
sired point. The flow of the water up to the cylinder is caused
by a partial vacuum within the cylinder produced by the action
either of a' reciprocating piston or a rotating wheel or rotor, de-
pending upon the type of pump. This vertical movement of the
water in the pipe, or lift, is due to the fact that the atmospheric
pressure on the surface of the water at the source of supply is
no longer counteracted by an equal pressure inside the pipe;
consequently, the water is forced upward and this is commonly
referred to as "suction." The suction pipe should be free from
air leaks, because a very small leak will affect the
operation of
the pump, especially if the lift is quite high. It is advisable to
test the suction line with a pressure of at least 25
pounds per
square inch. See Pump Water Pumps.
Suction; also Lift of
Suction and Discharge Pipes. The area of the suction and
discharge or delivery pipes of pumps is based upon the velocity
 1245 -S
of flow through them. For pipes approximately 25 feet in length,
the velocity of flow should not exceed 200 feet per minute; for
lengths of about 50 feet, the velocity should not exceed 180 feet
per minute; for lengths of 100 feet, the maximum velocity should
be reduced to about 150 feet per minute; and for lengths of 125
feet, the maximum velocity should be about 125 feet per minute.
The area of pipe for a given velocity of flow may be determined
by the following formula in which S& =
area of suction pipe in
square inches; Pa = area of piston or plunger in square inches;
S = piston speed in feet per minute; V =
velocity of flow of
water through the suction pipe in feet per minute.

The velocities previously given will allow for two or three el-
bows, a stop valve, and a foot-valve. The area of the discharge
pipe may be found by using the same formula and substituting
300 for the value of V in all cases.

Sulphate of Lime. Same as Calcium Sulphate.

Sulphate of Magnesia. Same as Magnesium Sulphate.

Sulphur. Sulphur is widely distributed in nature, both in

the free state and in combination. The most important deposits
are in Sicily. It is found in many of the important iron ores and
is, therefore, generally present in iron and steel. The sulphur
contents in steel must be reduced as much as possible, because
sulphur, if present in too great a percentage, injures the steel.
Sulphur is one of the non-metallic chemical elements, the symbol
of which is S, and the atomic weight, 32.07. Commercial sulphur
forms yellow crystals, melting at 113 degrees C. (235 degrees F)
and boiling at 445 degrees C. (833 degrees F.). The specific
gravity of sulphur is 2.06, and the specific heat, 0.171. Sulphur
ignites in air at a temperature of 363 degrees C. (685 degrees F.) .
It is a poor conductor of electricity.

Sulphuric Acid. Sulphuric acid (chemical formula, H2 S0 4 ),

frequently also called "oil of vitriol/' is a colorless liquid, when
in its pure state. The commercial acid has a slightly dark tint.
Concentrated acid is heavier than other acids, its specific gravity,
when 98.5 per cent pure, being 1.84. The commercial acid has a
specific gravity of about 1.72. When this acid is mixed with
water, heat is evolved, and the mixing must be done slowly. The
add must be added to the water and not the water to the acid,
as, in the latter case, a violent explosion is likely to occur. When
pure, sulphuric acid is a dense, oily, colorless, odorless liquid with
a specific gravity of 1.838 at 15 degrees C. (59 degrees F.) . The
specific heat is 0.330. It boils at 838 degrees C. (640 degrees F.),
 $-1246
and, at 400 degrees C. (752 degrees F.), the vapor dissociates into
sulphur trioxide and water; at 10.5 degrees C. (51 degrees F.),
the acid freezes to a colorless crystalline mass. When mixed in
the proportion of 4 parts of acid to 1 part of water, the
temper-
ature is raised 100 degrees C. (180 degrees F.). Sulphuric acid
is exceedingly corrosive and decomposes animal and
vegetable
substances by the aid of heat. It has a great affinity for water
and unites with it in all proportions; it unites with moisture
the atmosphere and becomes weaker when exposed. Sul-
from^
phuric acid of commerce is never pure; it may contain lead sul-
phate absorbed from the lead chambers during the process of
manufacture, arsenic, and other substances. The acid is used, to
a great extent, for pickling baths and cleaning solutions.

Sunk Key. A sunk key, as its name implies, is sunk into a

shaft. Withthis type of key, which is the one most
commonly
used, care_should be taken to secure a good bearing on the sides.
OrdinarilyTthe bearing at the top and bottom of a sunk key should
be comparatively light, although, in some cases, when it is used
to resist endwise movement, as well as a
rotary movement, it is
given a heavy bearing on all sides. The principal bearing, how-
ever, should not be, in any case, at the top and
bottom, as it is
then more likely to work loose than when fitted
tightly at the

Superficial Hardening. When low-carbon steel is subjected

to the cyanide hardening
process, a very thin but extremely hard
surface is obtained, and this is known as
superficial
hardening.
This hard outer skin may be only a few thousandths of an
inch
thick, and this is the important difference between
superficial
hardening and ordinary casehardening. See Cyanide Hardening.

"Superfmishing" Process. The term "superfinish" has been

applied to a finish of fine quality obtained by a process
developed
in the mechanical laboratories of the
Chrysler Corporation for
application to certain automotive parts. This process
in finishing flat, round,
may be used
concave, convex, and other surfaces. The
finish is obtained and the
mechanically machines used vary in
design to suit the shape and size of the work. The finish is
pro-
duced by stones, which are
comparatively hard and of medium
grit and operate with a "scrubbing action." The
object in super-
finishing, as in honing, is to eliminate minute scratches and sur-
face defects created by previous mechanical
operations and pro-
duce a bearing surface in which any
remaining scratches wiU be
below the mechanically made
bearing surface. This process may
be applied to such parts as
cylinder bores, pistons, crankshaft
bearings, cams, etc.
In the process, ordinary abrasive stones of
proper grain and
 1247 -5

hardness, acting in a suitable lubricant and under sufficient pres-

sures progressively applied, are brought into contact with the
metal surface to be superfinished. At least three motions are re-
quired to produce superfinish and five or more are desirable.
Equipment is in use that has as many as ten motions operating
simultaneously. As the result of this multi-motion scrubbing
with abrasives, the superfinished surface need have no indenta-
tion deeper than a few millionths of an inch.
Superfinished surfaces, in a bearing, can move on each other
with a very thin lubricating film and a minimum of clearance.
Two metal surfaces are said to be lubricated when there is a
sufficient number of oil molecules between them to maintain fluid
friction and completely separate the bearing surfaces under a
normal bearing load. Projections aboye the bearing surface of
the metal will rupture the oil film, with a resulting bearing failure,
Superfinished surfaces have no metal projections above the bear-
ing surface to break the oil film so that complete lubrication can
be assured. Superfinish is also applied to advantage on many
non-lubricated surfaces. See also Finish or Surface Quality.
Superfinishing Machines: Machines for superfinishing may be
designed for a given class of work or for general application.
The Foster general-purpose superfinisher may be applied to cylin-
drical parts in a range of diameters and lengths. This machine
is being used for a wide variety of processes. It is adapted for

superfinishing leader pins and die sets, cylindrical gages, draw-

mandrels, pump pistons and shafts that pass through packing,
motor armature shaft bearings, bearings on small crankshafts,
etc. Superfinishing machines for general application to flat sur-
faces have also been developed.
Superfinishing Heads for Lathes: These superfinishing heads
are mounted on the compound rest of an engine lathe cross-slide.
With this arrangement, practically any cylindrical work within
the capacity of the lathe can be superfinished. Special heads can
also be made for boring mills, grinders, and other machinery.
The superfinishing heads have a wide range of uses.

Superheated Steam. Superheated steam is produced by add-

ing heat to saturated steam after it has been removed from con-
tact with the water from which it was formed. This is accom-
plished by passing the steam through superheater coils after it
leaves the boiler drums. The superheater coils usually are located
in the path of the hot gases from the boiler furnace from which
the coils absorb a portion of the waste heat as it passes off to the
stack. The earliest recorded attempt to use superheated steam
in a steam engine is that of Richard Trevethick, an Englishman,
who, in 1882, used superheated steam in a condensing pumping
S-124S
engine making eight revolutions per minute and having a boiler
pressure of 45 pounds per square inch.
Why Superheated Steam is Used: The greatest thennodynanaic
loss in the steam engine with the exception of the heat lost in
the exhaust, which may be partially recovered, because exhaust
steam can be used for such purposes as heating buildings and
feed water is the loss of heat due to initial condensation and re-
evaporation in the cylinder. In the ordinary steam engine, this
loss will amount to as much as 20 per cent of the entire steam
fed to the cylinder. The explanation of this great loss is as fol-
lows: The steam which enters the cylinder of an engine comes
in contact with cylinder walls which are at a temperature lower
than that of the entering steam, owing to the fact that steam at
the lower temperature of the exhaust has just left the cylinder.
Instantly, therefore, a thin film of steam is condensed upon the
cylinder walls, thus decreasing the volume of the steam admitted,
so that the total weight fed to the cylinder per stroke is in excess
of that which would have been fed had there been no condensa-
tion. Later, during expansion, when the energy of the steam is
being converted into useful work, and its temperature has fallen,
part of the steam which originally condensed on the cylinder
walls is re-evaporated because the temperature of the steam has
fallen below that of the cylinder walls, causing a natural flow of
heat from the cylinder walls to the body of the steam. The heat
necessary to accomplish this re-evaporation is wasted, because it
does no useful work. The varying difference in temperature be-
tween the steam and the cylinder walls, therefore, causes a double
loss in initial condensation and in the subsequent re-evaporation.
The amount of initial condensation can be figured by noting the
difference between the actual amount of steam used per stroke,
as shown by the amount of boiler feed water, or the condensate
from the cylinder, and the amount per stroke accounted for by
the indicator card at cut-off. By comparing the amount of steam
in the cylinder, at the point of cut-off, as accounted for by the
indicator card, with the amount in the cylinder at the point of
release, as accounted for by the indicator card, it is possible to
form an idea of the amount of steam which has been re-
evaporated during the stroke.
Now, if superheated steam be used in the cylinder instead of
wet or saturated steam, loss of heat will lower the temperature
of the steam without condensing it, if the degree of superheat be
high enough, as no condensation of steam can occur until all of
the superheat is removed. Subsequently, then, there will be no
re-evaporation of moist steam, as no moisture has been formed.
Moreover, the change in the original volume of the steam due to
decreasing the degree of superheat is negligible compared with
 1249 -S
that caused by condensation, so that the weight of steam is not
appreciably affected thereby; also, the difference in temperature
of the cylinder walls has less effect, as superheated steam is a
very poor conductor of heat compared with saturated or wet
steam.

Supplement of Angle. The supplement of a given angle (e)

equals 180 a; hence, if angle a exceeds 180 degrees, the sup-
plement is negative. The supplement angle of a 120-degree angle
equals 180 120 = 60 degrees.
Surface Combustion. If a mixture of gas and air, which is
being emitted at a high velocity from a Bunsen burner, is per-
mitted to strike against a piece of red-hot firebrick held a short
distance away from the front of the burner, the mixture will burn
at the surface of the firebrick. This constitutes the principle
from which the method of what is called surface combustion have
been developed. In the practical application of surface combus-
tion, an explosive mixture of gas and air in the proper propor-
tions for complete combustion, or with air in slight excess, is
caused to burn without flame in contact with a granular incan-
descent solid, whereby a large proportion of the potential energy
of the gas is immediately converted into radiant form. The prin-
ciple is the same as having a multitude of small burners instead
of one or a few large burners. The advantages claimed for the
system are that the combustion is greatly accelerated by the in-
candescent surface, and can be concentrated just where the heat
is required; the combustion is perfect with a minimum excess of

air; the attainment of very high temperatures is possible; and

owing to the large amount of radiant energy developed, the trans-
mission of heat to the object to be heated is very rapid. Boilers
arranged for surface combustion have a mixing chamber in front
of the tubes and connecting with them. The tubes contain the
granular refractory material. The gas mixture is forced through
the tubes at a high velocity, and complete combustion is insured
after the gas has traversed a very short distance. The remainder
of the granular material in the tubes acts as a baffle for hot gases,
forcing them toward the walls of the tubes in order that a large
proportion of the heat may be given over to the water. Surface
combustion fires can be run efficiently at temperatures in excess
of 3000 degrees F. It is possible to consume efficiently a volume
of gas equivalent in heating power to 150 pounds of coal per hour
per square foot of fuel bed while not more than from 60 to 70
pounds per square foot of grate area can be burned on locomotive
boiler grates. This intensity of fuel consumption coupled with
almost perfect combustion produces an intensely hot radiant fire.
There being no excess of air, a minimum of heat is carried off
m the waste gases.
S-1250
Surface Condenser. In this type of condenser for condensing
exhaust steam from engines or turbines, the condensing water
and the steam are kept separate, the condensation being effected
by the contact of the steam with metallic surfaces cooled by the
continuous circulation of the water. A surface condenser con-
sists mainly of a condensing chamber containing horizontal tubes
connecting with small chambers at each end, separated from the
main chamber by heads or tube sheets. The exhaust steam from
the engine or turbine enters the condensing chamber, while the
cooling water, forced by a circulating pump, passes through the
tubes.

Surface Cage. The surface gage is used extensively for

scribing lines that represent finished surfaces, and also for test-
ing the parallelism between a surface and the table of a machine,
such as the planer or shaper. A common form of surface gage
has rather a heavy base on which is mounted a rod carrying a
pointer or scriber. The latter can be adjusted in or out, and it
can also be moved to any position along the rod.

Surface Grinding Machines. The grinding of plane or flat

surfaces is known as surface grinding, and there are several dif-
ferent types of machines used for this work. The surface grinder
is indispensable in the tool-room for truing parts that have been
distorted by hardening and for producing fine accurate surfaces.
Many of the surface grinding machines built at the present time
are. also efficient for producing flat surfaces in connection with
manufacturing operations. Ordinarily, the surface grinder is
used for finishing parts which have been milled or planed ap-
proximately to size, although many pieces are ground from the
rough on the large machines used for manufacturing purposes.
Surface grinders vary both in regard to the form of the grinding
wheels used and the movement imparted to the work-table when
grinding. For instance, the work-tables on some machines
operate with a reciprocating motion, whereas others rotate; the
grinding is done on some machines with a disk-shaped wheel,
whereas other machines have a cup- or ring-wheel. Some of these
grinders are comparatively small in size and light in construction
and are designed more particularly for tool-room use, whereas
others are large and powerful, and are employed for grinding
duplicate parts in connection with manufacturing operations.
Horizontal Face Grinding Machines: Surface grinding ma-
chines of the horizontal face-grinding type have a grinding wheel
of the ring or cylinder form, the face or edge of which is used
for grinding; hence, the name "edge grinder" is applied to ma-
fehiries of this class by some manufacturers. The face
grinder is
preferable for certain classes of work to the type of machine
 125T-S

using a wheel that grinds on the periphery. The horizontal face

grinder, which has a horizontal wheel spindle, and work-table, is
especially adapted to that class of work which can be held to
better advantage when the surface to be finished is in a vertical
plane as the edge of the ring wheel is vertical. For example^
the ends of rather long castings, such as machine legs, etc., can
easily be ground on this style of grinder, because the work can
readily be clamped to the table of the machine in a horizontal
position. The horizontal face grinder is used in locomotive shops
for truing or finishing the bearing surfaces of guide-bars and
can be employed to advantage for many other grinding operations
Vertical-spindle Surface Grinders: Many vertical-spindle sur-
face grinding machines are in use which have a cup- or ring-
wheel and a rectangular work-table that has a reciprocating
motion when the machine is in operation and grinding rectangu-
lar surfaces or parts that should move in a straight line beneath
the wheel. The length of the table stroke is controlled by dogs in
the usual manner. Kotary attachments or circular work-tables
are often supplied with such machines so that the sides of saws,
rings, or flat disk-shaped parts may be rotated while being ground
by placing them on the rotary table or chuck which is mounted
on the grinder table, the table remaining stationary. This type
of grinder can be used advantageously for grinding long rectangu-
lar surfaces or disk-shaped parts (by using the circular attach-
ment), and it is very efficient for grinding a number of small
castings simultaneously.
Some vertical-spindle surface grinders have a rotary work-
table.One of these larger designs, which is intended for grind-
ing duplicate parts in connection with manufacturing operations,
has a rotary work-table which is mounted on a slide that enables
the table to be withdrawn from under the wheel, and in a position
convenient for loading with new parts to be ground.

Surface Plate. Surface plates have plane or flat surfaces and

are used in machine construction for testing flat surfaces and
other parts and also as a base-plate from which to measure in
laying out work. Usually they are made of hard close-grained
cast iron, either square or rectangular in shape, and vary in size
from a few inches to several feet in length and width. The
method of originating straightedges by fitting three together
until any two are a perfect fit (as near as can be determined by
a practical test) can also be applied to the making of surface
plates. Obviously, if only two plates are put together, they may
not have true plane surfaces, even though they show a good bear-
ing when tested. This is because the inaccuracy in one plate wiD
often be concealed by corresponding inaccuracies in the other.
Therefore, to secure accurate results, three plates should be
S-1252
scraped in together, these being numbered 1, 2, and 3. First, fit
Nos. 3 and 2 to No. 1. When this has been done, Nos. 2 and 3
are, practically speaking, duplicates. The second step is to fit
Nos. 2 and 3 together by scraping about as much from one plate
as from the other in order to reduce any error which may have
been copied from No. 1 ; third, fit No. 1 to No. 2 ; fourth, fit No. 3
to No. 1 ; fifth, fit No. 2 to No. 3 by scraping as much from one
plate as the other. Continue this series of operations carefully
until plate No. 1 will fit Nos. 2 and 3, and No. 2 will fit Nos. 1
and 3. Having originated three plates in this way, one can be
laid aside to be used as a master plate for testing the others
which are employed in active service.
Surfaseal. Arubber paint that offers an affectual protective
coating on metal and withstands an unusual amount of abrasion.

Swages used in Hand Forging

Can be applied to any metal surfaces. For best results, the

face is sand-blasted and a Surfaseal primer is applied. When the
primer has dried, Surfaseal No. 2 is brushed on. To withstand
severe abrasion, several coats may be applied twenty-four hours
apart
Surveyor's Measure. 1 mile =
8 furlongs =
80 chains;
1 furlong = 10 chains t== 220 yards; 1 chain =
4 rods =
22 yards = 66 feet =j 100 links; 1 link t= 7.92 inches.

Swage. The term swage applies to a number of different

kinds of tools with hollow impressions in their faces, but the most
common kind is for finishing plain round work. Swages are made
in pairs, top and bottom to match. The depth of the impression
ought to be about one-third the diameter of the piece the swages
are intended to finish. In the accompanying illustration Arepre-
sents the correct style of top swage, and B an objectionable style;
C shows the correct style of bottom swage, and D the incorrect
style.
 1253 -S
Swaging. Cold swaging is a method of reducing or forming
steel or other material, while cold, by means of a machine that
caused the work to be struck a large number of successive blows
by a pair of dies or hammers. This process is applied principally
to the reduction of wires, rods, and tubes, either for tapering or
pointing the ends or reducing the diameter in one or more places,
and it is the only method by which rolled or plated stock can be
reduced without destroying the plating or coating. For this rea-
son, swaging is largely employed in connection with the manu-
facture of jewelry, spectacle parts, fancy pins, etc. The method is
also extensively used for pointing rods or tubes which are to be
drawn. The millions of needles, bicycle spokes, button-hooks,
crochet needles, and similar articles which are produced annually
indicate some of the possibilities of the swaging process. The
rotary swaging machine having dies mounted in the revolving
head is the type commonly used, although the horizontal design
having dies which operate in a horizontal direction is used for
some purposes.

Swaging by Hot Process. The hot-swaging of metal has

been found especially economical in the making of carbon steel
drills and end-mills and for the manufacture of motorcycle
pedal
pins, spinning spindles used in the cotton industry and similar
parts. The rolls that impart a radial movement to the dies of a
cold-swaging machine are carried by a cage having a floating or
slow rotary movement. This construction causes a sliding blow
to be delivered to the work, which is suitable for the
cold-swaging
process, but not for hot-swaging. One design of hot-swaging
machine head is so arranged that the rolls rotate on their axes
while held in a fixed position; as a result the blows are delivered
directly and quickly to the work without producing any torsional
effect. The severe service imposed upon a machine
by the swaging
of hot metal demands a heavily constructed machine and means
for keeping the dies cool. In one type of machine this is ac-
complished by placing a water jacket around the head roll bearing*

Swaging Dies. Swaging dies for use in power presses are a

type in which parts are formed to the required shape by com-
pressing the metal so that the impressions in the punch and die-
faces are reproduced upon the work; in other words, instead of
shaping the metal by cutting, bending, or drawing, it is formed
by compression. The pressure required for swaging is relatively
high because it must be sufficient to cause the metal to flow into
the punch and die-cavities or depressions.

Sweating. When parts are soldered together by heating them

melt the solder, instead of using a soldering iron,
sufficiently to
the operation is often known as sweating. Brass boxes for en-
S-1254
gine connecting-rods are sometimes sweated together prior to
machining, in order to hold the two halves in alignment while
finishing the sides and boring. The finished surfaces forming
the joint between the brasses are first tinned or covered with
solder. This is done by heating the brasses enough to melt the
solder, then applying a flux (such as sal-ammoniac), and finally
the solder. After tinning, the brasses are again heated if the
solder has hardened; they are then put together and allowed to
cool. The halves are separated after machining by heating them
until the solder melts, after which the sweated surfaces are
cleaned off.

Swing Crane. The name swing crane is applied to pillar

cranes that have a rotary motion only, but which are not pro-
vided with a trolley on a horizontal arm. The name is also
applied to jib cranes if they are not provided with a trolley.
Swing-Frame Grinding Machines. The swing-frame grind-
ing machine was designed for the purpose of removing the fins,
gates, and wires left by and in molding, from castings too heavy
to be conveniently lifted by hand. One wheel only is mounted on
a machine, and the arm on which the wheel is mounted has a
large radius of swing and is designed, in some cases, to travel
laterally on a track. Swing-frame machines are the heavy-duty
machines in the foundry and are rigidly constructed. Great pres-
sure of the wheel on the work is possible, because at times the
operator bears his whole weight on the handles of the machine.
Swiss Screw Thread. This is a thread system originated in
Switzerland as a standard for screws used in watch and clock
making. The angle between the two sides of the thread is 47 de-
grees 30 minutes, and the top and bottom of the thread are
rounded. This system has been adopted by the British Associa-
tion as a standard for small screws, and is known as the British
Association thread.
Switches. See Control Switches; Disconnecting Switches;
Starting Switches.
Switches, Air-Break Type. An air-break switch has con-
tacts which make and break contact in the air as contrasted with
an oil switch in which the contacts make and break under oil.
The air-break switch may be enclosed by some form of cover for
the purpose of protecting the operator or to prevent unauthorized
operations. Air-break switches can be used up to any voltage
or current commercially feasible. The construction varies accord-
ing to requirements. There are several kinds, such as lever,
brush, rotary, plug, and push-and-pull switches.
Switches, Oil Type. An oil switch is a device for closing
and opening an electrical circuit by the movement of contact parts
 1255 -S
which make and break contact while submerged in oil. Some
manufacturers apply the term "oil switch" when the device is
used only to open an unloaded circuit or a loaded circuit, at the
will of the operator; and the term "oil circuit-breaker" is used
when the switch is utilized to break the circuit automatically
under abnormal conditions. This distinction, although considered
correct by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, is not
universally accepted. Oil switches are used almost invariably on
alternating-current systems. They are used on low-voltage cir-
cuits when air-break switches are objectionable, either because
of head-room, limited space for connections, or where the open
arc is a source of danger; and on high-voltage circuits, where
air-break devices are not practicable, owing to the space re-
quired for breaking a high-voltage arc in air. The fact that the
oil switch breaks the arc under oil makes it especially valuable
for service in plants where inflammable or explosive dust or gases
are prevalent; in cotton mills, where lint or oil would make an
air-break switch objectionable; in powder mills, chemical fac-
tories, or gaseous mines; or under any conditions in which an
air arc might cause a short-circuit or a ground of some adjacent
circuit. Oil switches are particularly effective on alternating-
current circuits, because, as the switch contacts separate, the oil
surrounding the contacts immediately rushes to fill the space in
the break between the contacts, and introduces a high resistance
which is in proportion to the speed at which the contacts part.
Also, the pressure of the oil confines the arc to a limited area
and tends to quench it. When the voltage passes through zero,
the resistance of the oil tends to prevent the arc from re-estab-
lishing. The oil switch is not nearly so effective on direct cur-
rent. As there is no zero potential point in this case, the breaking
of a direct-current circuit under oil results in severe burning of
the metal and oil, and the generation of much gas; consequently,
there is considerable tendency of the arc to hold between the
opening contacts. However, oil switches are sometimes used on
direct-current circuits where conditions are such that to break
an arc in the open air is prohibitive. There are several factors
to be considered in selecting oil for> use in an oil switch; namely,
flash point, burning point, viscosity, and cold test. The flash and
burning points must be high. The oil used should be obtained
from the oil switch manufacturer or ordered from specifications
furnished by him.

Swivel Base. The lower part of a chuck, vise, slide, or other

machine part is called a swivel base when it is so arranged that
it can be turned or rotated about a center, so that the chuck, vise,
etc., attached to it may be turned to any angle. The swivel base
is generally graduated to show the angle.
S-1256

Symbols, Mathematical. See Mathematical Symbols.

Synchronism. Synchronism expresses the phase relationship

between two or more periodic quantities of the same period when
the phase difference between them is zero.

Synchronism Indicators. The synchronism indicator or

synchroscope, as it is called, affords a quick and safe means for
paralleling alternating-current machines, as it shows when the
machines are in phase and in step, indicating by the position of
a pointer the difference in phase relations between the machines,
and showing whether the incoming machine is running too fast
or too slow. It is superior to synchronizing with lamps, because
the latter give no indication of the relative speed of machines;
the lamps will indicate when the machines are of the same fre-
quency, but the phase relations can be judged only by the
brilliancy of the lights.

Synchronous Condenser. When a synchronous motor is

operated idly, that is, without carrying any mechanical load, and
simply supplies a wattless current for correcting the power factor
of an installation, it is termed a synchronous condenser. It is
used for power-factor correction and for maintaining constant
voltage by power-factor control.

Synchronous Converters. The synchronous converter is a

rotating machine for converting alternating current into direct
current or vice versa. In the former case, it is called a synchron-
ous converter; in the latter, an inverted synchronous converter.
The term rotary converter is also frequently used. While a
motor-generator set requires two machines, as the name implies,
the synchronous converter consists of only one machine.
In general, the construction of a synchronous converter is
similar to that of a direct-current generator with the addition
of .collector rings connected to the armature winding at equal
distances around the armature. It differs, however, in several
important details, notably in the shape of the pole tips and the
addition of heavy copper dampers in the pole faces to prevent
unstable operation and to assist in starting from the alternating-
current side. No transfer of mechanical energy takes place in
synchronous converters, because the torque consumed by the gen-
eration of the direct current and the torque produced by the
alternating current are applied at the same conductors. As a
result, the mechanical parts of a synchronous converter can be
made much smaller than the corresponding parts of a direct-
current generator.
Synchronous converters are built in single-, two-, three-, and
six-phase, but, owing to the very general use of three-phase trans-
 1257 -S
mission, only the last two types are, as a rule, standardized.
More than 90 per cent of the alternating-current systems in the
United States are of either 25- or 60-cycle frequency; these fre-
quencies, therefore, have been adopted as standard for synchron-
ous converters. The 25-cycle is mainly used for power and railway
work, and the 60-cycle, for lighting service.

Synchronous Generator. See Generators, Alternating-

current.

Synchronous Motors. The synchronous motor is essentially

a synchronous generator with reversed rotation, and, in general,
any alternator will operate as a synchronous motor or vice versa.
There are, however, certain features wherein the motor differs
from an alternator, as in the addition of a starting winding.
The stator of a synchronous motor is constructed in exactly the
same way as that of a synchronous generator. It is commonly
called the armature. The rotor of the synchronous motor is
called its field; it consists of a field spider which is mounted on
the shaft the same as the rotor spider of an induction motor, but
which carries field poles instead of laminations with slots and
windings. The poles are usually of laminated sheet steel, the
individual sheets usually being several times thicker than those
of the armature punchings. Usually the starting winding con-
sists of a number of copper bars which extend across the pole
faces and are connected at each end by a short circuiting ring.
In starting, then, the motor acts like a squirrel cage motor until
it reaches a velocity of about 95 per cent of synchronous speed
when the motor "pulls-in" to step with the rotating magnetic
field. Synchronous motors run at constant speed and in the
smallest sizes are used for timing applications such as electric
clocks. The large sizes are used to operate pumps, compressors,
rolling mills and in motor generator sets.

Synchroscope. A synchroscope, or synchronism indicator,

is a device which, besides showing when two alternating-current
systems are in synchronism, also indicates which system has the
higher frequency, the difference in frequencies, and the phase
relation when the frequencies are equal. They are commonly of
the dynamometer or the moving-iron types, being similar in their
operation to power-factor meters in that their indications are
dependent upon the phase difference between two currents.
Synthetic Chemistry. Synthetic chemistry is that part of
chemistry which deals with the building-up of more complicated
from less complicated substances. The term "synthetic" is also
used for substances made by artificial means in the laboratory
to distinguish them from like substances obtained direct from
plants and animals.
 Tachagraph. The tachagraph is a tachometer of a very sen-
sitive type. It is used to measure minute changes of speed
within a single revolution and produce an autographic diagram
of the angular velocity.
Tachometer. Tachometers are made in different types for
indicating the speed in revolutions per minute of rotating shafts,
the peripheral speeds of flywheels or pulleys, the lineal speed of
belts or hoisting ropes, and various other speed measurements.
Tachometers may have a dial graduated to represent revolutions
per minute and an indicating hand which gives the direct read-
ing, or the instrument may make a permanent record of the
speed by drawing a line upon a graduated chart. Some of these
recording tachometers or tachographs have a dial in addition
to the recording chart. Precision instruments are also made for
testing the angular variations of flywheels, variations in the
speed of machines due to slipping of belts, or any irregularity
in running. An electric tachometer of the type generally used
may have the indicating or recording instrument located at any
distant point from the shaft, the speed of which is to be recorded.
Tailstock. A tailstock is that part of a machine tool, such as
an engine lathe or cylindrical grinding machine, which is used to
support upon a conical center the outer end of a rod, shaft, or
other piece which is being turned or ground. The body forming
the tailstock may be clamped in different positions along the ma-
chine bed for accommodating work of different lengths, and the
tailstock spindle containing the supporting center is adjustable
to allow for small variations in length. The upper part of a lathe
tailstock body is adjustable in a lateral direction so that the axis
of the work may be inclined relative to the movement of the tool
carriage, in order to turn tapering parts when the lathe is
without a taper attachment.
In bench lathe practice, the tailstock is frequently used as a
means of holding and feeding various classes of tools. Tailstocks
for bench lathes are made in several different forms. The type
intended primarily for supporting one end of centered work is
designed along the general lines of the engine lathe tailstock.
Then there is a lever-operated tailstock for drilling, reaming,
counterboring, and similar operations. Another form is operated
through a rack and pinion in conjunction with a hand-lever. The
cross-slide adjustment provided in this case is useful for re-
cessing, facing, and counterboring. The "half-open" taUstock is

1258
 1259-T
employed for light operations such as drilling, reaming, lapping,
and the cutting of very small threads with taps or dies, while
the revolving-spindle tailstock is applied to certain drilling opera-
tions. The "sliding" or "open" tailstock is similar to the half-
open design, except that it has full or complete bearings. The
spindle has a knob at one end and is moved by hand the same
as the spindle of a traverse grinder.

Talc. Talc is a mineral known as steatite or soapstone. Chem-

ically, it consists of
magnesium silicate (H2 Mg8Si 4 I2 ). Stea-
tite or soapstone is usually a white or gray substance. The
specific gravity varies from 2.6 to 2.8. Its extreme softness and
the fact that the surface feels greasy make it easily recognized.
Talc has been experimented with as a lubricant similar to
graphite. It is, however, not acted upon by tannin solutions,
like graphite, but it may be brought into a fine molecular state
by heating with ammonium carbonate or by exposing it for sev-
eral hours to a current of dry ammonia. The talc is afterward
dried in a vacuum. The treated material can be suspended in
water, so that it is very difficult to filter it, and subsides exceed-
ingly slow in lubricating oils of medium density. When once
suspended in a neutral oil, the talc does not subside on heating.
The change in the character of the talc is attributed to the
absorption of a minute quantity of ammonia. From 40 to 60 per
cent of ordinary talc may be introduced into heavy mineral oil,
provided the oil be added to the talc and the operation not carried
on in the reverse manner.

Tan. This is a Chinese capacity measure, legalized in 1908.

It is equal to 103.55 liters or 27.36 gallons.

Tandem-Compound Engines. The engine known as the

tandem-compound is so designed that the high-pressure cylinder
and the low-pressure cylinder are in line. There is only one
piston-rod, the high- and low-pressure pistons being mounted on
the same rod. The general appearance of an engine of this design
is the same as that of a simple engine, except for the addition
of the high-pressure cylinder.

Tandem Dies. See Follow Dies.

Tangent, Arc. See Arc Sine and Tangent

Tangential Load. A
load applied to a circular body, such as
a gear or pulley, in the direction of a tangent to its circumfer-
ence, is known as a tangential load. To find the tangential load
at the pitch-line of spur gearing, multiply 33,000 by the number
of horsepower being transmitted, and divide the product by the
pitch-line velocity in feet per minute.
T-1260

Tangent of Angle. See Functions of Angles.

Tang of Drill Shank. The "tang" is the flat end on the taper-
ing shank of a drill. The drill is caused to rotate with the spindle
or socket, principally by the friction between the shank and the
socket, and any slipping is prevented by the flat end or tang on
the shank which engages a cross-slot at the end of the taper hole.
The drills used in chucks ordinarily have straight shanks
instead of the taper form and the end does not have a tang.
Tantalum. Tantalum is a metal of silver-white color, highly
ductile, and remarkably hard, if hammered. Tantalum has a
specific gravity of 16.64. It melts at a temperature of 2850 de-
grees C. (about 5160 degrees P.). Its specific heat is 0.0365, and
its coefficient of linear expansion per unit length, per degree F.,
0.0000045. Tantalum belongs to the same group of metals as
vanadium and columbium.

Tap Bolt. A tap bolt is used without a nut, the threaded end
being screwed into a tapped hole in one of the parts to be held
by the bolt; hence, the name, tap bolt. Tap bolts and cap-screws
are used in the same way.

Tap Drill Diameters. Tapping troubles are often caused by

using tap drills that are too small in diameter. For ordinary
manufacturing, not more than 75 or 80 per cent of the standard
thread depth is necessary, and for some classes of work not more
than 50 per cent is required. Tap drill sizes, especially for ma-
chine screws, should be varied according to the material to be
tapped and the depth of the tapped hole. The diameters of tap
drills can be found by the formula D=T 0.75 X
2 d, in which
D t= drill diameter; T B= diameter of tap or thread; d s= depth
of thread.
The diameters obtained by this formula allow for a thread
having 75 per cent of the standard depth which is sufficient for
general work. The full depth of an American Standard thread
equals 0.6495 times the pitch of the thread, and the full depth
of a British Standard Whitworth thread equals 0.6403 times
the pitch.

Taper. See Brown & Sharpe Taper; Jarno Taper; Morse

Taper.

Taper Attachment, Engine Lathe. Turning tapers by set-

ting over the tailstock center has some objectionable features.
When the lathe centers are not in alignment, as when set for
taper turning, they bear unevenly in the work centers, because
the axis of the work is at an angle with them; this causes the
work centers to wear unevenly and results in inaccuracy. Fur-
thermore, the adjustment of the tailstock center must be changed
 1261 -T
for turning duplicate tapers, unless the length of each piece and
the depth of the center holes are the same. If the tailstock
center is offset for taper threading, a "drunken thread" or one
which does not follow a true helix will result, owing to an ir-
regular turning movement. To overcome these objections, many
modern lathes are equipped with a special device for turning
tapers, known as a tamper attachment, which permits the lathe
centers to be kept in alignment for taper work the same as for
cylindrical turning, and enables more accurate work to be done.

Taper Pins. Taper pins are used as a means for securing

two parts of a machine or device to each other; the most com-
mon application is for securing collars or hubs to shafts. The
standard taper is % inch per foot. The pins of different sizes
are known by numbers. The diameters at the large ends of pins
of the American Standard vary from 0.078 inch for pin No. 6/0
to 0.706 inch for pin No. 10.
According to the British Standard, the taper is %
inch per
foot and the large end diameters vary from 1/16 to inch. %
Tapers for Machine Tool Spindles. Various standard tapers
have been used for the taper holes in the spindles of machine
tools, such as drilling machines, lathes, milling machines, or other
types requiring a taper hole for receiving either the shank of a
cutter, an arbor, a center, or any tool or accessory requiring a
tapering seat. The Morse taper represents a generally accepted
standard for drilling machines. The headstock and tailstock
spindles of lathes also have the Morse taper in most cases; but
the Jarno, the Keed (which is the short Jarno), and the Brown
& Sharpe have been used to a limited extent. Milling machine
spindles formerly had Brown & Sharpe tapers in most cases; but
in 1927, the milling machine manufacturers of the National Ma-
chine Tool Builders' Association adopted a standard taper of
3% inches per foot. This comparatively steep taper has the ad-
vantage of insuring instant release of arbors or adapters. The
No. 30 taper has a large end diameter of 1% inches; No. 40,
1% inches; No. 50, 2% inches; and No. 60, 4% inches. The
British Standard for milling machine spindles is also 3% inches
taper per foot. This standard includes the following large end
diameters: 1% inches, 1% inches, 2% inches> and 3% inches.

Taper Thread Cutting. A tool for cutting tapered screw

threads should be set as shown at A, or so that the sides of the
thread incline equally with reference to a line perpendicular to
the axis of the screw. The principal reason why taper threads
should be cut with the tool in this position is that taper taps are
made in this way or with the threads normal to the axis. If the
tool were set in the position shown at B or C or so that the sides
T-1262
of the thread incline equally with reference to the tapering sur-
face, obviously such a thread would be a poor fit in a hole tapped
with an ordinary taper tap having threads normal to the axis
as at A. If the hole and the tapering part which screws into it
were both threaded normal to the surface as at B, the thread
would be satisfactory unless there were an unusual amount of
taper. In extreme cases, angle a (see diagram B) of one side
of the thread might be so small that the radial or bursting pres-
sure on the nut would be excessive owing to the wedging action.

Tap Extractor. The best and quickest method of removing a

broken tap is by using a tap extractor. A design which has
proved successful is equipped with projecting fingers which enter

Machinery

Correct and Incorrect Positions of Tool for

Taper Thread Cutting

the flutes of the tap which is backed out of the hole by turning
the extractor with a wrench. This extractor is adjustable so as
to support the fingers close to the tap, even when the broken end
is below the surface of the work. Another method of removing
broken taps, which has proved effective in some cases, is to in-
ject into the hole a little nitric acid, diluted in the proportion of
about one part acid to five parts water. The action of the acid
upon the steel loosens the tap so that it usually can be removed
either with an extractor or an ordinary pair of pliers. The re-
maining acid should afterwards be washed out of the hole so
that it will not continue to eat the threads. A third method con-
sists in adding, by electric arc welding, metal onto the shank of
the broken tap, up to or above the level of the work. Care must
be exercised to prevent depositing metal onto the threads in the
tapped hole. After the shank has been built up, the head of a
kolt or a nut is tacked to itad then the tap may be backed out
 1263 -T
Tap-Holder, Friction. Many tapped holes do not extend clear
through the work, but are "blind"; hence, when the tap is driven
by power, provision should be made for allowing the tap to stop
in case it should strike the bottom of the hole, as otherwise it
might be broken. Taps are also broken frequently, because the
drilled holes are not large enough, the result being that the strain
on the tap becomes excessive, and breakage occurs unless provi-
sion is made for limiting the amount of driving power. One
method of safeguarding the tap is to hold it in a friction chuck
or holder, which will slip in case the tap strikes the bottom of
the hole or meets with excessive resistance to rotation. There are
a number of different forms of friction tap- and drill-holders on
the market These differ as to the method of obtaining and vary-
ing the frictional resistance. On some drilling machines, an
adjustable friction is introduced in the spindle-driving mechanism
to prevent the breaking of taps.

Tap Marking. All taps, dies, and other threading tools

should be clearly marked with the nominal size, number of
threads per inch, together with the proper symbol to identify the
thread form. The following symbols conform to the American
Standard :

NC American Standard Coarse Thread Series.

NF American Standard Fine Thread Series.
N American Standard 8-Pitch, 12-Pitch, and 16-Pitch
Series.
NS American National form.
Special Threads with the
NH American National Hose Coupling Threads.
NPT -
American Standard Taper Pipe Threads.
NFS American Standard Straight Pipe Threads.
NPSG a standardized undersize straight pipe thread for
grease cup fittings.
V -
a 60-degree V thread usually with both the crest
and root flatted several thousandths from the
theoretical to users specifications.
Acme American Standard 29-degree Acme type thread.
Special Taps: Special taps (except ground thread taps marked
with a limit number) varying only slightly from standard dimen-
sions are to be marked with the letter "S" enclosed in a circle.

Tapped Hole Accuracy. Cut thread taps made to American

Standard specifications, when used under normal conditions,
should, in the majority of cases, produce holes within Class 2
tolerances of the American Standard for Screw Threads. Ground
thread taps made to these specifications, when used under normal
conditions, should, in the majority of cases, produce holes within
Class 3 tolerances of the American Standard for Screw Threads,
T-1264

Tapper Taps. Tapper taps are used extensively by nut man-

ufacturers. They differ from so-called "nut taps" in that the
thread is not tapered at the point, but simply chamfered. Tapper
taps with nut tap thread occasionally are required.

Tapping Attachments. Some drilling machines are equipped

with special gearing which can be utilized for reversing the rota-
tion of the spindle when tapping, so that a special reversing tap
chuck is not necessary. This mechanism for reversing the spindle
when the tap has reached the required depth is often known as a
tapping attachment.

Tapping Chuck of Reversing Type. In tapping by power,

the tap ordinarily is fed down into the hole to the required depth
and its rotation is then reversed for screwing it out of the hole.
There are different methods of obtaining this reverse motion.
When the tapping is done in an ordinary drilling machine, spe-
cial tap chucks are frequently used which are designed to reverse
the rotation of the tap when the latter has reached the required
depth. One form of tap-holding chuck is so arranged that the
tap automatically stops when it strikes the bottom of the hole or
when an adjustable depth gage comes against the top of the work*
The raising of the spindle then reverses the tap which backs out
at an increased speed.

Tapping Lubricants. Experiments have proved that the

power required in tapping that the resistance to the action
is,
of the tap when threading a nut varies considerably with differ-
ent lubricants. The following lubricants reduce the resistance to
the cut when threading forged nuts, as well as those made from
hexagon drawn material; the threads in the nut have a good
finish and appearance: Stearine oil, lard oil, sperm oil, rape oil,
and a mixture of 10 per cent graphite with 90 per cent tallow.
A mixture of cutting emulsion with water also reduces the re-
sistance to the threading action fairly well. In tests with emul-
sion, it was noted that it made very little difference how much
water was mixed with the emulsion. A mixture of one part
emulsion to 160 parts of water proved practically as good as a
mixture of one part emulsion to ten parts of water.
Compound oils, that is, mineral oils mixed with animal or
vegetable oils of the type usually employed for cooling lubricants
for turning and milling, produce a considerably higher resistance
than the animal or vegetable oils and cannot, therefore, be recom-
mended for tapping. Mineral oils hot mixed, and ordinary
lubricating and machine oils, are wholly unsuitable. The re-
sistance to cutting is very great, the taps break, and the threads
in the nuts are badly torn; ordinary water reduces the cutting
resistance better than some of the compound oils. Animal and
 1265 -T
vegetableoils, therefore, ought to be used exclusively for tapping.
Experiments on Lubricants for Tapping: Experiments con-
ducted at Gothenburg, Sweden, on a large scale, indicate that
the generalizations made from the earlier experiments, as re-
corded in the foregoing, are correct. Animal and vegetable oils
are the best for tapping mild steel, and of these stearine oil and
"Winter-strained" lard oil are preferable. Mineral oils ma-
chine oil were found to be wholly unsuitable. Compound oils
containing less than 50 per cent of animal or vegetable oil acted
much the same as the mineral oils and cannot be recommended
for threading. When the compound oils contained over 50 per
cent animal or vegetable oil, they could be used and were then
found to be almost as good as the pure animal and vegetable oils.
A few emulsions have given almost as good results as animal
and vegetable oils, but the kind of emulsion used plays an im-
portant part, and the majority of emulsions do not give good re-
sults. In almost all the tests made, a large volume of lubricant
gave somewhat better results than a small quantity. This was
particularly evident in the case of the thinner oils-. Kerosene,
turpentine, and graphite proved unsuitable for tapping steel.
With regard to the size of the hole tapped when different lubri-
cants were used, it was found that the lubricant that produced
the least resistance to tapping generally tended to produce the
largest tapped hole. For example, when a hole was tapped dry,
itwould be a most accurate reproduction of the tap as far as size
was concerned, but the threads were not clean and smooth, and,
of course, the length of life of the tap was reduced. Water used
as a lubricant produced good looking threads, but rather high
resistance. Stearine oil, which reduced the resistance to tapping
to the greatest extent, also produced the largest diameter in the
hole.
For tapping aluminum, kerosene is recommended. For tap-
ping cast iron use a strong solution of emulsion; oil has a
tendency to make cast-iron chips clog in the flutes, thus prevent-
ing the lubricant from reaching the cutting teeth of the tap.
For tapping copper, milk is a good lubricant.

Tapping Machines. Machines designed especially for tap-

ping or for drilling and tapping holes are made in quite a variety
of designs. Some of these machines are intended for one class
of work, like the tapping of nuts, whereas others are adapted to
tapping operations of a general nature; there are vertical and
horizontal, and single- and multiple-spindle types. Tapping ma-
chines also vary in regard to the mechanism for obtaining the
forward and reverse motions of the tap spindle and the method
of controlling these motions. A
common arrangement for obtain-
ing the two motions is by means of a clutch which is interposed
T-1266
between two pulleys revolving in opposite directions and is alter-
nately engaged with these pulleys. The clutch may be controlled
by (1) a hand-lever connecting with the clutch; (2) a foot-lever
connecting with the clutch; (3) pushing the work and its fixture
forward until contact is made with a stop-rod or lever which
shifts the clutch for backing out the tap; (4) pushing the work
against the tap while tapping and by pulling in the opposite
direction for backing out the tap, the clutch being shifted by the
direct thrust from the part being tapped and the resulting
longitudinal motion of the tap spindles. The latter method is
applied only to machines used for the lighter classes of work.
The characteristic features of well-designed tapping machines
are convenience of control and, for small tapping operations, a
sensitive drive that will transmit enough power for operating
the tap under normal conditions but not enough to break it in
case the resistance to rotation becomes excessive. See also
Nut-tapping Machines.

Tap Relief. See Relief of Taps.

