ENGG1050 Expanded Lecture Notes (6 - 27 August)

Note that these repeat (in a more wordy form) the PowerPoint Slides provided.

Equations of State (6 August, C&B 3-6 and 3-8)

These are mathematical relationships (equations) describing the behaviour and

properties of a substance at equilibrium. The ideal gas equation Pv = RT is an
example, and can be used to find e.g. v if P and T are known. Note that in this form of
the equation (which is probably the most common in engineering applications), P is
absolute pressure, v is the specific volume of the gas, T is the temperature in Kelvin,
and R is the gas constant for that particular gas. R for a range of materials is given
in Table A-1.

This equation of state will be used regularly throughout the course, so it is important
to realise that it can only be applied to gases with low density, or at much lower
pressure and/or higher temperature than the critical point for the substance in
question. As a rule of thumb, it is best to use equations of state only when
tables/charts are not available, or at lower pressures or higher temperatures than those
covered by the table/chart.

Equations of state are useful for making detailed models of systems over a wide range
of states, but must be used carefully to ensure they are only applied over the range of
states where they remain valid.

Note: Many of you may be familiar with the form of the ideal gas equation PV =
NRuT, where V is the total volume, N is the number of moles, and Ru is the Universal
Gas Constant (8.314 J.mol-1.K-1). This is equivalent to Pv=RT, and can be derived by
multiplying both sides of this equation by the mass of gas, and noting that R is defined
as Ru divided by the molar mass of the substance.

There are many more complex equations of state that you may need to use in
situations in engineering practice or in later courses. The advantage of these equations
is that they can be used over a wider range of states than the ideal gas equation. It
would be an advantage to scan briefly over the textbook section on these equations.
Compressibility Factor (9 August, C&B 3-7)

This is a correction to the ideal gas equation to allow it to be used over a wider
range of state, simply by multiplying by an extra factor:

Pv = ZRT

This is identical to the ideal gas equation if Z=1, which is approximately true at either
low pressure (P much small than the critical pressure) or high temperature (T greater
than 2 times the critical temperature). At temperatures and pressures closer to the
critical point, the Generalised Compressibility Charts (Figure A-15) must be used to
find a value for Z.

From experiments, it is apparent that different substances exhibit similar behaviour if

the pressure and temperature are scaled by the critical point properties, so to reduce
the number of charts required, Generalised Compressibility Charts are always
provided using values for Reduced Pressure (PR = P/PCR) and Reduced
Temperature (TR = T/TCR). Using this new notation, the conditions under which a
substance can be treated as an ideal gas without using the compressibility factor as a
correction are PR 1 or TR > 2.

Calculations on a single state are seldom of much interest in practice, so it it important

to realise that any process which changes the state of a substance will almost always
change the value of Z. This means that Z must be determined from the Generalised
Compressibility Charts every time the corrected equation is used.

To ensure you understand how to can find values of Z is necessary, determine Z for
Nitrogen gas at the following temperatures and pressures:

a) T = 200K; P=3MPa, and P=1MPa, and P=0.1MPa

Answers: Z=0.943; Z=0.98; Z=0.999;

b) P= 2.0MPa; T=150K, T=200K, T=250K

Work (10 August, C&B 4-1)

Mechanical Work is one means of transferring energy to or from a thermodynamic

system. Work is always done across the boundary of a system during a process, and
cannot be used to describe the state of a system.

The definition of a work is Force multiplies by the displacement over which the force
acts. If the force is constant throughout, this is simply the product of Force and total
displacement. However, in many situations, the force is not constant and integration
(sometimes called anti-derivative in some calculus subjects) must be used to find
work:
f

W = F .ds
i

Pressure is often more useful than force in Thermodynamics, so this formula is

usually re-written by replacing F with PA:

f f

W = P.dV = m P.dv
i i

Note that a physical interpretation of this integral is the area under the P vs V curve.
Those unfamiliar with calculus can often do such integration to a good approximation
by drawing the P vs V curve for a process and determining the area under this.