Taps. A tap is an internal thread-cutting tool having teeth

which conform to the shape of the thread. Taps may be classi-
fied according to the kind of thread with which they are provided,
as U. S. Standard thread taps, square thread taps, and Acme
thread taps, etc. The most important classification of taps,
however, is according to their use.
Hand taps, as thename implies, are intended primarily for
tapping holes by hand but are often used in machines. All taps
used by hand are not termed "hand" taps as there are many
special taps used by hand which are known by specific names.
Tapper taps are used for tapping nuts in tapping machines.
They are provided with a long chamfered part on the end of the
threaded portion, and a long shank.
Machine nut taps are also used for tapping nuts in tapping
machines. This type is designed for more severe duty than the
tapper tap and is especially adapted for tapping holes in ma-
terials of tough structure. Machine nut taps are chamfered and
relieved in a different manner from tapper taps.
Machine screw taps may be either hand taps or machine nut
taps, but are known by the name "machine screw tap/' because
they constitute a class of special taps used for tapping holes for
standard machine screw sizes.
Screw machine taps for tapping in the screw machine are pro-
vided with shanks fitting either the turret holes of the machine
or bushings inserted in these holes. As these taps ordinarily cut
threads down to the bottom of the hole, they are provided with
a very short chamfer.
 1267 -T
Pulley taps are simply a special type of taps used for tapping
holes which cannot be reached by ordinary hand taps, as, for
instance, the set-screw or oil-cup holes in the hubs of pulleys.
They are simply hand taps with a very long shank.
Die taps, also known as long taper die taps, are used for cut-
ting the thread in a die in a single operation from the blank, and
are intended to be followed by a sizing hob tap. Die taps are
similar to machine nut taps.
Hob taps are used for sizing dies. They are intended only for
the final finishing of the thread and can only take a slight chip.
They are made to the same dimensions as regular hand taps, but
fluted differently.
Pipe taps are used for tapping holes for standard pipe sizes.
These taps are taper taps. There is also a special form of pipe
tap termed straight pipe tap, which is simply a hand tap cor-
responding in diameter and number of threads per inch to
standard pipe sizes.
Pipe hobs are similar to pipe taps, but are intended only for
sizing pipe dies after the thread has been cut either by a pipe
tap or in a lathe.
Boiler taps are used in steam boilerwork where a steam-tight
fit is required. They are made either straight or tapered. The
only a hand tap.
straight boiler tap is practically
Mud or washout taps are used in boiler or locomotive work.
They are sometimes also called arch pipe taps. Patch bolt taps
are used in boiler and locomotive work. These are taper taps
similar to mud or washout taps.
Staybolt taps are used on locomotive boiler work. They are
usually provided with a reamer portion preceding the threaded
part, and have generally a long threaded portion and a long
shank. A special form of staybolt tap is known as a spindle
Staybolt tap which revolves on a central spindle with a taper
guide on the front end.
Stove-bolt taps and carriage-bolt taps are taps which have de-
rived their names from the uses to which they were originally
put. These taps have special forms of threads.
Bit-brace taps differ in no essential from the hand tap on the
threaded portion, but are provided with a special shank for use
in a bit brace.
9
Blacksmiths taper taps are made for general rough threading
and are used especially in repair work, where an accurately
fitting thread is not required.
Inserted cutter taps may belong to any of the classes mentioned
and constitute a separate type only because they are not solid,
but have the cutting teeth on blades inserted and held rigidly in
a tap body.
T-1268

Taps, Adjustable. Adjustable taps are made for the pur-

pose of permitting adjustment to a correct standard size. The
adjustable tap may either be made from a solid piece, split in a
suitable manner to permit adjustment, or it may be provided
with inserted blades or cutters, which are so held in the tap body
that a slight movement of these blades in the longitudinal direc-
tion of the tap moves the cutting points of the thread nearer
or farther from the axis of the tap, thus decreasing or increasing
the diameter, as the case may be. There are various designs.

Taps, Collapsible. The collapsing tap shown in the accom-

panying illustration is one of many different designs that are
manufactured. These taps are often used in turret lathe prac-

Collapsing Tap

tice in place of solid taps. When using this particular style of

collapsing tap, the adjustable gage A
is set for the length of
thread required. When the tap has been fed to this
depth, the
gage comes into contact with the end of the work, which causes
the chasers to collapse automatically. The tool is then
withdrawn,
after which the chasers are again expanded and locked in
position
by the handle seen at the side of the holder.
As collapsible taps need not be backed out of the hole at the
completion of the thread, this reduces the actual tapping time
and naturally increases production. While it does not take
quite
as long to back a tap out as it does to run it into a
hole, due to
the faster travel of the machine when
reversed, yet, when com-
pared with the instantaneous withdrawal of a collapsible
tap, all
the time so consumed can be considered as lost.
Saving in time
and increase of production ranging from 10 to 100
per cent have
frequently been shown.
 1269 -T
Different Designs of Collapsible Taps: Generally speaking,
collapsible taps are made in two chief styles stationary and
rotary. Stationary taps are used on such machines as turret
lathes, hand screw machines, certain automatic machines, boring
mills, and any machine where the tap is held stationary and the
work revolves. Rotary taps are used on drill presses, radial
drilling machines, tapping machines, certain automatic machines,
or any machine on which the work being tapped is held stationary
and the tap revolves.
In the stationary style, a lever is employed for expanding the
chasers into the cutting position by hand. Frequently this is
automatically accomplished by bolting a bar of steel to the turret
slide guide, which engages the handle on the backward travel of
the turret The rotary tap can be expanded by arranging a yoke
or suitable fixture to the spindle housing to press against a collar
or flange provided for the purpose, as the spindle is backed away
or withdrawn from the work. This permits setting the chasers
while the tap is in motion. The ordinary method of collapsing the
chasers is by means of a tripping collar which is set according
to the depth of thread desired, and which comes into contact with
the face of the work. This is the type shown in the illustration.
Several makes of taps are also on the market in which the chasers
are collapsed by what is generally known as the "pull off" method.
With these taps the turret is retarded either by hand or by stop-
screws, and the action of the chasers in pulling on the threads
already cut operates a cam, which collapses the chasers.

Taps, Die. See Die Taps.

Taps, Ground. Anotable development in tap manufacture

consists in grinding the taps after hardening. The grinding
process serves to correct the distortion due to the hardening pro-
cessand it also leaves the tap with keen cutting edges. The ad-
vantages of grinding include accuracy of shape or thread form,
accurate lead, as accurate a diameter as is necessary to meet
commercial requirements, and the effective use of high-speed
steel.
Ground taps are made from high-speed steel, and the grinding
process after heat-treatment, makes it possible to harden such
taps at the high temperatures required to get best results with
steels of this class. There are two general methods of making
ground taps. One plan is to machine the tap thread and then
correct it after hardening by grinding off the slight amount that
has been left for this purpose. The other method is to harden
the unthreaded tap blank and then form the entire thread by the
grinding operation. It is claimed that this process of grinding
"from the solid" permits the nearest approach to the ideal heat-
T-1270
treatment of steel. Ground taps not only provide means of pro-
ducing accurately threaded holes, but they are capable of excep-
tionally large production per tap, owing to the use of the properly
heat-treated high-speed steel taps which have keen cutting edges.
Some ground taps have been made from carbon steel, but the
consensus of opinion is that this refined method of finishing taps
should only be applied to steels of the high-speed class in order
to obtain the best results. See also Tapped Hole Accuracy.

Taps, Hand. See Hand Taps.

Land Retke (Straight

Cuffing Fetce^
Heel

>^AAAA/^AAAAAA^AAA>^WU^
it
Length

Illustrations showing the Meaning of Terms Commonly

Applied to Taps

Tap Terms and Definitions. The accompanying illustration

shows the meaning of some commonly used tap terms. Definitions
of these and other terms follow:
Back Taper: A slight relief on the body of the tap axially,
which makes the pitch diameter of the thread near the shank
somewhat smaller than that at the point.
Base of Thread: The bottom section of a thread; the greatest
section between the two adjacent roots.
Chamfer: The tapering of the end of the tap by cutting away
the crest of the first few threads to distribute the
cutting action
over several teeth. It also acts as a guide in starting the tap
into a hole.
Crest: The top surface joining the two sides of a thread.
Flute: That portion cut away between the lands.
 1271 -T
Helix Angle of Flute: The flutes of taps are sometimes cut
helically instead of straight to either pull the chips out of the
hole or to bridge a gap such as a keyway. The helix angle is the
angle made by the flute with the axis of the tap.
Interrupted Thread: Applied to taps with an odd number of
flutes so that every other tooth along the helix is removed. This
eliminates friction and causes thicker chips per tooth to be taken
and is sometimes used for relatively large taps in tough metals.
Land: That portion of a thread not cut away by the flutes.
Rake: Hook or undercut on the face of the teeth. When the
faces are radial, the rake angle is zero. The rake angle is positive
when the outer end of the teeth is ahead of the bottom. The
rake angle is varied for different materials and conditions of
tapping.
Relief: The condition whereby metal is removed from behind
the cutting edge to produce clearance and reduce friction. Taps
should have the chamfer relieved and may or may not have relief
in the angle and on the major diameter of the threads.

Task Time. The predetermined time in which a given job

should be performed under the bonus
wage system of payment
is called the task time.

Taylor-White Process. This process of hardening high-speed

steel is, briefly, as follows:The first step, commonly known as
the "high-heat treatment," is effected by heating the tool slowly
to 1500 degrees P., and then rapidly from that temperature to
just below the melting point, after which the tool is quickly cooled
below 1550 degrees F. At this point, the cooling is continued
either fast or slow to the temperature of the air. It is important
to avoid any increase of temperature during the cooling period.
The second, or 'low-heat treatment/' consists in reheating a tool
which has had the high-heat treatment to a temperature some-
where between 700 and 1240 degrees F., preferably in a lead bath,
for a period of five minutes. The tool is then cooled to the tem-
perature of the air either rapidly or slowly.
As there are many high-speed steels on the market, the heat
treatment recommended by the steel manufacturer in each case
should be applied.

T-Bolt. See T-slot

Tchetvert. This is a Russian measure for capacity, equals
5.96 U. S. bushels, or 2.1 hectoliters.

Teat Drill. The cutting edges of a teat drill are at right angles
to the axis, and in the center there is a small teat of pyramid
shape which leads the drill and holds it in position. This form
is used for squaring the bottoms of holes made by ordinary twist
T-1272
drills or for drilling the entire hole, especially if it is not very
deep and a square bottom instance, when drilling
is required. For
holes to form clearance spaces at the end of a keyseat, prepara-
tory to cutting it out by planing or chipping, the teat drill is
commonly used,
Tee. A tee is a pipe fitting, either cast or wrought, that has
one side outlet at right angles to the run ; that is, a single outlet
branch pipe. A cross-over tee is made along lines similar to a
cross-over, but having at one end two openings in a tee-head the
plane of which is at right angles to the plane of the cross-over
bend. A union tee has a male or female union at the connection
on one end of the run. A service tee has an inside thread on one
end and on the branch, but an outside thread on the other end
of the run; it is also known as a street tee. A double-sweep tee
is made with easy curves between body and branch, i.e., the cen-
ter of the curve between the run and branch lies outside the body.

Tee Section. The standard structural section known as a tee

has a T shape. See Structural Shapes.

Teflon. A fluorine-containing, chemical- and heat-resistant

plastic with a dielectric strength of 1,500 volts per mil. Although
it is a thermoplastic it does not soften appreciably until it has
reached a temperature of about 700 degrees F. The material
begins to decompose at temperatures above 300 degrees F. and
since one of the products of decomposition is a harmful fluorine-
containing gas, use of the material at this high temperature
should be accompanied by adequate ventilation. Teflon is wax-
like, has self-lubricating properties, and has a specific gravity
of 2.2. Its uses include: pressure-valve seals, gaskets, and elec-
trical insulation materials.

Telegraph. Credit for the invention of the electric telegraph

isordinarily given to Prof. Samuel F. B. Morse of Mass., although
this invention, like many other epoch-making inventions, was not
the work of one man. The development of the battery, which was
an important element in developing the electric telegraph, began
with Galvani in 1790, and Volta in 1800, and in 1836 the Daniell
battery was invented by Prof. Daniell of London. The fact that
electricity could be transmitted through a metallic conductor had
been observed many years prior to the invention of the electric
telegraph; moreover, in 1837 Prof. Steinheil of Munich discov-
ered the practicability of using the earth as the return section
of an electrical circuit. The electromagnet, which constitutes such
an important part of the electric telegraph, was
developed chiefly
by Prof Joseph Henry of Princeton, N. J., although the underlying
.

principle of the electromagnet was first discovered in 1819 by

 1273 -T
Prof. Oersted of Copenhagen. The Morse register and alphabetical
code was the invention of Prof. Morse, and the first United States
patent was issued in 1840. The first instrument was designed to
draw on a strip of paper zigzag lines, thus providing a visible
code. In 1844 a receiving register was adopted which recorded
on a paper ribbon a series of dots and dashes, instead of zigzag
markings.

Telephone. Prof. Alexander Graham Bell, according to deci-

sions of the Patent Office and courts, was the first inventor of a
practical telephone. The first patent was awarded to Prof. Bell
in 1876 and the second patent in 1877. Philip Eeis in 1861 de-
vised an electric telephone that transmitted musical tones. Vari-
ous inventors claimed credit for the invention of the telephone
and perhaps the most important contestant was Elisha Gray
who filed a caveat in the Patent Office upon the same day that
Prof. Bell made his application. In the contest which followed
with Gray and other inventors, the Patent Office decided that the
first practical form of telephone was that of Prof. Bell's, and this
decision was later sustained by the courts.

Tellurium. Tellurium is closely related chemically to selenium,

and while in appearance wholly metallic, it is not classed among
the metals. It is brittle and crystalline and has a silver-white
color which is similar to that of unoxidized zinc, and is so soft
that it can be scratched by the finger nail. The specific gravity
of tellurium is 6.25, the atomic weight, 127.5, and its weight per
cubic inch is 0.226 pound. It melts at 452 degrees C. (846 de-
grees F.) and boils at 478 degrees C. (892 degrees F.) Tellurium
.

is practically a non-conductor of electricity. has been used for

It
coloring glass, to which it gives a peculiar reddish tint

Temperature, Absolute. See Absolute Temperature.

Temperature Cones. See Seger Temperature Cones.
Temperatures, Critical. See Critical Temperatures.

Temperatures, Ignition. See Ignition Temperatures.

Temperature Standards for Gages. Inasmuch as the size
of a gage varies somewhat with temperature changes, it is evi-
dent that the size should be based upon some standard tempera-
ture. In the standardization of precision gages for industrial
use, 68 degrees F. has been adopted generally in the United
States during recent years as the standard temperature, because
it is the common or average working temperature to which gages
are ordinarily subjected in practice. Formerly 62 degrees F.
was the temperature used for precision gage standardization, as
this is the temperature, approximately, at which the standard
T-1274
yard bar is at the correct length; but a temperature of 68 de-
grees F. is the generally used working standard for the calibra-
tion of industrial gages. This temperature not only conforms to
average working temperatures, but it has been widely employed
for many other physical tests, and moreover, it is the exact
equivalent of 20 degrees C.
This same temperature of 20 degrees C., or 68 degrees F., has
been adopted as the standard for gage work and other industrial
measuring instruments, by engineering standardization bodies in
Germany, Holland, Sweden, and Switzerland. In Great Britain
the temperature of 62 degrees F., which applies to the funda-
mental standard yard bar, is also employed as the basis for in-
dustrial gage and instrument calibration.

Tempering. The object of tempering, or "drawing," is to re-

duce the brittieness in hardened steel, and to remove the internal
strains caused by the sudden cooling in the quenching bath. The
tempering process consists in heating the piece of work, by vari-
ous means, to a certain temperature, and cooling it. The degree
of heat to which the tool to be tempered is heated determines the
degree of toughness and also the degree of softness. Hardened
steel is tempered in order to make it less brittle, but unfortu-
nately the tempering process also softens the steel, to some extent.
If it were possible to temper steel so as to produce greater tough-
ness and, at the same time, retain the extreme hardness, the ideal
condition would be obtained. That hardness and brittieness are
not necessarily synonymous may be seen in the case of cast iron,
which is very brittle, but not very hard. On the other hand, there
are some alloy steels that may be made very hard and at the same
time very tough. The object of tempering steel is to reduce the
brittieness; that the hardness is simultaneously reduced cannot,
unfortunately, be avoided.
The modern method of tempering, especially in quantity, is to
heat the hardened parts to the required temperature in a bath
of molten lead, heated oil, or other liquids; the parts are then
removed from the bath and quenched. The bath method makes
it possible to heat the work uniformly, and to a given
tempera-
ture, within close limits, because the temperature of the bath may
readily be determined. While oil is the most widely used medium
for tempering tools in quantities, other means and methods are
employed, especially by those who have tools in small quantities
to temper, when the expense of installing and running an oil
tempering furnace would not be warranted.

Tenite. A thermoplastic molding material obtainable both in

sheet and granular form. Available in all colors and in sheets
in thicknesses from 3/16 to 1 inch and in pieces as
large as 20
 1275 -T
by 25 inches. Has unusual strength. May be used for all classes
of molded plastics, especially for parts that may be subjected to
temperatures up to 160 degrees F. and that must resist vegetable
or mineral oils.

Tensile Test. Tensile tests of steel, or other materials used

in building machines, buildings or other structures, are made
with a powerful machine which pulls the standard test specimen
apart and indicates the amount of force required. The objects in
making tensile tests are: to determine the elastic limit, the ulti-
mate strength, the elongation, the reduction in area, and the
appearance of the fracture.
Tensile Test Specimens. In testing the tensile strength of
different materials in machines designed for this purpose, the
piece subjected to the test should conform to a standard shape
and size so that tests made in different plants or laboratories will
represent uniform conditions and the resulting test data will be
comparable. The forms and sizes of test specimens for different
materials are included in the recommendations of the American
Society for Testing Materials.
Plate Material: One form of test specimen is used for plate
material having a thickness of % inch or more. The thickness
for the test specimen equals the thickness of the material. A
rectangular strip about 2 inches wide at the gripped ends has,
between these ends, a reduced parallel section 1% inches wide
and not less than 9 inches long. This parallel section includes
what is known as the "gage length" for measuring elongation
after fracture.
Sheet Metals: For ferrous and non-ferrous sheet metals, the
gripped ends are about 11/16 inch wide, the reduced parallel
section has a minimum length of 2% inches, and a gage length of
2 inches. The width of this reduced section is 0.500 inch with
certain tolerances. This test specimen is applied to plates, sheets,
strips, etc., varying in thickness from 0.01 to 0.25 inch. In test-
ing tubing, the specimen may be cut from a section of the tube.
Test Specimen for General Use: The tension test specimen
recommended for general use in testing metals is cylindrical in
form. The ends for gripping may be plain-shouldered or they
may be threaded. The plain-shouldered ends have a diameter of
% inch and the threaded ends a diameter of %inch. The re-
duced section between these ends has a nominal diameter of
% inch, and the gage length in this parallel section is 2 inches.
Complete specifications for these various test specimens are
covered by the A.S.T.M. designation E8-36.

Tension Scales for Belts. The tension of belts used for the
transmission of power should be varied according to the length,
T-1276
width, and thickness of the belt. When a belt is kept at the
proper tension, its life is materially increased, and the cost of
maintenance and repairs is greatly reduced. A belt should not
only have the proper initial tension at the time it is put up, but
this tension should be maintained. If a belt is too tight, there
is a constant waste of power due to excessive friction in the bear-
ings, and if it is too loose, a loss in efficiency from slippage
results; both conditions tend to shorten the life of the belt. A
belt tension scale has been designed for testing the tension while
a belt is in position on the pulleys. The scale is placed on the
belt and a handle is turned, thus causing tension to be applied
to the belt by means of a spring contained within the scale. The
tension of the belt is indicated by graduations which show
whether or not the belt requires tightening, and, if so, how much
should be cut out of the belt.

Terminal Pressure. The terminal pressure is the pressure in

the cylinder of a steam engine at the time release occurs, and
depends upon the initial pressure, the ratio of expansion, and
the amount of cylinder condensation.
The terminal pressure of an air compressor is the pressure to
which the air is compressed.

Ternary Ailoy. This is an alloy consisting of three elements.

When the term refers to steel, it denotes a steel which contains
two alloying elements in addition to iron; since carbon is always
present, it is one of these elements. The third element may be
nickel, chromium, manganese, tungsten, molybdenum, titanium,
or any other element that is alloyed to give the steel some special
property.

Terne-Plate. Terne-plate differs from tin-plate in that the

latter is sheet steel coated with commercially pure tin, while
terne-plate or roofing tin consists of sheet steel coated with an
alloy of tin and lead. This alloy is usually composed of 32 per
cent of tin and 68 per cent of lead; 26 per cent of tin and 74
per
cent of lead; or 16 per cent of tin and 84 per cent of lead- Coat-
ing the steel with this alloy increases its weight about 20 per cent.
Terne-plates are made in sizes of 10 by 14 inches, and in multi-
ples of that measure. The sizes generally used are 14 by 20 inches
and 20 by 28 inches. The plates that are coated with an alloy
containing from 26 to 32 per cent of tin are generally known as
No. 1 terne, while those containing 16 per cent of tin are known
as No. 2 terne.

Test Indicators. Test indicators are extensively used in con-

nection with the repair or erection of machinery, for
detecting
any lack of parallelism between surfaces, in inspection depart-
 1277-T
ments, and for testing the accuracy of rotating parts (such as
spindles or arbors) in connection with general machine shop and
tool-room work. Indicators of the dial type show the variations
in measurement or alignment by the movement of a hand relative
to a graduated dial. Other indicators, instead of having a gradu-
ated dial, are equipped with a long indicating hand or "finger"
which is so connected with the contact point that movements of
the latter are considerably magnified.

Tests, Impact. See Impact Tests.

Tetrabasic Acid. In chemistry, this is an acid which has
four atoms of hydrogen in each molecule replaceable by a metal.
Thermal Unit. This is a unit for measuring quantity of
heat, being the amount of heat required for raising the tempera-
ture of a certain weight of water one degree on some thermometer
scale. In the English system, the British thermal unit is the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound
of pure water one degree F. In the metric system, the French
thermal unit, or calorie, is the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of one kilogram of pure water one degree C.

Thermit Welding. The thermit process of welding metals is

effectedby pouring superheated thermit steel around the parts
to be united. Thermit is a mixture of finely divided aluminum
and iron oxide. This mixture is placed in a crucible and the steel
is produced by igniting the thermit in one spot by means of a

special powder, which generates the intense heat necessary to

start the chemical reaction. When the reaction is once started,
it continues throughout the entire mass, the oxygen of the iron

being taken up by the aluminum (which has a strong affinity for

it) producing aluminum oxide (or slag) and superheated thermit
steel. Ordinarily, the reaction requires from 35 seconds to one
minute, depending upon the amount of thermit used. As soon as
it ceases, the steel sinks to the bottom of the crucible and is

tapped into a mold surrounding the parts to be welded. As the

temperature of the steel is about 5400 degrees F., it fuses and
amalgamates with the broken sections, thus forming a homogene-
ous weld. It is necessary to preheat the sections to be welded
before pouring, to prevent chilling the steel. The principal steps
of the welding operation are: to clean the sections to be welded;
remove enough metal at the fracture to provide for a free flow of
thermit steel; align the broken members and surround them with
a mold to retain the steel; preheat by means of a gasoline torch
to prevent chilling the steel; ignite the thermit and tap the molten
steel into the mold. This process is especially applicable to the
welding of large sections. It has been used for welding locomo-
tive frames, rudder- and stern-posts of ships, crankshafts, and
T-1278

heavy repair work, in general. One of the great advantages of

the thermit process is that broken parts can usually be welded in
place by simply removing parts that would interfere with the
application of a suitable mold.

Thermochemistry. Thermochemistry is that part of the sci-

ence of chemistry which deals with the heat produced or absorbed
by chemical reactions. Reactions in which heat is evolved are
termed exothermic; those in which heat is absorbed are called
endathermic.

Thermocouple. When two dissimilar metals are placed in

contact with one another and are heated or cooled at their point
of contact, an electromotive force is produced which varies with
the difference in temperature between the point of contact and
the opposite ends of the metals, which may or may not be joined.
Such a device is called a thermocouple. The requirements of a
good thermocouple are: 1. A high melting point of the elements.
2. The property of generating as large an electromotive force as
possible, and an electromotive force which will increase as nearly
as possible in direct proportion to rise in temperature, in order
to obtain a uniform measuring scale. 3. Constancy of couples

throughout their life. The use of different pairs of metals in

thermocouples results in different electromotive forces being
produced.
There are two general classes of metals used for the thermo-
couples, known as base metals and rare metals, the former being
the more widely used. The latter are much more expensive, but
they are adapted to higher temperatures. Base metal couples
are ordinarily used for temperature measurement in conjunction
with the heat-treatment of carbon steels, but rare metal couples
are often used in preference in the case of high-speed steels.
Base metal couples are usually made either of some nickel alloy
or of iron-constantan, and rare metal couples of platinum in con-
junction with a platinum alloy. The base metal couples have
several advantages, especially as applied to pyrometers for use in
heat-treating plants. See also Pyrometer, Thermocouple.
Thermoil-Granodine. A coating material developed to pre-
vent wear and rust of machine parts. Applied by immersing the
machine parts, after thorough cleaning, in a boiling solution of
the coating material. The solution transforms the surface into
a layer of iron and manganese phosphates, which becomes an
integral part of the metal beneath. Suitable for treating auto-
mobile engine parts, such as pistons, valves, and camshafts;
gears; and any machine parts having bearing surfaces.
Thermometer. Thermometers are used only for measuring
comparatively low temperatures, generally not above 200 or
 1279 -T
300 degrees F. The instruments used for measuring the degree
of heat at higher temperatures are known as pyrometers. There
are three thermometer scales in general use: The Fahrenheit
(F.)f which is generally used in the English speaking countries;
the Centigrade (C.) or Celsius, which is used in several con-
tinental countries and in scientific work; and the Reaumur (K.),
which is used to some extent on the European continent, notably
in Germany.
In the Fahrenheit thermometer, the freezing point of water
is marked at 32 degrees on the scale and the boiling point at
212 degrees. (Boiling point when atmospheric pressure is
14.7 pounds per square inch or at sea level.) The distance be-
tween these two points is divided into 180 degrees. On the
Centigrade scale, the freezing point of water is at degrees and
the boiling point at 100 degrees. On the Reaumur scale, the
freezing point is at degrees and the boiling point at 80 degrees.
To find the degrees Centigrade subtract 32 from the degrees
Fahrenheit, multiply the remainder by 5 and divide the product
by 9. To find the degrees Fahrenheit multiply the degrees
Centigrade by 9, divide the product by 5, and add 32 to quotient.
Thermometer for High Temperatures: A thermometer capable
of temperature readings up to 1000 degrees C. (1832 degrees F.)
uses the element gallium, which is sealed in a capillary tube of
fused quartz of uniform bore. Gallium melts at 29.7 degrees C.
(about 85 degrees F.) and boils at approximately 1700 degrees C.
(about 3100 degrees F.).
Thermostat. A thermostat is a device consisting of a
thermally responsive element and one or more electrical contacts
which opens and closes one or more circuits in response to
changes in temperature. There are four main classes of thermo-
stats: (1) Those which depend upon the movement of a simple
bimetal element; (2) those which depend upon the differential
movement between two elements of different metals; (3) those
which depend upon the expansion and the contraction of a liquid
or vapor in a hydraulic system; and (4) those which depend
upon the movement of mercury in a capillary tube.
Thomas-Gilchrist Process. This is a method for converting
pig iron into steel by the Bessemer process. See Bessemer
Process.

Thread Angle. The standard angle of a thread having slop-

ing sides is always the angle included between the sides measured
in a plane intersecting the axis. This standard angle for each
screw thread system is always the same regardless of the pitch
or number of threads per inch. For example, the angle of Ameri-
can Standard screw threads is 60 degrees in all cases.
T-1280
Lead Angle: Another angle pertaining to screw threads is
known as the lead angle. This angle indicates the inclination
of the thread relative to a plane perpendicular to the axis of the
screw. The cotangent of the lead angle, say, at the pitch diam-
eter, equals the pitch circumference divided by lead of thread.
The lead angle of a given screw thread increases from the crest
down to the root of the thread, and the intermediate lead angle
at the pitch diameter is the one ordinarily required. For exam-
ple, in milling a thread, the cutter is inclined to suit this inter-
mediate lead angle so that its plane of rotation will be in
alignment with the groove of the thread.
Thread Chasers. A chaser is a form of threading tool hav-
ing a number of teeth instead of a single point like the threading
tools commonly used for screw cutting in the engine lathe,
although the term "thread chasing" is often used to indicate the
cutting of a thread with a single-point tool. The two general
classes <?f chasers (exclusive of those used in dies) are hand
chasers and threading tool chasers. The former are hand-
controlled, and the latter are rigidly held in a tool-holder and
used like an ordinary lathe threading tool. When a hand chaser
is in use, the cutting end is supported by some form of rest held
in the toolpost. These hand chasers are convenient for truing
up battered threads or for reducing the size of a part which
has been threaded by either a die or a single-point tool. Tools
of this kind are especially adapted for brass work. The chaser
has teeth spaced to correspond to the pitch of the thread. This
form of tool can be applied to the work quickly and without
gearing the lathe for a thread-cutting operation.
Chasers Held in Tool-holder: Threading tool chasers which are
held rigidly in the tool-holder are used practically the same as a
single-point tool, the lathe being geared for traversing the tool
along the work in order to control the lead of the thread. Tools
of this kind cut threads rapidly and may be used for roughing
out threads preparatory to finishing them with a regular single-
point tool. Many screw threads are also finished completely with
chasers of this type, although they are not adapted for extremely
accurate work unless the teeth are ground after hardening, be-
cause the pitch of the chaser teeth is affected more or less by the
hardening operation. The pitch of the chaser teeth does not
always equal the pitch of the thread to be cut. For instance, a
chaser may have a pitch double that of the screw thread. Every
alternate groove is engaged, but as the lathe is geared for the
pitch of thread to be cut, each tooth of the chaser follows the
thread groove the same as though it were a single tool. Chasers
are sometimes made in this way for cutting very fine threads,
because larger and stronger teeth are obtained.
 1281 -T
Thread-Chasing Attachments. Most threading operations
in the turret lathe aredone by using taps and dies, but, for some
classes of work, thread-chasing attachments are used. Such at-
tachments cover a wide range of diameters and may be used,
either because the work is too large for a tap or die or because
the number of parts required is not large enough to warrant the
purchase of special taps and dies. Another advantage of the
thread-chasing attachment is that it enables a screw thread to
be produced which is known to be true with other cuts that have
been taken at the same setting of the work. One type of attach-
ment consists of a reciprocating cutter bar which is carried by
a holder that is bolted to the turret. Motion is imparted to the
cutter bar from the main spindle of the machine through gearing
and a splined transmission shaft, which enables the turret to be
indexed without interfering with the attachment. Another form
of chasing attachment consists of a leader or short lead-screw
which is mounted upon the feed-rod of the machine, and a brass
follower that is engaged or disengaged by a lever pivoted in a
bracket bolted to the carriage apron. A bar carrying a single-
point chasing cutter is held in a holder clamped onto the
turret.

Thread Chasing Dial. A thread chasing dial or indicator is

a simple device which is attached to the carriage of a lathe and
used when cutting threads to enable the operator to engage the
carriage with the lead-screw at the proper time, so that the
thread tool will follow the original or first cut. The chasing dial
consists of a graduated dial and a worm-wheel which meshes with
the lead-screw so that the dial is revolved by the lead-screw when
the carriage is stationary, and, when the carriage is moved by
the screw, the dial remains stationary. The number of teeth in
the worm-wheel driving the dial is some multiple of the number
of threads per inch of the lead-screw, and the number of teeth in
the worm-wheel, divided by the pitch of the screw, equals the
number of graduations on the dial. For example, if the lead-
screw has six threads per inch, the worm-wheel could have
twenty-four teeth, in which case the dial would have four divi-
sions, each representing an inch of carriage travel, and, by sub-
dividing the dial into eighths each line would correspond to
% inch of travel. The dial, therefore, would enable the carriage
to be engaged with the lead-screw at points equal to a travel of
one-half inch. If the thread being cut had nine threads per inch,
or any other odd number, the tool would only coincide with the
thread at points 1 inch apart. Therefore, the carriage can only
be engaged when one of the four graduations representing an
inch of travel is opposite the zero mark or arrow, when cutting
odd threads; whereas even numbers can be "caught" by using
T-1282
any one of the eight lines, assuming that the dial were graduated
as described.

Thread-Cutting Attachments for Large Leads. When a

lathe is used for cutting a screw thread of exceptionally large
lead, or steep pitch, the change-gear mechanism may
be subjected
to excessive stresses if the power for traversing the carriage
along the bed is transmitted from the lathe spindle to the lead-
screw in the usual manner. This is due to the unusual distance
that the carriage must move along the bed per revolution of the
work in order to obtain a large lead. For instance, if the lead
is such that the lead-screw must be revolved quite rapidly to
move the carriage and tool a distance equal to the lead of the
thread, each time the spindle makes one revolution, the teeth,
especially on the first gear of the train, may be broken as a
result of the excessive stress. One method of avoiding trouble
of this kind is to apply power directly to the lead-screw, instead
of to the spindle; motion is then transmitted from the high-speed
member of the gear train to the low-speed member, as the lead-
screw drives the spindle and the load on the gear teeth is reduced.
Special Drive from Cone Pulley: Another method of over-
coming this difficulty on a lathe having a cone pulley is by driv-
ing the lead-screw from the gear on the cone pulley, special
gearing being nsed to transmit the motion.
Special Lead-screw for Coarse Pitches: A
special lead-screw
for cutting threads of large lead is applied to some lathes. With
one arrangement, this auxiliary lead-screw extends along the
rear side of the bed, and when in use the back-gearing of the
headstock is engaged; the drive is then from the large back-gear,
through change-gearing, to the special lead-screw. The lathe is
equipped with the regular quick-change gear mechanism and a
lead-screw at the front for ordinary thread-cutting operations.
Speed-Reducing Faceplate: The speed-reducing faceplate sim-
ply reduces the speed of the work so that the lead of the thread is
increased proportionately. Motion is transmitted from the head-
stock spindle to the work-driving plate, through a planetary
gear train which, in one design, reduces the work speed in the
ratio of 6 to 1, relative to the headstock spindle and the lead-
screw; consequently, it is possible to cut threads six times
coarser in lead than are indicated on the instruction plate
attached to the headstock.

Thread-Cutting Change-Gears. See Change-gears for

Thread-cutting.

Thread-Cutting Dies. See Dies for Thread-cutting.

Thread-Cutting Methods. The two general methods of form-

ing screw threads may be defined as the cutting method and the
 1283 -T
rolling or displacement method. The cutting methods as applied
to external threads are briefly as follows:
1. By taking a number of successive cuts with a single-point
tool that is traversed along the part tobe threaded at a rate per.
revolution of the work depending upon the lead of the thread,
(Common method of cutting screw threads in the engine lathe.)
2. By taking successive cuts with a multiple-point tool or
chaser of the type used to some extent in conjunction with the
engine lathe and on lathes of the Fox or monitor types.
3. By using a tool of the die class, which usually has four or
more multiple-point cutting edges or chasers and generally
finishes the thread in one cut or passage of the tool.
4. By a single rotating milling cutter, which forms the thread
groove as either the cutter or the work is traversed axially at a
rate depending upon the thread lead.
5. By a multiple rotating milling cutter which completes a
thread in approximately one revolution of the work.
6. By a multiple rotating cutter which also has a planetary

rotating movement about the work which is held stationary. See

Planamilling and Planathreading.
7. By a grinding wheel having its edge shaped to conform to
the groove of the screw thread.
8. By a multi-edged grinding wheel which, within certain
limits as to thread length, will grind the complete thread in
practically one revolution of the work.
Internal screw threads, or those in holes, may or may not be
produced by the same general method that is applied to external
work. There are three commercial methods of importance,
namely:
1. By the use of a single-point traversing tool in the engine
lathe or a multiple-point chaser in some cases.
2. By means of a tap which, in machine tapping, usually
finishes the thread in one cut or passage of the tool.
3. By a rotating milling cutter of either the single or the

multiple type.
Dies operated by hand are frequently used for small and
medium-sized parts, especially when accuracy as to the lead of
the thread and its relation to the screw axis is not essential
and comparatively few parts need to be threaded at a time. When
a large number of pieces must be threaded, power-driven ma-
chines equipped with dies are commonly employed. If the opera-
tion is simply that of threading the ends of bolts, studs, rods,
etc., a "bolt cutter" would generally be used, but if cutting the
thread were only one of several other operations necessary to
complete the work, the thread would probably be cut in the same
machine performing the additional operations. For instance;
T-1284
parts are threaded in turret lathes and automatic screw ma-
chines by means of dies and in conjunction with other operations.
When screws are required which must be accurate as to the pitch
or lead of the thread, and be true relative to the axis of the
work, a lathe is generally used; lathes are also employed, ordi-
narily, when the threaded part is comparatively long and large
in diameter. Many threads which formerly were cut in the lathe
are now produced by the milling process in special thread-
milling machines. The method often depends upon the equipment
at hand and the number of parts to be threaded. Very precise
threads may be produced by grinding.

Thread, "Drunken." See "Drunken" Thread.

Thread Generating Machine. A machine known as a thread
generator for generating threads on worms, hobs and similar
parts operates on the molding-generating principle, using a heli-
cal gear-shaper cutter. The work rotates on an axis at right
angles to that of the cutter, and the cutter rotates in unison
with the work; that is, the work and cutter are geared together
in relation to the number of teeth in the cutter and the number
of threads on the worm. The cutter is carried in a head mounted
on a slide that is traversed longitudinally along the work, and
as the cutter is rolled in mesh with the work, it produces threads
by the generating process.
Thread Grinding. Thread grinding is applied both in the
manufacture of duplicate parts and also in connection with
precision thread work in the tool-room.
Single-edged Grinding Wheel: In grinding a thread, the gen-
eral practice in the United States is to use a
large grinding
wheel (for external threads) having a diameter of
possibly 18 to
20 inches. The width may be 5/16 or % inch. The face or edge
of this comparatively narrow wheel is
accurately formed to the
cross-sectional shape of the thread to be ground. The
thread is
ground to the correct shape and lead by traversing it relative to
the grinding wheel. This traversing
movement, which is equiva-
lent lead of the screw thread for each of its
to^the revolutions,
is obtained from a lead-screw. On one type of thread grinder,
this lead-screw is attached directly to the
work-spindle and has
the same lead as the screw thread to be
ground; hence, there is
a separate lead-screw for each different lead of
thread to be
ground. On another design of machine, the lead-screw
arrange-
ment is similar to that on a lathe in that the
required lead on
the ground thread is obtained by selection of the
proper change
gears. The grinding wheel may have a surface
speed of 7000 feet
a minute, whereas the work speed
may range from 3 to 10 feet
per minute. The grinding wheel is inclined to suit the helix
 1285 -T
angle of the thread and either right- or left-hand threads may
be ground. Provision is also made for grinding multiple threads
and for relieving taps and hobs. The wheel shape is accurately
maintained by means of diamond truing tools. On one type of
machine, this truing is done automatically and the grinding
wheel is also adjusted automatically to compensate for whatever
slight reduction in wheel size may result from the truing
operation.
An internal thread may also be ground with a single-edged
wheel. The operation is the same in principle as external thread
grinding. The single-edged wheel is used whenever the highest
precision is required, grinding the work either from the solid or
as a finishing operation.
Grinding "from the Solid": On some classes of work, the en-
tire thread isformed by grinding "from the solid," especially if
the time required is less than would be needed for a rough thread-
cutting operation followed by finish-grinding after hardening.
Grinding threads from the solid is applied to the finer pitches.
In some plants, threads with pitches up to about 1/16 inch are
always ground by this method.
Multi-edged Grinding Wheel: An entire screw thread, if not
too long, may be ground completely in one revolution by using
a multi-edged type of grinding wheel. The face of this wheel is
formed of a series of annular thread-shaped ridges so that it is
practically a number of wheels combined in one. The principle
is the same as that of milling screw threads by the multiple-
cutter method. If the length of the thread to be ground is less
than the width of the wheel, it is possible to complete the grind-
ing in practically one work revolution as in thread milling. A
grinding wheel having a width of, say, 2% inches, is provided
with annual ridges or threads across its entire width. The wheel
is fed in to the thread depth, and, while the work makes one

single revolution, the wheel moves axially a distance equal to the

thread lead along the face of the work. Most threads which re-
quire grinding are not longer than the width of the wheel; hence,
the thread one turn of the work.
is_completed by
If the thread is longer than the wheel width, one method is
to grind part of the thread and then shift the wheel axially one
or more times for grinding the remaining part. For example,
with a wheel 2% inches in width, a thread approximately
12 inches long might be ground in five successive steps. A sec-
ond method is that of using a multi-edged tapering wheel which
is fed axially along the work. The taper is to distribute the work
of grinding over the different edges or ridges as the wheel feeds
along.
T-1286

A Precision Method of Checking the Pitch Diameter

of a Screw Thread

Thread Robbing. A hob is sometimes used in conjunction

with a gear-hobbing machine for milling multiple screw threads.
A hob used for this purpose has teeth which lie along a helical
path, like a hob intended for cutting spur or helical gears, and
it must be geared to revolve with the work at a definite
speed
ratio, the same as when hobbing a gear. The hobbing method is
particularly efficient for cutting worms having several threads,
because the hob finishes the different threads
simultaneously.
Threading Attachments, Coarse. See Coarse Threading
Attachments.
Thread Measurement, Three-Wire Method. The pitch di-
ameter of a screw thread may bechecked very accurately by what
is known as the "three-wire method." This wire
method is espe-
cially useful in checking very accurate work, such, for
example,
as thread gages, and ordinarily it would not be
employed in
checking parts in connection with ordinary manufacturing prac-
tice because thread gages
require much less time and are prefer-
able for shop measurements. The three-wire method, however,
is frequently used for
precision work. Three wires or pins of
the same diameter (within very dose
limits) are placed in con-
tact with the screw thread, as illustrated
by the diagram. Two
 1287 -T
wires are placed in contact with the thread on one side and a
third wire on the opposite side. When the micrometer is in con-
tact with all three wires, this insures measuring perpendicular
to the axis of the screw thread.
The rule or formula for determining the measurement over M
the wires may be based either upon the pitch diameter or upon
the major or outside diameter D. The final result will be the
same, assuming that the pitch diameter and the major diameter
are the basic dimensions in each case. The formulas which follow
do not compensate for t-ie effect of the lead angle but they
are sufficiently accurate for checking single-thread screws un-
less exceptional accuracy is required; these are the formulas
ordinarily used.
General Formulas for Any Thread Angle: The general formu-
las which follow are for determining either the measurement
over the wires when the pitch diameter of the screw thread is
correct or the pitch diameter equivalent to a given measurement
over the wires. These general formulas may be applied to any
thread angle. Assume that
M = measurement over the wires when pitch diameter is
correct;
E= basic pitch diameter of screw thread;
W s= wire diameter;
t = one-half the thread angle in the plane of the axis
= 30 degrees for American Standard thread,
27% degrees for British Standard Whitworth,
14% degrees for Acme Standard.
To determine the correct measurement M for a given pitch
diameter, use the following formula:

W (1 + cosec t)

To determine the pitch diameter E equivalent to any measure-

ment M, use the following formula:

E=M + -J^-? W(l + cosec t)

Simplified Formulas for Given Thread Angles: The general

formulas just given can, of course, be simplified for any given
thread angle. For example, if the thread angle is 60 degrees,
then

M=E A JLL
0.57735
+W + =E
(1 2) 0.86603 P -f 3 TF

This formula may be applied to any 60-degree thread, such as

the American Standard, a sharp V-thread, or American Standard
straight pipe thread.
T-t288
Formulas Based upon Major Diameter: When the formula is
based upon the major or outside diameter, it must take into ac-
count not only the thread angle, but the thread depth; conse-
quently, formulas for an American Standard thread, a sharp
V-thread, and a pipe thread are all different, because, while the
angle is the same, the thread depths vary in each case.
For American Standard thread: M t= D (1.5155 X W
+ (3 X W).
M = D (1.732 X *) + (3
For a sharp V-thread: X W).
M *= D 1.6656 P + 3 W.
For a straight pipe thread:
In these formulas, D equals the basic outside diameter. The
formula for the sharp V-thread has the largest constant of 1.732
because the thread depth equals 0.866 times pitch of thread. The
depth of a standard pipe thread equals 0.8 times pitch, thus re-
ducing the constant to 1.6656; the depth of the American or
U. S. Standard thread equals 0.6495 times pitch.
Pitch Diameters of Screw Threads: All references here to
major and pitch diameters relate to the basic dimensions.
Pitch diameter of American Standard thread c= major diameter
(0.649519 X
Pitch).
Pitch diameter of British Standard Whitworth thread =
major diameter (0.640327 X
pitch) .

Pitch diameter of Acme Standard thread e= major diameter

(0.5 X Pitch).
Pitch diameter of 29-degree worm thread = major diameter
(0.6866 X
Pitch).
Pitch diameter of sharp V-thread = major diameter
(0.866 X Pitch).

Thread Micrometer. The pitch diameter or angle diameter

of a screw thread may be determined by using a special thread
micrometer. This micrometer has a fixed anvil which is
V-shaped so as to fit over the thread while the movable point or
spindle is cone-shaped at the end so that it will enter the space
between two threads. The anvil and the spindle make contact with
the sides, of the thread, thus enabling the "angle diameter" or
pitch diameter to be determined.

Thread Milling. There are two general methods of forming

screw threads by milling, which may be designated as the single-
cutter and the multiple-cutter methods. Whenever a single cutter
is used, the axis of the cutter is inclined in order to locate the
cutter in line with the thread groove at the point where the cut-
ting action takes place. The lengthwise traversing movement is
^

applied to the cutter on some machines and to the screw being

milled on other machines. The single-cutter process is especially
applicable to the milling of large screw threads of coarse pitch
 1289 -T
and the heavier classes of work. For fine pitches and short
threads, the multiple-cutter method is preferable because it is
more rapid. The object of using a multiple cutter instead of a
single cutter is to finish a screw thread complete in approxi-
mately one revolution of the work. In order to finish the thread
complete in one revolution (plus a slight amount of over-travel) ,

it is necessary to use a cutter which is at least one or two threads

or pitches wider than the thread to be milled. In using a multi-
ple cutter it is simply fed in to the full thread depth and then
either the cutter or screw blank is moved in a lengthwise direc-
tion a distance equal to the pitch of the thread. See also
Planathreading.
Thread Rolling. The rolling process of forming screw
threads may be defined as an impression or displacement method,
since the thread grooves are not cut by an edged tool but are
formed by means of a die or roll having threads or ridges which
are forced into the metal and r by displacing it, produce a thread
corresponding to the required shape and pitch. The plain blanks
upon which threads are to be rolled are somewhat smaller in
diameter than the finished thread, because the rolling process
displaces a certain amount of metal which is forced up above the
original surface of the blank, thus producing a screw thread
which is larger in diameter than the original blank. The increase
in diameter is approximately equal to the depth of one thread.
No material whatever is removed by the rolling process, the
metal from the depression formed by the die simply being forced
up on either side. When screw threads are produced by the
rolling or displacement method, there are two general processes:
"1. By rolling the blank in contact with a revolvable disk or

roll, the periphery of which has either a single thread or a multi-

ple thread corresponding in pitch to the thread required. This
method is employed when threads are rolled in automatic screw
machines.
2. By rolling the blank in contact with flat dies having parallel

ridges which are spaced in accordance with the required pitch

and which form the screw thread. Machines designed exclu-
sively for rolling screw threads on such parts as machine screws,
bolts, wood screws, etc., are equipped with flat dies.
3. By the rotary or circular method. In a type of thread
rolling machine employing this method a cylindrical die, rotating
on its axis and provided with thread grooves on the outside, is
set horizontally within a hollow cylindrical die having threads
on the inside. Screw threads that are within the range of the
rolling process may be produced more rapidly by this method than
in any other way, which accounts for the use of thread-rolling
machines in connection with bolt and screw manufacture.
 T-1290
Blank Sizes: According to the practice in different plants
where thread rolling is done, there are three general classes of
blank sizes, including: (1) Those which are a little larger than
the pitch diameter; (2) those which are approximately equal
to the pitch diameter; and (3) those which are slightly less than
the pitch diameter. The sizes in the first class are intended for
screws which are to be rolled as accurately as possible. The blank
diameters for screws in this class varying from *4 to %inch
usually are from 0.002 to 0.0025 inch larger than the pitch diam-
eter, and for screws varying from % to 1 inch or larger, the
blank diameters are from 0.0025 to 0.003 inch larger than the
pitch diameter. Threads of the second class mentioned, or those
rolled from blanks which are equal to the pitch diameter, are
sufficiently accurate for many purposes. Blanks of the third
class, or those which are slightly less than the pitch diameter,
are intended for bolts, screws, etc., which are made to fit rather
loosely, a comparatively free fit being desirable in many cases.
Blanks for this grade of work, according to common practice,
are from 0.002 to 0.003 inch less than the pitch diameters for
screw threads varying from % to % inch, whereas, for screw
thread sizes larger than % inch, the blank diameters are fre-
quently from 0.003 to 0.005 inch less than the pitch diameter.
The blanks for screw threads smaller than % inch are usually
from 0.001 to 0.0015 inch less than the pitch diameter for ordi-
nary grades of work, and about the same amount larger than
the pitch diameter for more accurate screw threads.

Thread-Rolling Steel. Soft steel containing from about 0.07

to 0,12 per cent carbon is suitable for thread rolling. The use
of 'liquors-finish soft steel wire has been recommended to
minimize wear on both the header and the thread rolling dies.
If the 'liquors-finished wire cannot be obtained, a
good grade of
annealed and cleaned wire may be employed.
Wire of the following composition has proved satisfactory for
thread rolling. Carbon, 0.08 to 0.12 per cent;
manganese, 0.35
to 0.45 per cent; phosphorus, 0.03 to 0.04
per cent; and sulphur,
0.03 to 0.04 per cent. This material has a tensile
strength of
about 56,000 pounds per square inch. Bright basic wire is one
of the best materials obtainable, and is suitable both for
heading
and cold roll threading. This material is hard
enough to permit
a slot to be cut after the heading operation
by means of a slotting
machine.
Tolerances: The wire mills will accept a tolerance
specifica-
tion of plus or minus 0.002 inch on the diameter. It
is particu-
larly important that this tolerance be maintained on stock used
for long screws of small diameter. On screws of
short length
the material will flow, and if the wire is over size little
trouble
 1291 -T
will be experienced, but in the case of screws having a length
greater than ten times their diameter, the material will be con-
fined, and "burning" will take place, if the tolerance is greater
than that specified. If the wire is slightly under size, the rolled
threads will have a ragged appearance due to the fact that the
crest is not fully formed. On screws under the No. 10-24 size,
a tolerance of plus or minus 0.001 inch should be adhered to in
order to insure good results.

Three-Square Files. These files are made in taper, slim, and

blunt forms. They are double-cut, mostly bastard, and used quite
extensively for filing angular surfaces, and for many other pur-
poses. The three sides are of equal width, the angles between
them being 60 degrees.
Three-Wire Method of Thread Measurement. See Thread
Measurement, Three-wire Method.
Throat of Die Chaser, The throat of a die chaser is the
chamfered portion at the leading end of the chaser provided to
enable the die to enter readily upon the work to be threaded and
distribute the thread-cutting operation over at least two or three
chaser teeth.

Throw, Eccentric. See Eccentric.

Thrust Bearing. The term thrust bearing is usually applied
to bearings designed primarily for supporting a shaft against
a load acting parallel to the axis, the bearing taking an end
thrust. Some thrust bearings have plain sliding surfaces, where-
as others are of the anti-friction type and are equipped either
with ball or roller bearings. The thrusts having sliding surfaces
may be divided into two general classes known as step bearings
and collar bearings. Step bearings support a shaft at its end,
as for example, when a vertical shaft rests in a step bearing.
Such bearings often have a number of disks or washers to in-
crease the number of wearing surfaces. Some step bearings are
supplemented by high-pressure lubrication so that the shaft is
hydraulically supported. Collar thrust bearings are so named
because the shaft has projections or shoulders which engage
several bearing surfaces, thus distributing the thrust load over
these annular ridges or rings about the shaft.
Thurber Rule. This a rule employed for finding the board
is
measure of Deduct 4 inches from the diameter
logs, as follows:
of the log, square one-fourth of the remainder, and multiply the
result by the length of the log in feet. The diameter inside of
the bark at the small end is measured usually.

Thury Regulator. The Thury regulator is used in electrical

machinery for maintaining constant voltage by field resistance
T-1292
control. The rheostat is not actuated directly by the voltage
field
fluctuations, but operated by. a small electric motor, the regu-
is

lating mechanism being merely brought into play or stopped by

the fluctuations of voltage.

Thury System. The Thury system is a high-voltage direct-

current transmission system for electric power. As used in
Europe it consists of a number of constant-current commutator
type generators which are connected in series to develop the
desired transmission voltage. Instead of the current varying
with the load, as in the constant-potential alternating-current
system, the voltage varies with the load, the current remaining
constant. At the distributing end of the system, a series of
motors similar to the generators must be used, and each one of
these motors must drive an alternating- or direct-current
generator for the usual constant-potential distribution.

Tie-Bolt. See Bolts.

Tiller or Hand Rope. This is a wire rope consisting of

6 ropes wound into one main rope. Each of the 6 ropes forming
the main rope has 6 strands with 7 wires each. This construc-
tion produces an exceedingly flexible rope which can be bent
over very small sheaves. It is one of the most flexible standard
ropes obtainable, but as it is made from very fine wire, it will
not stand much surface wear, and, therefore, should not be
subjected to heavy loads*

Tilted Turret The turrets of most turret lathes revolve

about a vertical axis, but the turret on some machines is in-
clined or set at an angle relative to the turret-slide and bed. On
one tilted-turret machine, the turret is tilted toward the spindle
at an angle of 15 degrees, so that a tool such as a boring-bar or
die will be at an angle of 30 degrees from the horizontal when
in the rear position. This change in the position of the tools as
they are indexed toward the rear enables tools of larger diameter
to be used, which is one of the advantages of the tilted turret
Each hole in the turret is continued in a straight line from one
side to the other, and there is also a hole through the central
turret stud so that it is possible for long bars to extend clear
through the turret, when a hollow form of tool is being used.
This feature enables long stock to be handled without using a
tool having an excessive overhang. Owing to the inclined posi-
tion of the turret, the strain on the central stud is also
reduced,
owing to the fact that part of the endwise thrust of the cutting
tools is taken directly by the angular surface of the turret-slide.
Some large turret lathes are equipped with turrets which are
inclined toward the rear of the machine, instead of toward the
 1293 -T
spindle, so that long cutter bars, etc., will be at their highest
point when passing the front of the machine. Turrets are
mounted in this way for providing clearance between the tools
and the large pilot wheel or turnstile which is used for operating
the turret-slide by hand.

Timbers for Structural Use. The strength of timbers, such

as are used for structural purposes, depends chiefly upon the
density or weight per cubic foot of the dry wood and also upon
the character, size, number and location of defects. According
to U. S. Government tests, the allowable bending stresses in the
extreme fiber may vary, in pounds per square inch, from 650 for
northern white cedar and Englemann spruce, up to 1400 for
Douglas fir (No. 1 structural grade) and dense southern yellow
pine. The allowable bending stress for white pine and western
red cedar is 800 eastern hemlock, red gum, red or white spruce,
;

and silver and soft maple, 900 redwood and Norway pine, 1000
; ;

sound southern yellow pine and Douglas fir of No. 2 structural

grade, 1100; white or red oak, 1200; and hickory, 1500 pounds
per square inch.
Time Limit Device. A
device used in connection with over-
load electric circuit-breakers when it is desired to prevent trip-
ping due to momentary overload or rushes of current at starting.
They are also used in relays to delay the opening or closing of a
circuit for a predetermined period. The time limiting arrange-
ment may consist of an oil or air dashpot, thermostatic heating
arrangement, weighted spring, vibrating reed, charging con-
denser, etc., for governing the length of time delay after the im-
pulse is received before the circuit breaker or relay is actuated.
In the case of the circuit-breaker, if the overload persists beyond
the predetermined time limit, the breaker is tripped.

Time Study. That part of "scientific management" which is

concerned with the time required for doing certain work is re-
ferred to as time study. Time studies may be divided into two
kinds: Simple time studies, in which the time element only is
analyzed, and complete time studies, which include motion studies
or an analysis of the various motions required for performing
certain work. Complete time studies, therefore, include observa-
tion of wasteful methods and inefficiency and their elimination;
standardization of conditions and operations the setting of the
;

tasks to be performed by the workmen; and the determination of

the reward to be given for individual efficiency. It naturally also
includes the making of estimates on work to be made and the
ascertaining of costs in advance. In properly conducted systems
of scientific management, time studies are not undertaken with
a view to speed up or drive the workmen, but with the idea of
T-1294
standardizing approved methods by means of which the work
should be done, so that the workmen may be able to accomplish
more work without greater exertion.

Tin Amalgam. This is an alloy of tin and mercury, used for

silvering mirrors.

Tin and Its Properties. Tin is a soft metal of white color,

almost entirely devoid of tenacity. Its specific gravity varies ac-
cording to the treatment; cast tin has a specific gravity of about
7.29, rolled tin, 7.30, and electrically deposited tin, from 7.14 to
7.18. Tin melts at a temperature of 232 degrees C. (450 degrees
P.) , and boils at a temperature of about 1600 degrees C. (about
2900 degrees F.). Its specific heat is 0.056, and its coefficient of
linear expansion per unit length, per degree F., is 0.000015. Its
thermal conductivity is about 15 (silver =
100), and its electrical
conductivity, about 13 (silver =
100). If tin is exposed for any
length of time to very low temperatures ( 40 degrees P., for
several hours), it becomes so brittle that it disintegrates into a
powder. Tin is used in its pure state in the chemical industries
for containers, stills, etc. It is employed for making tin foil, for
silvering mirrors, for wrapping food products, and for tinning
cooking utensils, because it is proof against acid liquids. The
most important uses of tin in the idustries, however, are in the
various alloys which it forms with copper, antimony, and lead.
Bronze is, perhaps, the most well known of these alloys, it being
composed of copper and tin, the copper content being usually
from 80 to 90 per cent, while the remainder is tin. The greater
part of tin produced is employed in the making of tin alloys. Tin
is the only one of the more important metals that is not
produced
in the United States to any appreciable extent. The Federated
Malay States, Bolivia, and the Dutch East Indies produce the
bulk of the world's supply of tin.

Tin Foil and Lead Foil. Lead of lead with a very

foil consists
light tin coating, whereas tin foil is made
of practically pure tin.
The production of lead foil, in a plant where large quantities of
both lead and tin foil are manufactured, is as follows: Cast
ingots
of lead about 24 inches square and 1 inch thick are
passed
through the first break-down mill, thus reducing the ingot thick-
ness to about 1/2 inch and increasing the length to about 42
inches. A casing or covering of pure tin, about 1/64 inch thick,
is next placed on the top and bottom of the
ingot which is then
passed through the next break-down mill. Two more passes, or
four in all, reduce the ingot to a thickness of about
1/16 inch and
increase the length to approximately 40 feet, after which one
pass
is usually all that is required in the Lead foil*
finishing mill.
 1295 - T

common foil or "four per cent," as it is sometimes called, contains

about 4 per cent tin and 96 per cent lead.
Tin foil, which is made from cast ingots of tin, is produced by
the same general process, although tin foil is given eight passes
through the finishing mill. Tin foil is usually mounted on wax
paper, but pure tin foil is also used alone for packaging food.

Tin Plate. Tin plates are made by coating soft sheet Bteel
with tin to protect the steel from corrosion. They are made in
sizes of 10 by 14 inches and multiples of that measure, the most
commonly used sizes being 14 by 20 and 20 by 28 inches. The
"base weight" of tin is equivalent to the weight of a standard
"base box" which contains 112 sheets of 14- by 20-inch size. In
the trade, the expressions "charcoal plates" and "coke plates" are
retained from the time when high-grade tin plates were made
from charcoal iron and the lower grade of tin plates from sheet
iron produced with coke as a fuel, or coke iron. At the present
time, however, these terms refer only to the quality of the tin
coating and the finish. Charcoal plates have the heaviest coating
and the highest polish, while coke plates have a light coating of
tin. The latter are generally used for can-making. The amount
of coating of pure tin per square foot of plate equals 0.023 pound,
according to the specifications of one large consumer of this ma-
terial. See also Terne-plate.

Tire Bolt. Abolt having a countersunk head at one end and

a thread for about one and one-half or two times its diameter for
a square or hexagon nut at the other end.

Titanium. Titanium is one of the metallic chemical elements,

the symbol of which and the atomic weight, 48.1. Titanium
is Ti,
has a brilliant white fracture and is harder than steel. Its specific
gravity varies from 4.5 to 4.9. It melts at a temperature of 1820
degrees C. (3308 degrees F.) Its specific heat is 0.112. Titanium
.

is most commonly found associated with iron in various iron ores.

This metal is used in its commercially pure state and in alloy
form (being alloyed with manganese or ferrochromium) for
applications requiring a metal with properties of light weight,
high strength, and good temperature- and corrosion-resistance.
Titanium and its alloys weigh approximately 44 per cent less
than stainless or alloy steels, are equal to or greater in yield and
'ultimate tensile strength than structural alloys in common use,
withstand temperatures up to 800 degrees F. and higher tem-
peratures up to 2000 degrees F. for short periods and are resistant
to the corrosive effects of salt water and many acids, alkalis
and other chemicals. It is available in the form of plates, sheets,
strip, f orgings, ingots, bars, rods, and wire.
T-1296
Titanium Steel. Titanium is one of the elements that have
been employed with marked success to improve the quality of
steeL It has also been very successfully used for cast iron and
for some of the non-ferrous metals. The first heat of titanium
steel made in America was poured in 1907, and since that time
a great deal of investigaion has been conducted and many ex-
periments have been made. These tests have shown that, when
ferrotitanium has been added to steel or iron in very small quan-
tities, it has greatly strengthened these metals and improved
their qualities in other ways ; it is one of the best of the purify-
ing elements that have been used in the manufacture of steel.
The special properties of this steel are in its ability to resist
abrasive or frictional wear. In a test made on titanium-steel
rails, it was found that, under similar conditions, an ordinary
Bessemer railwould wear five times as much during an equal
period of time. Titanium steel has been used for gears, tires,
and castings in general, and has almost invariably shown a re-
duction of brittleness and an increase of durability. Titanium
1

tool steels are also used, it having been found that if 0.5 per cent
of titanium is present in steel, cutting tools are produced which
give much greater durability and high-grade quality.
Endurance Tests: The endurance of titanium-treated steel has
been demonstrated by tests on a rotary vibrational testing ma-
chine. An open-hearth steel that contained 0.25 per cent of car-
bon, 0.64 per cent of manganese, 0.425 per cent of silicon, 0.04
per cent of phosphorus, and 0.035 per cent of sulphur, withstood
2,660,000 revolutions at a fiber stress of 38,870 pounds. After
this same steel had been treated with titanium, it was given
4,052,200 revolutions at the same fiber stress, namely, 38,870
pounds. The stress was then increased to 40,600 pounds, and the
piece stood 10,800,700 additional revolutions without a fracture.
'The fiber stress was again increased to 42,400 pounds and the
piece given 1,918,600 more revolutions. The stress was increased
a third time to 44,200 pounds and the piece was given an addi-
tional 1,006,300 revolutions before it broke. This was a total of
17,777,800 revolutions for the titanium steel, many of which were
given it at an increase of fiber stress, as against 2,660,000 rev-
olutions for the untreated steel.

Titration. In analytical chemistry, titration is the process of

ascertaining the quantity of any given constituent present in a
compound, by observing the quantity of a liquid of known
strength (called a standard solution and usually added from a
burette) necessary to convert the constituent into another form,
the close of the reaction being marked by some definite
phenom-
enon, such as a change of color or the formation of a precipitate.
Titration is also called volumetric analysis.
 1297 -T
Tobin Bronze. Tobin bronze is a special bronze containing
from 59 to 63 per cent of copper and from 0.5 to 1.5 per cent of
tin, the remainder being zinc, with the exception of small quan-
tities of other ingredients which are added to improve the qual-
ity of the metal. On account of the tensile strength of Tobin
bronze and its resistance to the corrosive action of sea water, it
is extensively used in marine work for such parts as condenser

plates, pump piston-rods, valve stems, valve faces, pump plungers,

pump linings, motor-boat shafting, condenser tube plates, etc.
When used in the form of bolts, rods, and plates, its resistance
to wear and oxidation makes it a most useful material for chem-
ical extract works, tanneries, sugar houses, coal mines, etc. The
melting point of Tobin bronze is 1600 degrees F. It can be welded
electrically or with a high-temperature welding flame. The non-
liability of Tobin bronze to produce sparks makes it valuable for
powder press plates and powder mill tools. It has a specific grav-
ity of 8.4 and the weight per cubic inch is 0.3036 pound. The
ultimate tensile strength varies from 60,000 to 65,000 pounds per
square inch, and the compressive strength from 170,000 to
180,000 pounds per square inch. See Naval Brass or Bronze.
Tocco Hardening Process. Briefly, the Tocco process of
hardening steel parts such as automobile crankshafts and cam-
shafts, consists in electricallyheating and then quenching with
water, individually, each of the surfaces to be hardened. For
example, in the case of camshafts, this is accomplished by placing
the camshafts between centers mounted on vertical slides, the
bottom center in each case being spring-backed to facilitate load-
ing. Each machine is made with one slide for hardening two
camshafts simultaneously. After the machines of a group have
been loaded with the work-slides in the raised position, windows
at the front are closed and the operator starts the machines.
The camshafts while rotating at about 60 revolutions per min-
ute to insure uniform heating, are lowered in successive steps to
bring each cam lobe, the helical gear, and the eccentric within
the inductor blocks which heat the surfaces. These downward
or indexing movements of each work-slide are effected automat^
ically by means of a hydraulic piston and cylinder, and the in-
dexing is controlled by an air-operated plunger at the top of the
slide which engages notches on a fixed vertical bar.
As each cam lobe or other surface of the camshafts is brought
into the openings in the inductor blocks, 100 kilowatts of electric
current at high frequency passes around the surfaces to be hard-
ened and heats them to a temperature of approximately 1500
degrees F. within 4% seconds. Then cold water is sprayed on
the heated surfaces for a period of 7% seconds through a series
of holes in the inductor blocks.
T-1298
The vertical slide then indexes downward to bring the next
cam lobe or other surface of the camshafts into the inductor
blocks. The operation of the indexing plunger, the duration of
the electric heating, and the period of quenching are all controlled
by an automatic timing device. At the end of the operation the
work-slide is automatically returned to its loading position by
the hydraulic mechanism. Water at about 75 pounds per square
inch pressure is used in the hydraulic system.
High speed is a feature of this process, the camshafts for
eight-cylinder engines, which have eighteen surfaces to be hard-
ened, being hardened by one man at the rate of one camshaft
every 1% minutes. The camshafts for six-cylinder engines have
fourteen surfaces to be hardened, and are handled at the rate of
one camshaft every minute. Uniformity of hardening is assured

Toggle Joint Principle

by been estab-
this process, because once the operating cycle has
lished and the power supply adjusted, the human element is
eliminated.

Toggle-Drawing Press. Double-action toggle-drawing presses

are preferable to drawing presses of the cam type, in all cases
where the blanks have been previously cut (even though the stock
may be heavy) , or where the metal to be cut and drawn simul-
taneously is of comparatively light gage. The inner plunger
of the toggle-drawing press is actuated by the main crankshaft,
and the outer blank-holder slide receives its motion from two
rock-shafts connected by a system of links with the main shaft.
This form of drive imparts a more uniform pressure to the blank
than is possible with cam-operated drawing presses.

Toggle Joint. A
link mechanism commonly known as a toggle
joint is applied to machines of different types, such as drawing
and embossing presses, stone crushers, etc., for securing great
pressure. The
principle of the toggle joint is shown by the ac-
companying diagram. There are two links, 6 and c, which are
connected at the center. Link 6 is free to swivel about a fixed
 1299 -T
pin or bearing at d, and link c is connected to a sliding member e.
Rod / joins links b and c at the central connection. When force
is applied to rod / in a direction at right angles to center-line xx,

along which the driven member e moves, this force is greatly

multiplied at e, because a movement at the joint g produces a
relatively slight movement at e. As the angle a becomes less,
motion at e decreases and the force increases until the links are
in line. If R= the resistance at e; P =
the applied power or
force; and a =
the angle between each link and a line xx passing
through the axes of the pins, then:
2R sin a s= P cos a.

Tolerances. Tolerance is the amount of variation permitted

on dimensions or surfaces of machine parts. The tolerance is
equal to the difference between the maximum and minimum lim-
its of any specified dimension. For example, if the maximum
limit for the diameter of a shaft is 2.000 inches and its minimum
limit 1.990 inches, the tolerance for this diameter is 0.010 inch.
By determining the maximum and minimum clearances required
on operating surfaces, the extent of these tolerances is estab-
lished. As
applied to the fitting of machine parts, the word toler-
ance means the amount that duplicate parts are allowed to vary
in size in connection with manufacturing operations, owing to
unavoidable imperfections of workmanship. Tolerance may also
be defined as the amount that duplicate parts are permitted to
vary in size in order to secure sufficient accuracy without un-
necessary refinement. The terms 'tolerance" and "allowance"
are often used interchangeably, but, according to common usage,
allowance is a difference in dimensions prescribed in order to
secure various classes of fits between different parts.
Unilateral and Bilateral Tolerances: The term "unilateral tol-
erance" means that the total tolerance, as related to a basic
dimension, is in one direction only. For example, if the basic
dimension were 1 inch and the tolerance were expressed as
1.00 0.002, or as 1.00 +
0.002, these would be unilateral
tolerances, since the total tolerance in each case is in one direc-
tion. On the contrary, if the tolerance were divided, so as to be
partly plus and partly minus, it would be classed as "bilateral/'

'
~*~
Thus, 1.00 is an example of bilateral tolerance, because

the total tolerance of 0.002 is given in two directions plus and

minus. Unilateral tolerances generally are recommended.
When unilateral tolerances are used, one of the three following
methods should be used to express them:
T-1300
(1) Specify limiting dimensions only as
Diameter of hole: 2.250, 2.252
Diameter of shaft: 2.249, 2.247

(2) One limiting size may be specified with its tolerances as

Diameter of hole: 2.250 + 0.002, 0.000
Diameter of shaft: 2.249 + 0.000, 0.002

(3) The nominal size may be specified for both parts, with a
notation showing both allowance and tolerance, as
Diameter of hole: 2%
0.002, + 0.000
Diameter of shaft: 2%
0.001, 0.003
Bilateral tolerances should be specified as such, usually with
plus and minus tolerances of equal amount. Example of the
expression of bilateral tolerances follow:
'

2 0.001 or 2JI Q 001

How to Apply Tolerances: According to practice approved by

the Society of Automotive Engineers, tolerances should show the
permissible amount of variation in the direction that is less
dangerous. When a variation in either direction is equally dan-
gerous, a bilateral tolerance should be given. When a variation
in one direction is more dangerous than a variation in another,
a unilateral tolerance should be given in the less dangerous direc-
tion. One exception to the use of unilateral tolerances on mating
surfaces occurs when tapers are involved. In such cases either
bilateral or unilateral tolerances may prove advisable, depending
upon conditions.
Where tolerances are required on the distances between holes,
usually they should be bilateral, as variation in either direction
is usually equally dangerous. The variation in the distance be-
tween shafts carrying gears, however, should always be unilateral
and plus; otherwise the gears might run too tight. A slight
increase in the backlash between gears is seldom of much
importance.
Basic Dimensions: The minimum hole should be of basic size
in all cases where the use of standard tools represents the great-
est economy. The maximum shaft should be of basic size in all
cases where the use of standard purchased material, without
further machining, represents the greatest economy, even though
special tools are required to machine the mating part.
.
Standardization in Different Countries: National standard
fits have been established in the United States, Austria, Ger-

many, Great Britain, Holland, Sweden, and Switzerland. All

national standards, except the British, are based exclusively on
the unilateral system of tolerances. The British Standard gives
 1301 -T
both the unilateral and the bilateral systems, recommending the
former. The national standards, with the exception of the Ameri-
can, the British, and the Dutch, give both the basic hole and the
basic shaft systems. The United States and Great Britain have
adopted the basic hole system, Holland the basic shaft system
exclusively. The Dutch system is at one extreme, in affording the
maximum freedom of choice in the combination of hole and shaft.
It specifies limits only, and does not give allowances or tolerances.
The other extreme is formed by the type of system adopted by
the Austrians, Germans, Swedes, and Swiss, which gives a num-
ber of fits completely defined by their allowances and tolerances.
The American system lies between these two extremes. The
standard reference temperature for gages is 20 degrees C., or
68 degrees F., in all the countries mentioned, except Great
Britain, where it is 62 degrees F., or 16 2/3 degrees C.

Tolerances, Cage. See Gage Tolerances.

Ton. One net or short ton =
2000 pounds (commonly used
in the United States and Canada) 1 gross or long ton t= 2240
;

pounds (commonly used in England and for certain purposes in

the United States).

Ton, Metric. See under Metric System.

Tool Checking Systems. In every tool store-room it is es-
sential to have some systematic method of determining what
tools are in use and where they are located in the shop, to prevent
loss of tools and to enable any tool to be found readily if neces-
sary. The method which has been adopted almost universally is
to use brass checks which are numbered to correspond with num-
bers given to different workmen. These checks may be placed in
the store-room tool cabinet where the tool belongs, or they may
be filed on a board in the store-room, so that the number of tools
in the possession of any particular workman may readily be de-
termined. There are various modifications of this checking sys-
tem which are intended either to simplify the system, or to make
it a more effective means of accounting for tools and of

preventing mistakes or fraudulent practices.

Single Check System: The single check system, as commonly
applied to tool-rooms, is so arranged that each workman has a
certain number of checks which he receives when first employed.
These checks, as previously mentioned, are stamped with the
employe's number, and whenever he obtains a tool from the store-
room, a check must be given to the tool-room attendants as a
receipt. This check, according to the usual method, is placed on
a hook located where the tool belongs in the bin, rack or drawer
of the cabinet. When the tool is returned to the tool-room the
check is given back to the workman. If the tool should be sent
T-1302
from the tool-room to the grinding department or forge shop, a
special tool-room check is either put in its place or a written
record is kept; consequently, the location of every tool not in the
store-room is shown either by the number of the workman's
check or by a tool-room check or a separate record.
Double Check System: When a single check is exchanged for
a tool and is placed where the tool belongs in the tool cabinet, it
might be impossible for the man in the tool supply room to de-
termine how many tools a workman has in his possession without
examining the entire stock of tools, providing there were no
separate record. The double check system shows the number of
tools received by each workman and for that reason is preferred
in some plants. With one system there is a board in the tool
store-room which has two check hooks for each employe and near
each pair of hooks there is a label giving the name of the em-
ploye and the corresponding check number. When a man is en-
gaged by the concern he is given a certain number of round
checks, and a corresponding number of square checks are hung
on one of the hooks opposite his name on the store-room board.
Whenever a workman receives a tool, he gives a round check in
exchange for it and this check is placed on the hook adjacent to
the man's name and number. At the same time, a square check
from the opposite hook is removed and inserted in that part of
the tool cabinet from which the tool was taken. When this tool
is returned, the square check is replaced on the board and a round
check on the other hook is given back to the workman. With this
system the number of round checks hanging opposite each name
shows how many tools that particular man has in his possession,
without searching through the tool cabinet. The square checks,
which are also numbered, show who received the tools that are
not in the tool racks.

Tool-Grinding Machines. The turning and planing tools

used in lathes, planers, are ground in special tool-grinding
etc.,
machines in many shops, instead of by the workmen on an ordi-
nary grinding wheel. These machines are designed to hold and
guide the tool mechanically, as it is brought into contact with the
grinding wheel. When these tool grinders are used, the tools
which have been sharpened by them are kept in a tool- or storage-
room, and each workman obtains from this stock of tools as
many as may be required. There are several important advan-
tages connected with the grinding of tools by means of these
special machines. In the first place, when the tools are ground
in this way, it is not necessary for the workman to stop his ma-
chine and go to a grinding wheel; moreover, a machine designed
especially for this class of work makes it possible to grind all
the tools to standard angles of slope and clearance, which have
 1303 -T
been found to give the most efficient results. With this system
of sharpening and storing the tools, a smaller stock will be
required, which is another important advantage.

Tool-Holders. The tools used in lathes, planers, and other

turning and planing machines may either be forged to shape
from a bar of steel and form a solid one-piece tool or such tools
may consist of tool-holders into which relatively small pieces of
steel are clamped so as to form the cutting point or end. The
practical introduction of tool-holders began in about 1866, when
W. Ford Smith, of Manchester, England, in a paper read before
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, described a system of
tool-holders for cutting metals. Some of these tool-holders were
adapted for round cutters made from ordinary bar steel and
others for cutters of a deep V-section having a rounded bottom
edge. The use of tool-holders and inserted cutters gradually
spread until, at the present time, tools of this type are used very
extensively, and for many classes of work they have replaced the
solid forged tools. A typical form of tool-holder, such as is used
for turning operations, consists of a drop-forged shank or holder
in which a small tool-steel cutter is clamped. One of the im-
portant advantages of this arrangement is that very much less
tool steel is required than when the entire tool is forged from a
solid bar of tool steel; consequently, the expense for tool steel is
very much less in shops equipped with tool-holders, especially at
the present time when costly high-speed steels have so generally
replaced carbon steels. The expense of forging and reforging solid
tools is also eliminated when tool-holders are used, since the cut-
ters are of uniform section and are simply adjusted outward as
the ends are ground away.

Toolmakers' Files. A marked difference in files was found

formerly between those of domestic manufacture and imported
Swiss files, appropriately called by their makers "files of pre-
cision" ; but as these files of precision are now successfully pro-
duced in the United States, the terms "domestic" and "imported"
have largely lost their significance as designating two distinct
classes of files. Toolmakers' files ordinarily vary from 2 to
12 inches in length and the cuts are not named but numbered.
The first five numbers correspond approximately in fineness (the
number of teeth to the inch) to the domestic files as follows:
No. 000, same as "rough"; No. 00, same as "bastard"; No. 0,
same as "second-cut"; No. 1, same as "smooth"; No. 2, same as
"super-smooth." All toolmakers' file cuts above No. 2 to No. 8
have no equivalent in ordinary files. The exact number of teeth
per inch varies in both classes of files and with the different
makes of the same class, but not sufficiently to make the differ-
T-1304

THREE SQUARE

Set of Die-sinkers' and Too! makers' Files-

Length, 3J/2 Inches

ence noticeable until the file is used. To avoid mistakes in order-

ing files of precision, the order should invariably specify tool-
makers' files. The toolmakers' file is distinguished by its sharp
outline, the teeth extending to the extreme points and edges. In
width and thickness, these files are also more slender than com-
mon files, and somewhat lighter. The illustration shows various
shapes.
Toolmaker's Flat. This term is applied to a precision sur-
face plate which is used in conjunction with precision gage-
6locks when an extremely accurate base or plane surface is re-
quired. The toolmaker's flats made by the Pratt & Whitney Co.
are about 5 inches in diameter and %inch thick. They are made
of special alloy steel, hardened, and given a special stabilizing
treatment to insure permanent accuracy. The top and bottom
surfaces are lapped flat and parallel within 0.000010 inch.
 1305 -T
Toolmaker's Lathe. Lathes of this class are made with a
greater degree of precision than ordinary engine lathes, and are
more expensive; they are equipped with special attachments
which adapt them to the varied line of work connected with tool-
making. Among the features which are common to a toolmaker's
lathe may be mentioned the taper attachment, the collet chuck in
the spindle, and the relieving attachment for backing off the
teeth of milling cutters.

Toolmaker's Microscope. A toolmaker's microscope is de-

signed for general use in checking both linear and angular meas-
urements in connection with screw threads, gages, small jigs, and
various classes of precision work. One make consists of a micro-
scope mounted vertically above a compound table having longitu-
dinal and lateral movements controlled by accurate micrometer
screws. Parts to be inspected are either held in a special at-
tachment or placed directly upon the table in the field of
observation, within which is a "spider-line cross" and angular
graduations.

Toolpost Grinding Attachment. See Grinding Attachment,

Toolpost.

Tool Steel. Tool steel, as the term is used in the machine-

building industry, may be defined in a general way as any steel
that is suitable to be used as a cutting tool, or a steel which con-
tains a sufficient amount of carbon so that it will harden if heated
above a certain temperature and rapidly cooled. This broad defi-
nition includes, under the head of tool steel, both high-speed
steels and plain carbon steels. Steel for many of the cheaper
grades of tools and implements is made by the open-hearth
process but is known as "tool steel."
The crucible process was formerly used for making all the
high-grade tool steel used for metal-cutting tools and, conse-
quently, the terms "tool steel" and "crucible steel" are often used
interchangeably, but at the present time the electric furnace is
used extensively for producing tool steel which should not be
classified as crucible steel.

Torch Hardening of Gear Teeth. See Flame Hardening.

Torque and Horsepower. Torque or turning force about an

axis of rotation may be expressed in pound-feet or in pound-
inches. Torque varies according to the speed and power trans-
mitted. If T =
torque in pound-inches, H.P. =
number of
horsepower, R&= revolutions per minute,

T = H.P.XR 63000 ' r Hpr

U' '
TB_
63000
T-1306
If L = load or pressure in pounds exerted at any radius and
r = radius in inches to point or path where load is applied,

L===
H.P. X 63000
fix r
Example: A
spur gear having a pitch radius of 6 inches, ro-
tates 500 revolutions per minute and transmits 10 horsepower.
Determine the torque in pound-inches; also the tangential load
in pounds at the pitch circle.

y ^ 10 X^3000 = 1260 pound-inches

10 x 63000
L-
. 01A ,

500 X 6
-210 pounds

A bad of 210 pounds applied at a radius of 6 inches equals a

torque of 210 6 t= 1260 pound-inches.
X
Torque in pound-inches can, of course, be converted into pound-
feet by dividing by 12. The term pound-feet is used in preference
to foot-pounds since the foot-pound is a unit of work and should
not be used to indicate torque or turning moment.

Torsional Test. This test is made by gripping a bar at each

end; one end is held rigidly and the other is twisted while a
Weighing device indicates the twisting force required.
Torus. A torus or ring is a circular or ring-shaped body
having a circular cross-section. The circular end link often used
on a chain, for example, is mathematically known as a torus.
Tou. A Chinese capacity measure, legalized in 1908, equal
to 10.35 liters or 2.736 gallons.

Tower's Experiments. These are a series of experiments

that were undertaken to determine the effect of friction in bear-
ings, according to which -the following laws were formulated:
L Temperature and velocity remaining constant, the friction co-
efficient, is proportional to the nominal pressure, and the work
done against friction is independent of the load, providing this
does not exceed from 400 to 600 pounds per square inch.
2. Nominal pressure and velocity remaining constant, the coeffi-
cient and, therefore, the work done against friction is
inversely
proportional to the temperature of the bearing.
Trace.
1 The expression "trace," in a chemical analysis, re-
fers to an amount of an element too small to be determined
exactly. It is possible, by taking a large
quantity for the
analysis and by the very highest refinement in the work, to actu-
ally weigh a trace, but in ordinary work it is not done, nor is it
usually necessary. In ordinary commercial analysis, it is cus-
 1307 -T
ternary to carry out the percentages of the various ingredients
to one-hundredth of one per cent (0.01 per cent), but further
than this, except in exceptional cases, it is deemed unnecessary.
A substance present in this quantity is very small, and is gen-
erally considered as the limit of practical analytical determina-
tion, so that less than 0.01 per cent is usually too small to de-
termine, and is called a "trace." A trace of an ingredient is,
therefore, an amount which is present in the substance analyzed,
but is too small to admit of quantitative determination.

Tracing Cloth. Tracing doth is largely used for the original

drawings of machine parts, etc., in order to make blueprints
from the fairly transparent tracing. It is made of finely woven
and very smooth cloth, coated with a preparation for the purpose
of giving it a fine surface for the use of the pen, and also render-
ing it transparent. One side is smooth and glossy while the
opposite side usually has a dull finish. Drawings may be made
on either side. It is easier to erase inked-in lines on the glossy
side, but it does not take the ink as well, and the surface should
be prepared before inking by rubbing powdered chalk or talcum
powder into it with a cloth or chamois skin. It is easier to ink-
in a drawing on the dull side, but it is more difficult to make
changes.

Tracing Paper. Tracing paper (thin, transparent paper)

from which blueprints may be made, is very useful for tem-
porary work, or when there is to be very little handling of the
tracing. There are tracing papers, such as bond paper, vellum,
or parchment paper, etc., that are strong enough to stand con-
siderable hard usage. Some of the best classes of tracing papers
are very tough, transparent, and strong and may, for many
purposes, be substituted for tracing cloth.
Traction Sprocket. A traction sprocket, also known as face
sprocket, is a sprocket used with a detachable link-belt when the
chain makes a reverse bend, so that the open end of the link rides
on the sprocket. The base diameter of such a sprocket must be
greater than that in an ordinary link-belt sprocket, the pitch
diameter remaining the same. The teeth of traction sprockets
generally have a sharp point, to distinguish them from the
standard sprockets.
Tractive Force. The approximate tractive force of a locomo-
tive of the single expansion (not compound) type may be de-
termined as follows: Multiply the square of the cylinder diam-
eter in inches by the piston stroke in inches, and multiply the
product by 85 per cent of the boiler pressure in pounds per square
inch; then divide this total product by the diameter of the driv-
ing wheels in inches. If the locomotive is a two-cylinder com-
T-1308
pound, multiply together the square of the low-pressure
cylinder diameter, the piston stroke, the boiler pressure,
and a constant of 0.52, assuming that the cylinder ratio
is about 2.5 to 1; then divide this total product by twice the
diameter of the driving wheels. The draw-bar pull of a locomo-
tive is, as the name indicates, the power that a locomotive is
capable of exerting at the draw-bar and for pulling the train;
hence, the draw-bar pull is somewhat less than the tractive force,
as the latter includes the power required to overcome the
resistance of the locomotive itself.

Tractrix. The curve known as a tractrix, frequently also

called the "Schiele" curve or the "anti-friction" curve, has been
supposed to give the correct outline for an end-thrust bearing,
because the wear in the direction of the axis of the thrust shaft
win be uniform at all points when the pivot is given the form
determined by this curve. It has been shown, however, that the
merits of a pivot bearing shaped in this manner have been greatly
over-estimated; and the term "anti-friction," applied to the curve,
is a misnomer, since the friction of the bearing designed in
accordance with it is greater than that of a fiat step or collar of
the same diameter.

Trademark. A trademark is an arbitrary sign, word, or sym-

bol used to distinguish one manufacturer's product from that of
another, and to impress a particular article on the mind of the
public. The value of a trademark consists of an assurance to a
manufacturer or merchant of protection in the exclusive use of
the name, sign, or symbol, by which his product becomes known.
The trademark is a guarantee of the genuineness of the marketed
article, and may be said to be, in this respect, the commercial
substitute for an autograph. The protective value of the trade-
mark may be compared with the protection afforded by a funda-
mental patent, as the trademark is used not only in connection
with patented articles but also with commodities not patented
nor patentable.
A trademark must not in any way be descriptive of the prod-
uct nor should it be in the least deceptive. For instance, if a
trademark for a soap were claimed on the word "Magnetic," the
claim would be rejected on two grounds. First, because soap
could not be magnetic, and so the word would be deceptive and
misleading, and second, because the term would be descriptive
if correctly employed. A proper name,
geographical term, or the
names of cities, etc., also cannot be used as trademarks. The first
letters in the words of a company's name are
frequently used
with the abbreviation of company. For example, a coined word
such as "Seeco" is arbitrary and meaningless, and it would be
 1309 -T
proper subject matter for a trademark, provided it had not been
used previously.
Technical and Non-technical Trademarks: A trademark which
complies with all of the rules and regulations, is neither descrip-
tive, geographical, or the mere name of a person, etc., is known
as a technical trademark; whereas a trademark that does not
comply is known as a non-technical trademark. The main differ-
ence between the two lies in the amount of protection afforded
to either under our trademark laws. When a technical trade-
mark is infringed by another party, the infringement may be
stopped and judgment be obtained for damages and profits re-
gardless of the intention of the infringer. But where a non-
technical trademark is infringed, judgment can only be obtained
if there is present an element of unfair competition, that is, a
deliberate intent to trade upon the good will of the owner of
the trademark.
Registration: Only technical trademarks may be registered in
the Patent Office under the 1905 Act. The Act of 1905 particu-
larly provides that registration of a trademark in the Patent
Office establishes prima facie evidence that the registrant is the
owner. Thus, if you go into court, all you have to prove is that
the mark is registered in your name. Then it is up to the de-
fendant to prove that he has a better right to the mark than
you have. In the absence of any proof either way, you will be
considered the owner of the mark. Registration of a mark in
the United States Patent Office establishes Federal Jurisdic-
tion, provided, of course, that both parties have used the
trademark in interstate commerce. The use of an unregistered
trademark is upheld by the common law, but when registered
there is prima facie evidence of ownership.

Trade Terms. Owing to the confusion that often arisesdue

to misinterpretation of the terms and abbreviations used in ex-
port trade, and the consequent trade disagreements, a conference
of leading national trade organizations was held, at which defi-
nitions of export terms were adopted and general recommenda-
tions made for a standard American export practice. The follow-
ing five abbreviations are those most commonly used in export
quotations:
p. 0. B. Free on board
F. A. S. Free alongside ship
C. & F. Cost and freight
C. I. F Cost, insurance and freight
L. C. L. Less than carload lot

F. 0. B. (Named Point) : This term is used when the price

quoted applies only at inland shipping point and the seller merely
T-1310
undertakes to load the goods on or in cars or lighters furnished
by the railroad company serving the industry, or most con-
veniently located to the industry, without other designations as
to routing. Under this quotation the seller must (1) place goods
on or in cars or lighters; (2) secure railroad bill of lading; and
(3) be responsible for loss or damage until goods have been
placed in or on cars or lighters at forwarding point, and clean
bill of lading has been furnished by the railroad. The buyer must

(1) be responsible for loss or damage incurred thereafter;

(2) pay all transportation charges including taxes, if any; and
(3) handle all subsequent movement of the goods.
F. A. S, Vessel (Named Port) : This term is used when the
seller desires to quote a price covering all expenses up to and
including delivery of the goods within reach of the vessel's load-
ing tackle. Under this quotation the seller must (1) transport
goods to seaboard; (2) store goods in warehouse or on wharf,
if necessary, unless buyer's obligation includes provision of ship-

ping facilities; (3) place goods alongside vessel either in a

lighter or on the wharf; and (4) be responsible for loss or dam-
age until goods have been delivered alongside the ship or on
wharf. The buyer must (1) be responsible for loss or damage
thereafter, and for insurance; (2) handle all subsequent move-
ment of the goods; and (3) pay cost of hoisting goods into vessel
where weight of goods is too great for ship's tackle.
C. & (Named Foreign Port) : This term is used when the
F.
ready to go further than the delivery of his goods upon
seller is
the overseas vessel and is willing to pay transportation to a
foreign point of delivery. Under this quotation the seller must
(1) makefreight contract and pay transportation charges suf-
ficient tocarry goods to agreed destination; (2) deliver to buyer
or his agent proper bills of lading to the agreed destination; and
(3) be responsible for loss or damage until goods have been de-
livered alongside the ship and clean ocean bill of lading obtained
(seller is not responsible for delivery of goods at destination).
The buyer must (1) be responsible for loss or damage there-
after and must take out all necessary insurance; (2) handle all
subsequent movement of the goods; (3) take delivery and pay
costs of discharge, lighterage and landing at foreign port of
destination in accordance with bill of lading clauses; and (4) pay
freight customs duties and wharfage charges, if any.
C. I. F. (Named Foreign Port) : This term is used when the
seller desires to quote a price covering the cost of the
goods, the
marine insurance on the goods, and all transportation charges
to the foreign point of delivery. Under this quotation the seller
must (1) make
freight contract and pay freight charges suffi-
cient to carry goods to agreed destination; (2) take out and pay
 1311 -T
for necessary marine insurance; (3) be responsible for loss or
damage until goods have been delivered alongside the ship, and
clean ocean bill of lading and insurance policy have been delivered
to the buyer, or his agent. (Seller is not responsible for the de-
livery of goods at destination, nor for payment by the under-
vrriters ofinsurance claims) ; and (4) provide war risk insur-
ance, where necessary, for buyer's account.
The buyer must (1) be responsible for loss or damage there-
after, and must make all claims to which he may be entitled
under the insurance directly on the underwriters; (2) take de-
livery and pay costs of discharge, lighterage and landing at
foreign port of destination in accordance with bill of lading
clauses; and (3) pay foreign customs duties and wharfage
charges, if any.
Train of Mechanism. Any series of gears, links, cams,
chain drives, belt drives, etc., used to transmit motion (regard-
less of their order or combination) is known as a train of mech-
anism. If motion is transmitted entirely through gearing, the
combination of gears is called a gear train. Trains of gears,
pulleys, etc., are common to all classes of mechanisms and may
be necessary either for obtaining a required velocity ratio or for
transmitting motion when the driving and driven members are
so located that a more direct method of transmission is not prac-
ticable. Motion is often transmitted through trains of gearing
specially arranged so that speed changes may readily be obtained
by manipulating suitable controlling levers.

Tram Crane. This type of crane is similar to a traveling

crane, except that the bridge is very short and not provided with
a trolley, so that the load can be moved only in the direction of
the bridge itself, which travels longitudinally on overhead rails.