Other forms of work you will need to be aware of from time-to-time throughout the
course are as follows
Electrical: W = VIt (Voltage Current time)
Spring: W = 0.5k(x22-x12) (k is the spring constant in N/m)
Shaft: W = 2nT (n is number of complete rotations,
T is torque)

You may already have realised that most tables and charts give values for internal
energy and enthalpy in kJ/kg. This is often more convenient than total energy in
engineering analysis, so often its more useful to find Work/kg rather than total Work.
This is denoted w instead of W, so for example, the work per kilogram done on a
system being compressed by a piston is: f

w = P.dv
i

If you know how pressure and volume vary during a process, this will always give
you the correct value for work. If not, the only other way is usually to apply the First
Law of Thermodynamics (coming up next).
The First Law (13 August, C&B 4-2)

The First Law of Thermodynamics simply states that energy is conserved. For any
system this means that the total energy in the system plus the total energy in the
surroundings must be the same at the beginning and end of any process. However,
this may involve transfers of energy to or from the system, as well as changes in the
type of energy within the system (e.g. conversion of kinetic energy to internal energy,
etc.).

For any closed system (i.e. no mass transfer across the system boundary), the first law
can be expressed as:
Q = W + E

By convention, Q is the total heat input to the system and W is the total work done by
the system on the surroundings, or (more directly): Q is heat energy added to the
system and W is mechanical energy removed from the system. E is the increase in
total energy of the system, which can be negative (i.e. if Q < W). Try to write down
which types of energy would be included in determining E for a closed system.
Would this always be the same for all types of processes? Consider, for example a
process in which no changes in chemical composition occurred would chemical
energy be included in calculating E?

Heat and Work are both energy transfers across the boundary of a system, and depend
on the process path between two thermodynamic states. They are not properties of the
system at a particular state (e.g. the amount of heat contained by a block of steel is
meaningless).

Since the energy of the system is completely determined by its state, E between two
states is the same, irrespective of the process path taken. For example, think about a
number of possible ways (processes) in which air at room temperature and 1atm
pressure can be expanded to twice the volume, and half the initial pressure: for which
process is the work done by the system the smallest?

Note: many of you will be aware that nuclear reactions can convert mass to energy
(and vice-versa). If you ever need to apply thermodynamics to such a situation, mass
needs to be explicitly considered as a form of energy. Such analysis is outside the
assessable scope for this course.
Specific Heats (16 August, C&B 4-3 and 4-4)

As you may already be aware, specific heat is defined as the amount of energy needed
to raise the temperature of a certain mass of substance by a certain temperature most
often the energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of the substance by 1K
(hence the most common units are J.kg-1.K-1 or kJ. kg-1.K-1). This energy is often, but
not always, input in the form of heat and you may recall from the previous lecture
that heat transfer depends on process path as well as the initial and final state of the
system, so specific heats can only be determined for certain processes. Luckily almost
any thermodynamic state can be reached by a combination of two processes one at
constant pressure (associated with specific heat cp) and one at constant specific
volume (with associated specific heat cv).

If specific volume doesnt change, work must be zero (why?) and all energy input
goes in to changing internal energy, so: f

u = cv (T )dT
i

At constant pressure, the work per kg done as energy is added is w=Pv, and this
energy input must provide this additional work as well as the change in internal
energy:
f

h = u + Pv = cP (T )dT
i

The new symbol introduced here is for enthalpy (h = u + Pv). This quantity is just
another form of energy, and is particularly useful in the analysis of open systems.
Care should be taken if you choose to use enthalpy values to analyse a closed system,
as it already includes a term related to the work done. A safer practice is to analyse
changes in internal energy and the work done separately.