Transfer Calipers. Calipers provided with an auxiliary arm

which can be located so that the calipers may be opened or closed
to the original setting, if required. Calipers of this type are
generally used for inside measurements, and are employed for
measuring recesses where it is necessary to move the caliper
points in order to remove the calipers from the place where the
measurement is taken. *

Transformer. An electrical transformer, also known as a

static transformer, may be defined as a stationary i.e., not
rotary apparatus for changing alternating currents from a
higher to a lower voltage or vice versa and at the same fre-
quency. The possibility of efficiently changing the voltage of
alternating current is of great importance, because, usually, the
most economical voltages for generating, transmitting, and utiliz-
ing electric power differ from each other quite considerably. In
T-1312
fact it is only by virtue of the transformer that long-distance
transmission of electric power has been made feasible. It should
be noted that some transformers may be used to insulate one
circuit from another, although permitting a transfer of electrical
energy between them. In such cases there may be no voltage
change effected.
Fundamentally, the alternating-current transformer is simple
in both construction and operation. If alternating current is
passed through a coil called the primary, an alternating magnetic
field is set up. If another coil, called the secondary, is placed
dose to the primary coil, this primary magnetic field will induce
in the secondary coil a voltage directly proportional to the ratio
of the number of turns in the secondary to the number of turns
in the primary. The resulting secondary current will be inversely
proportional to this ratio, and, hence, the product of primary
volts times primary amperes is practically equal to the product
of secondary volts times secondary amperes. There are losses
which are due to the conversion of small amounts of electrical
energy into heat but transformer efficiencies are high, usually
more than 95 per cent. Usually, a core of laminated electrical
steel sheet links both primary and secondary and causes a con-
siderable increase in the magnetic flux linking these two coils.
Two or more single-phase transformers may be combined into
an integral unit with a common magnetic circuit to provide poly-
phase operation. In the case of a three-phase transformer, there
are three primary and three secondary windings on a single iron
core. A special type of transformer known as an auto-
transformer has one continuous winding so that primary and
secondary are not insulated from each other, but are part of
the same circuit. Usually its ratios are close to unity. See
Auto-transformer.
Natural air draft transformers are usually small in size and
no special provision is made for the dissipation of heat due to
internal losses other than to provide some space around the coils
for the circulation of air.
Oil-cooled, water-cooled, and air blast transformers are usually
medium- and large-sized units in which some special arrange-
ment must be made to dissipate the heat resulting from resistance
and core losses, so that too great a rise in temperature will not
occur.
The transformer is undoubtedly one of the most widely used
of electrical devices. In its largest sizes, it functions as a means
of stepping up voltages at one end of a power line to the 110- or
220-kilovolt potential which is necessary for long distance trans-
mission, and at the other end to step down the voltage again to
a suitable level for primary distribution. It is used on poles for
 1313 -T
street lighting and secondary distribution to building, lighting
and motor circuits. It is used in resistance welding sets to pro-
vide the large current flow required in the welding operation.
(As designed for this type of application it has a secondary that
usually consists of a single turn of heavy copper strap which is
necessary to carry the heavy current in the secondary.) It is
used with instruments in the measurement of current or voltage
in circuits of dangerous line potential so that the instrument
may be placed in a separate electrical circuit at a much safer
voltage. It is used in communication equipment for telephony,
radio, and television. Here its construction is highly specialized
and related more to frequency characteristics than to voltage
ratios. (In radio frequency applications, for example, air coils
are utilized instead of steel.) It is used to provide the proper
operating voltage for ignition in operation of luminous tubes
and vapor lamps. It serves the humble function of providing
low voltage current for electric door bells. These are but a few
of its hundreds of applications.
Transformer Ratio. The ratio of a transformer, unless
otherwise specified is the ratio of the number of turns in the
high-voltage winding to that in the low-voltage winding; Le., the
"turn ratio." The "voltage ratio" of a transformer is the ratio
of the r.m.s. (root mean square) primary terminal voltage to the
r.m.s. secondary terminal voltage, under specified conditions of
load. The "current ratio" of a current-transformer is the ratio
of r.m.s. primary current to r.m.s. secondary current, under
specified conditions of load. The "marked ratio" of an instru-
ment transformer is the ratio which the apparatus is designed
to give under average conditions of use. When a precise ratio
is required, it is necessary to specify the voltage, frequency, load
and power factor of the load. The volt-ampere ratio of trans-
formers, which should not be confused with real efficiency, is the
ratio of the volt-ampere output to the volt-ampere input of a
transformer, at any given power factor.
The circuit voltage has no effect on the ratio of a current
transformer. For example, if the transformer is designed for
500 amperes on the primary to 5 on the secondary, this ratio
holds true whether it is connected to a 110-volt circuit or a
11,000-volt circuit. The only difference in current transformers
designed for high- and low-voltage circuits is in the insulation
between primary and secondary windings and between primary
and ground. This must be heavy enough to prevent puncture.
Transit. The transit is an instrument used in surveying for
measuring both horizontal and vertical angles, although for ordi-
nary work the vertical attachment is omitted. This instrument
consists of a telescope mounted in standards which are attached
T-1314
to a horizontal plate called the "limb." Inside of the limb, and
concentric with it, is another plate called the "vernier plate."
The lower plate, or limb, turns on a vertical spindle or axis
which fits into a socket in the tripod head. By means of a clamp
and tangent screw, it may be clamped fast in any position, and
made to move slowly through a small arc. The circumference of
this plate is usually graduated in divisions of either one-half or
one-third of a degree, and in the common form of transit these
divisions are numbered from some one point on the limb in both
directions around to the opposite point which will be 180 de-
grees. The graduation is generally concealed beneath the plate
above it, except at the verniers. This upper plate is the vernier
plate, which turns on a spindle fitted into a socket in the lower
plate. It is also provided with a clamp by means of which it
can be held in any position, and with a tangent screw by which
it can be turned through a small arc. The transit generally is

provided with a compass, so that the bearing of any given line

with the magnetic meridian may be determined, if desired. It
also has a spirit level attached to the telescope, so that it may
be brought to a horizontal position and made to serve as a level.

Translating Gears. When a lathe is to be used for cutting

threads in accordance with both the English and metric systems
of 'measurements, what are known as "translating gears" are
sometimes used. These gears have 50 and 127 teeth, respectively,
these numbers representing the relation between the English
and metric systems of measurement; thus, 1 inch is equivalent

to 2.54 centimeters, and ft

* gA = ~. By inserting these
2.54 X 50 1*7
gears in the train of gearing connecting the lathe spindle and
the lead-screw, it is possible to gear the lathe for cutting a given
number of threads per centimeter, the translating gears being
used in addition to the same gears that would be employed for
cutting a similar number of threads per inch.
Transmission Dynamometers. See Dynamometers,
transmissions, Hydraulic. See Hydraulic Transmissions.
Transverse Test. A transverse test is made by placing a bar
over two supports, loading the bar midway between the
supports,
and observing the amount of load required to bend or break the
test specimen.

Trapezoid and Trapezium. Aplane figure bounded by four

straight lines, of which only two are parallel, is called a trapezaid.
A plane figure bounded by four lines, no two of which are parallel,
is called a trapezium. These definitions of
trapezoid and trape-
zium, while they are most commonly used in the United States
 1315 -T
and sanctioned by several standard dictionaries, are not definitely
established as mathematical expressions. There are some dic-
tionaries of the English language in which the definitions of
trapezoid and trapezium are interchanged. This is particularly
the case in dictionaries published in Great Britain.

Traveling Crane. This is a crane for raising and lowering

loads in which there is, in addition to the lifting motion, pro-
vision for two horizontal movements at right angles to one an-
other, so that the load can be picked up or deposited at any point
within a rectangle formed by the movement of the crane. A
traveling crane consists mainly of a bridge or girder spanning
the bay- of a shop or foundry or a space over a yard, this bridge
moving longitudinally on overhead tracks provided at its ends.
On this bridge is mounted a trolley or crab which moves in a
transverse direction along the bridge. These two movements
provide for motion in two directions at right angles to each other.

Trap Rock. This rock when crushed is used as an aggregate

for concrete, and as a road-building material. It is a very fine-
grained dense igneous rock that is dark in color and is found
in California, the Northwestern states, the Atlantic coast states,
and Texas.

Trepanning. When a comparatively large hole must be cut

'from the solid" a trepanning tool is sometimes used. This tool
is so designed that it forms a hole by cutting a narrow groove,
the central part or core being taken out as a solid piece. The
trepanning tool has two inserted cutters c and c x (see illustra-
tion) which are mounted in a head of such a form as to provide
a strong support and, at the same time, give ample chip room
a matter of importance when taking a cut of this kind. Each
tool is located and firmly held by a tongue that engages a groove
cut in the holder as indicated by the detail view A. The tools
are held in place by tap bolts, which pass through slotted holes.
The vertical adjustment of the tools is effected by means of
screws b passing down from the top of the holder. This adjust-
ment permits setting the cutters so that they will be in a position
relative to each other for working to the best advantage. As
indicated by the sectional view to the right, this tool, as it is fed
down through the forging, removes a solid block of metal D, thus
forming a large hole with the expenditure of comparatively little
power, since the tools do not have to remove very broad chips.
One of these tools has a round cutting edge and the other one a
square edge. With this arrangement, the round tool cuts a
central groove, whereas the square tool cuts away the sides, thus
forming a channel wide enough to clear the tool-holder. By
grinding the tools in this way, the work of cutting is distributed.
T-1316

Trepanning Tool for Large Holes

Triangles. A
triangle is a plane figure bounded by three
straight lines. If all the three sides of a triangle are of equal
length, it is known as equilateral. If two sides are of equal
length, it is known as isosceles. If one angle is a right, or
90-degree angle, the triangle is a right or right-angled triangle.
If all the angles are less than 90 degrees, the triangle is an acute
or acute-angled triangle. If one of the angles is larger than
90 degrees, the triangle is an obtuse or obtuse-angled triangle.

Triangles for Drafting. When a T-square is used for draw-

ing horizontal lines, in connection with mechanical drawing,
vertical and inclined lines are usually drawn with the aid of
triangles. A
common form of triangle has one angle of 90 de-
grees and two angles of 45 degrees, and another common form
has one angle of 90 degrees and the other two of 30 and
60 degrees. See Drafting Machines.
Triblet.It is necessary to control the inside diameter of a
drawn tube, as well as the outside, otherwise the reduction would
all take place from the outside and leave the walls of the tube

very thick. In order to properly gage the inside of the tube while
it isbeing drawn through the die, the inside is kept from closing
in by the insertion of a steel mandrel or "triblet" This triblet
is a rod which is slightly smaller in diameter than the tube over
which it is drawn, and must be of a length longer, than any tube
that will be drawn over it. To the end of the triblet is welded &
hardened steel tip, the shape and size of which gage the inside
 1317 -T
of the tube. At its opposite end it is secured to the center of a
bar that has a sliding action of five or six inches- over two bolts
in the standard of a bench at the rear.

Trif lex. A rubber lining consisting of a layer of hard rubber

cushioned between two plies of resilient soft rubber. The three
plies are vulcanized together to form an integral lining struc-
ture which is bonded to a steel tank with an adhesion above
500 pounds per square inch. For lining steel tanks to meet the
severe conditions encountered in cleaning steel with acids. Can
also be applied effectively to pipes, valves, fittings, drums,
pumps, etc.

Trigonometric Functions. See Functions of Angles.

i Trimmer. A trimmer is usually a hand-operated machine and
is used in patternmaking and other wood-working shops, for

squaring ends, trimming the ends of segments, etc. It is pro-

vided with a scale for cutting the miters of all regular polygons.

Trimming Dies. Drop-forgings require trimming after the

forging proper is done. The forging comes from the dies with a
small amount of fin evenly distributed all around the forging, at
the parting line and this fin is removed by the trimming dies.
Trimming dies are of two general classes; namely, hot-trimming
dies and cold-trimming dies, according to the condition of the
forgings when trimmed.
Steel for Cold-trimming Dies: Dies for trimming cold drop-
forgings, according to the practice of the Westinghouse Electric
& Mfg. Co., are made from tungsten high-speed steel containing
17 to 19 per cent tungsten, 3 to 4% per cent chromium, 0.75 to
1.50 per cent vanadium, 0.15 to 0.40 per cent manganese, and
0.60 to 0.75 per ceitt carbon. These dies are either finished to
size before hardening or ground after hardening. The Rockwell
C hardness is 60 to 63.
Steel for Hot-trimming Dies: For forgings of small or medium
size, a chrome-vanadium steel is used containing 0.80 to 1.10
per cent chromium, 0.15 to 0.20 per cent vana&higa, 0.50 to 0.80
per cent manganese, and 0.45 to 0.55 per cent carbon. For large
hot forgings, a chrome-nickel steel with from 0.30 to 0.40 per cent
carbon is used. These hot trimming dies are finished to size
after hardening and the Eockwell C hardness is from 30 to 85.

Trinitro-Toluene. Trinitro-toluene is a commonly used high

explosive. As its name indicates, it is a combination of triaitryl
and toluol. It is much less dangerous to manufacture or handle
than either picric acid or nitro-glycerine, as its fumes are not
injurious nor is it sensitive to shock. Heat and moisture have
little or no effect upon it, and it refuses to combine with the
T-1318
metals or their oxides. From toluene is obtained saccharine,
which approximately five hundred times sweeter than sugar.
is
In use, the nitro-toluene is melted and poured into the steel or
iron shell, where it solidifies, and is exploded by a time or per-
cussion fuse.

Triple-Action Die.See Drawing Dies.

Tripping Mechanisms. What are known as "tripping" mech-

anisms are applied to various kinds of machinery to stop the
movement either of the entire machine or of some part of it.
Automatic tripping devices generally operate in conjunction with
a clutch, or they are used to disengage intermeshing gears. The
trip may be adjustable and be set beforehand to act after a cer-
tain part has moved a given distance, or it may only act when a
machine begins to operate under abnormal conditions. The ad-
justable form of trip, if for a part having a rectilinear motion,
may consist simply of a stop which is placed in such a position
that it will disengage a clutch after the part under the control
of the trip has moved the required distance. If a rotary motion
is involved, the same principle may be applied with whatever
modification of the mechanism is necessary. If the trip is de-
signed to act automatically only when the machine is operating
under adverse conditions, the action may be governed by varia-
tions of pressure or resistance to motion; the product on which
the machine is working may also cause the trip to act in case the
operation is not as it should be.

Trip, Reverse-Current. See Reverse-Current Trip.

Trodaloy. A copper alloy containing beryllium and chromium,

which is much harder and tougher than copper. Particularly
useful in withstanding the high pressures and impacts encoun-
tered in welding processes. Useful for welding electrodes, switch
plates, cams, spring fingers, and mechanical parts requiring high
electrical conductivity.

Troostite. That structure or constituent in steel known as

troostite is indicative of atempered steel. When steel is fully
hardened it consists of martensite, but as it is heated for tem-
pering, troostite begins to form at about 400 degrees and in-
creases with the temperature until the troostite begins to change
into sorbite at a temperature of about 750
degrees. See Steels,
Constituents or Structure.

Troy Weight. The troy weight is used for weighing gold and
;

silver. 1 pound= 12 ounces =

5760 grains; 1 ounce =s 20
pennyweights = 480 grains; 1 pennyweight = 24 grains; 1
carat (used in weighing diamonds) =3.168 grains; 1 grain
troy == 1 grain avoirdupois =
1 grain apothecaries' weight
 1319 -T
Truflex. Thermostatic bimetal made in different types for
automatically controlling temperature ranges of from 50 de-
grees F. to 1000 degrees F. Used for automatically controlling
the operation of devices either heated or cooled by electricity,
oil, or gas, as, for example: electric refrigerators, irons, toasters,
gas ranges, water heaters, and domestic oil burners. Available
in helical and spiral coils, rings, flat pieces, U-shapes, and in
sheets up to 8 inches wide.
T-SIot. T-slots of the cross-sectional shape shown at the left
in the illustration areformed in the tables and bedplates of dif-
ferent types of machine tools to receive the T-bolts used to hold
either the work or a
fixture in position
during the machining
operation. As there
has been a
certain
amount of variation
in T-slot and T-bolt
sizes, the American
standard has been ap-
proved by the Amer-
T-slot and T-bolt ican Standards Asso-
ciation, the National
Machine Tool Builders' Association, and the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers. This standard covers T-bolts and slots for
bolt diameters ranging from %
inch up to 1% inches, inclusive,
and tables giving the dimensions of American standard T-slots.
T-bolts, T-nuts, and T-slot cutters will be found in MACHINERY'S
HANDBOOK.
T-SIot Cutters. T-slot cutters are a combination of end-mills
and side milling cutters. They are generally provided with a
solid shank and are used for cutting the T-slots in the tables of
machine tools and fixtures.
T-Square. A T-square consists of a thin ruler used as an aid
in drawing straight pencil or ink lines, and having secured to
it at one end a head, normally set at right angles to it, and

adapted to be held against the edge of the drawing board with

the left hand. T-squares are made in two forms: Those with a
fixed head and those with a swivel or pivoted head which may be
secured in any desired angular position by a thumb-nut, in order
to draw lines that are not perpendicular to the guiding edge of
the drawing board. See Drafting Machines.

Ts'un. This is a Chinese length measure, legalized in 1903,

equal to 3.2 centimeters, or 1.26 inch.
Tube Bending. See Pipe Bending.
T-1320
Tube Classifications. See Pipe and Tube Classifications.

Tube Expanding. Plain boiler tubes or flues are made to fit

tightly into the holes in the tube sheet by expanding the ends.
This tightening of the tube is done by simply stretching the
metal outward against the hole in the tube sheet, by means of a
tool calleda tube expander. There are two general types of these
tools the sectional expander and the roller expander. The sec-
tional type is composed of a number of steel segments which are
held together either by a steel band or a ring of rubber; these
segments surround a central tapering mandrel which is driven
inward in order to force the segments outward, thus stretching
the tube. The outer surfaces of the segments are usually so
shaped that the tube is not only expanded against the wall of the
hole through the tube sheet, but enlarged on both sides of the
tube sheet. This beading of the tube makes the latter serve as
a brace against either tensional or compressive stresses. When
tubes are expanded by means of thees sectional expanders, this
is frequently referred to as the Prosser method. The roller type
of tube expander has a set of three or more rolls which are
mounted in a suitable frame or holder. These rolls bear against
a central tapering mandrel which is rotated and, at the same
time, forced inward, thus causing the rolls to revolve and grad-
ually expand the tube tightly against the hole in the tube plate.
This is frequently called the Dudgeon method. The rotation of
the mandrel may be effected either by hand or by power.

Tubes, Collapsible. See Collapsible Tubes.

Tube-Shaping Process. Steel or non-ferrous tubing can be

formed to practically any regular or irregular outline, including
straight, tapered, and rounded sections, by the Dewey Process
which consists simply in applying two narrow rollers at the front
and back of the revolving tubing. These rollers are moved in
and out radially relative to the tube axis as they are fed along
the tube, thus giving it the required shape. The process is per-
formed in a machine that resembles a long heavy-duty lathe, the
work being held in chucks in a headstock and tailstock and the
shaping rollers being mounted on a carriage that is fed along the
bed and the work.
A striking feature of this process is that the wall thickness
of the shaped tubing can be increased to obtain greater strength,
decreased to reduce the weight of the part, or left the original
thickness. Owing to the fact that the tubing expands lengthwise
as the rollers change the wall diameter, the tube shaping ma-
chineis made with a sliding headstock to allow for this
expan-
sion,the tailstock being anchored in a location that is deter-
mined by the length of tube being handled.
 1321 -T
The process is applicable to both welded and seamless steel
tubes and also to tubing made of brass, copper, bronze, alu-
minum, and Monel metal. The potential applications of tubing
shaped by the Dewey Process are practically limitless from the
standpoint of both utility and ornamentation. The process is
covered by patents issued and pending.
Tube Sheet. The plate or sheet in a steam boiler in which
the boiler tubes are held, and in which they are expanded, is
called the tube sheet.

Tubing Cages. See Gages for Tubing.

Tubing, Seamless. See Seamless Brass and Copper Tubing;

also Seamless Steel Tubing.

Cone of Gears, and "Tumbler" Gear for

Obtaining Speed Variations

Tumbler Files. These files are of double oval section but are
narrower than crossing files, and the surfaces have smaller radii.
They are made in either taper or blunt forms and the teeth are
double-cut, bastard, second-cut, or smooth. The tumbler file is
not used very generally.
Tumbler Gear and Cone. The type of geared feed-changing
mechanism illustrated by the diagram, or some modification of it,

is often found on engine lathes for varying the feed necessary

for turning, and the speed of the lead-screw for thread cutting.
In this particular case, there are eight gears in the form of a
cone, which progressively vary in diameter, and, in conjunction
with this cone of gears, there is a single gear which may be
shifted both radially and axially in order to place it into mesh
with any gear of the cone. The exact method of mounting this
"tumbler gear" varies. With the arrangement indicated by the
diagram, there is a splined shaft D upon which pinion A is free
T-1322
to slide. B (which is merely an idler for con-
The tumbler gear
necting pinion A with whatever gear of the cone may be selected)
is held in position by an arm not shown in the illustration. These
two gears, A and B, remain constantly in mesh, and may be
shifted to any position along shaft D, for engagement with the
various gears of cone C. In other designs, instead of having a
splined shaft D, there is a long pinion extending the length of
the gear cone with which the idler gear B meshes; that is, the
construction is similar in principle to the arrangement illus-
trated, with the exception that gear A is a long pinion and the
idler gear B is shifted along this pinion to the required position.
Still another method of applying a tumbler gear is to place it

upon a splined shaft (corresponding to shaft D) which is ad-

justably mounted, so that engagement with any gear of the cone
can readily be made. Power is transmitted directly between this
splined shaft and the gear cone, and the shaft itself is adjusted
to the required position for bringing the gears into mesh. What-
ever the arrangement for transmitting motion between the shaft
and the gear cone, it is the general practice to locate and hold
the tumbler gear properly in mesh with the different gears of
the cone by means of a series of holes or locating surfaces which
are engaged by a locking device attached to the tumbler gear
frame or shifting arm, in order to hold it in the proper position.
Many lathes are provided with this mechanism.
Tumbling. Tumbling is a process of cleaning, smoothing,
brightening, and polishing parts by frictional contact with each
other or with some material while the pieces are rotating in
tumbling barrels. The tumbling process is also used for a variety
of other purposes, such as japanning, painting, and plating metal
parts and coloring wood and cork. Tumbling barrels vary in
shape, size, and design, but the process in general is the same,
although modified according to the type of work and finish de-
sired. Barrel burnishing really cornea under the broad definition
of tumbling, although the process differs and accomplishes a
different result. The usual action of tumbling is to remove or
cut away burrs, fins, scale, and flash from parts to obtain a
smooth surface or edge. See also Burnishing by Ball Process.
Tumbling Materials. Many materials are used in tumbling,
the medium depending upon the work and the finish desired. The
action of the mediums ranges from a mere rubbing to an appre-
ciable grinding. A few of the mediums are hard-wood sawdust,
gravel, pumice, steel slugs, sand, powdered emery, broken emery
wheels, ashes, sandstone, rouge, leather scraps and meal, and
tumbling jacks and stars. Water or diluted sulphuric acid is
sometimes used for tumbling scaly pieces, or preparatory to some
rustproofing operation. Such abrasives as emery, sand, and
 1323 -T
gravel are used both wet and dry, the liquid being either oil,
water, or a special solution. After the parts are smoothed, they
are often polished by rolling in hard maple sawdust, scrap leather,
felt, and talc.
When tumbling operations are done simply to dry and dean
parts from oil, grease, and water, sawdust is used and the gentle
rubbing also brightens the work. Hinges, keys, and small metal
parts, such as stampings and screw machine products, and black
and lightly scaled parts, are also cleaned by tumbling with saw-
dust. Flash and burrs can be removed from brass and steel parts,
by using steel slugs and sawdust as the tumbling medium, a
suitable proportion being two shovelfuls of sawdust to one of
slugs. Flash is sometimes removed by tumbling with white sand,
gravel, or emery. Sand can be cleaned from brass castings by
the use of brass scrap and water. For smoothing and polishing
pawls, studs, and miscellaneous metal work, fine sand and ashes
can be used.
When parts are to have fairly clean surfaces and a good bright
finish is desired, leather scrap or meal free from tannic acid
should be the tumbling medium, and enough so used that a
cushion will be formed where the work falls back against the
shell of the barrel. Steel balls or similar articles can be polished
and finished by placing them in a wooden horizontal or tilting
barrel for two operations. The first operation should be one of
smoothing by tumbling the parts in a Vienna lime mixture, and
the next should consist of tumbling the parts in scrap leather,
free from tannic acid. These operations give the parts a high
luster or polish without cutting away stock. Sometimes in get-
ting parts ready for plating, when it is only necessary to clean
off the grease and oil, hot water and alkali is the tumbling
medium,

Tungsten. Tungsten possesses the remarkable quality of

giving to steel, when alloyed with it, the characteristic of "red
hardness," so that a cutting tool made from a tungsten alloy steel
can be used at cutting speeds which heat the tool to a tempera-
ture at which carbon tool steels would lose their cutting qual-
ities. Most of the tungsten produced is used as an alloying metal
for steel. Tungsten is a very heavy metal, its specific gravity in
the pure state being 18.8 (weight per cubic inch, 0.68 pound) ;
in its commercial forms, the specific gravity ranges from 19.3
to 20.2, according to the treatment to which it has been sub-
jected. Tungsten may be obtained in the market either in a
compact form or in the form of a powder. Tungsten requires
such a high temperature for melting that it cannot be melted
directly into a mass, but, when first obtained from tungsten-
bearing ores, it is always in the form of a metallic powder. This
T-1324
powder may be worked into solid masses weighing up to two or
three pounds. Tungsten does not oxidize readily, and is prac-
tically insoluble in the common acids. Its hardness varies from
4.5 to 8 on the Mohs hardness scale (on this scale, razor steel
is rated from 5 to 5.5). It is sometimes harder than quartz,
which has a hardness of 1, and may be almost as hard as topaz.
Its specific heat is 0.034, and its electrical conductivity (silver
== 100) is 14.

Tungsten less High-Speed Steel. See Cobaltcrom Steel.

Tungsten Melting Temperature. According to a report on

the properties of tungsten, compiled at the Nela Research Labor-
atory of the General Electric Co., the melting point of tungsten
is 3655 degrees C. on the absolute scale, which would be equiv-
alent to about 6125 degrees on the regular Fahrenheit scale.
The melting point of tungsten is the highest of any substance
known, with the possible exception of carbon. The specific gravity
of tungsten is 19.3 at room temperature.

Tungsten Steel. This steel is extensively employed for high-

speed metal-cutting tools. The property that tungsten imparts
to steel is that of hardening in the air after being heated to a
high temperature, and that of "red hardness," or the ability to
retain its hardness when the tool is heated by the cutting action
to a dull red heat. Most high-speed steels contain approximately
18 per cent tungsten, 4 per cent chromium, and 1 per cent vana-
dium; hence these percentage figures are often combined to
designate this high-tungsten steel which has been used much
more than any other. See High-speed Steel.
Turbine, Steam. A steam turbine is a prime mover in which
steam at high velocity impinges upon the blades of a rotating
element, thus transforming the kinetic energy of the steam into
mechanical energy. The steam turbine, unlike the reciprocating
engine, makes use of the velocity of the steam instead of its
static pressure. The heat energy of the steam is, through ex-
pansion, first changed into kinetic energy, and this in turn is
transformed into work by the impulse and reaction effects pro-
duced by steam jets discharged through suitable nozzles against
vanes upon the periphery of a revolving wheel. In both cases,
the work done is due to the heat energy contained in the steam.
In the reciprocating engine, the action is intermittent, while in
the turbine, it is continuous. The steam turbine is especially
adapted to central station work for the following reasons It has
:

a high speed, with close regulation; it gives high economy under

variable loads; it works under conditions of practically adiabatic
expansion of steam, the ideal condition sought for in the design
of all steam engines; it eliminates cylinder condensation, be-
 1325 -T
cause the passages through which the steam flows are always at
practically the same temperature; it has no reciprocating parts,
with rubbing surfaces to be lubricated; it produces no vibration
which calls for expensive foundations; and finally, the floor space
required is much less than for a reciprocating engine of the same
power.
Turbine, Water. Awater turbine may be of vertical or hori-
zontal design. The horizontal turbine may be provided with a
casing and be located in the generating room, or it may be of
the submerged type and be located in a basin contiguous to the
generating room, with the shaft extending through the dividing
wall to the generator. The submerged turbine is used only on
very low heads, but in some cases it lends itself to an economical
and advantageous design of station. The vertical turbine is
particularly well adapted for large units. It takes considerably
less floor space and, consequently, smaller foundations than the
horizontal type. The manufacturer of water turbines is in the
best position to make recommendations as to which type of tur-
bine is most desirable for any particular head and capacity.
Sometimes the design of the generator is a determining factor,
and the solution of this problem is best solved by the manufac-
turer of generators.

Turbo-Compressors. A turbo-compressor is a multi-stage

centrifugal compressor. In principle, it is like the high-lift
turbine pump; the air, upon entering the impeller near the
center, is thrown outward by the blades, and its kinetic energy,
due to the high velocity, is changed into pressure in fixed diffuser
channels, and led back toward the center to the inlet of a second
impeller, and so on, the pressure increasing with each stage.
Turners for Bar Work. The tools used on flat turret lathes
for turning bar stock are commonly known as "turners." These
tools are similar in principle to a box-tool, although, according to
the general usage of the terms, there is the following distinction
between these two classes of tools: A box-tool is usually under-
stood to be a tool having one or more cutters which, while ad-
justable, are set in a fixed position relative to the work, whereas
the tool of a turner is mounted on a pivoted holder, so that it can
be withdrawn readily from the working position for clearing a
shoulder or a larger diameter on the work.
Turner's Sclerometer. With this form of hardness testing
apparatus, a weighted diamond point is drawn, once forward and
once backward, over the smooth surface of the material to be
tested. The hardness number is the weight in grams required
to produce a standard scratch. The scratch selected is one which
is just visible to the naked eye as a dark line on a bright re-,
T-1326
fleeting surface. It is also the scratch which can just be felt
with the edge of a quill when the latter is drawn over the smooth
surface at right angles to a series of such scratches produced by
regularly increasing weights.

Turntable Lathe. This name is sometimes applied to a turret

which has a low circular turret. See Flat Turret Lathe.
lathe

Turret Lathe. The characteristic feature of a turret lathe is

the turret which is mounted upon a carriage and contains the
tools which are successively brought into the working position by
indexing or rotating the turret. In many instances, all the tools
required can be held in the turret, although it is often necessary
to use other tools, held on a cross-slide, for cutting off the finished
part, facing a radial surface, knurling, or for some other opera-
tion. After a turret lathe is equipped with the tools needed for
machining a certain part, it produces the finished work much
more rapidly than would be possible by using an ordinary engine
lathe, principally because each tool is carefully set for turning or
boring to whatever size is required, and the turret makes it pos-
sible to quickly place any tool in the working position. Many
turret lathes also have systems of stops or gages for controlling
the travel of the turret carriage and cross-slide, in order to regu-
late the depth of a bored hole, the length of a cylindrical part or
its diameter; hence, turning machines of this
type are much
more efficient than ordinary lathes for turning duplicate parts,
unless the quantity is small, in which case, the advantage of the
turret lathe might be much more than offset by the cost of the
special tool equipment and the time required for "setting up"
the machine.

Turret Lathe Classification. The name given to turret

lathes may either be based upon some prominent constructional
feature, or they may be derived from the general nature of the
work for which the lathe was primarily designed. All machines
which belong to the turret-lathe class are not known as turret
lathes, and there is also considerable variation in the names usfed
by manufacturers to designate the different types. Considering
first the broad classification of turret
lathes, there are the hori-
zontal and vertical designs; although a
very large percentage of
the turret lathes in use are of the horizontal
design, and those
machines which are called vertical turret lathes by one manufac-
turer are classed as side-head boring mills by another manufac-
turer, owing to the fact that they are designed along the lines
of a vertical boring mill with the addition of a side
head; there-
fore, the name vertical turret lathe is not one that is
applied
generally to this type of machine, although such a design may
properly be classified as a vertical turret Hithe, as it possesses
 1327 -T
the same general features as a horizontal machine designed for
chuck work.
When a machine is simply referred to as a turret lathe, this is
generally understood to be a horizontal machine, and it may be
designed either for handling bar stock, chuck work, or both for
bar and chuck work, and the turret may or may not have a power
feeding movement, A turret lathe that is designed more particu-
larly for turning comparatively small screws, pins, etc., from
steel rods or bar stock, is commonly (although not invariably)
known as a screw machine, or as a turret screw machine. Ac-
cording to the practice of some manufacturers, the name screw
machine is applied to small turret lathes which have a collet chuck
in the spindle and a "wire feed" or a mechanism for feeding a
wire rod or bar stock through the spindle. When the machine is
intended for either bar or chuck work, or for chuck work exclu-
sively, the name turret lathe is commonly used, and such a ma-
chine may or may not have a stock-feeding mechanism which
operates in conjunction with the spindle chuck. The foregoing
method of distinguishing between the two types, however, is not
universal, and there is no general agreement in the use of these
names.
Turret lathes of the screw-machine class are sometimes given
names which indicate rather definitely the type of machine ; for
instance, the name hand screw machine is often applied to turret
screw machines in order to distinguish between the hand-
operated type and the automatic type, or the term "hand screw
machine" may indicate a design not equipped with an automatic
feeding mechanism for the turret slide. The name wire-feed
screw machine is used by one prominent manufacturer to indi-
cate a design having a mechanism for automatically feeding the
stock through the spindle, whereas a machine not having this
stock-feeding mechanism is designated as a plain screw machine.
Turret lathes are further classified according to the form of
the turret. The ordinary turret of the design found on most
turret lathes is either hexagonal or round, the former being far
more common. The fiat turret lathe has a turret which is prac-
tically a low circular table upon which the tools are clamped, and
the name indicates this low, flat design. Lathes of the flat-turret
class are sometimes referred to as turntable lathes. There is
also the tilted turret lathe, the turret of which is in an angular
position. The hollow-hexagon turret lathe is still another ma-
chine which derives its name from the form of the turret, al-
though some manufacturers of such lathes do not refer to them
as the hollow-hexagon type.
The name in some instances indicates the arrangement of the
turret slide. In many cases, the turret onlyhas a longitudinal
T-1328
feeding movement in the direction of the bed; when there is a
cross-slide between the turret and the main slide, the name set-
over turret lathe is used by some manufacturers, but not very
generally. The design of the headstock is another feature which
is sometimes considered when classifying a turret lathe. Thus
there is the plain-head type (without back-gears), and the geared
friction-head type which has back-gears and friction clutches for
engaging either the direct cone-pulley drive or the back-gearing.
A great many turret lathes are provided with the geared-friction
head. Many modern designs are also equipped with geared head-
stocks and either a single driving pulley or a direct-connected
motor drive, instead of a cone-pulley.
The full-swing side-carriage turret lathe is a design having a
toolpost carriage mounted on the side of the bed, so that it will
pass the chuck and enable the turret carriage to be moved up
close to the chuck, thus reducing the overhang of the tools to a
minimum. A turret lathe that is designed especially for work
held in a chuck is often known as a chucking lathe, chucking
machine or as a turret chucking lathe. When a turret lathe has
such features as an attachment for chasing threads, and a cross-
slide for the turret, it is sometimes known as a universal turret
lathe, because of the increased range of work for which it is
adapted. What is known as a forming lathe, or a forming turret
lathe, is similar to an ordinary design, but usually has a carriage
between the turret and the headstock that is arranged for car-
rying wide-forming tools; in some cases, there is a vertical slide
at the rear, so that the forming tool may be fed in a vertical
plane. Some forming and chucking lathes have a cross-slide for
the turret and the latter carries the forming tools.
Turret lathes which are intended principally for brass work
are often referred to as monitor lathes, the name "monitor" in
this connection indicating a revolving turret. This name is not
applied to the same design of turret lathe by different manufac-
turers, although, in general, it indicates a comparatively small
turret which, in many cases, is provided with a thread-chasing
attachment of the Fox lathe type and is designed principally
for turning, boring, and threading parts made of brass. Some
lathes which are listed as the monitor type have a stock-feeding
mechanism, whereas others do not have this feature. The turret
may or may not have power feed, and some monitor lathes have
a cross-feed for the turret, whereas others only have the
longitudinal feeding movement.
In England, turret lathes are often called capstan lathes. The
terms "capstan" and "turret," however, are often used inter-
changeably, although many firms observe a sharp distinction in
their application, in that they apply the name "capstan" only to
 1329 -T
those machines which have a slide moving in a saddle that is
bolted down to the bed, whereas the name "turret" is used when
the turret-slide is mounted directly on the bed. The effective
difference between the two designs is that the working stroke
of the first one is limited by the movement of the turret-slide in
the saddle, whereas, with the second arrangement, the longi-
tudinal feeding movement of the turret is limited by the length
of the bed.

Turret Lathe Development. The invention of a turret for

readily and accurately presenting different tools in successive
order, seems to have been the work of more than one man. The
invention of the vertical turret has often been credited to Henry
D. Stone. The turret principle, however, was not originated by
Stone as it had been utilized previously by several others, in-
cluding P. W. Howe and E. K. Root. The first commercial turret
lathe, however, seems to have been built by Bobbins & Lawrence
of Windsor, Vt, in 1854. One of the earliest turret lathes, if not
the earliest, was built in 1845 by Stephen Fitch at Middlefidd,
Conn. The turret of this machine revolved about a horizontal
axis and had eight tool positions. A machine built by E. K. Boot
at the Colt Armory about 1855 and known as a chucking lathe
had a horizontal turret. Another early design by Mr. Boot had
a vertical turret and a stop-screw for the slide but no automatic
tripping device. The movements of the turret of the slide were
controlled by a lever at the front of the bed opposite the
headstock.

Turret Lathe Sizes. There are two general methods of

designating the sizes of turret lathes. If the machine is intended
primarily for operating on bar stock which is fed through the
spindle, the size of the machine, as listed by manufacturers, in-
dicates approximately, at least, the maximum diameter of stock
that will pass through the spindle, and the maximum length that
can be turned. For instance, a 2- by 24-inch turret lathe has a
maximum capacity for parts 2 inches in diameter and 24 inches
long. In some cases, however, the nominal size of the machine is
somewhat less than the actual capacity; thus, a turret lathe listed
as a 2-inch size may, in reality, be capable of handling bar stock
up to 2% inches in diameter. The size of a turret lathe intended
more especially for chucking operations indicates the maximum
diameter that the machine will swing over the ways of the bed;
that is, a 24-inch chucking machine is one that will swing parts
up to about 24 inches in diameter.
Turret Lathe Slides. Turret-slides for turret lathes may be
divided into three general classes: The plain turret-slide,^ with
a longitudinal feeding movement only and a turret that is re-
T-1330
volved automatically by the backward movement of the slide; the
set-over turret-slide, which has a cross motion that is utilized
either for recessing or for radial facing with a single-point tool;
and the universal turret-slide, which has longitudinal and cross
movements similar to the set-over type, but which has, in addi-
tion, an intermediate plate between the cross-slide and the longi-
tudinal slide that may be swiveled to allow the turning or boring
of tapering surfaces. The cross-slide is below the swiveling
member, so that parts may be faced off square with the spindle
when the swiveling slide is set for taper work.

Turret Lathe Stops. Practically all turret lathes have some

system of stops for regulating the movements of the slides and
their tools. Some of the older designs were equipped with a
single adjustable stop for all positions of the turret, so that the
lengths and positions of the different tools had to be such that
all the tools would be properly located when the turret-slide was

against the single stop. In order to locate each tool independently,

modern turret lathes have multiple stops so arranged that, as each
tool is indexed to the working position, there is a separate stop
which regulates the point at which the forward movement of that
particular tool is discontinued. There are several types of these
adjustable multiple stops. Some turret lathes have a revolving
cylinder which carries a group of adjustable rods, and in other
cases there is a bracket on the" bed of the machine containing
a number of rods capable of adjustment to the various lengths.
Still another arrangement comprises a group of bars in the bed
of the machine; each bar is adjustable and has a suitable notch
in which a plunger may enter in order to arrest the movement of
the turret-slide. On some turret lathes, there is an arrangement
which provides for the use of supplementary stops, so that sev-
eral shoulder distances may be obtained for a single position of
the turret.

Tuyere or Twyer. The nozzle through which the blast of air

enters a forge or a blast furnace is known either as tuyere or
twyer. In blast furnaces the air passes into the "blast-main"
or "horseshoe-main" (a circular pipe nearly surrounding the
hearth on the outside), and thence through the twyers into the
furnace.

Twin-Roller Chain. This is a power transmission chain of

the roller type which has, in addition to the links
connecting the
rollers at the ends, a connecting link in the
center, the roller
being divided into two parts. In an ordinary roller chain, if the
roller is too long, the stud upon which it is mounted is liable to
bend. In the twin-roller chain, the stud is
supported, and more
power can be transmitted with a chain of the same pitch.
 1331 -T
Twin-Wheel Grinding. Many parts having two or more
diameters must be ground. These diameters are sometimes equal,
but usually vary. Frequently the logical method of grinding
parts with two diameters is to use two wheels spaced according
to the location of the surfaces. This combining of cuts has re-
sulted in large increases in production in some plants. The gen-
eral arrangement of a twin-wheel machine is the same as for
ordinary wide-wheel grinding,

Twist prill. The term "twist drill" is applied to the common

type of metal-cutting drill which has two grooves or flutes that
are approximately helical in form, giving the drill a twisted
appearance. These helical grooves, because of their inclination,
give the two cutting edges rake or keenness and bring the chips
to the surface as the drill revolves. See Drills.

Twisted Spur Gears. When helical gearing is used to con-

nect parallel shafts, the term "twisted spur gear" is sometimes
used, because the gearing in this case serves the same general
purpose as ordinary straight-tooth spur gearing. This relates
to the use of single-helical and not the double-helical or herring-
bone gearing. Twisted spur gears are used to connect parallel
shafts in order to secure a smoother action than can be obtained
with ordinary spur gears. See also Helical Gears.

Type Metal. Antimony gives to metals the property of ex-

pansion on solidification, and hence, is used in type metal for
casting type for the printing trades to insure completely filling
the molds. Type metals are generally made with from 5 to 25 per
cent of antimony, and with lead, tin and sometimes a small per-
centage of copper as the other alloying metals. The compositions
of a number of type metal alloys are as follows (figures given
are percentages) : Lead, 77.5; tin, 6.5; antimony, 16. Lead, 70;
tin, 10; antimony, 18; copper, 2. Lead, 63.2; tin, 12; antimony,
24; copper, 0.8. Lead, 60.5; tin, 14.5; antimony, 24-25; copper,
0.75. Lead, 60; tin, 35; antimony, 5. Lead, 55.5; tin, 40;
antimony, 4.5.
A high grade of type metal is composed of lead, 50 per cent;
tin, 25 per cent; and antimony, 25 per cent.

Type Metal Bearings. Type metal, used for casting type for
the printing trades, is sometimes used for light high-speed ma-
chine bearings which are not likely to become heated. For bear-
ings, it is used in the form of a lining like babbitt metal. Type
metal is a comparatively cheap alloy, because it contains a large
percentage of lead and, when cheapness is an important con-
sideration, there is a tendency to use this lining metal instead
of the more expensive babbitt alloys containing copper and tin.
T-1332
Type metal bearings should not be used, however, when heavy
by the shaft.
loads have to be supported

Types and Typing. Irregular bosses or ends in a drop-

forging die that cannot be finished on the die-sinking machine,
and that are particularly difficult to chip out, scrape, and riffle
to a finish are often formed by typing. A "type" is a punch or
small block of steel the end of which is shaped exactly like that
part of the forging that is difficult to cut in the die. Types are
hardened and drawn to a purple temper. The part of the die that
is to be typed is milled and chipped out to as near the outline
and depth as is considered safe. The face of the type is then
rubbed lightly with Prussian blue, placed in the impression, and,
with a piece of copper or brass on its top, the type is struck hard
into the impression with a hammer. This operation leaves the
high places with a blue facing. These high places are next
chipped away, care being taken not to go too deep, and the
process is repeated. If properly done, the typed part of the im-
pression will gradually assume the shape of the type and, by
striking in the type a number of times, the impressions will take
on the smooth finish of the type and be ready for riffling.
 u
U-Bolt. This is a bolt bent to U-form. Both ends of the U
are threaded, and such bolts are often used for clamping round
parts.
Ultimate Analysis. In chemistry, this is a quantitative an-
alysis in which the percentages of aQ elements contained in the
substance are determined.
Underload Trip. An underload trip is one that is arranged
to trip a circuit breaker when the current flowing through the
circuit falls below a certain predetermined amount, the tripping
being accomplished by releasing the armature of the magnetic
circuit, which, either due to the force of gravity or the energy
stored in a spring, forces the armature against the latch, thus
releasing it.

Uniflow Steam Engines. The unifLow type of steam engine

is designed to eliminate one of the greatest losses in reciprocating
steam engines, namely, initial condensation. With the unifiow
engine, the steam enters the cylinder at the end, after passing
through steam-jacketed heads. After expansion has taken place,
this steam is exhausted through ports located around the center
of the cylinder. The steam flows in but one direction, instead of
being returned and exhausting at the end of the cylinder where
it enters, as with the ordinary type of reciprocating engine;
hence, the name "uniflow." It is claimed that initial condensa-
tion is almost entirely eliminated in the uniflow engine, where
the ends are kept hot and the center or exhaust belt cooler. The
uniflow engine was not designed originally for non-condensing
service, but a design known as the "universal uniflow" is adapted
to either condensing or non-condensing operations, economical
results being obtained under both conditions.
Unilateral Tolerances. See under Tolerances.
Union. The usual trade term for a coupling used to connect
pipes. It commonly consists of three pieces which are, first, the
thread end fitted with exterior and interior threads ; second, the
bottom end fitted with interior threads and a small exterior
shoulder; and third, the ring which has an inside flange at one
end while the other end has an inside thread like that on the
exterior of the thread end. Most unions have a gasket which is
placed between the thread and bottom ends which are drawn to-
1S88
U-1334
gether by the ring. Unions are very extensively used, because
they permit of connections with little disturbance of the pipe
positions. They are generally classified under two headings, nut
unions and flange unions. Nut unions are ordinarily used for
2-inch sizes and smaller, and flange unions for sizes larger than
2 inches. Nut unions are made of malleable iron, brass and
malleable iron and all brass. The all malleable-iron union is the
standard malleable union of the trade and requires a gasket. The
brass and malleable-iron union (known as the "Kewanee") re-
quires no gasket and is non-corrosive. The pipe or "thread end"
having an external thread upon which the nut or ring screws is
made of brass, and the other pipe end (called the bottom) and
the nut or ring, are made of malleable iron. When the union is
tightened, the harder iron makes a joint in the softer brass. All-
brass unions have a circular or conical seat and no gaskets are
required. Flange unions are made of cast iron or malleable iron
in three weights, standard, extra heavy and hydraulic. AUp
union -is a, special form of union characterized by the lip that
prevents the gasket from being squeezed into the pipe and
obstructing the flow.
n
"Unionmelt Welding Process. This electric welding process
has been found particularly advantageous in shipbuilding or
similar work, because it enables high-quality welds to be made
at comparatively fast speeds by operators who have had rela-
tively little training in welding. ,As the process is completely
automatic, the quality of the weld is not dependent upon the
human element. Heat is generated by the passage of electric
current from an electrode to the plates being joined. The heated
end of the electrode is kept .completely covered by a highly resist*
ant granulated material or welding composition known by the
'

trade name "Unionmelt." The entire welding action takes place

beneath this granulated material without any visible arc and
without sparks, spatter, smoke, or flash; hence, the welders need
no protective helmet or goggles. Welding voltage, electric cur-
rent, speed of operation, and rod feed are all automatically regu-
lated by means of electrical controls to suit a given welding job.

Uni-Polar Machine. Incorrect name for Acyclic Machine,

which see.

United States Standard Screw Thread. William Sellers of

Philadelphia, in a paper read before the Franklin Institute in
1864, originally proposed the screw thread system that later be-
came known as the U. S. Standard system for screw threads. A
report was made to the United States Navy in May, 1868, in
which the Sellers system was recommended as a standard for the
Navy Department, which accounts for the name of U. S. Stand*
 1335 -U
ard. The American Standard Screw Thread system is a further
development of the United States Standard. The thread form
which is known as the American (National) form is the same as
the .United States Standard form. See American Standard Screw
Thread System.
United States Standard Sheet Metal Gage. A gage sys-
tem originally intended for iron and steel sheets or plates, but
replaced for steel sheets by the Manufacturers' Standard Gage.
For sheet metal gage tables see MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK.
United States Steel Wire Gage. See Steel Wire Gage.

Unit Plant. A term used in the appraisal of manufacturing

plants to designate a unit portion of the equipment of the plant.

Unit Pole. In the science of electricity and magnetism, a unit

pole is a pole of such strength that, if placed a centimeter away
in the air from a like pole, it will repel it with a force of .one
dyne; or a unit pole is a pole of such strength that, when placed
in a magnetic field of one gauss, it is acted upon by a force of
one dyne.
A unit north pole is a pole from which 4^ flux lines emerge
into the air.

Unit System of Machine Construction. The principle pf

the "unit system" of construction is simply that of dividing a
machine into groups of closely related mechanisms, and construct-
ing them with independent frames or boxes in which the shafts,
studs, clutches, gears, etc., are assembled. These units of mech-
anisms are assembled on the main frame to form the complete
machine. The natural divisions of the engine lathe, for example,
are the headstock, tailstock, carriage, apron, feed-box, change-
gear box, etc. These mounted on the bed, require only the lead-
screw, feed-rod, and legs to complete the lathe. This system,
which has been applied extensively in machine tool design, has
several marked advantages: It is the logical development of the
interchangeable system of manufacture which has so greatly re-
duced the cost and improved the quality of manufactured prod-
ucts. The units are made independently in departments suited
to the character of the work, by men who, specializing on each
particular unit, become experts. The units, being interchange-
able, can be replaced by the user when necessary, with a minimum
of trouble; they can be removed and returned to the factory for
repairs at small expense for freight and handling. The units can
be tested independently, and, if defects develop, they are cor-
rected without seriously blocking the output of finished ma-
U-1336
chines. If a complete machine is tested and found faulty, it is
held until a minor defect, perhaps, is found and repaired. The
same defect found in a separate unit would have been corrected
before reaching the assembly floor 3nd thus no delay at this stage
would have occurred. An important advantage to the machine
tool builder is the ease with which units can be incorporated in
various designs. The builder, say, of milling machines, can use
the same feed-box in several sizes and styles, and is thus able
to produce a variety of designs at a minimum cost for jigs and
fixtures, all in harmony with the general design.

Unit Tooling. By "unit tooling" is meant the locating of an

entire series of tools used for machining a part, in permanent
relation to each other. This is accomplished, in the case of a
turret lathe, by providing a special arm or multiple tool-holder,
which is fastened to the turret. It is evident that the employ-
ment of a unit tooling arrangement is a production expedient
only when quantities of work of a standard nature are handled.
The expense of making such a tool-holder would not be warranted
for special classes of work on which no repetition orders are
likely to be received.

Univalent. Univalent, also known as monovalent, is a term

used in chemistry to designate that an atom of an element (like
hydrogen) combines with but one atom of another element.

Universal Ball Vise. For small fine work, such as die-sinking,

stamp cutting, and mold making, the universal ball vise is in gen-
eral use. The body A, see illustration, is of spherical form and
rests in a ring-shaped base C having enough frictional resistance
to prevent the body from turning under normal working condi-

Vlse which May be Adjusted to Different

Angular Positions
 1337 ~U
tions. The jaws are operated by a right- and left-hand screw B
controlled by a socket wrench. The jaws are also drilled at the
top to receive pins, so that work can be held between the pins
directly on top of the jaws. The illustration at the left shows
the vise arranged to hold a small milling cutter while the tool-
maker is finishing it. For many purposes connected with fine
toolroom work, a vise of this kind is useful.

Universal Chucks. The universal or concentric type of chuck

is extensively used on engine lathes because the simultaneous
movement of the chuck jaws makes it possible to quickly grip
circular parts so that they are located true or concentric with
the lathe spindle. The jaws of a universal chuck all move to-
gether and keep the same distance from the center, and they
can be adjusted by turning any one of the screws, whereas with
the independent type the chuck wrench must be applied to each
jaw screw. The combination chuck may be changed to operate
either as an independent or universal type. The advantage of
the universal chuck is that round and other parts of a uniform
shape are located in a central position for turning without any
adjustment. The independent type is, however, preferable in
some respects as it is adapted for holding odd-shaped pieces
because each jaw can be set to any required position.

Universal Die-Sinker. See under Die-sinking.

Universal Joint. The universal joint is a form of coupling for

connecting two shafts which are so placed that their center lines
intersect, but are not in the same straight line. Shafts so ICH
cated may be connected by a universal joint which will transmit
the motion from one to the other. This joint has also been called
a "Cardan joint" or a "Hooke's coupling" after the Italian who
first described it and the Englishman who first applied it Its
form varies according to the particular application.
Universal Milling Machine. The universal milling machine
was invented by Joseph E. Brown in 1861. This should not be
confused with the so-called universal miller designed by Frederick
W. Howe in 1852. The latter machine had certain universal ad-
justments, such as a chuck that could be indexed and inclined in
two planes and a vertically adjustable cutter-slide. The machine
desigped by Mr. Brown was a universal type according to present-
day usage of the term and it was designed for such operations as
helical milling, gear cutting, and various jobs requiring eithe
indexing or a combined rotary and axial motion. The first uni~.
versal machine made by the firm then known as J. R. Brown &
Sharpe was sold to the Providence Tool Co, in 1862, and was used
in making special tools for the manufacture of United States
U-1338
Government rifles. For information about the mechanical fea-
tures of universal machines see Milling Machines, Universal Type.
Universal Motor. A universal motor is a series-wound or a
compensated series-wound motor which may be operated either
on direct current or single-phase alternating current at approxi-
mately the same speed and output. These conditions must be met
when the direct-current and the alternating-current voltages are
approximately the same and the frequency of the alternating
current is not greater than 60 cycles per second.
Such motors, in the fractional horsepower sizes, find a wide
variety of applications, such as portable electric drills, floor
polishes, sewing machines, food mixers, and other machines where
close speed regulation is not required.
Universal Radial Drilling Machine. A radial drilling ma-
chine of the plain type can only be used for drilling holes at right
angles to the base. The universal radial drilling machine is
adapted to the drilling of holes at various angles with the base.
The head and spindle of a "full universal" machine can be set at
an angle with the radial arm, and the arm itself can also be
rotated about its own horizontal center or axis, so that the
drilling spindle can be placed in almost any position.
Universal Shapers. When a shaper has a work-table which
can be swiveled about an axis that is parallel to the line of mo-
tion, and has an auxiliary tilting side, which has angular adjust-
ment with reference to the axis about which the main table
swivels, it is sometimes known as a universal shaper. A shaper
designed in this way is especially adapted for tool and die work,
owing to the universal adjustment. The range of such a machine
may be still further increased by means of extra attachments.
Universal Turret Lathe. When a turret lathe has such fea-
tures as an attachment for chasing threads, and a cross-slide for
the turret, it is sometimes known as a universal turret lathe, be-
cause of the increased range of work for which it is adapted.
Unloader. In air compressors, an unloader is a pressure regu-
which closes the inlet pipe of an air compressor and connects
lator
the two ends of the air cylinder, when the receiver pressure
reaches the maximum point desired.
Upright Drilling Machine. See Drilling Machines.
Uranium. Uranium is a white malleable metal which is fairly
hard, although softer than steel. Its specific gravity is 18.7, and
its specific heat, 0.0276. It melts at a temperature of 2400 de-
grees C. (4350 degrees F.). It tarnishes very slowly in the air.
Uranium is chemically related to chromium, molybdenum, and
tungsten. It is claimed that uranium in high-speed steels in-
creases the cutting efficiency and durability to a marked degree.
 Vacuum. The term "vacuum," as applied in practical engi-
neering, means a partial or more or less imperfect vacuum, the
degree of which varies somewhat for different industrial appli-
cations and also depends upon the type and condition of the ex-
hausting apparatus. The degree of vacuum is indicated in inches.
The reading or number of inches of vacuum at a given time
should be related to the atmospheric pressure at that time as
indicated by a barometer. To illustrate, assume that the upper
end of a mercury column is connected with an enclosed space
or vessel from which most of the air or other gas has been re-
moved by an air or vacuum pump. If the height of this mercury
column, due to the partial vacuum in the vessel, is 29% inches
when the barometer is, say, 30 inches, this indicates that the
pump has created a vacuum that is within % inch of a perfect
vacuum. In creating a partial vacuum, some form of pump is
very generally used. The object may be to lift water from some
lower level up to the pump cylinder by utilizing what is com-
monly referred to as "suction." Many pumps are also designed
for exhausting air from an enclosed vessel. In this case, the
object may be to lower the boiling point of a liquid within the
vessel as in refining sugar and in connection with other indus-
tries. Whether a vacuum is utilized in pumping liquids or in

exhausting gases, the basic operating principle is the same in

each case.
Operation of Pump: The diagrams illustrate the principle in-
volved. If one end of a vertical pipe is submerged in water as
indicated at A, there will be the same water level inside and out-
side of the pipe. If the top of the pipe, however, were closed
and sealed tightly and the air partially exhausted, the water
would rise in the pipe to some height x, the height depending
upon the amount of air withdrawn from space V above the water.
This vertical movement of the water in the pipe is due to the
fact that the atmospheric pressure a on the surface of the water
is no longer counteracted by an equal pressure inside the pipe;

consequently, the water is forced upward.

The application of this principle to a pump is indicated by dia-
gram C. The vertical pipe is connected to a pump cylinder and
when the piston is moved in the direction shown by the arrow,
whatever air is in the right-hand side of the cylinder at the be-
ginning of the stroke expands and fills the constantly increasing
volume caused by the movement of the piston, thus forming a

1889
V-1340

I
<*

li =r=v=^=r=:

Diagrams Illustrating Principle of the Vacuum

as applied In the Operation of Pumps

partialvacuum. The result is that air is withdrawn from pipe S

through the suction valves and is forced out past the discharge
valve on the return stroke of the piston. If the
pump also has
suction and discharge valves connecting with the other side of
the piston (as shown by the diagram), the return stroke causes
a similar movement of the air and water. By repeated move-
ments of the piston, the air is almost entirely removed from
pipe S, and with each reduction in the amount of air, the pres-
sure is also reduced; consequently, the water is forced
by the
atmospheric pressure up the pipe and into the cylinder, provided
the vertical distance from the water level at the source of
supply
to the pump cylinder is not excessive. Each time the piston
makes a stroke, this water is forced out through the discharge
valves and pipe, because the suction valves
prevent it from flow-
ing back to the source of supply. When the piston completes a
discharge stroke and starts to return, the discharge valves on
that side close and prevent a backward flow of water from the
discharge pipe into the cylinder.
Vacuum Chucks. For holding pieces made of various mag-
netic and non-magnetic materials on grinding and
milling ma-
chines, shapers, planers, lathes, etc., vacuum chucks are used in
essentially the same manner as magnetic chucks are employed
 1341 -V
for holding pieces made of iron or steel. The upper surface of a
vacuum chuck consists of a flat plate perforated with small holes
leading to an inside chamber which is coupled up to an exhaust
tank. The high vacuum in this tank is maintained by means of
a vacuum pump. Each chuck is supplied with a control valve,
and as a result, the vacuum chuck is controlled by manipulating
a valve in the same way as the magnetic chuck is operated by an
electric switch.

Vacuum in Condenser. The vacuum attainable in a con-

denser isdependent on the temperature of the circulating water
available. The average temperature of the water for a priod of
four or six weeks during the hot season might be taken as the
governing temperature for determining the vacuum to be main-
tained; then, with colder water, the vacuum will improve. For
preliminary considerations, the highest vacuum that may be ex-
pected ranges from about 27 inches for a circulating water tem-
perature of 95 degrees F. to 29 inches for a water temperature
of 60 degrees F. A condensing turbine will have a steam con-
sumption of about one-half that of a non-condensing turbine,
and the power consumption of the condenser auxiliaries will be
approximately 5 per cent of the steam supplied to the condensing
turbines. The initial cost of the condensing equipment is more
than offset by the cost of the additional boilers required for the
larger steam production to supply non-condensing turbines.
Vacuum Pump. See Air or Vacuum Pump.
Vacuum Pump, Hydraulic. See Hydraulic Vacuum Pump.
Vacuum Separator. This is a device used for removing oil
from the water of condensation in a steam plant, so that the
water may be returned to the boilers.
Valence. The valence of a chemical element may be defined
as the number of electrons which an atom of that element may
gain or lose. The number of electrons which a non-metallic atom
may gain the negative valence of that element, while the
is called
number of which a metallic atom may lose is called the
electrons
positive valence of that element. When elements combine to form
stable inorganic compounds, the sum of the negative and positive
valences of the respective components must be equal.
Valence is also used to designate the number of unit charges
carried by an ion in solution.

Valve. Valves are used in regulating the flow of liquids or

gases which pass through them, and are either controlled by
hand or operated by suitable application of power. Valves which
are incorporated in the design of engines or other forms of mech-
anism, such as locomotive slide valves, pump valves, "etc., repre-
V-1342
sent forms designed for a specific purpose as compared with the
types used in water pipes, steam pipes, etc. Of the many types
of valves in use, hand-operated valves which control the supply
of steam or water in pipes are the most common. One of two
forms is generally used for these purposes, viz., either the globe
or gate valve. In the control of steam, the globe valve in some
form is common, while in pipe lines for water or other liquid,
the gate valve is extensively used.

Valve, Balanced. In order to assist in the operation of valves

that are under heavy pressure, provision is made in certain types
of valves called "balanced valves," to equalize the pressure on
each side of the valve and thus make the operation easier. Auto-
matic valves also are designed to work on a similar principle,
the valve being operated by any change in pressure of the liquid
or gas passing through it. Avalve of the automatic type is often
used for automatically closing a pipe line when an abnormal flow
of steam occurs at any portion of the line. Valves of this kind
may be placed between each boiler in a battery and the steam
header. In the event that a steam main should burst or a cylin-
der head fly off, or if an injury should occur to the steam line
beyond the valve, all the valves of the different boilers in the
battery would close immediately and prevent the steam from
escaping into the building and doing further damage. In the
case of an accident to a single boiler in a battery, such as a
burst tube, the valve on that particular boiler would instantly
close and prevent all the other boilers connected to the header
from emptying their steam through the opening in the injured
boiler.

Valve Bronze. This is an alloy composed mainly of copper,

tin, and zinc, containing, according to the U. S. Navy specifica-
tions, approximately 87 per cent of copper, 7 per cent of tin,
5 per cent of zinc, with a maximum of 0.06 per cent of iron and
1 per cent of lead.
Valve, By-Pass. See By-pass Valves.
Valve Diagrams. In designing a slide valve for a steam en-
gine and the mechanism that operates the valve, it is desirable
to be able to determine readily the position of the valve relative
to the steam ports, for any given position of the crank or
piston.
What are known as "valve diagrams" are commonly used for this
purpose. These diagrams not only show graphically the relative
positions of the valve and crank, but also make it possible to
design a valve with reference to a predetermined form of indi-
cator card. Valve diagrams also indicate the effects of
changes
in the design of the valve on the steam distribution. In connec-
tion with steam engine work, certain problems or
quantities re-
 1343 -V
taring to the point of cut-off, lead, etc.,are assumed, and the
remaining ones are required and may be determined by means
of the valve diagrams. For instance, a designer might be given
the point of cut-off, point of release, the lead, and the maximum
port opening, the problem being to determine the valve travel,
the outside and inside lap, and the angle of advance. By means
of a suitable diagram, the valve travel, lap, etc., corresponding
to these specified quantities may be readily determined. There
are several different forms of valve diagrams, the Zeuner and
the Bilgram diagrams being commonly used,

Valve, Gate. See Gate Valves.

Valve Grinding. When the joint between a valve and its seat
is formed by a metal-to-metal contact, grinding is commonly re-
sorted to, in order to secure a joint that will not leak when sub-
jected to the pressure of a gas or fluid. The grinding is done by
applying some kind of an abrasive between the surfaces of the
valve and seat, and the valve is turned in first one direction and
then the other, so that any slight imperfection or lack of fit be-
tween the valve and its seat will be corrected by the action of
the abrasive. When a great many valves have to be ground, they
are often turned, while grinding, by machines designed espe-
cially for this work. Such machines are often arranged so that
several valves may be ground simultaneously. The spindles do
not revolve continuously in one direction, but reverse, say, every
1*4 revolution and a cam raises and lowers the spindles at inter-
vals of, say, 20 revolutions, to allow the abrasive or grinding
compound to enter the valve-seats.
Valve-Setting Machine. In connection with locomotive valve
setting, it is necessary repeatedly to place the main driving
wheels at the dead-center positions. There are three general
methods of securing the necessary motion of the driving wheels
for setting valves. The old method was to move the entire loco-
motive along the track by means of pinch-bars; obviously, this
was a slow laborious method. An improved method is to turn
only the main driving wheels, which are simply connected with
the cross-heads by the main rods (the side-rods being discon-
nected) , and are mounted on rollers which are rotated either by
a hand-ratchet lever or by an air motor. There are two rollers
under each wheel, and a supporting frame for the rollers, so
that the rollers and driving wheels may be readily rotated. This
device is sometimes known as a "valve-setting machine."

Valve Setting,Steam Engine. The adjustment of the valve-

operating mechanism on steam engines, for obtaining the correct
movement of the valve relative to the piston, so that the steam
will be admitted to and exhausted from the cylinder at the right
 V-1344

Fig. 1.
Reversing Valve-gear set for Forward and Backward Motions

time, u known as valve setting. The exact method of

steam engine valves depends setting
upon the type of engine and design
of the
valve-operating mechanism. The following information
relates chiefly to the fundamental
principles involved. In g^
S.
mvolves two
Dg f
? SUnple slide valve P erated by
operations; First, the rods which
a* Acentric
impart motion
from the eccentric to the valve should
be adjusted so that the
valvemovement will be equal each way from the
central position
S
engine crankP in ** the valve opens
'
movent

arSS
forward the
' to
be
lj illustrate a direct
eccentrics for
 1345 -V
Equalizing the Valve Travel: After the steain-chest cover is
removed, in order to expose the valve and its seat, begin either
by turning the engine or the eccentric one or more revolutions
around its shaft, and observe the movement of the valve with re-
lation to the steam ports. (When the engine is large and difficult
to turn, it is often much easier and more convenient to simply
loosen the eccentric and rotate it about the crankshaft, thus se-
curing the same as far as the movement of the valve is
effect,
concerned.) Whenthe valve has traveled as far as possible in
one direction, measure the distance x (diagram A, Fig. 2), be-
tween the edge of the valve and the edge of the port After
taking this measurement, continue turning either the engine
crankshaft and the attached eccentric, or the eccentric alone,
thus causing the valve to be moved in the opposite direction.
When it has reached the opposite end of its travel, as at B, meas-
ure the distance y between the other edge of the valve and the
edge of the port. Assume that the port opening x was about
equal to the port width, and the valve traveled beyond the other
port, as indicated by the distance y. In this case, then, the posi-
tion of the valve on its seat will have to be changed an amount
equal to one-half the difference between the distances x and y,
in order to make these dimensions equal and equalize the valve
travel.
The way in which the position of the valve is changed, in order
to equalize its travel, will depend upon the arrangement of the
valve-operating mechanism. Ordinarily, the length of the ec-
pentric rod or valve-stem can be varied, or it may be possible to
adjust the valve axially along the valve stem, by means of nuts
on either side. When the valve movement has been equalized so
that the valve travels an equal distance each way from its cen-
tral position, the first step in setting the valve is completed. The
next one is to locate the eccentric in the proper position so that
the valve will operate at the right time.
Position of the Eccentric: Before setting the eccentric in re-
lation to the crank, it is first necessary to know in which direc-
tion the engine is to run, assuming that it is not reversible. The
terms "running over" and "running under" are ordinarily used
to indicate the direction in which an engine rotates. When the
crank rises at the beginning of the forward stroke and the top
of the flywheel turns away from the cylinder, the engine is said
to be running over. Inversely, when the crank falls at the be-
ginning of the forward stroke and the top of the flywheel turns
toward the cylinder, the engine is running under. Stationary
engines ordinarily are designed to run over, whereas locomotives
must, of necessity, run under when moving forward. When en-
gines are running over, the vertical thrust of the cross-head
V-1346

Fig. 2. Slide Valves In Different Positions with Reference

to Cylinder Ports
 1347-V
caused by the angularity of the connecting rod is downward, and,
therefore, taken directly by the bed or frame of the engine, which
is desirable.
Assume, in this case, that the engine is to run over; then, if
the motion is direct, the eccentric rod being connected with the
valve-stem so that the movement of the valve-stem is not re-
versed but in the same direction as the eccentric rod (as in
Fig. 1), the eccentric should be located on the shaft so that a
line passing through the centers of the crankshaft and eccentric
will be 90 degrees ahead of the center-line of the crankpin, plus
a small amount due to the lap of the valve, as explained in the
next paragraph. The eccentric will then lead the crankpin when
the engine is running; consequently, the position of the eccentric
indicates the direction in which the engine will rotate. On the
other hand, if the eccentric rod is connected to the valve-stem
by a rocker arm, which gives the valve-stem a reverse movement
(the motion being indirect), the eccentric should be so set that
its center-line is a little less than 90 degrees back. of the crank-

pin, the eccentric following the crankpin when the engine is in

motion.
Adjustment of Eccentric for Lead: After setting the eccentric
approximately 90 degrees either ahead or back of the crank, the
position depending upon the desired direction of rotation, as pre-
viously explained, place the engine on one of the dead centers.
Next turn the eccentric about the shaft until there is a port open-
ing equal to the amount of lead I required (see illustration C,
Fig. 2) .A valve is given lead or initial port opening at the be-
ginning of the piston stroke so that the clearance space in the
cylinder will be filled with steam. Ordinarily, the lead varies
from 1/32 to 3/16 inch, for stationary engines, 1/16 inch being
a fair average. The amount is sometimes determined by experi-
ment after the engine is erected. When there is little or no lead,
the tendency is for the piston to move under reduced pressure
through part of its stroke, especially if the ports are rather small
and the clearance space fairly large. A small amount of lead may
give good results, especially when the compression is sufficient
to produce a pressure at the beginning of the stroke nearly equal
to the boiler pressure. Naturally a quick-acting valve requires
less lead than one which opens more slowly.

Having adjusted the eccentric so that the valve uncovers one

port an amount equal to the lead required, turn the engine until
it is on the opposite dead center; this will cause the valve to move
to the position shown at D, Fig. 2, so that the lead ^ or port
opening on the opposite side can be measured. If the valve travel
was carefully equalized, the measurements I and J z should be the
same. If they are not equal, the eccentric rod .or valve-stem will
V-1348
have to be lengthened or shortened sufficiently to move the valve
an amount equal to one-half the difference between I and 1 19 in
whatever direction is necessary. The eccentric should then be
readjusted to give the lead required.
After setting the eccentric to give the required amount of lead,
it is firmly secured to the crankshaft On small engines, this is
often done by simply tightening set-screws, whereas, on larger
sizes, the eccentric is held more securely by the addition of a key,
the keyway in a new eccentric being cut after its location has
been determined. It is good practice to test the position of the
valve after the eccentric has been securely fastened in place. If
the valve was not given lead or initial port opening, and it did
not have outside lap, the total width being equal to distance a,
sketch A, Fig. 1, the eccentric would then be set at right angles
to the crankpin. Slide valves are given outside lap, however, so
that the steam will be cut off before the piston stroke is com-
pleted, and be used expansively, thus securing greater economy.
Effects of Changes in Lwp: An increase of the outside lap
means an and greater expansion, and it naturally
earlier cut-off
follows that decreasing it means a later cut-off and decreased
expansion. On the other hand, increasing the inside lap increases
compression and delays the point of release, whereas reducing
the inside lap decreases compression and gives an earlier release.
The amount of inside lap, however, has no effect upon the posi-
tion of the eccentric and, therefore, does not directly affect the
setting of the valve. An early cut-off means an early compres-
sion, and the latter becomes excessive when the cut-off takes
place at about two-thirds of the stroke; therefore, a plain slide
valve is seldom designed to cut off earlier than two-thirds or
three-fourths of the stroke, except in the case of high-speed en-
gines and locomotives.
Effect of Connecting-rod on Point of Cut-off: The points of
admission and cut-off of a steam engine should properly occur at
corresponding points in the forward and return strokes of the
piston. When a valve is set as described in the foregoing, the ad-
mission of steam will occur just before the piston reaches each
end of its stroke. If an indicator were applied to the steam cyl-
inder, however, the card would show that the points of cut-off
for the forward and return strokes were not equal. If the engine
were running over, the cut-off would be later on the forward
stroke than on the return stroke. (The piston is on the forward
stroke when moving toward the crank end of the cylinder,
whereas the reverse motion toward the head end is known as the
return stroke.) This is due to the fact that the valve was set
with relation to the rotation of the crank and not with reference
tp the movement of tha piston.
 1349-V
In a crank motion, the relative positions of the piston and
crankpin vary throughout the stroke. During the forward stroke,
the piston moves ahead of the crank, or, in other words, it passes
the center of its stroke before the crankpin has turned % rev-
olution. Inversely, on the return stroke, the piston lags hehind
the cross-head, and, when it reaches the mid-position of the
stroke, the crankpin has turned farther than % revolution. The
reasons for these variations in the relative movement of the
crank and piston are as follows: When the cross-head and at-
tached piston reaches the center of the forward stroke, the crank-
pin has not turned % revolution, owing to the angularity of the
connecting-rod. When the crankpin has moved 90 degrees, or
*4 revolution, the cross-head and piston have passed the central
position. On the return stroke, the crankpin reaches its mid-
position before the cross-head and piston. The result of this
variation between the movements of the crankpin and piston is
that, when a valve has an equal amount of lap on both sides, it
will admit and cut off steam at equal crank angles, but the posi-
tions of the piston for the forward and return strokes will not
be alike. The cut-off will occur too late on the forward stroke
and too early on the return stroke, steam being admitted for a
longer time to the head end of the cylinder than to the crank end.
Equalizing Cut-off by Changing Outside Lap: One way of over-
coming this difficulty and equalizing the cut-off is to give the
valve more outside lap on the side adjacent to the head end of
the cylinder, in order to hasten its action, and reduce the lap on
the other side to allow the piston to travel farther before the
steam is cut off. Inasmuch as the piston travels ahead of the
crank when moving toward the crank end of the cylinder, it
naturally follows that, if the valve is given more lap on the head
end, the steam will be cut off earlier. It must be remembered,
however, that equalizing the cut-off by varying the lap of the
valve causes an unequal amount of lead or initial port opening
at the ends of the stroke, because adding to the lap at the head
end must, of necessity, delay admission, whereas the reverse
effect is obtained at the crank end.
Inequality of lead is usually considered by engineers a more
serious disadvantage than inequality in the points of cut-off, and,
therefore, slide valves are usually designed with an equal amount
of outside lap on each side. When setting a valve of this kind, a
compromise is sometimes made by lengthening the valve-rod
enough to reduce the lead at the head end, thus partially equal-
izing the point of cut-off. As will be apparent, if the valve, in-
stead of traveling centrally over the ports, is moved somewhat
toward the head end, thus reducing the lead, the steam will be
cut off earlier, overcoming, in part, the irregularity due to the
connecting-rod. This adjustment affects the point of release, but
tends to equalize the compression,
Setting the Slide Valve for .Equal Cut-off: In case it is desired
to set a slide valve in such a way that the cut-off will occur at
equal points in the travel of the piston, this may be done by the
following method: Begin by turning the engine until the cross-
head has moved, say, from the head end to the point where it is
desired to have the steam cut off. Then loosen the eccentric and
turn it about the shaft until the valve closes the port leading, to
the head end of the cylinder. After tightening the eccentric upon
the shaft, continue turning the engine until the cross-head has
passed the opposite dead-center position and traversed a distance
from the crank end equal to the distance at which the cut-off is
desired, which should correspond for the forward and return
strokes. Upon examining the position of the valve relative to
the steam port, it will be found that it is not at the point of cut-
off, owing to the irregularities inherent in a crank motion. In
order to adjust the valve for equalizing the cut-off, move it one-
half the distance necessary to cause cut-off, by changing the
length of the valve-rod or stem; then adjust it for the other half
of the required distance by changing the position of the eccentric
on the shaft. By changing both the valve rod and eccentric each
one-half the required amount, the cut-off at the head end will re-
main unchanged while the cut-off at the crank end will be made to
occur at the required point. After making these adjustments,
it is well to check the accuracy of the work by again placing the

engine at the point of cut-off for the head end of the cylinder.
Setting Valves on Reversible Engine; When an engine is
equipped with a reversing mechanism of the shifting-link type
illustrated by the diagrams, Fig. 1, the valve is set in practically
the same way as described in the foregoing, except that it must
be adjusted for the forward and backward motions, and, instead
of a single eccentric, there are two eccentrics which must be lo-
cated with reference to the crankpin. The procedure, in brief,
is as follows: The travel of the valve is first equalized with the

reversing link set for one direction of rotation, as illustrated at

A, and also for the reverse motion, or with the link raised, as
at B, the lengths of each eccentric rod / and 6 being varied as
may be required. When these adjustments have been made, and
the valve travels an equal distance each way from its central
^

position for both forward and backward motions, the eccentrics

are set to give the required amount of lead or initial port open-
ing. The procedure is the same as described for a non-reversing
engine, except that care should be taken to have the link in the
forward position when adjusting the forward eccentric, and in
the backward position when adjusting the eccentric for that di-
 1351 -V
rection of rotation. The eccentric which is controlling the move-
ment of the valve leads the crankpin, if the motion is direct (as
illustrated in Fig. 1), whereas the eccentric follows the crankpin
if the motion is indirect.
Use of Indicator for Valve Setting: The action of an engine
valve and its control of the admission and release of steam to and
from the cylinder may be shown graphically by means of the
steam engine indicator. To one accustomed to reading indicator
diagrams, any errors in the design or adjustment of the valve
are apparent. In fact, the indicator is frequently used in con-
nection with the valve-setting operation, in, order to secure an
accurate adjustment and good control or distribution of the
steam. The indicator not only shows defects in the valve ad-
justments, but indicates leaky pistons or valves and other defects.
What would be considered a good indicator card depends some-
what upon the type of engine, its speed, and the design of the
valve and valve-operating mechanism. The card shown at A,
Fig. 3, is a theoretical form and might be considered ideal for
one type of non-condensing engine. The admission of steam
begins at a and usually just before the piston reaches the end
of its stroke, provided the valve is given lead or initial port open-
ing. This is what causes the sudden rise of the line from a to b,
the rise indicating an increase in steam pressure. The admission
of steam continues from b to c, and then the steam is cut off by
the valve, as indicated by the gradual down-slope of the line,
which shows the reduction of -pressure due to the steam expan-
sion in a space which increases in volume, owing to the movement
of the piston. At point d, the exhaust valve opens so that there
is a rapid fall of pressure represented by the curve de. During
the return stroke, the steam is forced out of the cylinder through
the exhaust port and under a slight back pressure, as shown by
the line ef, which is a little above the atmospheric line. At point
/, the exhaust port is closed by the valve, and compression begins,
thus causing the pressure to rise as shown by the curve fa. Steam
is then admitted to the cylinder and the cycle repeated.

In actual practice, the indicator is connected by pipes with each

end of the cylinder, so that diagrams showing the action of the
steam in both ends are drawn upon the same card, the diagram
for the opposite end occupying the position indicated by the
dotted lines. The different parts of the indicator diagram are
ordinarily given the following names: be is the steam line; cd,
the expansion line; de, the release; ef, the back-pressure line;
fa, the compression; ab, the admission. By applying an indi-
cator to a steam engine, when taking diagrams, the effect of -the
valve action on the control of the steam is apparent to one ac-
customed to reading these diagrams. For instance, the diagram
V-1352

Fig. 3. Indicator Cards showing Defects In Valve Adjustment,

and Other Causes of Incorrect Diagrams

shows whether the points of admission, cut-off, and release of the

steam occur at the proper time, and also whether or not the com-
pression is excessive. Defects may he due to incorrect adjust-
ment or setting of the valves or to the use of a valve which is
not properly proportioned.
Indicator Diagram Showing Late Admission: Diagram B,
Fig. 3, shows the effect of admitting steam too late or after the
piston has passed the dead-center position. This is indicated by
the fact that the admission line (corresponding to line ab, dia-
gram A) curves forward instead of being approximately square
with the atmospheric line. The remedy is to change the position
of the eccentric with relation to the crankpin, so that the valve
will open the port just before the piston reaches the end of its
stroke or before it passes the dead-center position. When a valve
isimproperly adjusted, as shown by this diagram, it also affects
the timing of other events in the cycle of movements of the valve.
 1353 -V
For instance, in this case the admission of steam occurs too late;
consequently, the opening of the exhaust port or the point of
release is also too late, as shown by the backward slope of the
release curve corresponding to de t diagram A; moreover, the
closing of the exhaust port or the point of compression is also
too late; thus there is too little compression.
Diagram Showing Early Admission: Diagram C, Fig. 3, shows
that the steam was admitted to the cylinder too early in the
stroke, the result being that the admission line (corresponding
to line db, diagram A) , instead of being nearly square with the
atmospheric line, inclines backward, thus showing that the port
was opened considerably before the piston reached the end of its
stroke. With an ordinary slide valve, all of the other events are
also effected, the cut-off, release, and compression being too early.
The remedy in this case is to change the position of the eccentric.
For the same type of engine, the eccentric would be moved in a
direction opposite to that required for correcting the error shown
by diagram B. In the case of diagram B, if the engine were
equipped with an outside-admission slide valve and a direct mo-
tion, the eccentric would be moved farther away from the crank-
pin, whereas, in the case of diagram C, it would be moved toward
the crankpin.
Cut-off Too Late: Diagram D shows that the steam was cut off
too late, this being indicated by the length of the horizontal
steam line at the top of the diagram. The result is that the steam
is not expanded sufficiently, and the terminal pressure at the end
of the stroke is entirely too high, so that considerable steam is
wasted. A diagram of this kind indicates that the valve does
not have sufficient outside lap. In fact, if it were made without
any outside lap, steam would be admitted for the full length of
the stroke, and the card would be nearly rectangular in form.
Cut-off Too Early: The other extreme is shown by diagram E,
since in this case the cut-off occurred too early in the stroke. The
result was that the steam expanded down to zero and then the
continued movement of the piston caused the formation of a
partial vacuum, as indicated by the loop which extends below the
atmospheric line. The compression also occurs too early and ia
excessive, as shown by the curve corresponding to fa, diagram A.
The remedy in this case is to reduce the amount of outside lap
on the valve, thus causing the cut-off to occur later. Incidentally,
when computing the mean effective pressure of a diagram of this
kind, for obtaining the horsepower of the engine, the area of the
loop below the atmospheric line should be subtracted from the
area of the remaining part of the card.
Excessive Compression: Excessive compression is shown by
the diagram F. As will be seen, the compression begins some
V-1354
time before the piston approaches the end of its stroke, with
the result that the pressure of the entrapped steam exceeds the
boiler pressure, as indicated by the loop formed at the top of the
diagram. A card of this kind indicates that the inside lap is
excessive and should be decreased so that the exhaust port will
The required amount of compression de-
not be closed too soon.
pends somewhat upon the type and the speed of the engine, slow-
running engines requiring less compression than those of high
speed. In any case, however, the "compression should not -exceed
the initial or boiler pressure. It is considered good practice to
compress to about nine-tenths the initial pressure for high-speed
engines, one-half the initial pressure for engines of medium
speed, and from two-tenths to three-tenths the initial pressure
for slow speed engines. Whenever a loop is formed in this way,
its area should be deducted from the area of the diagram, when

computing the mean effective pressure. By comparing diagrams

A and F, it will be apparent that there is considerable loss in
power in the case of diagram F, owing to the excessive compres-
sion, which illustrates the importance of using valves that are
properly designed and set.
Diagram G indicates excessive back pressure, since the back-
pressure line (corresponding to ef, diagram A) is too far above
the atmospheric line. This indicates that the Exhaust port is too
small, the result being that considerable pressure is required to
force the steam out of the cylinder. When the exhaust steam is
used for heating purposes, and has to be pushed through coils
of pipe, this might cause a similar diagram.
Wavy Lines in Diagrams: In actual practice, the diagrams are
frequently not as well defined as those illustrated, especially when
taken from engines operating at high speeds. In fact, they are
liable to be deranged considerably, owing to oscillations of the
piston and pencil motion. An example illustrating the effect of
these oscillations is shown at H (see full line) . With a diagram
of this kind, it is difficult to determine the exact point of cut-off,
although the error in the mean effective pressure obtained from
such a diagram is not very great, and, in many cases, is neg-
ligible. The fact remains, however, that more accurate diagrams
are obtained from comparatively slow-speed engines. Another
source of error which sometimes causes incorrect diagrams, or
those which do not pfoperly show the action of the steam, is that
due to friction of the indicator piston. Even though an indicator
is in perfect condition when applied to the engine, it may become
fouled by burnt oil or other material from the steam cylinder,
which causes excessive friction. When the piston of the indicator
does not move freely, a diagram is often obtained which resem-
bles the one shown, in part, by the dotted lines at H. The line is
 1355 ^V
formed of rather straight sections and its direction changes
rather abruptly, giving the card a zigzag formation.

Valve Travel, The total distance that air engine slide valve
moves in one direction is known as the travel. This term is used
instead of the word "stroke," which might properly be applied.
Vanadium. Vanadium is a light colored metal having a spe-
cific gravity of from 5.5 to 6. It melts at a temperature of 1750
degrees C. (3182 degrees P.). Its specific heat at 32 degrees F.
is 0.124, and its electrical conductivity (silver =
100) is about
5 ; it is non-magnetic. Vanadium is widely distributed in small
quantities in a large number of minerals. It is an important
alloying metal used in steel, vanadium steel having a number of
valuable properties which are not obtainable in ordinary steel.
On account of its great affinity for carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen
at high temperatures, absolutely pure vanadium has not been
produced. Owing to its very high melting point, vanadium, even
if it were commercially possible to produce it reasonably pure in
the metallic state, would present much difficulty in alloying with
other metals. Fortunately, it is relatively easy to reduce vana-
dium as an alloy of iron, ferro-vanadium, containing approxi-
mately one part of vanadium and two parts of iron. This alloy
has a melting point of about 1300 degrees C. (about 2370 de-
grees F.), which is low enough for it to melt and alloy readily
when added to molten steel.
Vanadium Steel. The two most marked characteristics of
vanadium steel are its high tensile strength and its high elastic
limit. Another equally important characteristic is its great
resistance to shocks; vanadium steel is essentially a non-fatigue
metal, and, therefore, does not become crystallized and break un-
der repeated shocks like other steels. Tests of the various spring
steels show that, when subjected to successive shocks for a con-
siderable length of time, a crucible carbon-steel spring was broken
by 125,000 alternations of the testing machine, while a chrome-
vanadium steel spring withstood 5,000,000 alternations, remain-
ing unbroken. Another characteristic of vanadium steel is its
great ductility. Highly-tempered vanadium-steel springs may
be bent sharply, in the cold state, to an angle of 90 degrees or
more, and even straightened again, cold, without a sign of frac-
ture; vanadium-steel shafts and axles may be twisted around
several complete turns, in the cold state, without fracture. This
property, combined with its great tensile strength, makes vana*
dium steel highly desirable for this class of work, as well as for
gears which are subjected to heavy strains or shocks upon the
teeth. Chromium gives to steel a brittle hardness^ which makes it
very difficult to forge, machine, or work, but vanadium, when added
V-1356
to chrome-steel, reduces this brittle hardness to such an extent
that it can be machined as readily as an 0.40-per-cent carbon
steel, and it forges much more easily. Vanadium steels ordinarily
contain from 0.16 to 0.25 per cent of vanadium. Steels of this
composition are especially adapted for springs, car axles, gears
subjected to severe service, and for all parts which must with-
stand constant vibration and varying stresses. Vanadium steels
containing chromium are used for many automobile parts, par-
ticularly springs, axles, driving-shafts, and gears.

Van Dyke Prints. Van Dyke negatives have white lines on a

brown background. If positive prints are desired or those hav-
ing either blue or brown lines on a white background, they may
be obtained in the following manner: The original tracing is
firstused to make a negative copy on thin Van Dyke paper. This
copy will have white transparent lines on an opaque dark brown
background. Another print is then made by using this Van Dyke
negative in place of the original tracing, and the result is a pos-
itive print which will have dark lines on a white background If
Van Dyke paper is used, or blue lines on a white background if
regular blueprint paper is used. Similar results may also be
obtained on cloth by using either prepared blueprint cloth or
Van Dyke cloth, depending upon whether a blue-line or a brown-
line print is desired.

Vanishing Thread Joint. A vanishing thread joint is a pipe

joint made up of a tapered pipe thread screwed into a tapered
thread socket. The taper of the thread is the standard pipe
thread taper of %
inch to the foot; the only difference lies in the
fact that the thread is carried to the vanishing point instead of
ending abruptly.

Vanite. An alloy that has the following composition: tung-

sten, 18per cent; chromium, 4 per cent; vanadium, 2 per cent
and carbon and iron, the balance. It is a high-speed steel that
is used for cutters and tools used in conjunction with such
machine tools as lathes, milling machines, and planers.
Van Stone or Rolled Joint. The original form of Van Stone
pipe joint, commonly referred to as a rolled joint, due to the fact
that the pipe is rolled or lapped over the face of the flange is
shown by the illustration. In making this and similar types of
rolled joints, the flange is bored out to fit loosely over the end of
the pipe, after which the pipe end is heated in a furnace to the
required temperature and then lapped or rolled over the face of
the flange as shown at B, the outer edge of the lapped portion
of the pipe coming just inside of the bolt holes, as indicated. The
rolling or lapping of the pipe is accomplished by the use of ape-
 1357-V
cialmachinery designed especially for that purpose. In making
Van Stone jointsin a steam main, any good metallic or vulcanized
gasket suitable for high-pressure super-heated steam may be
used. Flanges for rolled joints can
be made of cast iron, cast steel, or
forged steel, depending upon the
service for which the joints are in-
tended. Boiled or forged steel flanges
should always be given the prefer-
ence over cast iron or cast steel for
high-pressure service and where
superheated steam is to be conveyed.
Cast-iron flanges should not be used
on steam mains for pressures above
150 pounds per square inch.

Vapor. This term is often used to

designate gases in general, but it is
usually restricted to the gaseous
form of substances that at ordinary
Van Stone or Rolled
Joint temperatures and pressures are
liquids or solids.

Vapor Lamps. Vapor lamps consist of glass bulbs or tubes

containing electrodes and some kind of rarefied gas that becomes
luminous when an electric current is passed through it. The gas
may be neon, argon, kripton, xenon, or mercury vapor. The elec-
trodes between which the current passes may be of different
types and varying distances apart.
The emission of light in this type of lamp is theoretically ex-
plained by the ionization of the gas and the emission of electrons
from the cathode. In the cold cathode type of lamp, the ionized
gas particles bombard the cathode and electrons are consequently
driven off or released. In the hot cathode type of lamp, the elec-
tronic emission is obtained thermally, that '.s by heating of the
cathode.
High-voltage, cold cathode lamps or luminous tubes are filled
with one of the rare gases just mentioned and operate in a volt-
age range extending from 2000 to 15,000 volts. This necessitates
the use of a specially designed luminous tube transformer to
these
supply current at the required high potential. Usually,
which are
lamps are in the form of tubes of varying lengths
into letters or decorative designs for advertising and dis-
shaped
play purposes. When the gas used is neon,
a characteristic red-
dish-orange light is produced; argon gives
a purple light;
a pale violet; xenon, a green; and mercury vapor, a
kripton,
light.
V-1358
Low-voltage, cold cathode lamps often called Neon-glow lamps,
are commonly provided with a screw-type base and a built-in re-
sistance which restricts power consumption to from about % watt
to 2 watts on 110-125-volt circuits. The electrodes are placed
quite close together and the light emitted is of low intensity so
that these lamps are suitable mostly for signalling or indicating
purposes.
One type of hot cathode lamp utilizes a pool of mercury as a
cathode. Passage of current through the lamp produces a hot
spot on the surface of the mercury which results in the emission
of electrons and the production of mercury vapor. The lamps are
usually in the form of tubes varying in length from 25 to
50 inches, with other sizes used for special purposes.
A high-intensity mercury vapor lamp has recently been intro-
duced to operate on regular lighting circuits. Because its start-
ing voltage is around 240 volts and operating voltage is about
155 volts, a high-reactance transformer is also needed. Mercury
vapor lamps are used as a source of ultra-violet light. The tubes
are of fused silica or quartz-glass.
One type of mercury lamp used as an ultra-violet light source
utilizes both a mercury arc and a tungsten filament. The latter,
when heated, starts the mercury arc and also supplies a small
percentage of the light.
Hot cathode neon lamps operate satisfactorily at 125 volts
direct current. They are used for advertising and display
purposes, as well as for signal beacons.
Sodium vapor lamps utilize a sodium vapor to produce a bright
yellow light which has been found especially suitable for street
and highway high-intensity illumination.
Variance. This term is used to represent the amount by which
the readings of an instrument vary in successive indications of
the same value of the measured quantity. Variance may be due
to lost motion; friction; changes due to the stress-strain relation
of springs in the force-resisting or restoring element of the in-
strument; changes in the distribution of parts, as variation of
position of pins in bearings or variation in the amount of liquid
retained on wetted surfaces. There may also be other factors of
less importance.

Varnish, Pattern. See Pattern Varnish or Shellac.

Vector. A vector is a straight line of given length and speci-
fied direction. It is used in the graphical analysis and solution
of problems in mechanics, where it represents such elements as
force, velocity and acceleration, and in alternating-current elec-
tricity where it represents such elements as current, voltage, and
reactance. All of these elements have direction as well as
 1359 -V
tude, whereas sealer elements such as weight and temperature
have magnitude only.
Vedro. This is a Russian measure of capacity for liquids,
equal to 12.3 liters or 3.25 U. S. gallons.

Vegetable Glue. See Glues for Wood.

Velocity. Velocity is distance divided by time or the rate of

motion in a unit of time, and is expressed in feet per second,
feet per minute, miles per hour, etc. Velocity may be either
absolute or relative. The absolute velocity of a body is its velocity
with reference to some object which is considered completely at
rest; the relative velocity of a body is its rate of motion with
relation to another moving body. In considering velocity in
practical mechanics, the earth is assumed to be stationary, so
that the velocity of any moving body, as, for example, a moving
train with relation to the rails, would be absolute velocity, but
a person walking through the train would move with a certain
relative velocity with reference to the train, and with an ab-
solute velocity with reference to the road-bed over which the train
moves. If two trains moving in opposite directions, at a speed
of 50 miles an hour, pass each other, they have each an absolute
velocity of 50 miles an hour, but the relative velocity between the
two trains would be 100 miles. If two trains, one of which has
a speed of 40 miles an hour and the other 25 miles an hour, move
in the same direction, and the faster train passes the slower,
the relative velocity of the faster train with reference to the
slower will be 15 miles an hour, but its absolute velocity is
40 miles an hour.

Velocity Head. Velocity head is the force, causing a gas or

a pipe line, which is due to the velocity of
liquid to flow through
the gas or liquid.

Velocity Pressure. Velocity pressure is the working pressure

which actually forces a fluid or gas through a discharge opening
and which equals the difference between the dynamic pressure
and the static pressure.
- Veneer Glue. See Glues for Wood.

Ventirig. In core making, venting is the process of providing

outl>ei for gases so that they may escape when thfe molten metal
is poured into the mold.

Venturi Meter. The Venturi meter is as instrument for ac-

curately measuring the discharge of fluid or gas through a pipe.
of
T&e meter consists essentially of an hour-glass shaped section
rounded internal walls into which two gages
^ipe with smoothly
are -fitted, one at a point where the pipe is of full diameter, and
V-1360
one at the smallest section or opening in the pipe. By means of
the pressure recorded by the two gages and the use of certain
constants that have been calculated for various diameters of pipe,
the discharge through the pipe may be determined.

Vernier Calipers and Scale. The vernier is an auxiliary

scale that is attached to vernier calipers, height gages, depth
gages, protractors, etc., for obtaining the fractional parts of the
subdivisions of the true scale of the instrument. The true or
regular scale of the vernier calipers shown in the illustration, is
graduated in tenths of an inch, each tenth being divided into

Vernier Calipers

four parts, or in fortieths of an inch, but by means of the vernier

scale V, which is attached to the sliding jaw of the instrument,
measurements within one-thousandth of an inch can be taken.
The vernier, in this case, makes it possible to divide each fortieth
of an inch on the true scale into twenty-five parts. To measure
the diameter D with a vernier calipers, note the distance that the
vernier scale zero has moved to the right of the zero mark on the
true scale. This dimension may be read directly in thousandths
of an inch, by calling each tenth on the true scale that has been
passed by the vernier zero, one hundred thousandths, and each
fortieth, twenty-five thousandths, and adding to this number as
many thousandths as are indicated by the vernier. The vernier
zero in the illustration is slightly beyond the five-tenths division;
hence, the reading is 0.500 plus the number of thousandths indi-
 1361 -V
eated by that line on the vernier that exactly coincides with one
on the scale, which, in this case, is line 15, making the reading
0.500 + 0.015 = 0.515 inch.
Rule for Reading a Vernier: The following is a general rule
for taking readings with a vernier: Note the number of inches
and whole divisions of an inch that the vernier zero has moved
along the true scale, and then add to this number as many thou-
sandths, or hundredths, or whatever fractional part of an inch
the vernier reads to, as there are spaces between the vernier
zero and that line on it which coincides with one on the true scale.
In order to determine the fractional part of an inch that may
be obtained by any vernier, multiply the denominator of the finest
subdivision of an inch given on the true scale by the total num-
ber of divisions on the vernier. For example, if the true scale is
divided into fortieths and the vernier into twenty-five parts, the
vernier will read to thousandths (40 X 25 = 1000)
fc If there
.

are sixteen divisions to the inch on the true scale and a total of
eight on the vernier, the latter will enable readings within one
hundred twenty-eighths of an inch to be taken (16 X 8 =
128).
It will be seen then that each subdivision on the true scale can
be divided into as many parts as there are divisions on the
vernier.

Vernier of Retrograde Form. This is a vernier in which

the divisions of the vernier are larger than the divisions on the
main scale. Generally the divisions on verniers are made smaller
than the divisions on the main scale, and such verniers are known
as direct.

Vertex. The vertex of an angle is the point where the two

lines forming the angle intersect
Vertex Distance. The vertex distance of a bevel gear is the
distance measured in the direction of the axis of the gear from
the corner of a tooth at the large end to the vertex of the pitch
cone. The vertex distance at the small end of the tooth is
similarly measured.

Vertical Boring Mill. This type of machine tool, commonly

referred to as a "boring mill," has a circular table which revolves
about a vertical axis so that the work-holding surface is hori-
zontal, thus making it comparatively easy to place in position
and hold large circular castings such as flywheels, cast-iron
covers, etc. See Boring Machines.

Vertical Turret Lathe. Machines called vertical turret lathes

are similar in their general design to a vertical boring mill which
has a side head. See Turret Lathe Classification.
V-1362
Vibracork. Material consisting of pure cork compressed into
boards of uniform quality and density. Does not deteriorate or
disintegrate, but will last in its original state for years.Acork
foundation for machinery makes it possible to operate equipment
quietly, with freedom from vibration. Used as a foundation
for motors, engines, fans, blowers, pumps, printing presses,
generators, elevator machinery, etc.

Vibration Due to Steam Flow. Steam, when flowing at a

high velocity in the supply pipe of a high-speed engine, is alter-
nately stopped and raised again to this high velocity several
hundred times a minute, due to the rapid opening and closing of
the steam valves. This intermittent motion of the steam has, in
many cases, been found to cause vibration in the engine supply
pipe, which, in turn, is transmitted to other branches of the sys-
tem. Vibration is also caused by suddenly changing the direction
of steam flow through tees and short-turn elbows, and sometimes
by the unequal velocity of steam flowing through different
branches of the piping system. Vibration, combined with ex-
pansion and contraction strains, is a constant source of danger.
The pipe should be so proportioned that the velocity will be as
nearly uniform as possible in all branches of the system. The
engines should be equipped with steam separators of large
capacity to cushion the steam, at or near the engine throttle, and
the piping should be firmly anchored at suitable points.

Vibration of Structures. Every part of a building beams,

floors, columns, walls, etc., in fact the entire building itself
has its natural pitch of periodic number of vibrations which will
result when it is set in motion. If the cause be intermittent
and of a different frequency from that of the structural features,
the result will be a breaking up of vibrations except for those
intervals when they get in step; then the natural action will be
exaggerated. The effect of coincidence between the natural fre-
quency of vibration of a floor and that of its source of disturbance
is well illustrated by the following experience in connection with
the testing of a small engine upon a floor of timber construction.
At a speed of about 550 revolutions per minute, the intensity of
the floor vibration was so great that it was impossible to work in
the drafting-room located on the same floor more than 100 feet
away; but this effect entirely disappeared when the speed was
either increased or decreased about 50 revolutions per minute.
When the disturbing force is represented by a number of ma-
chines running at practically the same speed, the effect may be
like that of dancers upon a floor or soldiers marching over a
bridge, and prove destructive to the entire structure if the step
time coincides with its natural pitch.
 1363 -V
Vibroscope. The vibroscope is an apparatus which is used in
examining rapidly moving mechanisms in order to study the
causes of extreme vibration or other operating characteristics.
By means of this apparatus a rapidly moving part appears sta-
tionary. A special electric lamp is used to illuminate the moving
part by a series of instantaneous flashes so timed that the part
under observation is only lighted when in whatever position it
is to be observed.. This succession of flashes occurs so rapidly
that the part appears to be stationary, or if desired, it can ap-
parently be given a slow motion similar to the effect of a slow-
motion moving picture, merely by a gradual change between the
flashes and the position of the moving member. The vibroscope
consists (1) of a lamp containing a special Neon tube of un-
usual design, which gives illumination far in excess of that ordi-
narily obtained in any vacuum tube, and at the same time, the
flash is of extreme rapidity; (2) means of supplying the elec-
trical discharges to illuminate the tube; and (3) a device for
regulating the flashes of light in synchronism with the move-
ments of the mechanism under examination. The light flashes
are controlled by an interrupter which is preferably driven direct
from a shaft of the mechanism under observation so that the
flashes will automatically be in synchronism with the movement
cf the mechanism. Rotary movement is imparted to the shaft
of the interrupter through the medium of a steel or rubber driv-
ing point which is held in contact with the center on the shaft
of the machine under examination; or if necessary, a direct
coupling may be arranged. A cam is mounted on the interrupter
shaft which operates a contacting device. The interrupter is
in two parts, one of which may be rotated concentrically upon
the other. On turning the outer part, the timing of the flashes
is changed thus if it is turned in the direction of rotation, the
;

part under observation will appear to move forward slowly when

viewed under the rays of the light, and similarly, if it is turned
in the opposite direction, the part will appear to rotate backward.
Hence, the mechanism may apparently be brought to rest in any
desired position in the cycle of operations.
When the switch is turned on, the light will flash at the same
speed as the rotation of the shaft, and any of the moving parts
of the machine that are brought under the rays of the light will
immediately appear stationary, irrespective of whether the mo-
tion is rotary, reciprocating, or vibratory, provided the drive for
the interrupter is rotary. Above a certain speed the flashes are
woven into a continuous picture. Direct rays of daylight from
a window may cause some inconvenience, but screening of these
rays is all that is necessary. If a vibrating part is illuminated
with flashes at twice its frequency, the interrupter can be set
V-1364
so that the vibrating part is viewed simultaneously in its two
extreme positions ; in other words, a double image of the vibrat-
ing; part will be shown and from the distance apart of the two
images, a measurement of amplitude can be obtained. See also
Stroboseope.
Vickers Hardness Test. The Vickers test is similar in prin-
ciple to the Brinell test although the penetrator is of different
form and much lighter loads are applied in making a test. The
standard Vickers penetrator is a square-based diamond pyramid
having an included point angle of 136 degrees. The numerical
value of the hardness number equals the applied load in kilo-
grams divided by the area of the pyramidal impression. A
smooth, firmly supported, flat surface is required. The load,
which usually is applied for 30 seconds, may either be 5, 10, 20,
30, 50 or 120 kilograms. The 50-kilogram load is usually em-
ployed. The hardness number is based upon the diagonal length
of the square impression. The Vickers test, which is considered
very accurate, may, with proper load regulation, be applied to
thin sheets as well as to larger sections. The Vickers hardness
numbers may be identical with, or approximately the same, as
Brinell numbers within a certain range.

Vinco. A high-speed steel used to make milling cutters, ream-

ers, and twist drills. It has the following composition: carbon,
0.65 to 0.73; manganese, 0.15 to 0.30; chromium, 3.75 to 4.25;
vanadium, 0.85 to 1.0; tungsten, 17.5 to 18.5 per cent; iron, the
balance.

Virgin Copper. Virgin copper, also known as malleable cop-

per and native copper, is found in nature practically pure, hav-
ing all the properties of refined metal. Virgin copper is mined
extensively in the Lake Superior district in the United States,
and also in Bolivia.

Viscosity of Oils. The viscosity of an oil or other fluid is the

resistance offered to a flowing movement, or the fluidity, which
is affected by the internal friction and resulting variations in
the relative motion of the particles. As the temperature of oils
rises, the viscosity decreases. Animal or vegetable oils maintain
their viscosity better than those of mineral origin. Mineral oils
lose their viscosity with a rise of temperature more rapidly than
the fixed oils (animal or vegetable), but the difference between
the two classes of oils, in this respect, diminishes considerably
for temperatures above 100 degrees F. (or 150 degrees F., in
the case of cylinder oils). Experiments were undertaken to de-
termine the relation between viscosity and the wearing and
lubricating qualities of oils, and the effect of the constituents of
various oils on the lubricating qualities. Twenty-two oils were
 1365 -V
tested, the method of procedure being to find the chemical com-
position and viscosity of each oil, and then use it as a lubricant
in a journal bearing. The experiments showed that the viscosity
of an oil affects its lubricating quality in the following way: If
the oil is adapted to the load put upon it, then the lower the
viscosity, the better the oil as a lubricant. The oil, however, must
conform, to the character of the load, a light oil being unsuitable
for heavy loads.

Vises. Clamping and holding tools called vises are used in

machine shops for many purposes, both in connection with bench
work and for holding parts on machine tools. For general hand-
fitting operations, vises are usually fastened to a bench. Machine
vises are used in milling, drilling, and other machining opera-
tions instead of special jigs or fixtures, and on some classes of
work requiring high production and rapid operation, special jaws
of suitable form are used. Vises of this kind are operated either
by a screw or by means of a link and cam controlled by a hand
lever, the latter type having largely superseded the former in
interchangeable manufacture.
The
illustration shows an example of a quick-acting vise, which
is so constructed as to permit a rapid adjustment of the jaws.
In this design, a nut A, formed of two pieces (as shown in de-
tail in the upper part of the illustration), is either opened or
closed on the operating screw by means of the operating bar B
which has two tapered tongues as indicated. By means of these
tongues, one-half of the nut is moved upward and the other down-
ward, for releasing it from the screw. The operating bar is pro-
vided with a ratchet catch C, which when engaged, holds the nut
open during adjustment. The illustration shows the nut disen-

Qulck-acting Machinist's Vise

V-1366
gaged from the operating screw, and the jaw, therefore, free to
be moved as desired. Another type of quick-acting vise employs
a lever at the side of the vise, which, by means of a toggle action,
engages a dog with a ratchet which is cut on the side of the
slide, and thus moves and locks the jaws. Approximate adjust-
ments are quickly made by hand in this type of vise by sliding
the jaw in or out.

Vise, Universal Ball. See Universal Ball Vise.

Vitrified Grinding Wheels. The term "vitrified" denotes the

type of bond used in these grinding wheels. The bond in a
grinding wheel is the material which holds the abrasive grains
together and supports them while they cut. With a given type
of bond, it is the amount of bond that determines the "hardness"
or "softness" of wheels. The abrasive itself is extremely hard
in all wheels, and the terms "hard" and "soft" refer to the
strength of bonding; the greater the percentage of bond with
respect to the abrasive, the heavier the coating of bond around
the abrasive grains and the stronger the bond posts, the "harder"
the wheel.
Most wheels are made with a vitrified bond composed of clays
and feldspar selected for their fusibility. During the "burn-
ing" process in grinding wheel manufacture, the clays are fused
into a molten glass condition. Upon cooling, a span or post of
this glass connects each abrasive grain to its neighbors to make
a rigid, strong, grinding wheel. These wheels are porous, free
cutting and unaffected by water, acids, oils, heat, or cold. Vitri-
fied wheels are extensively used for cylindrical grinding, surface
grinding, internal grinding and cutter grinding.

Volt. The unit of electromotive force is known as the volt.

The volt is the electromotive force which, when steadily applied
to a conductor the resistance of which is one ohm, will produce
a current of one ampere.
The electromotive force between the poles or electrodes of the
known as the Weston normal cell, at a temperature of
voltaic cell
20 degrees C. (68 degrees F.), which is 1.0183 volts, is used as
a reference standard.

Voltages Commonly Used. For lighting circuits and most

power circuits either 115 or 230 volts is the customary nominal
voltage at the point of utilization. Some industrial plants also
make use of 440-volt circuits for heavy motor drives.
For primary distribution of power to the points of utilization
the following nominal voltages are customary: 2,300; 4,000;
4,600; 6,600; 11,000 and 13,200.
 1367 -V
For transmission of power in large quantity, voltages extend
over a much wider range and depend in part upon the length of
the transmission line. By stepping-up the transmission voltages,
the currents are proportionately reduced and consequently the
losses due to heating of the conductors, which vary with the
square of the current, are kept at a minimum. The customary
transmission voltages are: 13,200; 22,000; 33,000; 44,000;
66,000; 110,000; 132,000; 154,000 and 220,000.

Voltameter. The voltameter is a device in which the passage

of a current through a solution produces a chemical effect which
can be measured. In one of its oldest forms, the current decom-
poses water into its gaseous elements, oxygen and hydrogen, the
volume of which, collected in a test tube, forms a measure of the
average current strength. In the silver voltameter used in labo-
ratories as a primary standard for determining current strength,
the weight of silver deposited from a solution in a given time
is a measure of the average current value during that time.

Volta's Pile. This term refers to a means for transforming

chemical energy into electrical energy employed by Volta in 1799,
consisting of alternate disks of zinc and copper with a wet cloth
or blotting paper between the disks.

Voltmeter. A voltmeter is an electrical measuring instru-

ment which is used to indicate the potential difference between
any two points in an electrical circuit to which its terminals are
connected.
Voltmeters are made in types which are basically similar to
ammeters, i.e., electrodynamic types which have a fixed coil and
a moving coil; permanent magnet types which have a fixed per-
manent magnet and a moving coil moving-iron types which have
;

a fixed coil and a moving iron or vane; thermocouple types with

junctions of different metals which supply a direct current when
heated that causes the pointer to indicate the voltage being meas-
ured; electrostatic types which have fixed and moving metal
parts that are attracted or repelled by electric charges; and
electronic types utilizing electronic tubes. The electronic type is
of comparatively recent development.
In many cases, built-in or external resistances are connected
in series with voltmeters to act as multipliers and so extend
their measuring range. Thus, a voltmeter having a scale that
reads to 10 volts may be made to read directly to 100 volts
or some other multiple of the original scale values by using the
for
proper multiplier. Sometimes separate scales are provided
each range.

Volumetric Efficiency. In air compression, volumetric effi-

V-T36B
ciency is the ratio of the actual volume of air taken into the
cylinder per stroke to the piston displacement. It varies with the
amount of clearance and with the
terminal pressure. It is usually
90 per cent or over in the best
classes of machines, but may fall
considerably below this figure in
the case of small machines of poor
design and construction,
V-Thread. The top and bottom
or root of this thread form are
theoretically sharp (see illustra-
Sharp V-thread tion), but in actual practice the
thread is made with a slight fiat,
owing to the difficulty of producing a perfectly sharp edge and
because of the tendency of such an edge to wear away or become
battered. This flat is usually equal to about one twenty-fifth of
the pitch, although there is no generally recognized standard.
Owing to the difficulties connected with the V-thread, the tap
manufacturers agreed in 1909 to discontinue the making of sharp
V-thread taps, except when ordered. One advantage of the
V-thread is that the same cutting tool may be used for all pitches,
whereas, with the American Standard form, the width of the
point or the flat varies according to the pitch. The V-thread is
regarded as a good form where a steam-tight joint is necessary,
and many of the taps used on locomotive work have this form of
thread. The sides of the thread form an angle of 60 degrees with
each other. If p = pitch of thread, and d t= depth of thread,
then:
A^ p X cos 30 deg.= =
0.866 p
0.866

The American Standard screw thread is used largely in prefer-

ence to the sharp V-thread because it has several advantages.
See American Standard Screw Thread System.
Vulcanite Grinding Wheels. The abrasive grains of vul-
canite wheels are bonded by the use of vulcanized rubber. Very
hard, tough, thin wheels can be produced. Vulcanite wheels, like,
those of the elastic type, are made very thin, and are adapted for
cutting off tubing, wire, thin sheets of steel or brass, and parts
that are difficult to hold for cutting by regular tools. For gen-
eral cutting-off operations, when the speed of cutting is not an
important factor, vulcanite wheels are generally considered
preferable to elastic wheels. The latter, however, can be used to
better advantage for cutting off tempered tool steel or alloy steel
tools, when cool cutting is important, because of their softer
grades and cooler grinding action.
 w
Wage System. The two fundamental methods of paying for
labor are (1) to pay the workman according to the amount of
time expended or (2) to pay him according to the amount of
work that is done. All wage systems are either based directly
upon the time or amount of production, or they are combina-
tions of these two methods of payment. A wage system cannot
properly be classified as good unless it is fair both to employer
and employe, and this principle has been generally recognized
in the development of modern wage systems.

Wage System* Bonus. The straight bonus system is so ar-

ranged that the workman receives, in addition to a daily wage,
a fixed amount or bonus whenever a piece of work is finished
within or less than the predetermined time. Assume that the
bonus is equal to one-third the amount that would be earned in
the time set for a given job; then, if the work is supposed to
require nine hours and it is done in eight hours, a bonus equal
to three hours' pay would be given in addition to the regular
rate of pay for the actual working time. For instance, if in this
case the hourly rate were sixty cents, the total amount received
for the job would equal 4.80 + 1.80 = $6.60. If the work had
been done in seven hours, the total amount received would equal
4.20 + 1.80= $6.00. The time saved by doing the work more
quickly is, of course, expended on the next successive job. In
case the time set for the job is exceeded, the wage is then based
on the regular hourly rate.
Gantt Task and Bonus System: The task and bonus system,
introduced by H. L. Gantt, differs from the "straight bonus sys-
tem" previously referred to, in that the workman is paid the
full time allowed for the task and, in addition, a bonus equivalent
to one-third of the full task time, when work is finished within
the task time. For instance, if the task time is three hours; the
regular fixed rate, sixty cents per hour, and the work is done in
two hours, the workman would receive pay for the full time, 01
$1.80 plus a bonus of sixty cents. Thus, in effect, the hourly rate
was increased by doing the work in less than the task time, in
addition to the bonus received. With the straight bonus system,
he would receive sixty cents an hour for the two hours of actual
working time (instead of pay for the entire task time) , and, in
addition, a bonus. If the bonus were one-third of the task time
as before, the total amount received would equal 1.20 + 0.60, as

1S69
W-1370
compared with $2.40 under the Gantt system. If the work is not
done within the task time under the latter system, the regular
hourly or daily rate is received.

Wage System, Differential. The differential wage system

introduced by P. W. Taylor depends upon accurate knowledge as
to the length of time required to do the work as determined by
the methods connected with scientific management, and it is in-
tended to reward liberally the efficient workmen and to penalize
the inefficient who produce less than the required standard, by
giving them a relatively low rate of pay. The important feature
of the original plan is that there are two piece rates, one being
high and the other low. The higher rate applies when the work
is completed within the prescribed time as determined by careful
observation and study, and the lower rate, when this standard
time is exceeded. In order to illustrate .this system by a prac-
tical example, suppose a careful investigation has shown that ten
pieces per day represents a maximum number. Then, under the
differential system, if a workman finishes ten pieces per day and
all of these pieces pass inspection, he receives, say, 70 cents
per
piece. On the other hand, if the work is done too slowly and
only eight pieces are finished, then, instead of receiving 70 cents
per piece, the rate might be reduced to say 60 cents per piece.
If ten pieces are finished but some of them are imperfect and will
not pass inspection, the low rate of 60 cents may be still further
reduced, the amount of reduction depending upon the circum-
stances. As the preceding example shows, whenever a workman is
producing the maximum amount, either for a day or a shorter
period, he receives the higher wage rate, but when there is a
reduction, either in quantity or quality, the pay is also reduced
and becomes less than the ordinary rate of pay.

Wage System, Emerson. The plan of the Emerson system

of payment is to reward workmen who are reasonably efficient
and to increase the reward or bonus as the efficiency of the work-
man increases. Each workman is assured of a fixed daily wage
and has an opportunity of earning, in addition, a bonus depend-
ing upon the relation of the actual production to a certain fixed
standard. The standard performance is first established by mak-
ing a careful study of all the controlling factors. The workman
receives a bonus equivalent to 20 per cent of the daily wage for
work done in the standard time, as his efficiency would then be
100 per cent. If the standard time were eighteen hours and the
job were completed in twenty hours, the workman's efficiency, as
compared with the standard time, would be 90 per cent and he
would receive a bonus of 10 per cent; if his efficiency were 80 per
cent, the bonus would be reduced to 3% per cent, and, if the
 1371 -W
efficiency were less than 67 per cent, there would be no bonus at
all. In case the work were done in less than the standard time,
so that the efficiency were over 100 per cent, the bonus would in-
crease until it was equivalent to 60 per cent of the wages for an
efficiency of 140 per cent. In the practical application of this
system, the bonus is calculated with reference to the work for
some period such as a week or a month, and not for individual
jobs. For instance, if the standard time on all the different jobs
handled by one man in a month amounted to 200 hours, and the
actual working time had been 220 hours, the efficiency of that

particular workman would equal

200
= 90 per cent, approxi-

mately; therefore, the bonus in this case would be about 10 per

cent. If the hourly rate were 70 cents, the amount based upon
the regular daily wage would equal 220 X -70 = $154 and as
the bonus is 10 per cent of the wages, the total amount would
equal 154 +15.40 t= $169.40.
This progressive method of rewarding efficiency is intended to
hold the interest of the workmen even when conditions for any
one job are not favorable, and it is apparent that the work can-
not be done within the standard time. The standards are estab-
lished after careful and reliable investigations have been made,
including time and motion studies. It may be necessary, of
course, to change the time standards to suit new conditions or
equipment, and the rate of pay may also be varied, but the time
standards should not be changed to aff ect wages as they are based
strictly upon analytical observations of the different factors
affecting production.
A modification of the Emerson system advocated by C. E.
Knoeppel differs from the former in the amount of bonus paid
at the beginning and also when an efficiency of 100 per cent has
been obtained. The workmen who are over 67 per cent efficient
receive a larger bonus than with the Emerson system, especially
during the earlier stages from 67 to 85 per cent, and when an
efficiency of 100 per cent is exceeded, there is an additional bonus
of 5 per cent added to the 20 per cent received under the Emer-
son system. This 5-per-cent premium is an extra incentive for
increasing production beyond the 100 per cent mark. With either
of these systems, the cost per piece decreases slightly instead of
remaining constant as with the straight piece-work plan.

Wage System for Foremen. There are several plans by

which foremen and inspectors are paid in proportion to output.
One plan pays them in proportion to the average piece work earn-
ings of workmen in the department. Another plan, where group
bonus is used, either considers the foreman and inspector as
members of the group, or pays them the same percentage of in-
W-1372
crease which the group earns. A third plan pays the foreman
in proportion to the savings which he succeeds in making in total
departmental expense, as measured by actual expense compared
with standard budget

Wage System, Parkhurst. The Parkhurst differential bonus

system differs from the Emerson wage system in that it is sepa-
rate from and independent of the time rate. The day wage is
guaranteed, and is at least as high as the prevailing wage in the
district. The day rate and the bonus are paid in separate enve-
lopes, so that they may be kept distinct in the workman's mind.
The time wage is paid after the usual manner of individual agree-
ment of collective bargaining, having no relation directly to the
individual task. The bonus, on the other hand, is a thing apart,
and is based on individual effort. This system is, however, com-
paratively complex and not readily understood by many workmen.

Wage System, Piece- Work. The piece-work system is based

upon the plan of paying a workman who is producing or operat-
ing on duplicate parts a certain amount for each piece of work
that is completed. One of the fundamental difficulties with the
piece-work system, as ordinarily installed, is in determining how
much should be paid for a given operation, or the price per piece.
Frequently the rate is entirely too high at first, in which case the
usual result has been that the workman made an exceptionally
high wage until the rate was reduced. On the contrary, a rate
that is too low makes it impossible for the employe to obtain a
fair daily wage until an adjustment is made and this change may
be delayed unnecessarily. If the rate enables the workman to
earn much more than he could under the day-wage system, he
may be allowed to do this temporarily or until the management
has definitely determined just how much it is possible for the
workman to produce; the rate per piece is then reduced and, in
many cases, the final result is that the workman receives about
as much as he did formerly, but produces a great deal more;
consequently, this system of payment is not regarded favorably
by most workmen and its theoretical advantages as a means of
decreasing production cost are modified in practice because many
employes, instead of attempting to earn as much as possible, aim
to produce just enough to earn a moderate wage in order to avoid
a reduction of the piece rate. The cost of inspection is relatively
high with the piece-work system, as a general rule, because there
is a tendency to slight the work, although trouble from this
source may not be very serious when each man is held sMctiy
accountable for rejected parts.

Wage System, Premium. The Towne-Halsey premium sys-

tem was developed to overcome the inherent defects of the piec4*
 1373 -W
rate system. It is based on the principle that a fixed
dailj wage
should be guaranteed and that extra payment should be given
whenever a job is finished in less than the alloted or standard
time, the amount of extra pay depending upon the amount of time
saved. The plan is to record the quickest time in which the work
has been done and use it as a standard. If the workman suc-
ceeds in finishing the operation in less than the standard time, he
receives, in addition to a regular hourly rate, a premium, which
may vary from one-quarter to one-half the difference between the
wages actually earned and what would have been earned if the
full time had been utilized. In order to illustrate the practical
working of this system, suppose an employe receives seventy
cents an hour, so that his minimum guaranteed wage for an
eight-hour day is $5.60, and that a premium equal to 40 per cent
of the difference between the actual working time and the stand-
ard time is given. If the standard time for a given job is six
hours and the work is finished in five hours, the employe re-
ceives the regular hourly rate of seventy cents for five hours, or
$3.50 and, in addition, 40 per cent of the difference between the
pay for six hours' work and the pay for the actual working time.
The difference in this case is seventy cents (4.20 =
3.50 $0.70)
and 40 per cent of seventy equals 28 cents, which represents the
premium. Therefore, the total wage for five hours equals
3.50 -f- 0.28 = $3.78, and during the three remaining hours of
the day the employe will earn, in addition, at least $2.10, and
more than this, if he continues to do the work in less than the
standard time.
One fundamental defect of this or any other wage system re-
quiring a standard time for a task, when applied in conjunction
with an ordinary system of management, is in determining with
accuracy just what the standard time should be. In one case,
the time may be based on favorable conditions or upon the per-
formance of a fast workman, whereas another standard time for
a task may be determined under less favorable conditions, unless
time studies are resorted to and the standard time is based on a
careful analysis of the conditions. The premium plan, however,
is simple and easily introduced and it has proved successful in
many shops and factories.
Rowan Modification of Premium Plan: With the premium sys-
tem previously described, it is to the advantage of the workman
to have the standard time as large as possible, because the greater
the difference between the standard time and the actual working
time, the larger the premium; therefore,
the tendency of the
workmen, when new work is being started, is to make the stand-
ard time larger than is necessary. One method of meeting this
of the amount
difficulty is to make the premium a percentage
W-1374 j

received for the actual working time at the regular day rate.
This percentage, according to the Rowan plan, is equivalent to
the percentage of standard time that is saved.
If Aequals the amount received for the actual working time
at the regular day rate; B equals the standard time in which the
work should be completed; and C equals the amount of time
saved, the premium may be computed as follows: Premium
C
=s A X -5*' For example, if the standard time is eight hours
z>

and the actual working time, six hours at sixty cents an hour,

X "o =
2
the premium equals 360 90 cents, and the total amount

received in this case equals 360 90 + =

$4.50.
With this system, the premium decreased as the amount of
is
time saved increases, and if it were possible to save 90 per cent
of the standard time, the premium would be the same as when
the saving was only equal to 10 per cent of the standard time.
The workman, however, receives a more liberal premium for a
moderate change in time than he does with the Towne-Halsey
premium system. The Eowan plan has been objected to on the
ground that it discourages honest efforts on the part of work-
men to obtain maximum production, but, on the other hand,
there is less tendency on the part of the employer to reduce the
basic rate. This system has been applied quite extensively in
England.
Wage System, "Standard Hour/' The "standard hour"
method of wage payment is a modification of the piece rate sys-
tem to avoid the difficulty which arises when a general change in
wage level must be made. Under this plan the standard time is
set as if for a piece rate. The standard amount of work per hour
is established, and for each multiple of this quantity which a
workman produces he receives his hourly rate. Usually a chart
is furnished showing the standard amount per hour, and some-
times a supplemental table showing the equivalent rate per piece
at current hourly rates. This method is a piece rate with the
rate left off. It is as simple as the piece rate, but readily per-
mits changes in wage level, and also allows varying rates for
different operators.When a standard hour's work is carefully
can be guaranteed permanently, because it is independent
set, it
of wage changes.

Wahl Factor. This factor, which is used in helical or coiled

spring design, was developed by A. M. Wahl, of the Westing-
house Electric & Mfg. Co., to compensate for errors found to
result when stresses in helical springs were computed by formu-
las which take into account torsional stress only. Stresses in
 1375 -W
a loaded helical spring, due to transverse shear, tension and
compression are of considerable magnitude, particularly when
the ratio of mean diameter of spring to diameter of wire is
low. This ratio is known as the "spring index." If D t=
mean diameter of spring and d =
wire diameter, then the spring
"index" C t= D -+- d .

WaM factor
As the index ratio decreases, the Wahl factor increases. This
factor, when applied as a multiplier to the computed torsional
stress in a helical spring, gives a close approximation to the
total stresses developed.

Walschaerts Valve Motion. The Walschaerts valve-gear

which has been used extensively on locomotives, is so arranged
that the valve receives its motion from two sources: the cross-
head and an eccentric crank. The Walschaerts gear is more ac-
cessible than the Stephenson motion in that it is applied out-
side the wheels and requires only a single eccentric return crank
and a connection to the cross-head for its operation. The ec-
centric crank may be a comparatively small pin attached to the
main crank, and it does the work of the two heavy eccentrics
of the ordinary gear. This arrangement leaves the entire
space between the frames clear for bracing the frames. The
Walschaerts gear as compared with the Stephenson, causes a
more uniform steam distribution with a lower percentage of
preadmission, to which is added a constant and moderate
amount of lead for early cut-off, although on the resultant
economy in steam consumption there can be but slight
difference when both the gears are in a first-class condition.

Warding File. A
warding file has parallel faces, that is, it
is thickness throughout, but it is tapered in width
of the same
for the whole length from the heel to the point. It is generally
double-cut, and is used by jewelers and machinists, but espe-
cially by locksmiths for filing "ward notches" in keys; hence,
the name "warding file."

Washburn &
Moen Wire Cage. This gage is the same as
the American Steel & Wire Go's, gage, which, as approved by
the Bureau of Standards at Washington, is now known as the
"Steel Wire Gage." This gage applies to all steel wire, and is
used to a greater extent than any other steel wire gage in the
United States. See Gages for Wire.
Washed Metal. Washed metal is a name used for cast iron
from which most of the silicon and phosphorus have been re-
moved, by the so-called "Bell-Krupp process," without removing
W-1376
much of the carbon contents, so that the metal still contains
enough carbon (over 2.2 per cent) to be classified as cast iron.
Washers. Plain washers are made in standard sizes to suit
standard screw threads, bolts and screws. The manufacturers'
regular standard, adopted in 1935, is for bolt sizes ranging
from %
inch up to 3 inches, inclusive. There is also an S.A.E.
standard for plain washers. This includes screw and bolt sizes
ranging from No. 2 machine screw up to, and including,
1%-inch bolts. These washers are somewhat smaller than the
manufacturers' standard and also have smaller inside diameters
or clearance spaces between the bolt and washer.

Wash-Out Taps. Mud and wash-out taps are used in boiler

work, the same as taper boiler taps and patch-bolt taps. These
taps are sometimes referred to as arch pipe taps, but the former
name is the more common. They taper 1% inch per foot, and
have 12 threads per inch. The thread form may be either the
American Standard or the sharp V-thread.

Waste, Cotton and Woolen. There are two principal classes

of waste. One class is intended for cleaning purposes and the
other for holding a lubricant, as, for example, when used as a
packing material in the journal boxes of railway cars or in
some classes of motor bearings. The various grades of cotton
waste comprise the first class, whereas wool waste comprises
the second class, which is used as packing. The cotton or clean-
ing waste is by far the most important commercially, if judged
by the extent of its use. The most essential property of waste
is its oil-absorbing quality. Poor waste is soon saturated with
oil or grease, whereas good waste will absorb much more oil
and may be turned inside out and used again. A high absorbing
quality is desirable both in cotton and wool waste, but the im-
portance of this feature might easily be overlooked, especially
in the case of waste used exclusively for cleaning purposes. To
obtain a waste capable of absorbing the greatest amount of oil
and grease, it is essential, in the first place, to use the right
kinds of raw materials and, second, to mix these materials
thoroughly and separate the various threads or fibers completely,
so that there are no solid masses or large thick strands extending
through the waste.

Waste Reclamation. Oily and otherwise soiled waste and

wiping cloth can be reclaimed at about 20 per cent of the cost
of new material. The process of reclamation can be repeated
from ten to thirty times, according to the quality of the ma-
terial.The apparatus consists mainly of a washing machine
used in connection with drying machines.
 1377 -W
Water Brakes. All the power absorbed by a Prony brake
>s transformed into heat. When the amount of power to be
absorbed is considerable, the Prony brake becomes unsatisfac-
tory for the reason that it is impossible to conduct away such
enormous quantities of heat, and avoid temperatures which will
be destructive both to the pulley and to the brake. In such
cases, some form of water brake is generally used. A water
brake usually consists of a casting in which disks or paddles
revolve and churn or agitate a quantity of water contained in the
casing. The disks or paddles are fixed to a shaft which delivers
the power to be obsorbed. The casing is free to turn about the
shaft, and an arm extending from it rests upon some form of
weighing apparatus. Vanes or ribs fixed to the casing prevent
the water from turning with the rotating member. The same
formulas are employed in computing the power absorbed as are
used in the case of a Prony brake. In order to carry off the heat
generated, the water which is agitated is allowed to flow away
and is continuously replenished by fresh cold water. The power
absorbed by a brake of this type depends upon the speed and
upon the quantity of water which is agitated. Other things being
equal, the power absorbed is approximately proportional to the
cube of the number of revolutions per minute.

Water Flow Measurement See Weir; also Flow Meter.

Water Gas. See Gas Production.

Water Glass. This is a glass tube used on steam boilers to

indicate the height of the water level in the boiler. It consists
mainly of a vertical tube mounted into pipes connecting with the
boiler. The lowest visible part of the glass tube should be not
less than 2 inches above the lowest permissible water level.
The term "water glass" is also applied to a substance consist-
ing of silicates of sodium or potassium, or of both. The com-
mercial form of water glass may be a stony powder, a glassy
mass, or, when dissolved in water, a viscous syrupy liquid.

Water-Packing. The pistons of dashpots and similar ap-

paratus that must move with a minimum of frictional resistance
are commonly grooved to reduce the slip or leakage of liquid past
the piston, but packing rings are not used. The grooves are gen-
erally called "water-packing" grooves, because water, oil, or other
liquid under pressure accumulates in the grooves, and by capillary
attraction and the setting up of eddy-currents, materially re-
duces the leakage of the fluid without causing much frictional
resistance.

Water Pressure. The greatest density of water occurs at

39.1 degrees P., when it weighs 62.425 pounds per cubic foot
W-1378
The pressure in pounds per square inch of water that is not mov-
ing, against the sides of any pipe, vessel, container, or dam is
due solely to the "head" or vertical height of the surface of the
water above the point at which the pressure is considered. The
pressure is equal to 0.433 pound per square inch for every foot
of the head, at a temperature of 62 degrees F. For higher tem-
peratures, the pressure decreases slightly. The pressure per
square inch is equal in all directions, downward, upward, and
sideways. Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, in the
ratio of two volumes of the former to one of the latter. It boils
under atmospheric pressure at 212 degrees F. and freezes at 32
degrees F. Water can be compressed only in a very slight de-
gree, the compressibility being so slight that, even at the depth
of a mile, a cubic foot of water weighs only about one-half pound
more than at the surface. The quantity of water that will be
discharged through a pipe in a given time depends primarily
upon the head and also upon the diameter of the pipe, the char-
acter of the interior surface, and the number and shape of the
bends.

Waterproof Compositions. The asphalt fluid coatings for

reservoir walls, concrete foundations, brick, wood, etc., are often
of use to engineers. Asphalt only partly dissolves in petroleum
naphtha, but when heated in a steam-jacketed kettle and not
thinned out too much, a mixture of the two may be obtained in
which the part of the ashpalt not dissolved is held in suspension.
Asphalt is entirely soluble in benzol or toluol, which are about
the cheapest solvents for all the constituents of asphalt. Tar and
pitch are sometimes used in this connection, but tar contains
water, light oils, and free carbon, and does not wear as well as
good refined asphalt; pitch also contains free carbon, which is
sometimes objectionable when it is thinned out with a solvent.
Asphalt alone is somewhat pervious to water, but it can be im-
proved in this respect by adding about one-fourth its weight of
paraffin; it is also well to add a little boiled linseed oil. For
thicker compositions, where body is required, asbestos, stone
powder, cement, etc., may be added as fillers. Lutes of linseed
oil thickened with clay, asbestos, red or white lead, etc., are

waterproof if made thick enough. These are much used for steam
joints. Flaxseed meal made into a paste with water is often
serviceable, the oil contained serving as a binder as the water
evaporates.

Water Rate of Engine. The water rate of a reciprocating

engine is commonly expressed in pounds per indicated horsepower
(I.H.P.) per hour. In making a test for the water rate or steam
consumption, the indicated horsepower of the engine is computed
 1379 -W
from an indicator diagram, and this, divided by the total weight
of dry steam supplied to the engine per hour, will give the water
rate. Sometimes the water rate per delivered or brake horse-
power (B.H.P.) is given. In this case, the horsepower delivered
by the engine is measured directly by an absorption dynamometer,
and this is used in place of the indicated horsepower in the
computation.
Water Slugs. Probably the greatest source of danger to en-
gines of the reciprocating type is the liability of water collecting
in the steam piping system, which, unless properly drained off or
stopped by a steam separator, eventually finds its way to the en-
gine cylinders in "doses" or "slugs." This is particularly danger-
ous in high-speed engines, owing to the small clearance space at
each end of the cylinder. Water has a great capacity for absorb-
ing heat, and, when allowed to accumulate in the steam mains,
it has a tendency to condense part of the steam flowing through
them.
Water Softening Plants. A water softening plant includes
the necessary equipment for automatically removing the impuri-
ties from feed water before it enters the boilers. Water soften-
ing is carried on under two different conditions, known as the
cold and hot processes, the former being again divided into the
continuous and intermittent methods, which differ only in the
way of handling the water and chemicals. The cold process is
generally used where there is no convenient means at hand for
heating the water, and where large quantities are to be treated.
The chemicals most frequently employed are lime and soda solu-
tions. These are added to the water automatically in the right
proportions as determined by chemical analysis. The precipitates
thus formed are allowed to settle in large tanks, or are removed
by filtration, depending upon the form of apparatus used. In the
hot process, soda ash is used the same as in the cold process, but
the carbonates are precipitated by heating the water by means of
exhaust steam.
Water Turbine. See Turbine, Water.
Water-Wheel. A water-wheel or water turbine may be de-
fined asa prime mover in which the potential energy of a body
of water is transformed into mechanical work. The water-wheel,
also commonly called a hydraulic motor, is in its various forms
one of the simplest devices for the development of power.
Hydraulic motors may be divided into three general classes:
1. Current and gravity wheels, which utilize either the impact
of the current or the weight of the water. 2. Impulse wheels and
turbines, which utilize the kinetic energy of a jet at high velocity.
These are commonly employed in connection with a limited vol-
W-1380
ume of water under a high head, which, in practice, may vary
from 300 to 3000 feet. 3. Reaction turbines, which utilize both
the kinetic energy and the pressure of the water. These are
employed for conditions the reverse of those under (2), that is,
with a large volume of water under a low or medium head. In
practice, reaction turbines are used under heads ranging from
5 to 500 feet.
The available power in any given case depends upon the fall
or head, and the volume of water. In case the water is utilized
for the development of power by passing through a water motor,
the efficiency of the latter must be taken into consideration. For
approximate work, it is customary to assume an efficiency of
80 per cent, in which case the delivered or brake horsepower may
be determined as follows: Multiply the cubic feet of water
passing through the motor per minute, by the head, in feet; then
divide the product by 661.
Watt. The watt is the unit of electrical power and, as recom-
mended by the International Electrical Congress, in Chicago,
1893, and approved by Act of Congress, July 12, 1894, is equiva-
lent to the work done at the rate of one joule per second. One
watt also equals 0.001341 horsepower, or 0.7376 foot-pound per
second. It is also equal to the energy required to move one
ampere per second through a resistance of one ohm. One kilowatt
is equal to one thousand watts.

Watt-Hour Meters. The motor-type of watt-hour meter is

now in practically universal use wherever it is desired to
ascertain the consumption or output of electrical energy. The
dynamometer and the induction principles have been utilized in
the motor elements, with eddy-current damping as the controlling
force. Motor-type watt-hour meters may be classified as of the
commutator, mercury^notor, and induction types. The latter
can be used only on alternating-current circuits.
In each case, the speed of the rotating member or disk is pro-
portional to the average power of the load to which the watt-
meter is connected. Hence, the total number of revolutions made
by the disk is proportional to the total energy which passes
through the motor and, when used with properly calibrated scale,
will cumulatively indicate the amount of electrical energy utilized
in kilowatt hours.
The commutator and the mercury types, although capable of
operation on alternating current, are now regarded as essen-
tially direct-current meters, in view of the advantages of the
induction principle for alternating-current work. The several
types of watt-hour meters are built in various designs, according
to their intended use, such as house, switchboard, and portable
forms.
 1381 -W
Wattmeter. A wattmeter is an electrical instrument used for
measuring electric power. The power measured is the average
value of the product of the instantaneous voltage by instantane-
ous current. Although the induction, electrostatic, hot-wire,
thermo-couple and moving-iron types of instruments can all be
adapted for use as wattmeters, the electrodynainic type is the
most widely used.
In this type there are two coils : one of coarse wire, called the
current coil, in series with the load which carries the current
and one of relatively fine wire, called the potential coil, in series
with a resistor which is connected in parallel with the load. The
rotation of one coil usually the potential coil with respect to
the other, which remains fixed, indicates the average power.
Wattmeters are used both as switchboard instruments and as
portable instruments.

Wave-Form. The shape of the curve obtained when the in-

stantaneous values of an alternating current are plotted against
time in rectangular coordinates is the wave-form. The distance
along the time axis corresponding to one complete cycle of values
is taken as 2 v radians, or 360 degrees. Two alternating quanti-
ties are said to have the same wave-form when their ordinates
of corresponding phase bear a constant ratio to each other. The
wave-shape, as thus understood, is therefore independent of the
frequency of the current and of the scale to which the curve is
plotted.

Wax Impressions. A wax impression of a sample or model is

sometimes required in the manufacture of articles made from
metal. To make a wax impression, proceed as follows: Oil the
surface, of which the impression is to be made, very slightly with
a few drops of oil applied to a little waste. Then take common
beeswax and melt it slowly, without boiling. Mix it with one or
two tablespoonfuls of lampblack to half a tumbler of beeswax,
and stir the mixture. In order to make the wax impression show
up clearly, take a fine hair brush and brush a small amount
of powdered graphite or rouge over the object of which the
impression is to be made.

Wearing Value. This is a term used in the appraisal of

manufacturing plants to designate the replacement value of
equipment less the scrap value.

Wedge Coupling. A
wedge coupling, also known as a vise
coupling, issimilar to a compression coupling which grips the
two shafts to be connected with the wedging action. There are
numerous designs, all of which employ some kind of a conical
split inner sleeve.
W-1382
Weighing Scale, Sensibility. See Scale Sensibility.
Weight and Mass. See Mass and Weight.
Weight, Effect of Altitude. See Gravity.
Weights and Measures Bureau. The present fundamental
standards of length and mass for practically the whole civilized
world result from the establishment of the International Bureau
of Weights and Measures. In response to an invitation of the
French government, fifteen countries, including the United
States, sent representatives to a conference held in Paris in 1870,
to consider the advisability of constructingnew metric standards.
This conference was of short duration, on account of the war
then raging between France and Germany. Asecond conference
was held two years later, at which thirty countries were repre-
sented, the United States again being among this number. At
this conference, it was decided that new meters and new kilo-
grams should be constructed to conform with the original stand-
ards of the archives, and a permanent committee was appointed
to carry out this decision. The preparation of the new standards
had advanced so far by 1875 thaft the permanent committee, ap-
pointed by the conference of 1872, requested the French govern-
ment to call a diplomatic conference at Paris to consider whether
the means and appliances for the final verification of the new
meters and kilograms should be provided, with a view to per-
manence, or whether the work should be regarded as a temporary
operation. In compliance with this request, a conference was
held in March, 1875, at which nineteen countries were repre-
sented, the United States being one of this number. In 1875,
seventeen of the nineteen countries represented signed a conven-
tion which provided for the establishment and maintenance of a
permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures to be
situated near Paris and to be under the control of an interna-
tional committee elected by the conference, the committee to
consist of fourteen members, all belonging to different countries.
In addition to the primary work of verifying the new metric
standards, the bureau was charged with certain duties, the fol-
lowing being the most important: The custody and preservation,
when completed, of the international prototypes and auxiliary
instruments; the future periodic comparison of the several na-
tional standards with the international prototypes; the com-
parison of metric standards with standards of other countries.
In accordance with the terms of the convention, the French
government set aside a plot of ground just outside of Paris, and
upon this ground, which was declared neutral territory, the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures was established.

Weights, Atomic. See Atomic Weights.

 1383 -W
Walr. A weir is used in conjunction with a table of con-
stants to determine the flow of a stream in cubic feet per minute.
For definite calculations of power, the flow of the stream must
be measured under standard conditions. In the case of streams
up to 40 or 50 feet in width, having a maximum depth of from
3 to 4 feet, the weir method is the simplest and the most ac-
curate. The general construction of a weir dam is shown by the
diagram. It should be so proportioned that all of the water will
flow through a space the length A of which shall not exceed two-
thirds of the width of the stream. The bottom and ends of the
open section, or notch, as it is called, should be beveled on the
down-stream side, in order to give a sharp edge for the water to
flow over. Ashort distance up-stream, a stake should be driven
into the earth with its top on a level with the bottom of the notch.
This may be done either by the use of a spirit level or by adjust-

FRONT Et-EVATICN

Construction of Weir

ing the stake when the water has

risen to a height just sufficient
to spill over the weir. When the water has
reached its full height,
the depth above the bottom edge of the weir can be accurately
measured by placing the end of a scale upon the top of the stake.
If the measurement were made at the weir, it would be impossible
to obtain an accurate result, owing to the curvature of the water
as it flows over the edge.
In constructing a weir,it is important that the banks of the
stream be parallel for a distance of several feet above it, and also
that there be sufficient space at the sides, and sufficient depth
below the notch, in order that the water may approach it quietly
and without eddies.
The following figures represent, in the order given, the depth
of water flowing over the weir and the equivalent number of
cubic feet of water per minute passing over the weir for each
inch of its length A. Depth 1 inch, cubic feet per minute, 0.40;
2 inches, 1.14 cubic feet; 3 inches, 2.08 cubic feet; 4 inches,
3.20 cubic feet; 5 inches, 4.48 cubic feet; 6 inches, 5.89 cubic
feet; 7 inches, 7.41 cubic feet; 8 inches, 9.07 cubic feet; 9 inches,
10.81 cubic feet; 10 inches, 12.66 cubic feet; 11 inches, 14.62 cubic
W-1384
feet; 12 inches, 16.65 cubic feet; 13 inches, 18.77 cubic feet;
14 inches, 20.99 cubic feet; 15 inches, 23.27 cubic feet; 16 inches,
25.62 cubic feet; 17 inches, 28.08 cubic feet; 18 inches, 30.59
cubic feet; 19 inches, 33.16 cubic feet; 20 inches, 35.84 cubic
feet; 21 inches, 38.55 cubic feet; 22 inches, 41.32 cubic feet;
23 inches, 44.19 cubic feet; 24 inches, 47.09 cubic feet.
Example: Assume that a weir has a notch 120 inches in length
and the depth of the water passing through it as measured at the
stake is 20 inches. What is the flow of the stream? According to
the figures previously given, a depth of 20 inches is equivalent
to a flow of 35.84 cubic feet per inch of weir width. Since the
total width equals 120 inches, the total flow equals 35.84 X 12
= 4300 cubic feet per minute.

Welding. In ordinary forge welding two pieces of wrought

iron or mild steel are heated until they become soft and plastic
and will unite when one is pressed or hammered against the
other. The quality of the weld depends largely
upon the welding
heat. be welded are not hot enough, they will not
If the ends to
stick together; inversely, if the work remains in the fire too
long, it becomes overheated and burned, which greatly injures
the metal. Iron which has been overheated has a rough, spongy
appearance and is brittle. The danger of burning is increased
when the air blast is too strong and the fire is oxidizing. It is
important to heat the work slowly to secure a uniform tempera-
ture throughout the ends to be welded. With rapid heating, the
outside may be raised to the welding temperature, while the
interior is much below it; consequently, the weld will be defective.
Fire for Welding: When heated iron comes into contact with
the air, it absorbs oxygen, thus forming a scale or oxide of iron
on the surface, which prevents the formation of a good weld. A
fire for heating parts to be welded should have a fairly thick bed
between the tuyere and the work, so that the oxygen in the air
blast will be consumed before it reaches the parts being heated.
When there is only a thin bed of fuel beneath the work, or if too
strong a blast is used, the excess of oxygen will pass through
and oxidize the iron. The hotter the iron, the greater the forma-
tion of scale. The surface being heated can be given an addi-
tional protection of covering it with some substance flux that
will exclude the air. Ordinarily, the air blast for a forge fire
should have a pressure varying from 3 to 5 ounces per square inch.
Classes of Welds: Welds are classified according to the way
in which the ends are formed prior to making the weld. The
different welds ordinarily made in hand-forging practice are the
scarf-weld, butt-weld, lap-weld, cleft- or split-weld, and jumo-
weld. (See illustration.) It will be seen that the surfaces, in
most instances, are rounded or crowned. This is done so that,
 1385 -W
when the heated ends are brought together, they will unite first
in the center. Any slag or dirt which may have adhered to the
heated surfaces will then be forced out as the welding proceeds
from the center outward. When making a lap-weld, the hammer-
ing should begin at the center in order to work out all the slag,
as the faces in this case are not rounded. See also Atomic Hydro-
gen Welding; Autogenous Welding; Aluminum Welding; Electric
Welding; Oxy-acetylene Welding; Thermit Welding.
Welding Fluxes. In heating steel for welding, the tendency
is for the surfaces to become oxidized, or covered with oxide of
iron which forms a scale when the hot iron comes into contact
with the air. If this scale is not removed, it will cause a defec-
tive weld. Wrought iron can be heated to a high enough tem-
perature to melt this oxide so that the latter is forced out from
between the surfaces by the hammer blows; but when welding

Different Kinds of Welds

machine steel, and especially tool steel, a temperature high

enough to melt the oxide would burn the steel, and it is necessary
to use a flux. This is a substance, such as sand or borax, having
a melting temperature below the welding temperature of the
work, and it is sprinkled upon the heated ends when they have
reached about a yellow heat. The flux serves two purposes: It
melts and covers the heated surfaces, thus protecting them from
oxidation, and, when molten, aids in dissolving any oxide that
may have formed, the oxide melting at a lower temperature
when combined with the flux. Wrought iron can be welded in a
dean, well-kept fire without using a flux of any kind, except when
the material is very thin. The fluxes commonly used are fine,
clean sand and borax. When borax is used, it will give better
results if burned. This can be done by heating it in a crucible
until reduced to the liquid state. It should then be poured onto
a flat surface to form a sheet; when cold, it can easily be broken
be used plain or it
up arid pulverized. The borax powder can
can be mixed with an equal quantity of fine clean sand and about
25 per cent of iron (not steel) filings. For tool steel, a flux made
of 1 part of sal-ammoniac and 12 parts of borax is recommended.
W-1386
Welding, Resistance Forge-. Eesistance forge-welding is a
process of heavy-duty electric resistance welding which enables
the spot-welding of structural steel and iron sections formerly
considered impossible to weld with conventional equipment. The
method consists of first applying pressure to the work, then in-
terrupted current, and finally superimposing a hammering action
on the electrode. Under high pressure and with sufficient heat,
the surfaces of the work are brought into intimate contact, so
that when additional impact pressure and intermittent heat are
applied, a forged weld of superior quality is obtained.
Weld Iron. According to the definitions adopted by the Brus-
sels Congress of the International Association for Testing Ma-
terials, held in 1906, the expression "weld iron" designates the
same kind and quality of iron as wrought iron, but the term is
considered obsolete and needless in engineering nomenclature.
Weldless Chain. This is a chain in which the links are not
welded, but simply bent in such a way that each link hooks firmly
into the preceding link.

Weld Steel. This is iron containing enough carbon to harden

if heated and suddenly cooled. The term "wrought steel" is also
used.

Wells Process. The Wells process is a method for producing

an oxide on iron or steel in order to protect it from the corrosive
effects of the atmosphere. The process is similar in principle
to the Bower-Barff process, except that the steam and producer
gas enter the retort at the same time instead of being applied
alternately. The result obtained by the Wells process is
practically the same as that obtained by the Bower-Barff method.

Weston Brake. This is a mechanical brake where the brak-

ing action is created by the friction between a number of flat
disks, and in which a spiral clutch or screw is used for auto-
matically creating the required pressure between the disks.
Weston Cell. The Weston cell is a primary cell known as a
standard cell, used to obtain a certain standard value of electro-
motive force under given conditions. There are actually two
types of Weston cells.
The Weston normal or saturated cadmium cell, as it is some-
times called, is made up with a saturated cadmium sulphate
solution, a positive electrode of cadmium amalgam and a negative
electrode of mercury. This is the standard cell used at the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards in Washington and in other national
agencies throughout the world as a primary standard of electro-
motive force. Its electromotive force is 1.0183 international
volts at 20 degrees C. This is reproducible from cell to cell and
 1387 -W
remains practically constant for years, if proper care is taken.
It has, however, an appreciable variation of electromotive force
with temperature.
The Weston secondary standard or unsaturated cadmium cett,
as it is sometimes called, is similar to the normal cell, except
that no excess crystals of cadmium sulphate are present in the
solution at ordinary temperatures as saturation is reached only
when its temperature is reduced to 4 degrees C. It is a portable
cell and finds wide use in engineering laboratories and industrial

plants. The electromotive force of this type of cell usually falls

between 1.0185 to 1.0195 international volts when new. It
changes very little with temperature but decreases with age
(about 25 to 50 microvolts per year) and use.
Weston Meter. A Weston meter is an ammeter used for
measuring direct current only, in which a stationary permanent
magnet acts upon a movable wire coil which is shunted by a low
resistance.

Wet-Air Compression. This refers to the method of air com-

pression in which a spray of water is injected into the cylinder
in order to reduce the heat during compression. This method has
long been abandoned.
Wet-Air Pump. An air pump used for condenser service
which handles both air and the water of condensation is known
as a wet-air pump. It is extensively used in connection with
steam engine condensers and other condensing apparatus.
Wet Cell. A wet cell is a primary cell in which the electrolyte
is in the form of a liquid.

Wet Steam. Wet steam is saturated steam which contains

more or less moisture in the form of spray. The percentage of
dry steam in steam containing moisture is called the quality of
the steam.

Wheatstone Bridge. The most generally used method for

the measurement of the ohmic resistance of conductors is by the
use of the Wheatstone bridge. In a simple form (see diagram)
it comprises two resistance coils the ratio of the resistances of
which is known, and a third, generally adjustable, resistance of
known value. These are connected in circuit with the unknown
resistance to be measured, a galvanometer, and a source of cur-
rent, as in the diagram. The adjustable resistance and
the
"bridge arms," if necessary, are adjusted until the galvanometer
indicates no flow of current. The value of the unknown resistance
is thus measured in terms of the known resistance and the known
ratio of the bridge arms. In the diagram, R 19 2 , R& and R4 are
R
resistances, B a source of electromotive force, and I i9 I2, I& and J4
W-1388

Wheatstone Bridge

currents through the resistances; G is a galvanometer. If the

relation of the various resistances is such that no current flows
through G, then I equals /2 and 78 equals 74 ; also IiRi equals
} ,

78.R8 and 72# 2 equals IJt^ there being no electromotive forces in

,

the triangles R^G and R^G. It follows, therefore, that

8 e -J 2
--, ana j

and hence, as

-, it follows that ^ 4.

If one of these resistances, R for instance, is unknown, it may

then be found through the equation :

Wheatstone bridges are made in many forms. The three known

resistances are made adjustable and are usually made of many
spools of special resistance wire. The resistances are usually
varied by short-circuiting a greater or smaller number of these
spools.

Wheel and Axle. One of the so-called "mechanical powers"

is known as the wheel and axle. It consists in its simplest form
 1389 -W
of a grooved wheel, into which fits a cord, rope, or chain, and to
which is rigidly attached a shaft or axle, from which a weight is
suspended by means of another rope or chain (see diagram),
When sufficient pull is applied at F to overcome the resistance
of the load attached at W , the weight will be raised. The principle

involved is one of lever arms; the lever arm of force F is so much

greater than that of weight Wthat the force F required to raise
the weight can be proportionately smaller.
Let R c= radius of wheel at periphery of which force F acts,
and r t= radius of drum or axle at periphery of which weight W
is applied. Then:
F W te= r R.
: :

F X R *= W X **

Wheel and Axle

Wheel Chuck. Name applied to a work-holding chuck for

machine tools,having a series of annular recesses or steps of
various diameters for holding work which must be located very
accurately with reference to its periphery. These chucks are
generally used in bench lathes for work of larger diameter than
could be held in a collet chuck.

Wheel-Turning Lathes, A "wheel lathe" is a special design

used for turning locomotive driving wheels and car wheels after
they have been pressed onto the axle. Lathes of this class are of
duplex form, there being two driving heads and two tool-rests, so
that both wheels may be turned simultaneously. One of the spin-
dle driving heads is adjustable along the bed to allow for the
variation in the length of axles having inside and outside journals.
The toolposts are mounted on compound slides, so that the tools
may be fed laterally or longitudinally. The large faceplates of
these lathes are usually equipped with special driving dogs of
W-1390
powerful design, so that deep cuts may be taken and coarse feeds
used. In some shops, wheels are turned by broad forming tools
which are fed straight in without any lateral feeding movement.
White Cast Iron. White cast iron is a cast iron in which the
carbon is present in the form of cementite or combined carbon,
cementite being a carbide of iron, the chemical formula of which
is Fe8 C. Carbon in chemical combination directly affects the
properties of cast iron. White cast iron is hard, strong, and
sound, but cannot be machined easily like gray cast iron.
White Copper. Same as Chinese copper. See Chinese Alloys.
White Lead. Basic carbonate white lead is made in several
ways. The old Dutch process consists in placing lead plates or
grids in clay pots with dilute acetic acid, stacking the pots up,
and covering with tanbark. Fermentation of the latter causes a
rise in temperature and the production of carbon dioxide, which
acts on the lead in the pots and gives a basic lead carbonate. At
the end of two months, the white lead is ground in water, and
dried, being ground later in oil. The "quick process" requires
but two weeks, and is carried out by the action of dilute acetic
acid and carbon dioxide on finely divided lead, in revolving cylin-
ders. In the "mild process" no acid is used, the finely divided
lead being agitated in water through which air is blown. Hydrate
of lead is formed, and later carbonated. A very good product,
free from all acid, is thus obtained. The result of all of these
methods is a very valuable pigment with a specific gravity of
6.8, grinding in 9 per cent of oil. It is very opaque and has much
body, but is rather low in spreading power and is generally mixed
with zinc oxide or pigments of similar nature. Sulphurous gases
blacken it easily, and it has a great tendency to chalk, due to the
fact that it is naturally alkaline and thus acts on the linseed oil
in the paint. It is generally inhibitive in its action and is widely
used.

White Metal. The term "white metal" is applied to a num-

ber of alloys containing mainly zinc and tin, or lead,
tin, and zinc.
White metals are used for bearings on railroad cars, generators,
motors, etc. The composition of one of these white metals used
as a bearing metal is as follows: Lead, 33 per
cent; tin, 54 per
cent; antimony, 10.6 per cent; and copper, 2.4 per cent. White
metal made according to the specifications of the United States
Navy Department consists of 88.8 per cent of Banca tin; 3.7 per
cent of best refined copper; and 7.5 per cent of
regulus of
antimony, well fluxed with borax and resin in mixing. Several
English railways use from 73 to 77 per cent of tin; from 15 to
19 per cent of antimony; and from 7 to 9
per cent of copper.
White metal is sometimes used as a pattern material, especially
 1391 -W

Principle of Whltworth Quick-return Motion

when it is necessary to avoid shrinkage. The addition of antimony

makes the metal almost entirely free from shrinkage upon cooling.
White Nickel Brass. See Brass Alloys for Castings.

Whiting. Calcium carbonate, or whiting, found extensively

as chalk, is used to a considerable extent in paints partly because
of its power of neutralizing any free acid in the linseed oil. See
Calcium Carbonate.
Whitworth Motion. A quick-return method that has been
widely used in slotter construction, and on certain classes of
shapers and other tools is illustrated by the diagram. This mech-
anism is known as the "Whitworth motion." The gear G drives
a slotted link L, which is pivoted at the same point within the
path of the crankpin or Block B, thus permitting the link to ro-
tate through a complete revolution. As the center about which
link L rotates is offset with relation to the center of the driving
gear G, the driving pin B moves through an arc a during the
cutting stroke, and through a shorter arc b for the return stroke,
which, therefore, requires less time,
in proportion to the respective
lengths of arc a and b. This mech-
anism, when incorporated in the
driving mechanism of a machine
like a slotter, serves to return the
ram and tool quickly after the cut-
ting stroke, thus reducing the time
for the idle or non-cutting period.

Whitworth Standard Thread.

Whitworth Thread The Whitworth Standard thread,
also known as British Standard
Whitworth (B.S.W.), is used principally in Great Britain, but
also to some extent in the United States. In the Whitworth Stand-
ard, the sides of the thread form an angle
of 56 degrees with one
W-1392
another. The top and the bottom of the thread are rounded. The
radii for these rounded portions are determined by the depth of
the thread, which is two-thirds of the depth of a thread of the
same angle, sharp at the top and bottom. The radii at the top
and at the bottom are the same. If p t= pitch of thread, d =
depth of thread, and r =
radius at top and bottom of thread,
then:

r
=

v-*-
X

137329
X cot 27 de -

0.640327
No. Th'ds per inch
137829
30 min.

'

number of threads per inch

_
=

"
0.640327 p

As the Whitworth thread is rounded at the root and crest,

there are no sharp edges or corners from which fractures may
start. Screws and nuts having this form of thread will also
=

work well together after continued heavy service. In the United

States, Whitworth threads have been used on special screws and
on a great many staybolts for the fire-boxes of locomotive boil-
ers. A series of tests have indicated that the Whitworth thread
is somewhat stronger than the American Standard form.

Whitworth Thread Origin. The work of the earlier genera-

tion of English tool builders culminated in that of Sir Joseph
Whitworth. He, like most other English mechanics, was a
North-country man, who had worked for both Maudslay and
Clement. The succession of influence running through these
men is singularly illustrated in the development of standard
screw threads. Maudslay standardized the screw-thread prac-
tice of his own shop, settling upon and adhering to a definite
number and size of threads for each size of screw then in use.
Clement, who worked for Maudslay, adopted these standards,
improved them, began the manufacture of taps and dies, and
invented the tap having a small shank to enable it to fall through
the tapped hole, thereby avoiding the necessity for backing out
the tap. Whitworth took up the work of Clement and Maudslay,
and, after making a careful study of all the threads in general
use, proposed, in a paper before the Institute of Civil Engineers
in 1841, the standard which became general throughout Great
Britain and continues today as the Whitworth Standard thread.
Most of the general tools had been invented by the time Whit-
worth began his independent work, but he so improved their
design and workmanship that he influenced English tool prac-
tice for several generations. He introduced an accuracy in com-
mercial work unknown until that time, which was made possible
by his improvements in the methods of measurement.
 1393 -W
Williams Internal Gear. See Internal Gear, Williams.
Willow Charcoal. Willow charcoal, used in the making of
paints, ismade by charring certain kinds of wood, and contains
a slight amount of alkali, which is probably the cause of its
good inhibitive powers. It is a light pigment, and grinds to a
paste in 33 per cent of oil.

Winchester Bushel. A
measure of capacity or volume, legal
in the United States, and equal to 2150.42 cubic inches. This
measure has not been legal in Great Britain since 1825, when it
was superseded by the Imperial bushel which is equal to 2218.19
cubic inches.
Windmill Power. The power of windmills of the same type
varies approximately as the square of the wheel diameter, and
as the cube of the wind velocity. This general rule is based on
the theory that the intercepted area of air current varies as the
square of the wheel diameter, and that the kinetic energy of
the air, impinging on such an intercepted area, varies as the
cube of the wind velocity. This rule is applicable within rea-
sonable limits, but as windmills are designed to give the best
efficiency in low winds, say, from 10 to 15 miles per hour, the
same angle of sail will not give the same percentage of efficiency
in winds of considerably higher velocity.
The ordinary wheel works most efficiently under wind veloci-
ties of from 10 to 12 miles per hour. Such wheels will give
reasonable efficiency in from five- to six-mile winds. Mills built
for grinding purposes, geared mills, or power mills as they are
called, when attached to a grinder having a centrifugal feed,
will develop power almost proportional to the cube of the wind
velocity, within reasonable limits of such velocity, as their speed

TABLE 1

TABLE 2
W-1394
need not be kept down to a certain number of revolutions per
minute, as in the case of a pumping mill. Should this theoreti
cal condition hold, Table 1, showing the amount of power foi
wind velocities, would apply
different sizes of mills at different
The figureswhich show the horsepower have been proved by
laboratory tests. The results of tests on mills actually in use
are given in Table 2, the figures indicating the horsepower.
The foregoing tables must be translated with reasonable al
lowance for conditions under which wind wheels must work,
and which cannot well be avoided; pumping mills must be made
to "regulate ofF" at a certain maximum speed to prevent dam-
age to the attached pumping devices. The regulating point is
usually between 20- and 25-mile wind velocities, so that no
matter how much higher the wind velocity may be, the power
absorbed and delivered by the wheel will be no greater than
that indicated at the regulating point.

Windmill Requirements. A well - designed windmill must

work satisfactorily in a light wind. A mill that requires a ten-
mile wind may run only four or five hours per day; a mill that
will run in a five-mile wind will probably run eighteen hours per
day in some localities. Experiments developed the fact that seven-
eighths of the zone of interruption could be covered with sails;
that more than this was detrimental, and that the gain in power
in from three-fourths to seven-eighths of the surface was so small
that the use of the additional material was not justified; that the
sail surface should extend only two-thirds the distance from the
outer diameter to the center; that a wheel running behind the
carrying mast is not nearly as efficient as one running in front
of the mast; that there should be the least possible obstruction
behind the wheel; that to be efficient the velocity of the travel of
the circumference of the wheel should be from 1 to 1% times the
velocity of the wind, hence the necessity of back gearing to re-
duce the pump speed to forty strokes per minute as a maximum.
The requirements for the installation of a successful windmill
electric plant are stated in a concise form as follows : Ascertain
first the average daily load in ampere-hours during the periods
of maximum current consumption. Then provide a storage bat-
tery for a capacity at least double this output, install a generator
of sufficient capacity to charge this battery for 12 hours, and last-
ly select a windmill sufficiently large to run the generator at full
load with a 10-mile per hour wind. Fit the windmill and driving
gear to the generator by ball or roller bearings throughout, so
as to, as far as possible, eliminate frictional loss.
The wood wheel, as generally constructed, is inefficient and
short-lived, and designed without reference to the principles of
wind dynamics. Actual tests have shown that some wood wheels,
 1395 -W
under certain wind conditions, will give more power with every
alternate slat removed, and on wood wheels having slats inch %
thick and 3 inches wide, the efficiency of the wheel is reduced
nearly one-sixth, merely from the action of the wind on the edge
of the slat. Steel sails are much more efficient than wood.

Wind Pressures. Wind pressures per square foot for differ-

ent wind velocities in miles per hour are as follows : Fresh breeze
of 10 miles per hour, pressure 0.4 pound; stiff breeze of 20 miles
per hour, pressure 1.6 pounds; strong wind of 30 miles per hour,
pressure 3.6 pounds; high wind of 40 miles per hour, pressure
6.4 pounds; storm with velocity of 50 miles per hour, pressure
10 pounds ; violent storm with velocity of 60 miles per hour, pres-
sure 14.4 pounds; hurricane with velocity of 80 miles per hour,
pressure 25.6 pounds; violent hurricane with velocity of 100 miles
per hour, pressure 40 pounds per square foot. The foregoing
figures are based on data obtained by the U. S. Signal Service at
Mt. Washington, N. H.

Wing Valves. A wing valve is so called because it is guided

in its vertical movement by wings which extend down below the
valve-seat. The wings of some valves are

n curved slightly (as shown by the dotted

lines of the
accompanying sketch) so that
the valve will automatically rotate part of
a revolution each time the liquid is forced
through it. The object of designing the
valve to secure this turning movement is
to wear both 'the valve and seat more
evenly. In order to avoid obstructing the
valve port, some valves are guided by a
stem which enters a bonnet above the
Valve valve. With such an arrangement, the
Wing
stem should be fluted or other provision
made to prevent the formation of a partial vacuum above the
valve stem, as this would delay the return of the valve to its seat.

Wire Classification. Wire is classed according to the size

and shape of its cross-section as Coarse round wire, fine round
:

wire, and shaped wire.

Coarse Wire: Coarse round wire is drawn on blocks larger
than 8 inches in diameter, in sizes 20 gage or coarser. Coarse
wire is naturally limited in bending, therefore large-diameter
blocks are used.
Fine Wire: Fine round wire is drawn on 8 -inch diameter
blocks in sizes 16 gage or finer. When fine wire is drawn on
for the coils to twist
large-diameter blocks, there is a tendency
W-1396
into the form of a figure 8. In certain gages of wire, the choice
of block size is determined by manufacturing conditions.
Shaped Wire: Shaped wire is any wire not round in section;
it may besquare, rectangular, hexagonal, triangular, half-round,
oval, etc. Some
sections of shaped wire may be either rolled or
drawn. Shaped wire is a specialty, subject to agreement between
purchaser and manufacturer as to size, finish, temper, and weight
of coils and packages. See also Wire Grades.
Wire Drawing. Wire drawing is the process used for pro-
ducing wire by drawing a wire or rod of larger diameter through
a plate or die provided with a hole which reduces the size to the
desired dimension. Briefly described, the machines used for wire
drawing consist of a die or "draw-plate" provided with a hole
through which the wire is drawn, and means for pulling the wire
through these dies and winding it upon a reel.
The "wire rod" from which wire is drawn is a semi-finished
hot-rolled product approximately round in cross-section. To start
the drawing, one end of the rod is pointed, inserted through the
die and attached to a power-driven cylindrical block, which pulls
the rod through the die and coils the resultant wire.
Scale Removal: Before drawing, the scale is removed from the
rod by acid pickling. The rod is then washed in clear water,
dipped in a vat containing hydrated lime in suspension and baked
to dry the lime coating and to liberate hydrogen which may have
been absorbed by the steel in the pickling operation. For certain
types of wire the cleaned rod may be sprayed with water for a
time sufficient to produce on the rod surface a coating of ferrous
hydroxide, or sull. This deposit of ferrous hydroxide, with the
subsequent lime coating, is baked onto the surface of the rod.
The Drawing Die: The die originally was a chilled cast iron die,
or a punched, heat treated steel plate. Within recent years, these
older die forms have been superseded by carbide dies, which are
extremely hard and wear resistant. A carbide die consists of a
nib encased in an annular supporting ring of steel. The nib con-
sists of one or more carbides (tungsten, tantalum, titanium, etc.)
mixed with a bonding agent, such as cobalt, pressed into the de-
sired shape and heat-treated or sintered into its hardened rough
form, after which it is mounted, sized and polished.
Drawing Lubricants: In the drawing operation, various ma-
terials are employed as lubricants to produce different finishes
on the surface of the wire and to minimize die wear. In dry draw-
ing, the base for lubrication is the lime (or sull and lime) baked
on the surface of the cleaned rods, supplemented by soap or grease
in the die box or die container. Wet drawing is employed in the
manufacture of some classes of fine wire, for the light drafting
of coarse wire, and for the purpose of producing special finishes,
 1397 -W
In wet drawing, the rods are usually dry drawn to first suitable
size preparatory to the wet drawing procedure. The wire, with
or without a heat-treatment, is then cleaned and immersed in a
solution which provides a light coating of copper or tin, or a
combination of copper and tin, depending upon the finish desired.
The wire thus prepared is drawn wet, from or through a liquid
lubricating solution.
In single draft drawing, the wire is drawn through one die at
a time, the wire being removed from the block and redrawn
through the next smaller die, until the desired size is reached.
In continuous wire drawing, the wire is drawn continuously
through a series of dies with power-driven blocks between dies.
The speed increases on each successive block until the wire is
coiled on the last block as in single draft drawing.

Wire Drawing History. Previous to the development of wire

drawing, wire was made by hammering or beating metal into thin
sheets or plates, which were cut into continuous strips. These
strips were then afterwards rounded by hammering. There is
evidence that wire was produced by a simple hammering process
as early as 2000 B.C., and perhaps earlier. The history of the art
does not clearly indicate when simple hammering was superseded
by the method of drawing through a die, but records are avail-
able to show that wire drawing on a commercial scale was prac-
ticed in France in 1270, in Germany in 1350 and in England in
1465. The first wire-drawing mill in America was built in 1775,
in Norwich, Conn., by Nathaniel Niles, who was granted a loan
of $1500 by the court for this purpose.

Wire Feed. The name "wire feed" is often applied to the mech-
anism for feeding a rod through the spindle of a screw machine.
The term "wire-feed screw machine" is sometimes used to indi-
cate a design having a mechanism for automatically feeding the
stock through the spindle, whereas a machine not having this
stock-feeding mechanism may be designated as a plain screw ma-
chine.

Wire Forming. Nearly every conceivable shape can be pro-

duced in wire by the use of a wire-forming machine, supplement-
ed in some instances, particularly where ribbon stock is to be
formed, by the power press. The various machines in common
use are designed to operate practically in the same manner. They
consist fundamentally of four cam-operated slides arranged 90
degrees apart; these advance to a common center at which point
a vertical member, called the "king-post," is located. The king-
post is the member around which the wire is shaped by the dies
or forming members that are carried in the slides. Obviously,
the range of service of the machine depends upon the ingenuity
W-1398
employed in laying out suitable cams and in setting up the job.
Considerable variation from the four-slide arrangement is practi-
cable, because it is possible to mount auxiliary cams on each cam-
shaft for operating levers and additional slides, so that pieces
requiring more than four bending operataions can be produced
by thus increasing the scope of the machine.
The forming dies are simple in construction, and consist of
finger members attached to the slides, usually provided with a
groove at the end to receive and guide the wire as it is bent.
Auxiliary levers are frequently interposed between the slides
when extra bending members are required, and these are essen-
tially of the same design as the dies except that they usually
move independently of the slides. The movements necessary to
form a piece of wire into a more or less complicated shape may
be varied in their sequence. The first consideration when a part
is to be manufactured is the proper starting place in relation to

subsequent operations. It has been found, even after large quan-

tities of pieces have been manufactured commercially by one
method, that greater production can be obtained by making cer-
tain simple changes which affect the entire cycle of the move-
ments and completely revise the manufacturing procedure.
Wire Gages. See Gages for Wire.
Wire Grades and Finishes. The following information ap-
plies to coarse round wire, with the exception of the final para-
graph on Fine Round Wire.
Bright Wire is hard dry-drawn wire, produced without any
treatment or processing designed to alter the properties imparted
by cold drawing. The use of bright wire is therefore confined to
applications not requiring special finishes, specific tempers or
hardness involving modifications of the normal wire -drawing
procedure.
Bright Soft Wire, sometimes called annealed-in-process wire or
processed wire, is dry-drawn wire, annealed at a point intermedi-
ate between the rod size and the finished size in order to produce
a softer wire for applications in which bright wire would be too
hard or too stiff.
Extra Clean Smooth Bright Wire is dry-drawn wire produced
by varying the lubrication and drafting in order to obtain an
especially clean, smooth, bright surface. This finish is obtainable
in all grades of dry-drawn wire and is intended for use where
clean, smooth surface is of prime importance to some subsequent
operation such as spot-welding, electroplataing, tinning, enamel-
ing or similar processes. Special wire drawing practice, requir-
ing extra drafting is necessary to produce this finish.
Sutt Coated Wire is drawn from rods or wire which, after acid
cleaning, have been subjected to fine sprays of water in order to
 1399 -W
produce a uniform sull coat, the purpose of which is to form, with
the subsequent lime coating, a base for the
drawing lubricant.
Merchant Wire is general-purpose wire furnished in annealed
or galvanized finishes. It is generally sold by retail
stores, for
the purpose of bracing, tying, and similar uses. It is furnished
in even weight bundles, the standard weight of which is 100
pounds. It is also supplied in special bundle weights of 5, 10, 25
or 50 pounds. Bundles consist of from one to three pieces.
Market Wire is a general-purpose merchant wire supplied in
bright annealed, galvanized, tinned, and coppered finishes. This
is a low carbon steel wire, annealed-in-process, so as to be medi-
um soft to take various forming operations. It is supplied in
standard 100 pound coils of one piece. It is sold by hardware
stores and other retailers.
Stone Wire is a general-purpose annealed or soft-galvanized
wire for common uses, such as stove-pipe wire, hay-stack wire,
tying wire, and other general home and farm utility purposes.
It is packed in 8-inch diameter paper wrapped bundles of 12
pounds each which may contain from one to three pieces.
Cold Heading Wire is produced by specially controlled manu-
facturing practices and is subjected to mill tests and inspections
designed to assure internal soundness, uniformity of chemical
composition and freedom from injurious surface defects, thus
providing satisfactory cold-heading and cold-forging perform-
ance and proper response to subsequent heat treatment under
standard manufacturing conditions.
Welding Wire is suitable for use in gas or electric-arc welding.
The wire is manufactured to give satisfactory performance under
the action of the gas flame or the electric arc. These requirements
involve extra precautions in the manufacture of the steel, in the
selection and preparation of the billets, and in making tests of
the rods and wire.
Spring Wire is suitable for use in the manufacture of springs,
such as upholstery, bed, automobile seat and cushion springs. The
wire is drawn from rods of specially prepared steel, properly pat-
ented, and is subjected to mill tests and inspection designed to
give assurance that the extra precautions taken in its manufac-
ture have produced the quality suitable for the purpose.
Telephone and Telegraph Wire is made by practices and of
chemical compositions designed to produce electrical and physical
properties that will meet the requirements of the respective
standard grades. EBB stands for "Extra Best Best" and signi-
fies steel wire of lowest electrical resistance; BB stands for "Best
Best" and signifies steel wire of medium electrical resistance.
Steel signifies wire which may be of maximum resistance per-
missible in communication lines.
W-1400
Annealed Wire is wire which has been softened at its finished
size by heating to relieve the hardening effects of cold drawing.
Patented Wire is drawn from hot-rolled rods or wire,
which have been given a preparatory strand heat treatment by
heating to a temperature above the critical range, followed by
comparatively rapid cooling. Wire with a carbon content higher
than 0.40 per cent is drawn from patented stock in order to make
the material tough enough to withstand severe distortion or
drafting without actual or incipient breakage.
Oil Tempered Wire is a high-carbon wire which has been heat
treated at finished size, by heating to a temperature above the
critical range, quenching in oil, and then passing through a bath
maintained at the temperature required to produce the temper
desired in the finished wire.
Coppered Wire and Liquor Finished Wire are produced by wet
drawing wire which has been immersed in a copper sulphate or
copper-tin sulphate solution. The solution used is dependent upon
whether copper finish, brass finish or white finish is desired. The
temper of the finished wire is controlled by processing prior to
wet drawing.
Tinned Wire is given a coating of tin by passing single strands
through a bath of molten tin. The temper of the finished wire is
controlled by processing prior to the tinning operation.
Galvanized Wire is given a coating of zinc by passing single
strands through a bath of molten zinc, or through an electrolytic
cell containing a solution of zinc salt. This wire is usually an-
nealed before coating.
Fine Round Wire: By fine wire is meant wire in gages 16 (0.062
inch) or finer, drawn on 8-inch diameter blocks. There is a range
from 16 to 20 gage in which the distinctions are not clearly drawn,
as certain kinds of wire may be regarded as coarse wire, while the
same size for other purposes and with different manufacturing
processes may be regarded as fine wire. There are few standard
grades in fine wire. Because of the variety of uses it is impos-
sible to set exact specifications for all applications. Wire for the
same use must be made harder or stiffer for some users than for
others, and therefore, except in a very few cases, the purchaser's
individual requirements are the controlling factor when estab-
lishing a wire drawing practice. For this reason it is not practi-
cable to furnish a detailed list of practices by which fine wire
may be made. Fine wire may be furnished in the usual finishes
available for coarse wire.

Wireless Telegraph. The development of wireless telegraphy

was due to the work of several men, including Heinrich Hertz, a
German scientist; Tesla in the United States; Branly and Du-
cretet of France; Popoff of Russia; Prof. Lodge of England; and
 1401 -W
Righi and Marconi of Italy. In 1899 Marconi, as the result of
his developments, succeeded in communicating between points in
England and France for a distance of 32 miles across the Eng-
lish Channel.

Wire, Plow Steel. See Plow Steel Wire.

Wire Rods. Wire rods are hot rolled from billets to an ap-
proximate round, and receive no additional processing to obtain
a more accurate cross section or to improve the surface. They are
rolled to specified dimensions and are produced in coils of one
continuous length, wound counter-clockwise. Wire rods are classed
as a semi-finished product and are intended primarily for the
manufacture of wire. They are not comparable to the finished
product bars in accuracy of cross section nor surface finished
because of the difference in, type of mill on which each is rolled.
This product is classed as carbon steel when no minimum con-
tent is specified or guaranteed for aluminum, chromium, colum-
bium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten or vanadium; when
the minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40 per cent; and when
the maximum content specified or guaranteed for any of the fol-
lowing elements does not exceed the figures given: Manganese,
1.65 per cent; Silicon, 0.60 per cent; Copper, 0.60 per cent.
Size Classification: Wire rod sizes are designated by fractional
or decimal parts of an inch or by the gage numbers of the Steel
Wire Gage (Washburn and Moen). The smallest size hot-rolled
wire rod made is known as No. 5 gage, but custom in the industry
has set the minimum nominal diameter of No. 5 gage rods at 0.218
inch. The largest size of wire rods has a nominal diameter of
47/64 inch. Wire rods from No. 5 gage to 15/32 inch, inclusive,
are ordinarily produced on rod mills generally by the double or
multiple strand method. Wire rods over 15/32 inch to 47/64 inch,
inclusive, are commonly produced by the single strand method and
are often referred to as combination rods. Aside from the differ-
ences in methods of rolling indicated above, the manufacture of
the larger sizes of rods involves additional precautions in steel-
making, and the preparation of billets to assure quality equiva-
lent to that more readily obtained in the smaller sizes of rods.
Rods for Merchant Wire Products are suitable for drawing
into wire which will be subjected only to simple forming opera-
tions as in the case of wire fencing, staples, barb-wire, nails, bale
ties, etc. These are run-of-mill rods free from defects injurious
to merchant wire products.
Rods for Special Surface Quality Wire are suitable for drawing
into manufacturers wire having special surface requirements.
These rods are free from defects such as injurious seams, fins, laps,
divers, etc., and are subjected to mill tests and inspection de-
W-1402
signed to assure that the special precautions taken in their manu-
facture have produced rods of suitable quality.
Rods for Welding Wire are suitable for drawing into wire to
be used for gas or electric arc welding. The rods are manufac-
tured to give satisfactory performance of the wire under the
action of the gas flame or the electric arc. Those requirements
involve extra precautions in the manufacture of the steel, in the
selection and preparation of the billets, and in making tests of
the rods.
Rods for Spring Wire are suitable for drawing into wire to be
used in the manufacture of springs, such as upholstery, bed, auto-
mobile seat and cushion springs. The rods are rolled from
specially prepared steel.
Rods for Telephone and Telegraph Wire are made by practices
and of chemical compositions suited to the manufacture of wire
having electrical and physical properties that will meet the re-
quirements of the respective standard grades. EBB stands for
"Extra Best Best" and signifies steel wire of lowest electrical
resistance; BB stands for "Best Best" and signifies steel wire
of medium electrical resistance. Steel signifies steel wire of maxi-
mum resistance permissible in communication lines.
Wire Rope. Wire ropes are made by twisting a number of
wires together into a strand, and then twisting a number of
strands about a hemp core to form a wire rope. Sometimes the
hemp center is replaced by a wire strand which adds from 7 to
10 per cent to the strength of the rope. The strand is usually
made by placing one wire in the center and surrounding this with
a layer of 6 wires, thus forming a 7-wire strand. If another
layer of wires is placed outside of this layer, this new layer will
contain 12 wires, and the strand will be a 19-wire strand. An
additional layer will contain 18 wires, thus making a 37-wire
strand. By adding another layer, this time of 24 wires, a 61-wire
strand is obtained; and, in exceptional cases, still another layer
may be added, this time of 30 wires, making a 91-wire strand.
The advantages of wire rope as compared with hemp rope are
as follows: Greater strength for the same diameter; greater
strength for the same weight; lower cost for the same strength;
equal strength whether wet or dry (a hemp rope may lose as
much as 30 per cent of its strength when wet) ; equal length un-
der all weather conditions; greater indestructibility; and greater
variety in types of construction that may be applied to different
uses. As another advantage may also be mentioned the greater
certainty with which the strength of wire ropes may be computed.
Types of Wire Rope: When all the wires used in making a
strand are of the same size, the construction is known as a one-size-
wire type. Another construction, known as the Warrington type,
 1403 -W
or three-size-urire construction, makes use of 7 wires of uniform
diameter surrounded by a layer of 12 wires of which 6 are large
and alternate with 6 smaller wires. The Warrington construction
increases the metallic area and, hence, the strength for a given
outside diameter of rope by approximately 10 per cent, and is
advantageous for general hoisting purposes. Still a third type
of construction, known as the Secde type, is used. In this, the
center wire is large; then there is a layer of 9 small wires, and
then an outer layer of 9 large wires. Strands made in this man-
ner will produce a rope which is somewhat stiff er than the ropes
made by one-size-wire or three-size-wire construction.
Wire ropes are made from a number of different materials
varying from iron wire to the highest grade of special steels.
Iron was used almost entirely for wire ropes in the early days of
wire rope manufacture. At the present time, it is employed only
to a limited extent. Compared with newer materials, it is of a
low tensile strength and soft, and although ductile and pliable,
it is heaviest in proportion to its strength.
Crucible-steel Wire Rope: Crucible steel is a tough and pliable
material of moderate cost when used for wire ropes. It has about
double the strength of iron for the same weight; it is also harder
than iron, and, therefore, resists external wear better. The steel
has derived its name from the early method of making high car-
bon steel in small crucibles, but the same grade of steel for wire
rope is now made by the Siemens-Martin open-hearth process.
When drawn into wire, steel of this quality will have an ultimate
strength of from 150,000 to 250,000 pounds per square inch, the
higher figure applying to the finer wires and the lower to those
of larger diameter.
Plow-steel Wire Rope: The name "plow" steel originated in
England and was applied to a strong grade of steel wire used in
the construction of very strong ropes employed in the mechanical
operation of plows. The name "plow" steel, however, has become
a commercial trade name, and, applied to wire, simply means a
high-grade open-hearth steel of a tensile strength in wire of from
200,000 to 260,000 pounds per square inch of sectional area. A
strength of 200,000 pounds per square inch is obtained in wire
about 0.200 inch in diameter. Plow steel when used for wire
ropes has the advantage of combining lightness and great
strength. It is a tough material, but not as pliable as crucible
steel. The very highest grade of steel wire used for wire rope is
made from special steels ranging in tensile strength in wire from
220,000 to 280,000 pounds per square inch of sectional area. This
steel is especially useful when great strength, lightness, and
abrasive resisting qualities are required.
Galvanized Wire Rope: The following information on materials
W-1404
used for wire rope and the practical applications of different
materials is from the United States Government specifications:
Galvanized wire rope should be used if the rope is likely to cor-
rode because of the presence of moisture, as for the standing
rigging of a ship. Because the zinc coating is rapidly removed
by wear, it should not, in general, be used for hoisting. It may,
however, be used for the running rigging and for wheel (steer-
ing) ropes on ships, as these ropes do not wear rapidly.
Uncoated Wire Rope: Uncoated wire rope should be used where
it is protected from moisture, as in a building, and for more or
less continuous hoisting. It may be used instead of galvanized
wire rope where it is exposed to moisture, as for derrick guys, if
a protective coating is applied to the rope at regular intervals.
Phosphor-bronze Wire Rope: Phosphor-bronze wire rope has
lower strength than steel wire rope; therefore, the working loads
should be lower. The sheaves should also be larger than those for
steel rope. It is non-magnetic, and can be used for conditions
under which galvanized steel rope does not give satisfaction.
Because of these properties, it is used on small vessels.
Marline-covered Wire Rope: Marline-covered wire rope is
stronger and more durable than manila rope. The marline cover-
ing prevents wearing of the wires and supplies lubricant to them.
As the marline wears to a smooth surface, the rope is easily
handled or laid in a flat coil. Compared with uncovered wire
rope, the marline-covered rope is more easily handled, has greater
friction, which is an advantage if it is used on a smooth drum,
and is more durable, particularly if it is exposed to gases, grit,
or moisture.

Wire Rope Definitions. In the following are given brief

commonly used terms met with in the application
definitions of
of wire rope.
Airplane Strand: A small 7- or 19-wire galvanized strand
made from plow steel or crucible steel wire.
Cable Laid Rope: A
compound laid rope consisting of several
ropes or several layers of strands laid together into one rope, as,
for instance, 6 by 6 by 7.
Crane Rope: Wire rope consisting of 6 strands of 87 wires
around a hemp center.
Elevator Rope: Wire rope usually made of iron and composed
of 6 strands of 19 wires each, and a hemp core.
Extra-flexible Hoisting Rope: A rope consisting of 8 strands
of 19 wires each with a large hemp center.
Flat Rope: A rope consisting of alternate right and left lay
rope strands, each rope strand consisting of 4 strands of 7 wires,
all sewed together with a number of soft iron
sewing wires.
 1405 -W
Flattened Strand Rope: A wire rope having non-cylindrical
strands, usually of the oval or triangular type; the center wire
of each strand is an oval or a triangular wire.
Guy Rope: Galvanized rope consisting of 6 strands, 7 wires
each, and a hemp core.
Guy Strand: Galvanized 7-wire strand.
Hand Rope: Flexible rope consisting of 6 ropes, each composed
of 6 strands, 7 wires each, and 7 hemp cores.
Haulage Rope: Rope usually composed of 6 strands, 7 wires
each,and a hemp core.
Hawser: Wire rope usually consisting of 6 strands, 37 wires,
and a hemp core, or 6 strands, 24 wires, and 7 hemp cores.
Hoisting Rope: Rope consisting of 6 strands of 19 wires each,
with a hemp center.
Lang Lay Rope: Wire rope in which both the wires in the
strand and the strands in the rope are twisted in the same
direction.
Lay: The pitch or angle of the helix of the wires or strands
of a rope, usually expressed by the ratio of the diameter of the
strand or rope to the length required for one complete twist.
Left-lay Rope: Wire rope, the strands of which form a left-
hand helix like a left-hand screw thread.
Left Twist: Same as right lay, and corresponds to a right-
hand screw thread.
Non-spinning Rope: A rope wire consisting of 18 strands of
7 wires each, in two layers; the inner layer consists of 6 strands
Lang lay and left lay around a small hemp core, and the outer
of 12 strands regular lay, right-hand lay. Will carry a load on a
single end without untwisting.
Regular Lay: Strands twisted to the right and rope twisted
to the left. Helix of strands takes the direction of a right-hand
screw thread.
Reverse Laid Rope: A wire rope with alternate strands right
and left lay.
Rheostat Rope: A small rope consisting of 8 strands of 7 wires
each.
Right Lay: Known also as regular lay; strands twisted to the
right and rope twisted to the left; corresponds to a right-hand
screw thread.
Right Twist: Corresponds to left lay, or to a left-hand screw
thread.
Running Rope: A flexible rope of 6 strands, 12 wires each,
and 7 hemp cores.
Special Flexible Hoisting Rope: A
wire rope consisting of
6 strands, of 37 wires each, and a hemp core.
W-1406
Standing Rope: Another term applied to galvanized guy rope
which consists of 6 strands, 7 wires, and a hemp core.
Towing Hawser: A large flexible wire rope made of galvanized
wires. Usual construction, 6 strands of 37 wires each, or
6 strands of 24 wires each.
Transmission Rope: Rope composed of 6 strands, 7 wires each,
and a hemp core.
Wire Rope Drums. The drums used for wire ropes should
be grooved rather .than flat. The grooves should be so spaced on
the drum that there is ample clearance between the successive
windings on the drum. For example, a drum for a 1-inch rope
should have the centers of the grooves at least 1 1/16 inches
apart. If the groove is made in this manner, the successive
convolutions of the rope will not rub against each other. The
grooves of all sheaves and drums for wire rope should be smooth,
so that they do not cause abrasion to the rope wound upon them.
The grooves should also be of a slightly larger radius than the
radius of the rope, so that there will be no wedging or pinching
action. If possible, the drum upon which a wire rope is wound
should be wide enough so that the rope may be wound upon it
in one layer. It is bad practice to wind the rope upon the drum
several layers deep. The respective layers of the rope will wear
against each other and the life of the rope will be considerably
shortened. When there is not space enough for a large drum,
flat wire ropes, which may be wound in successive layers, are
often used.

Wire Rope, Flat. See Flat Rope.

Wire Rope Lay. See Lay of Wire Rope.
Wire Rope Lubrication. Practically all the cores of good
brands of wire rope are thoroughly impregnated with a commer-
cial, chemically neutral rope oil. While the core retains a liberal
supply of this lubricant, frequent application of a good lubricant
during service, to prevent the core from becoming dry, is ad-
visable. A dry core will both wear and crush quicker than an
oil-impregnated core and it will absorb moisture, with the result
that the core will deteriorate rapidly and the inner wires will
corrode, thus shortening the rope service. The smaller the sheaves
or the heavier the tension on the rope, the more often should the
rope be lubricated. A good lubricant retards corrosion of the
wires and deterioration of the core, reduces internal friction
which is the cause of wires breaking from bending stresses, and
decreases external wear. The lubricant should be thin enough
to penetrate the strands and the core, but not so thin as to run
off the rope, nor so thick that it merely covers the rope. There-
fore, semi-plastic compound applied hot (in a thinned condition)
 1407 -W
is the best wherever possible. It will penetrate while hot, then
cool to a plastic filler, excluding the entrance of water, and both
preserving and lubricating the inner wires and cores. To lubri-
cate properly with a heated lubricant, it is necessary to have the
rope run slowly through a tank of heated oil.
Government Specifications: The following information on the
lubrication of wire rope is taken from the United States Govern-
ment specifications for wire rope: Wear of a running wire rope
occurs where the outside wires come into contact with the sheaves
and drums, especially if slipping takes place, and, also, where
the inner wires of the rope are in contact. During the fabrica-
tion of a wire rope, the fiber core is saturated with lubricating
compound, which in service is gradually supplied to the wires and
reduces the wear on them. As the core will not carry enough
lubricant for the life of the rope, it is necessary occasionally
to apply a lubricant to the outside of the rope, which will be ab-
sorbed by the core. A mixture of a heavy-bodied lubricant and
a good grade of graphite is as satisfactory as any of the proprie-
tary lubricants, and is cheaper. A viscous preparation which re-
mains on the outside of the rope does not lubricate the inner
wires of the rope.
For elevator cables, any lubricant containing an opaque sub-
stance is undesirable, as it interferes with the proper inspection
of the rope by making it difficult to detect broken wires. Graphite
and similar lubricants may cause excessive sliding of cables on
traction-drive elevators, and should not be used on this type of
equipment. Boiled linseed oil, applied hot, will saturate the hemp
center and will give a transparent covering when dry that will
not interfere with the thorough inspection of the rope. If an
uncoated wire rope is to be used where it is likely to corrode,
the lubricant should have a very heavy body and be applied to
the rope so hot that it will penetrate to the core.

Wire Rope Measurement. The correct way to measure wire

rope is shown at A, in contrast to the incorrect method as at B,
in the illustration on page 1408. It is important that the proper
size of rope be employed, since an under-sized rope will not give
the degree of service that should reasonably be expected, while
an over-sized rope represents needless investment.

Wire Rope Tests. Experiments made at the Bureau of

Standards indicate that a six-strand, nineteen-wire, plow-steel,
%-inch wire rope, when bent over a 10-inch sheave, loses 12.6 per
cent of the strength that it has when straight, and when bent
over an 18-inch sheave, 4.7 per cent. A 1%-inch rope loses
24.2 per cent, when bent over a 10-inch sheave, and 15.3 per cent
on an 18-inch sheave. The wires of which the ropes were com-
W-1408
posed had a strength of 230,000 pounds per square inch, and the
strength of the rope itself, when straight, equaled 83,000d2 , in
which d is the diameter of the rope in inches. The modulus of
elasticity of steel wire rope may be assumed to be about 8,500,000.

Wire Rope Uncoiling. Wire rope is ordinarily shipped and

received either in coils or on reels. In uncoiling or unreeling
wire rope, it is essential that no kinks be allowed to form. Once
a kink is made, no amount of twisting or strain can take it out,
and the rope is unsafe for work Never uncoil a wire rope as
you would a rubber hose or manila hemp rope. Place the coil
on its edge and unroll the coil, allowing the rope to lie flat until
used.

(A) Correct and (B) Incorrect Methods of Measuring

Wire Rope Diameter

Wire Straighteners. Wire straighteners are made in the

"double-roll" and the "rotary" types. The double-roll
type is
made in two forms with rolls grooved to fit round wire and with
wider plain rolls adapted to flat wire or ribbon stock. The double-
roll and the rotary type of straightener are each
adapted to its
particular work and either maybe applied, according to the char-
acteristics of the article to be made or the quality of wire to
be used.
The double-roll straightener is the one generally used. When
used for round wire, one set of roUs is arranged
horizontally and
another set vertically, the rolls being grooved. For ribbon
stock,
the rolls are plain and arranged vertically
only. The rolls are not
located opposite each other but are
staggered, and adjustment is
provided for bringing them closer together or setting them far-
ther apart to accommodate various thicknesses of stock. The
action is very much the same as when
drawing a piece of wire
through the fingers. The wire is bent slightly in one direction
and immediately afterwards in the opposite direction. If re
leased, the wire would take an intermediate position about half-
way between the two bends. The adjustment of the rolls is such
 1409 -W
that this bending back and forth takes out all bends and kinks
and the wire leaves the straightener practically or "commer-
cially" straight A commercially straight wire appears abso-
lutely straight to the average eye, and this is all that is required
for most articles. There are articles, however, in which greater
refinement is necessary as to straightness, and the double-roll
straightener is displaced by the rotary type. The double-roll type
is not adapted to the straightening of hard
spring wire.
The rotary straightener has a steel spindle containing stag-
gered steel guides. The wire is brought through a quill in the
end of the spindle, and it then passes over the steel guides and
out through the opposite end. The spindle is made to revolve
rapidly and at the same time is reciprocated backward and for-
ward, being mounted in a bracket on a slide and moving with
the feed mechanism of the machine. With this type of straight-
ener, wire can be made as nearly straight as it is possible to
obtain it. For products such as typewriter bars, where perfect
alignment must be had, the rotary straightener must be used to
obtain satisfactory results. It is also used for working hard
spring wire.
Wiring Dies. See Curling and Wiring Dies.
Wiring Frame. Sometimes it is necessary to mount a curling
or wiring die in a horizontal slide attached to the press bed so
that it can be drawn out from under the die for th s insertion or
removal of work. These slides, called wiring frames, are op-
erated by hand and are necessary on some presses; otherwise the
work could not be inserted or removed from the die when the
latter is directly beneath the punch, owing to the limited space.
One design of special wiring press has a die slide which is auto-
matically operated, thus avoiding hand operation and the resulting
fatigue and loss of time.
Wood Boring, Auger Speeds See Auger Speeds.
Wood Creosoting. See Creosoting Process.
Wood, Factor of Safety. The belief thai a timber with a so-
called "factor of safety" of 3 or4 will carry three or four times
the load for which it is designed is erront ous and has been the
cause of failure through the overloading of structures. Only a
small part of the usual "factor of safety" for wood is available
for taking care of overloading; most of it is required to allow
for the known variations in the strength of clear wood, the effect
of defects, tie moisture conditions of service, and the duration
of the load.
Some of the working stresses assigned by the Forest Products
Laboratory, Madison, Wia., to structural timbers, when compared
with laboratory test data on small, clear specimens, have an ap-
W-1410
parent "factor of safety" as high as 10, but in reality such fac-
tors make allowance for an accidental overload of only 50 per
cent. The "factor of safety" for timber is not designed to take
care of large overloads. In good construction, occasional tim-
bers might be expected to fail immediately if they were sub-
jected to only twice their design loads. Forty per cent of the
timbers would probably fail if such loads were applied for a long
time. See also Timbers for Structural Use.
Wood Life. The life of wooden poles for transmission lines
varies according to the kind of wood, rapidity of growth, amount
of sap at time of cutting, and seasoning after cutting. The fol-
lowing figures, based on a large number of observations, indi-
cate the average life of untreated poles: Cedar, 13 to 14 years;
chestnut, 11 to 12 years; cypress, 9 to 10 years; juniper, 8 to
9 years; pine, 6 to 7Vears. Poles cut during the winter months
when the sap is low always have a longer life than those cut in
summer when the sap is up. The proper seasoning of poles also
has a great influence on their life. They should be trimmed and
peeled immediately after being cut, and should be supported on
skids in separate layers for a period of from six months to a
year, so that they will be thoroughly air-dried. It is now almost
universal practice to give the butts of the poles and sometimes
the cross-arms and tops a preservative treatment. Often the en-
tire pole is treated. There are a number of different preserva-
tive materials that may be used. The principal of these is dead
oil of coal tar or so-called "coal-tar creosote." This is a distillate
obtained from coal tar at temperatures ranging from 400 to
750 degrees F. Coal tar itself is a distillate by-product obtained
in the manufacture of coal gas and coke at temperatures of from
1500 to 3000 degrees F. Coal tar is of little use as a wood
preservative, but the creosotes are of great value.
Wood, Lightest. Balsa, one of the commonest trees in the
forests of Costa Rica, is said to be the lightest of all known
woods, weighing but 7.3 pounds per cubic foot. Ordinary cork
is three times as heavy as Balsa wood. This wood is very soft,
and can be readily indented with the finger nail. It absorbs
water readily, but it may be treated with paraffin, and then used
in making floats for life preservers and in the construction of life
rafts. It is also used for buoys and floating attachments to
light signals.
Wood, Nail-Holding Quality. See Nail-holding Qualities of
Woods.
Wood, Plastic. See Plastic Wood.
Wood Preserving Process. See Creosoting Processes; also
Kyanizing.
 1411 -W
Woodruff Keys. In the Woodruff key system, half-circular
disks of steel are used as keys, the half-circular side of the key
being inserted into the keyseat. Part of the key projects and
,

enters into a keyway in the part to be keyed to the shaft in the

ordinary way. The advantage of this method of keys is that the
keyway is easily milled by simply sinking a milling cutter, of the
same diameter as the diameter of the stock from which the keys
are made, into the shaft. The keys are also very cheaply made,
as they are simply cut off from round bar stock and milled apart
in the center. Dimensions of Woodruff keys are given in
engineering handbooks.
Wood-Screw Holding Power. One-half inch diameter wood-
screws, driven 4 inches into wood, have a holding power of about
2500 pounds; %-inch lag screws, driven 1% inches into wood, have
a holding power of about 1500 pounds, and, if driven inches2%
into wood, of 2000 pounds. In all these tests the wood was Nor-
way pine. Five-eighth-inch lag screws, driven 4%
inches into
seasoned white oak, show a maximum holding power of 8000
pounds; the same screws driven into yellow pine, 4000 pounds.
Wood Screws. The American Standard for wood screws in-
cludes both the flat-head and round-head forms. The sizes are
indicated by numbers and range from No. to 24. The equivalent
diameters range from 0.060 inch to 0.372 inch and are the same
as the equivalent diameters for machine screws, although wood
screw sizes such as Nos. 11, 14, 16, 18, 20 and 24, are not in-
cluded in American Standard machine screws. Various forms
of wood screws are shown in the accompanying illustration. The
nominal length of the different forms is indicated by dimen-
sions -L. According to this illustration, the length of the round-
head type is from the bottom of the slot; but the nominal length
of an American Standard screw is measured under the head.
The range of lengths for each screw number is included in the
American Standard. The number of lengths for each screw size
varies. Commonly used sizes, such as No. 6 to No. 18, are made
in twelve to fourteen different lengths, whereas small sizes, such
as No. to No. 5, are made in two to eight lengths.
Wood Seasoning Processes. There have been differences of
opinion as to whether kiln-dried wood is as strong as wood that
has been air-dried. In order to determine the relative properties,
the Forest Products Laboratory of the United States Forest
Service at Madison, Wis., made some 150,000 comparative
strength tests on specimens from twenty-eight different common
species of wood. The results of these experiments showed con-
clusively that good kiln-drying and good air-drying have the
same effect upon the strength of wood. The belief that kiln-
W-1412
drying produces stronger wood than air-drying is usually the re-
sult of failure to consider differences in moisture content. The
moisture content of wood, on leaving the kiln, is usually from
2 to 6 per cent lower than that of thoroughly air-dried stock.
Since wood increases in strength with loss of moisture, higher
strength values may be obtained from kiln-dried than from air-
dried wood; but this difference in strength has no practical
significance, since eventually a piece of wood will come to approxi-
mately the same moisture condition, whether it is kiln-dried or
air-dried.

HEADLESS

h----- L----- .

DIAMOND POINT FLAT HEAD DRIVE

xt
DIAMOND POINT OVAL HEAD DRIVE
L-
H
r

PINCHED HEAD
^ J
'/

Mil mil \ \ i I \ \
i

FLAT HEAD
d
M I
i
r

ROGERS FLAT
* 111 \ V I V V V V V\ 1 \ HEAD DRIVE

OVAL HEAD
(

!
L ,1
YJT

COACH OR LAG SCREW

Wood-screws of Different Forms

 1413 -W
Wood's Metal. The composition of Wood's metal, which is a
so-called "fusible metal," is as follows: 50
parts of bismuth,
25 parts of lead, 12.5 parts of tin and 12.5 parts of cadmium.
The melting point of this alloy is from 66 to 71 degrees centi-
grade (151 to 160 degrees F. approximately).
Wood, Weight Per Cubic Foot. The following weights, in
pounds, of various woods grown in the United States, are at the
moisture condition of the trees when felled, if the wood is classi-
fied as "green." The air-dry weights are for wood at a moisture
content of 12 per cent, which is approximately the condition
reached without artificial heating by material sheltered from
precipitation. In any lot of lumber of a given species in the
air-dry condition at 12 per cent moisture, the weight per cubic
foot will rarely vary more than 10 per cent from the figures given.
In green material, on the other hand, the variation may occa-
sionally be as great as 20 per cent, owing to wide differences in
moisture content.
The figures following the name of each wood represent the
weight per cubic foot, first, of green wood and then, of air-dry
wood having a 12 per cent moisture content. Black ash, green, 52
air-dry, 34; green ash, 49 40; white ash, 48 41; aspen,
42 27; basswood, 41 26; beech, 55 44; gray birch,
46 35 yellow birch, 58
;
43 Alaska cedar, 35
; 29 ; western
red cedar, 27 23; northern white cedar, 28 22; southern
white cedar, 26 23; black cherry, 46 35; chestnut, 55 30;
southern cypress, 51 32 ; American elm, 54 35 balsam fir,
;

45 26; Douglas fir, 38 34; black gum, 45 35; red gum,

50 34; eastern hemlock, 49 28; western hemlock, 42 28;
pignut hickory, 64 53; shagbark hickory, 64 51; western
larch, 48 36; bigleaf maple, 47 34; sugar maple, 56 44;
black oak, 63 43; live oak, 76 62; white oak, 62 48; jack
pine, 50 30; longleaf pine, 51 41; shortieaf pine, 51 38;
western white pine, 35 27; western yellow pine, 45 28;
balsam poplar, 42 22; yellow poplar, 38 28; redwood,
54 _ 30; black spruce, 32 28; red spruce, 34 28; white
spruce, 34 27; sycamore, 52 35; tamarack, 47 37; black
walnut, 58 39; black willow, 50 26; Pacific yew, 54 44.
A practical rule for estimating the weight of air-dry or kiln-dry
wood at a moisture content of about 12 per cent, is to regard a
l
/2 per cent change in weight as accompanying
a 1 per cent change
in moisture content. For example, wood at 8 per cent moisture
would weigh about 2 per cent less than at 12 per cent, while at
14 per cent the weight would be about 1 per cent more than at
12 per cent.
Work. Work, in mechanics, is the effect of a force acting
through a given distance, the force being usually measured
in
W-1414

-1

1 * * * * ! 3 5 :

Fig. 1. Work Diagram when Pressure

drops Uniformly

Fig. 2. The Ideal Work Diagram of a

Steam Engine

S$b$

JF -JE

Fig. 3. Work Diagram of Compression

 1415 -W
pounds or tons, and the distance in linear units, such as inches,
feet, etc. Work is expressed as a product of the units of force
(weight) and distance, and is given as inch-pounds, foot-pounds,
foot-tons, etc. For example, in lifting a weight of 500 pounds
to a height of two feet, 1000 foot-pounds of work has been per-
formed. If one pound is lifted 1000 feet, or 1000 pounds, one
foot, the same amount of work has been performed.

Work-Bench Height. See Benches.

Work Diagrams. A "work diagram" is a graphic representa-

tion of work done, as, for example, in the cylinder of an engine,
air compressor, etc. Work is the result of force acting through
space, and the unit of work is the foot-pound, which is the work
done in raising 1 pound 1 foot in height. For example, it re-
=
quires 1
=X
1 1 foot-pound to raise 1 pound 1 foot, or
1 x 10 10 foot-pounds to raise 1 pound 10 feet, or 10 1 x
= 10 foot-pounds to raise 10 pounds 1 foot, or 10 x
10 t= 100
foot-pounds to raise 10 pounds 10 feet, etc. The product of weight
or force acting, times the distance moved, represents work; and
if the force is taken in pounds and the distance in feet, the re-
sult will be in foot-pounds. This result may be shown graphically
by a figure called a work diagram.
Let distances on the line OY (Fig. 1) represent the force act-
ing, and distances on OX represent the space moved through.
Suppose the figure to be drawn to such a scale that OY is 5 feet
in height, and OX, 10 feet long. Let each division on OF repre-
sent 1 pound pressure, and each division on OX, 1 foot of space
moved through. If a pressure of 5 pounds acts through a dis-
tance of 10 feet, then an amount of 5 10 x =
50 foot-pounds
of work has been done. Assume, however, that the pressure drops
uniformly from 5 pounds at the beginning to no pressure at the
end of the stroke. In this case, the area and work done are found
by multiplying the length of the diagram by the average height,
as follows :

10 = 25 square feet, or 25 foot-pounds of work done.

The object of this illustration is to show how foot-pounds of

work may be represented graphically by the areas of diagrams.
It is also evident that knowing the area, the average height or
pressure may be found by dividing by the length, and vice versa.
The form of work diagram which would be produced by the
action of the steam in an engine cylinder, if no heat were lost
by conduction and radiation, is represented by the diagram,
Fig. 2. Starting with the piston at the beginning of the stroke,
steam is admitted at a pressure represented by the height of the
W-1416
fine OF. As the piston moves forward, sufficient steam is ad-
mitted to maintain the same pressure. At the point B, the valve
closes and steam is cut off. The work done up to this time is
shown by the rectangle YBbO. From the point B to the end of
the stroke C, the piston is moved forward by the expansion of
the steam, the pressure falling in proportion to the distance
moved through, until at the end of the stroke it is represented
by the vertical line CX. At the point C, the exhaust valve opens
and the pressure drops to (atmospheric pressure in this case).
As it is desirable to find the work done by a complete stroke
of the engine, it is necessary to find the average or mean pres-
sure acting throughout the stroke. This can only be done by
determining the area of the diagram and dividing by the length
of the stroke. This gives what is called the mean ordinate, which,
multiplied by the scale of the drawing, will give the mean or
average pressure. For example, if the area of the diagram is
found to be 6 square inches, and its length is 3 inches, the mean
ordinate will be 6 - 3= 2 inches. If the diagram is drawn
to such a scale that 1 inch on OY represents 10 pounds, then the
average or mean pressure will be 2 X =
10 20 pounds, and this
multiplied by the actual length of the piston stroke will give the
work done in foot-pounds.
Work Diagram of Air Compressor: The action or result of a
single stroke of the piston of an air compressor may be shown
diagrammatically the same as for steam. The total work done
per stroke is represented by the area GABCE (see Fig. 3) . At
the beginning of the stroke, at A, the pressure is that of the at-
mosphere, or 14.7 pounds absolute, and is represented by the line
GA. During compression from A to B, the pressure increases
from GA to FB, the latter being that of the receiver, or the
storage chamber to which the compressed air is delivered. The
remainder of the stroke simply forces the air from the cylinder
into the receiver at a constant pressure FB. It is evident that
a single stroke consists of two events, as follows: (1) compressing
the air from atmospheric to receiver pressure, and (2) forcing
it into the receiver at this pressure. The total work per stroke
and that of each event are shown, the total work being repre-
sented by the diagram GABCE; that of compression, by GABF;
and that of the discharge, by FBCE. The net work, or that actu-
ally performed by the compressor, and which must be supplied
from an outside source, is shown by the shaded portion ABCD.
The work of filling the cylinder with air, represented by GADE,
is done by the pressure of the atmosphere and requires no work
on the part of the compressor; therefore, this may be deducted
from the total work.
Effect of Compression on Temperature: In the foregoing, only
 1417 -W
pressure and volume have been considered, but in the actual com-
pression of air the temperature is also an important factor. Heat
has a tendency to increase either the volume or pressure of air,
depending upon the conditions. For example, assume that a
cylinder partially filled with air is fitted with a piston. The air
has a given temperature, and a pressure corresponding to that
of the atmosphere plus the weight of the piston which it supports.
Should heat now be applied and the temperature of the air in-
creased, its volume will also be increased and the piston will
move, the pressure, of course, remaining the same as before. If
now the piston is replaced by a rigid air-tight diaphragm, and
heat is applied, the volume cannot increase, but an increase in
pressure will result. Furthermore, if the piston should be moved
so as to increase the pressure and reduce the volume of the air,
there would be be an increase in temperature; hence, the pres-
sure, volume, and temperature are intimately connected, and must
all be considered in the design of a compressor. (See also
Indicator Diagrams.)

Working Gage. "Working gages" are those which are used

work for size during the actual manufacture of the
in testing the
part. This type of gage has a greater amount allowed for wear
than any other type, and hence the actual tolerance on the work
between the maximum and minimum gage is smaller, by the
amount allowed for wear on the gage, than the actual amount
specified on the drawing. See Gage Classification.

Working Load. See Stress Definitions.

Working Points. The working or register points are those

surfaces that are employed for locating parts in the jigs and
fixtures during the process of manufacture. Sometimes im-
portant functional surfaces are used for this purpose. In other
cases, for parts of irregular form, special lugs are provided and
are removed after the machining operations are complete. As
few locating points as possible should be established because
this practice simplifies the design of the gages and other
equipment.
Worm-Gear Applications. Worm gearing is employed for
transmitting motion between two shafts which are at right angles
to each other but which are not in the same plane. Strictly
speaking, worm gearing is, therefore, a modified
form of spiral
or helical gearing, in which one gear takes the form of a screw
or worm provided with threads, and the other of a gear with
same angle as the threads in the worm.
teeth inclined at the
Worm gearing may be employed (1) as an efficient, steady
transmitter of power; (2) when a large reduction in velocity is
advan-
desired; (3) when considerable increase in "mechanical
W-1418
tage" is required, or, in other words, when a given applied force
must overcome a comparatively high resistance to motion. Many
worm-gears of the higher ratios are self-locking but very ineffi-
cient. Such gears, however, usually are applied to intermittent
service, or where the waste of power due to the decreased effi-
ciency of self-locking worm gearing is of little or no importance.
The best material for worm gearing is hard phosphor-bronze for
the worm-wheel and hardened steel for the worm. The next best
materials are cast iron for the worm-wheel and hardened steel
or cast iron for the worm. Steel or steel castings for both the
worm-wheel and worm are only allowable for slow speeds. The
teeth in the worm-wheel and the thread on the worm should al-
ways be cut, whenever the gearing is to be used steadily or at a
reasonably high speed.
Worm-Gear Bronze. See Gear Castings, Bronze.
Worm-Gear Cutting. The machines used for cutting worm-
gears include ordinary milling machines, gear-bobbing machines
of the type adapted to cutting either spur, spiral, or worm gear-
ing, and special machines designed expressly for cutting worm-
gears. The general methods employed are (1) cutting by using
a straight hob and a radial feeding movement between hob and
gear blank; (2) cutting by feeding a fly cutter tangentially with
relation to the worm gear blank; and (3) cutting by feeding a
tapering hob tangentially. The fly-cutter method is slow as com-
pared with bobbing but it has two decided advantages First, a
:

very simple and inexpensive cutter may be used instead of an

expensive hob. This is of great importance when the number of
worm-gears is not large enough to warrant making a hob. Sec-
ond, with the fly-cutter method, it is possible to produce worm-
gears having more accurate teeth than are obtainable by the use
of a straight hob. Taper hobs are especially adapted for cutting
worm-gears that are to mesh with worms having large helix
angles; they are also preferable for worm-gears having large
face widths in proportion to the worm diameter. Worm-gear
teeth are generated more accurately with a taper hob than with
a straight hob that is given a radial feeding movement.

Worm Gearing, Hindley. See Hindley Worm Gearing.

Worm-Gear Power-Transmitting Capacity. In determin-
ing the allowable load for worm gearing, the danger of overheat-
ing and of abrasion is usually of greater importance than the
strength, because if the gearing is so proportioned as to prevent
abrasion and overheating, the strength will ordinarily be greater
than is required merely to withstand the stresses due to the load.
Overheating is the cause of most worm-gear failures. It indi-
cates that the f fictional loss is so great that the heat is generated
 1419 -W
faster than it can be dissipated;
consequently the action of the
lubricant becomes less effective as the
temperature rises, which,
in turn, causes a further increase in frictional
resistance. Finally,
the oil film between the surfaces and contact is no
longer main-
tained and abrasion begins. It is evident that there is less dan-
ger of overheating and abrasion with lower velocities and inter-
mittent service, and also when a lubricant of good
quality is used
In designing worm drives, the worm diameter should be as
small as possible to reduce the velocity. If the worm diameter is
unnecessarily large, the gearing may become hot and start to cut
Another important point is to use a multiple-threaded worm in
preference to a single-threaded worm, whenever conditions per-
mit, to increase efficiency. For determining the power that worm
gearing will transmit without danger of excessive heating or
abrasion, the Lewis formula for spur gears may be used, the
calculations being based on the velocity of the worm-gear; that
is, insert in the formula for spur gears the velocity of the worm-

jrear in feet per minute,, its diametral pitch, and face width as
measured along the pitch circle of the worm.
Worm Thread Cutting. Worm threads are cut either by
using some form of thread-cutting lathe and a single-point tool,
by using a thread milling machine and a disk type of cutter, or
by using a gear-hobbing machine. Single-thread worms usually
have an included angle of 29 degrees. Many worm gears used
at the present time, especially for power transmission, have
thread angles larger than 29 degrees because multiple-thread
worms are used to obtain higher efficiency, and larger thread
angles are necessary in order to avoid excessive under-cutting of
the worm-wheel teeth. According to the recommended practice
of the American Gear Manufacturers' Association, worms hav-
ing triple and quadruple threads should have a thread angle of
40 degrees, and some manufacturers of worm gearing, especially
when the helix or lead angle of the thread is quite large, use a
thread angle of 60 degrees.
If the helix or lead angle of the worm thread exceeds 15 or
20 degrees, it is common practice to reduce the depth of the
thread by using the normal instead of the axial pitch of the worm
in the formulas. Thus, if Pn equals normal pitch, the total depth
equals Pn X 0.6866 instead of P X 0.6866. This normal pitch Pn
equals P X cosine of the helix angle. According to the recom-
mended practice of the American Gear Manufacturers' Associa-
tion, the whole depth for single- and double-thread worms equals
P X 0.686, and for triple- and quadruple-thread worms equals
P X 0.628.
Worm Threads. The included angles of worm threads may
range from 29 degrees up to 60 degrees. While 29 degrees (see
W-1420
illustration) a common angle for single-threaded worms, the
is
multiple-threaded type used for efficient power transmission must
have comparatively large helix angles and, consequently, increased
thread angles to avoid excessive under-cutting in hobbing the
worm-wheel teeth. The American Gear Manufacturers' Associa-
tion recommends a 40-degree in-
d = 0.6866 X P cluded thread angle for triple-
t = 0.335 x p
b = 0.310 X P and quadruple-thread worms, but
many speed reducers and other
transmissions have thread angles
of 60 degrees. The angle of
29 degrees is the same as that of
the Acme thread, but the worm
thread depth is greater and the
widths of the flats at the top and
29-degree Worm Thread bottom are less. If the lead
angle or angle between the worm
thread helix at the pitch cylinder and ,a plane perpendicular to
the worm axis, is comparatively large, difficulties may be encoun-
tered if a 29-degree worm thread is employed. If the lead angle
is larger than about 20 degrees, an increase in the included
thread angle is desirable. As the efficiency of worm gearing
reaches a maximum when the lead angle is about 45 degrees, this
explains why 60-degree thread angles have been applied in many
transmissions. The formulas for the thread parts of a 29-degree
worm thread are as follows :
= No. threads per
pitch
of inch
9

A
thread = 0.6866 p
'

depth of ^-
.
No. of
threads per inch
t width thread s=
at top of p; 0.335
b width bottom of thread = 0.310
at p.

Worthite. A high-nickel, high-chromium molybdenum allov

steel suitable for all purposes where chromium-iron alloys or
nickel-chromium stainless steels are applicable, and, in addition.
for purposes where its ability to resist sulphuric acid is of espe-
cial value. Tensile strength, 67,000 to 75,000 pounds per square
inch; yield point, 30,000 to 35,000 pounds per square inch; elonga-
tion in 2 inches, 35 to 45 per cent; reduction in area, 35 to
45 per cent; Brinell hardness, 125 to 150. Resistant to sulphuric
acid and to weak muriatic acid, but should not be used for hot
sulphuric acid above 50 per cent concentration, nor for halogen
acids, except very weak solutions.

Wortle Steel. The special class of tungsten steels known as

wortle or cold-drawing die steels, possess unusual resistance to
 1421 -W
wear and are used in connection with draw-benches for drawing
wire and rod. The so-called soft wortle steels usually contain
from 1.5 to 3 per cent tungsten; about 2 per cent carbon; and
from 0.50 to 0.80 per cent manganese. Such steels are adapted
for drawing soft wire, "rounds" and shapes. A hard wortle steel
for fine wire drawing contains 11 to 12 per cent tungsten; 1.85
to 1.95 per cent carbon; about 2 per cent manganese, and the
same amount of chromium.
Wrenches. A group of wrenches commonly used in general
mechanical work shown by the engraving. The straight single-
is
end wrench at A is designed for. use on either hexagon or square
nuts and bolts, on plain work where there are no interferences.

Non-adjustable Wrenches

This type of wrench is also made double, with a different size of

opening at each end. The single-end 15-degree angle wrench,
shown at B, is a very common type of wrench, the offset of which
is made in order to permit its use in more confined situations,
where the handle might strike if it were made straight. The
double-end 15-degree angle wrench C is of the same general type
as B, the ends being offset and with different sizes of openings.
The double-end 22y2 -degree angle wrench D is particularly use-
ful in loom repairing and for textile workers. It is intended

especially for square-head nuts and bolts on account of the greater

swing of wrench needed in setting up. The double-head toolpost
wrench E is made with one end o broached square, so that it is
not likely to slip off the post when in use. The other end n is
usually made to take some standard size of nut used
on the ma-
chine.The square-box 22y%-degree angle toolpost wrench F is also
broached and is designed primarily for a lathe toolpost. The
W-1422

Alligator and Pipe Wrenches

angle of the broached hole u, in relation to the handle, is such

as to give greater latitude when the operator's hand is likely to
come in contact with the work, or portions of the machine. The
offsets commonly used for non-adjustable wrenches are 15 degrees
for a hexagon and 22% degrees for a square-head bolt or nut,
these angularities being, in each case, one-quarter of the angle
of the arc subtended by one side of the nut. When nuts are lo-
cated in such a way that there is not sufficient room to swing a
straight wrench through the necessary angle, the offset type can
be used to advantage. See Socket Wrenches ; Spanner Wrenches.
Wrenches for Cylindrical Work. The alligator wrench at A
indicates clearly the origin of its name. One of the jaws d is
provided with a set of teeth, while the other, e, is smooth. When
in use, the teeth "bite" into the pipe or other cylindrical work,
and a wedging action takes place as the pipe works farther up
into the jaws, so that it becomes tighter as pressure is applied.
The Stillson type of wrench, B, is commonly used for pipe work
of all kinds. The jaw / is L-shaped, flattened on the sides, and
has a thread of coarse pitch at h. The jaw is mounted in a holder
pivoted at g to the solid portion of the wrench, the adjustment
being obtained through the knurled nut k. When pressure is ap-
 1423 -W
plied, the pivoted portion in connection with the fixed jaw tends
to grip the work more and more tightly, according to the amount
of force used in the application. The chain-type of wrench, C,
is commonly used on work requiring considerable leverage, such
as heavy steam fitting and street pipe work. The handle q is
often made in lengths of from 2 to 6 feet. There are two jaws m,
one of which is fastened to each side of the bar by the nuts and
bolts at o, these jaws being provided with teeth which "bite" into
any cylindrical object on which they are used, as shown at n in
the illustration. The chain portion p may be drawn around the
pipe to an approximation of the correct diameter, after which
provision is made between the jaws for tightening the chain.
This is done either by means of protruding lugs, or by an ex-
tension of the rivet ends through the chain blocks in such a way
that they will drop into slots in the jaws.

Wringing Fit. This is a fit between two parts, one cylindrical

and the other with a cylindrical bore, of such a character that
one part cannot be pushed easily into the other, but can be made
to enter by a twisting motion, the parts being turned or twisted
as they are forced or "wrung" together by hand.

Wrought Iron. Wrought iron is a slag-bearing malleable iron

which contains comparatively little carbon (.08 per cent or less).
It is more easily forged than steel and can be welded readily; it
cannot be hardened or heat-treated the same as steel, but can be
casehardened by the use of cyanide of potassium. It has a high
electrical conductivity and magnetizes easily. Wrought iron should
never be used for bearing surfaces, as its slag content causes
heating and wear, but it is suitable for parts such as chain links,
rods, angles, braces, levers, etc., and for use when subjected to
high temperatures,
Grades of Wrought Iron: Wrought iron is graded in many
ways, there being no standard system. It is sometimes divided
simply into two classes charcoal iron, which is made from char-
coal pig and is usually refined and double refined, and common
iron, which is made from coke pig. According to another system,
it is graded in three classes as charcoal iron; puddle iron, which
is divided into Classes A, B, and C, or into staybolt iron and
merchant iron; and busheled scrap iron, which is made from iron
scrap which frequently contains pieces of steel. According to still
another classification, it is graded as Norway or, more correctly,
Swedish iron, which is very fibrous and used for the best class
of work; double-refined or best-refined iron, which is the best
domestic iron, and is used for forging, welding, and machine
work; refined iron, which is a good grade of wrought iron; and
W-1424
common iron, which is made either from pig iron or from scrap,
and which does not weld as readily as the other grades.
Wrought iron has, to a large extent, been superseded by mild
steel. Nevertheless, its resistance to fatigue and the ease with
which it can be welded render it valuable for many purposes.
Although it is frequently referred to as "Norway" iron, probably
the best wrought iron made comes from Sweden. This iron is
unusually free from sulphur and phosphorous ingredients which
have an injurious effect upon the metal.
Strength of Wrought Iron: Wrought iron is ductile and malle-
able. Its strength and physical properties depend upon various
conditions, but the ultimate strength in tension is about 48,000
to 50,000 pounds per square inch. If wrought iron is assumed to
have a strength of 100 per cent at 70 degrees F., its strength at
400 degrees P. is about 112 per cent and at 570 degrees F., 116
per cent, after which there is a falling off, so that the strength
at 750 degrees F. is 96 per cent, and at 1100 degrees F., 42 per
cent.
Refined and Double-refined Wrought Iron: Refined wrought
iron is made by melting pig iron and puddling it in a puddle fur-
nace in the same way as common iron. The bars, however, are
subjected to a second heating and re-rolling, thus producing what
is known as "refined" iron. Double-refined iron is also made from

pig iron, and passes through the same process in the puddling
furnace, and is rolled through the puddle rolls, cut up, heated,
and re-rolled the same as refined iron, but the bars thus obtained
are again cut up, made into box piles, reheated, and again run
through the rolls. The double rolling of the metal makes it very
fibrous. Double-refined wrought iron is a very good material hav-
ing an ultimate tensile strength of about 50,000 pounds per square
inch with an elongation of 28 per cent. It is used extensively in
the construction of passenger and freight cars, because of its
ductility and its quality of being able to withstand shocks and
constant vibration better than steel.

Wrought Pipe Defined. The terms "wrought pipe" and

"wrought-iron pipe," at one time were practically synonymous,
for originally all pipe was made of wrought iron, but the use of
steel pipe has increased so rapidly that now at least 90 per cent
of the wrought pipe made in this country is of that material
"Wrought pipe" is a term that is applied to both steel and iron
pipe. The term "wrought-iron pipe" means that the pipe is made
of wrought iron, which is the product of the puddling furnace;
while "steel pipe" is applied, of course, only to pipe made of steel

Wuest Herringbone Gears. See under Herringbone Gears.

 Xaloy, Very hard wear-resistant alloy that has been used in
oil-wellequipment under the trade name "LR. Metal,*' but which
is now available for broader industrial applications; hardness,
700 to 750 Brinell or 68 to 70 Rockwell C scale; applied in the
form of a metal coating of uniform thickness, finished by honing
or grinding; when finished, has mirror-like surface with unusu-
ally low coefficient of friction. Suitable for coating drill and
reamer bushings, deep drawing dies, sizing dies, work-rests, ring
and plug gages, pilot bars, and valves.

X-rays. X-rays, also known from their discoverer as Rontgen

rays, are generated when the cathode rays of a vacuum tube im-
pinge upon any solid substance. All substances, many of which
are opaque to ordinary light, transmit X-rays to some degree. A
somewhat interesting relationship exists between the transpar-
ency of any substance and its specific gravity; the transparency
to X-rays is approximately inversely proportional to the specific
gravity of the substance. X-rays are of the same general char-
acter as light waves, but so short that they readily penetrate all
sorts of materials usually opaque to visible light. They are pro-
duced commercially by a very high voltage discharge in a special
type of vacuum tube, and their ability to penetrate materials in-
creases with the voltage, but decreases as the atomic weight of
the materials increases. Thus, X-rays produced at 100,000 volts
may penetrate satisfactorily an inch of steel, several inches of
aluminum or a foot or more of wood, whereas more than 200,000
volts would be required to produce X-rays to penetrate three
inches of steel. Specially designed 220 kilovolt X-ray equipment
mounted on a portable carriage is being used for this purpose in
industry.
The usual way of recording X-rays is by the "shadow picture,"
or radiograph, formed on a photographic film. As with ordinary
photographs, darker regions on the negative or lighter regions
on the print mean that more light has passed through the object
at that place that is, the object is more transparent there. In
some instances a fluoroscopic screen may be used for direct ob-
servation of the image, much as a "moving picture" would be
viewed.
Serious waste in the machine shop often occurs because of in-
ternal defects discovered in the work after considerable machin-
ing has been done. While these conditions are, perhaps, more
1425
X-1426
prevalent in castings, they also occur in forgings and in bar ox
plate stock. Where it is a question of machining large and im-
portant castings, X-ray inspections may be of particular impor-
tance. Detailed pictures of all sorts of cast articles can be secured
with comparative ease and speed, so long as the greatest thickness
does not exceed 3% inches of steel or its equivalent.
Equipment which can be used in making X-ray pictures of
castings, etc., consists of a high-voltage power plant capable of
producing 280,000 volts, an X-ray tube mounted in a lead-covered
steel drum to prevent the escape of X-rays except through pre-
determined openings, and an exposure cabinet provided with mov-
able lead screens to surround the object under examination. Ar-
rangements also have been effected whereby small metal parts
may pass in front of a fluoroscopic screen for continuous inspec-
tion.

Xylene. Name applied to any of three isomeric hydrocar-

H
bons, C 6 4 (CH 3 ) 2 , of the benzene series, found in coal and wood
tar and certain kinds of petroleum, and also prepared artificially.
They are dimethyl derivatives of benzene and are called specifi-
cally orthoxylene, metaxylene or isoxylene, and paraxylene. All
are ordinarily coloress oily liquids, and each is the parent sub-
stance of a distinct series of compounds.
 Yard. One yard equals 3 feet or 36 inches. Since 1893 the
United States yard and its subdivisions have been derived from
the international meter. The basic relation officially recognized
isthat contained in the law of July 28, 1866, and set forth in the
Mendenhall order of April 5, 1893; namely,
1 yard 3,600
1 meter 3,937
Y-Connections. In a three-phase, alternating-current sys-
tem, the generators and motors are designed with three windings
or phases, connected either in mesh or with delta connection, in
which case the diagram of the three windings forms a Greek
letter delta (A), or in star or Y-connection, when the diagram
of the three windings forms a Y.
Yellow Metal. This is a brass containing about 40 per cent
of zinc and 60 per cent of copper. See Brass Alloys for Castings.

Y-Fitting or Wye. A fitting either cast or wrought that has

one side outlet at any angle other than 90 degrees. The angle is
usually 45 degrees, unless another angle is specified. The fitting
is usually indicated by the letter Y.

Yield-Point. When testing a bar of metal in a testing ma-

chine, a point will be arrived at where there will be an extension
of the bar without an increase of the load. This point is called
the yield point. Practically, it may be considered as the point at
which a certain load per square inch will cause a distinctly vis-
ible increase in the distance between the gage points on the test-
piece; or it may be considered to be the point at which, when the
load is increased at a moderately fast rate, there is a distinct
drop of the testing machine lever, or, in hydraulic testing ma-
chines, of the gage finger. A steel test-piece at the yield-point
shows rapidly a large increase of extension. The yield -point
should not be confused with the elastic limit, which is the point
at which extensions in a material under stress cease to be pro-
portional to the loads.

Yoloy. A nickel-copper alloy steel produced in sheets, strips,

bars, plates, shapes, wire, and seamless pipe. Has exceptional
resistance to corrosion, high tensile strength, high ductility,
workability, and weldability. Low-strength Yoloy has a tensile
strength of 74,000 pounds per square inch; high-strength Yoloy,
1427
Y-1428
92,000 pounds per square inch. For use where resistance to cor*
rosion is essential, where abrasion must be withstood, and where
long life is desired for the same weight of material, or equal life
with lighter weight.

Young's Modulus. The modulus of elasticity of a material

that is, the quotient obtained by dividing the stress per square
inch by the elongation in one inch caused by this stress is often
referred to as Young's modulus, from the name of the first in-
vestigator who pointed out this relationship.
 Zee Section. A standard structural shape consisting of a
web and flanges extending at right angles to the web but in op-
posite directions. See Structural Shapes.
Zerener Electric Welding Process. In the Zerener electric
welding process (also known as the "electric blow-pipe" method) ,
an electric arc is drawn between two carbon electrodes. This arc
is then caused to impinge upon the metal surfaces to be welded
by means of an electro-magnet. The arc is pointed to concentrate
the heat, and the metal is fused around its point of contact with
the arc.

Zero, Absolute. See Absolute Temperature.

Zero! Bevel Gears. Gears of this type have curved teeth but
the spiral angle is zero, which explains the derivation of the name.
These gears may be cut and ground on the same Gleason machines
that are used for spiral bevel and hypoid gears. Zerol bevel gears
combine the low axial thrust of straight bevel gears, with the
local tooth contact of spiral bevel gears. They can be used to
replace straight bevel gears without mounting changes, when the
thrust limitations prevent the use of spiral bevel gears.

Zilloy. A rolled zinc which is stronger, and has greater

heat resistance than the commercial grades of rolled zinc, but
possesses the same corrosion-resistant characteristics. Fabricated
and finished by similar methods to those used for commercial
grades. Suitable for fabrication into screen frames, screen
guides, splines, weather-strips, corner headings and moldings, as
well as for zinc stampings of greater strength than obtainable
from commercial grades of rolled zinc.
Zino. Zinc is a metallic chemical element. Its chemical sym-
bol is Zn; atomic weight, 65.37; melting point, 786 degrees F.
(419 degrees C.) ; boiling point, at atmospheric pressure, 1904
degrees F. (1040 degrees C.). The specific gravity of cast zinc
is from 6.86 to 6.91 ; specific gravity of rolled zinc, from 7.15 to
7.19; coefficient of linear expansion per unit of length per degree
F., 0.000014 ; specific heat, 0.095 ; latent heat of fusion, 50.6 B.T.IL
per pound; heat transmitted, per second, through metal 1 inch
thick, per square inch of surface, for a temperature difference of
1 degree F., 0.0017 B.T.U.; heat conductivity compared with
silver (silver = 100) 36 electric conductivity (silver
, ;
=
100) ,

29.6; ultimate tensile strength of cast zinc, about 5000 pounds

1429
Z-1430
per square inch (but may vary from 4000 to 14,000 pounds per
square inch); ultimate strength in compression, about 20,000
pounds per square inch; modulus of elasticity, 13,000,000. Com-
mercial zinc is generally known as spelter.
Zinc Ores: Zinc does not occur free in nature, although it is
very common in various combinations. The four important ores
are zinc oxide, zinc sulphide, or blende, zinc silicate, and zinc
sulphate. The greater part of zinc found in nature is in the form
of zinc sulphide, but, as this is infusible, it must be oxidized,
when zinc oxide, zinc sulphide, and sulphur dioxide are formed.
By heating zinc silicate to a high temperature, it is reduced by
carbon, and metallic zinc, carbon monoxide, and silica slag are
formed. All zinc ores, except the oxides, are first converted into
zinc oxide, which is then distilled with carbon, and the distillate
of metallic zinc is condensed. This metallic zinc is refined in a
furnace.
Zinc is used in many brass compositions and in zinc-base die-
casting alloys. Another important use is for protecting steel and
iron against corrosion by a coating of zinc.

Zinc-Aluminum Alloys. See Aluminum Alloys, Cast.

Zinc Castings. Pure zinc castings are used for certain spe-
cial purposes. For example, the dies or blocks on which hats are
made are usually cast from zinc. The patterns for pure zinc
castings are usually made from plaster-of-paris/and the molding
is similar to that of other metals. Another use for cast zinc is
for making monuments and statues, the metal then being market-
ed under the name of "white bronze." For many purposes of in-
side decoration, a metal casting that can be easily bronzed or
otherwise finished is desirable. Zinc, when alloyed with some cop-
per, is frequently used, although, as a general rule, brass or
bronze castings are preferable. Brass and bronze, however, must
be cast at a temperature of from 1700 to 1900 degrees F., accord-
ing to the composition of the alloy, whereas zinc, alloyed with a
small amount of copper, can be cast at a temperature of from
about 800 to 900 degrees F., which is an important consideration,
especially when plaster molds are used.
Zinc Cement. Zinc cementis a cement composed of zinc
oxide which is made a paste by means of a solution of zinc
into
chloride. The peculiar quality of zinc cement is that it hardens
quickly, and it may, therefore, be used for various purposes where
this quality is of value. A cheaper form of zinc cement may be
made from commercial zinc-white, mixed with an equal weight of
fine sand, an3 made into a paste by means of a solution of zinc
chloride. This cement is frequently used for filling cracks in
metals, and for cementing glass, porcelain, etc.
 1431 -Z
Zinc Chromate. Zinc chromate is a yellow pigment made
from zinc salts and potassium dichromate. It is fairly soluble in
water and generally contains other chromates and zinc oxide, with
some impurities. It has a specific gravity of 3.5, and grinds to a
paste in 25 per cent of oil. Considerable drier is required as it
is a slow drying material, but it has proved to be one of the most
inhibitive of all pigments in use and is valuable in even small
amounts in protective paints. Its rather high price is its only
disadvantage.
Zinc-Dust. Zinc-dust, also known as zinc powder, is metallic
zinc in the form of a fine powder. It may be obtained in two ways :

1. By grinding zinc, heated to a temperature of from 400 to 500

degrees F., in an iron mortar. 2. By rapid cooling of zinc vapor in

the reduction of the metal from its ores. In this case, the zinc-dust
is more or less mixed with zinc oxide. Zinc-dust is used as a de-

oxidizing agent in the textile industries, and also in making pro-

tective paints for iron work.
Zinc Cage. This gage applies to sheet zinc only. For zinc
wire the American or Brown & Sharpe wire gage is employed.
Tables of these gages are in MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK.
Zinc Iron. Zinc iron is an alloy of iron and zinc, obtained
by dissolving the iron in molten zinc at a high temperature. This
alloy is used for introducing iron into copper-zinc and copper-tin
alloys.
Zinsol. A solution or compound which, when applied to
metal surfaces, forms a surface that is chemically inert to mois-
ture, the atmosphere, and organic finishes, so as to form a stable
foundation for any desired finish. Used for treating the surfaces
of zinc, zinc-coated, or galvanized products before finishing them
with lacquer, enamel, paint, or varnish. The zinc or zinc-coated
products are dipped into or wiped with the solution.
Zircofrax. Tubes, combustion "boats," and covers, made from
zirconium for use in steel and alloy manufacturing plant
silicate,
laboratories. The "boats" and covers will withstand temperatures
up to 2820 degrees P., and the gas-tight tubes over 2900 degrees
F. Applicable for laboratory equipment at temperatures well
above those required in the analysis of steels and alloys with
high melting temperature.
Zisium. Zisium is a trade name for an alloy of aluminum,
zinc, tin, and copper, aluminum being the chief constituent.
Traces of antimony and bismuth are also present. The alloy is used
in the making of scientific instruments. Ziskon is another trade
name used for an alloy of aluminum and zinc, containing about
75 per cent of aluminum and 25 per cent of zinc. The alloy is also
used in the making of scientific instruments.
Z-1432
Z-Nickel. A nickel alloy containing 98 per cent nickel, which
has the corrosion-resistant properties of nickel combined with the
mechanical properties of high-strength alloy steel. It has been
produced with a tensile strength as high as 250,000 pounds per
square inch, and a hardness as high as 46 Rockwell C. Commer-
cial cold-rolled strip, unhardened, varies in tensile strength from
90,000 to 155,000 pounds per square inch, and heat-treated strip
from 120,000 to 220,000 pounds per square inch.