Special Cases:

For an ideal gas, cp = cv + R

For incompressible substances (ideal solids and liquids), cp = cv

Note: when doing calculations with specific heats, a decision has to be made to either
treat them as constant (will always introduce some error, but OK if the values dont
change significantly over the range of calculation) or using integration and the
variable specific heats from e.g. Table A-2 part c).
First Law for Gas Processes (17 August)

The only new idea in this lecture is that the internal energy of an ideal gas depends
only on temperature, not on P or v. For each of the types of process given below, try
to interpret the results given (i.e. if pressure doubles, what does that mean about the
work needed, the change in temperature, the amount of heat transferred, the specific
volume?). If you are fairly confident with integral calculus and algebra, it would be
worthwhile trying to reproduce these results using just the ideal gas equation, the
definition of work, and the first law (this will not be examinable, but should assist you
develop a clearer understanding of parts of the course).

To write these in the simplest form I can, Ill use the energy per kilogram
throughout (i.e. specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, heat/kg, work/kg).

Isothermal Ideal Gas Process:

T = 0
u = 0
h = 0
q = w = RT ln(Pi/Pf)

Adiabatic Ideal Gas Process:

q=0
k = cp/cv = 1 + R/cv (this is just a definition: introduced for convenience of
notation/interpretation)
k
Pf vi
= or Pvk is constant
Pi v f

k 1

RTi Pf k
w= 1
k 1 Pi

Isobaric Ideal Gas Process:

u = cvT
h = cpT
w = RT

Isochoric Ideal Gas Process:

u = cvT
w=0
Enthalpy (20 August, C&B 4-4 and 4-5)

This quantity was mentioned in the previous lectures, and is determined in absolute
terms by the following relationships:
H = U + PV,
and for specific enthalpy:
h = u + Pv

These formulas can be used only when the zero value for energy is defined very
carefully. WARNING: In engineering practice, many tables and charts choose a
differing zero value for convenience (this is often the triple point of the substance,
but the choice of zero is arbitrary within reason and WILL DIFFER BETWEEN
TWO CHARTS or TABLES, or BETWEEN A TABLE and A CHART, EVEN
FROM THE SAME TEXTBOOK). To avoid significant errors, try to always use data
from one set of tables or one chart in analysing any one situation or problem.

As mentioned earlier, enthalpy is very useful when working with open systems (i.e.
where mass flows in and/or out of a control volume). In most common open systems,
there is one input flow and one output flow as each kg of mass flows into the
control volume through the input, it carries in its internal energy (u), plus any kinetic
and potential energy (ke, pe). However, as it is pushed through the entrance to the
control volume, it also does work on the control volume equal Pv per kilogram, so the
net energy input per kg () due to a flowing fluid entering a control volume is:

= Pv + u + ke + pe = h + ke + pe

In this notation, ke and pe are both per kg (i.e. ke = velocity2; pe = gh).

A similar line of reasoning holds for the output flow, so this may help convince you
of the advantages of using enthalpy for analysing open systems: simply using h
instead of Pv + u should reduce the number of calculations needed by at least 2, and
also require 2 fewer quantities to be found in tables/charts.

As enthalpy is a property of a substance, it can be found using tables, charts or

equations of state in much the same way as internal energy, specific volume, etc.

Note: try to remember that enthalpy already includes a Pv term. If you find youre
adding Pv to enthalpy in solving a problem, it most likely indicates some incorrect
reasoning earlier in the problem.
First Law for Open Systems (23 August, C&B 5-1 to 5-3)

The majority of situations can be approximated as steady flow systems. When mass
flows in and/or out of a system, it is necessary to carefully define the control volume.
Once this is defined, the properties of the control volume will usually reman the same
(except for unsteady flow). This means that the mass of substance inside the control
volume remains constant, and the energy (e.g. internal energy, enthalpy, etc.) of the
control volume remains constant so if any mass flows in, and equal amount must
flow out, and similarly, for any energy input, there must be an equivalent energy
output. In analysing any steady flow system, these two criteria are important
(although in many cases, only one of the two will be useful in gaining further
information about the system). If there is just one input flow and one output flow,
these criteria can be expressed mathematically as follows:

Mass Balance: m in = m out

Energy Balance: qnet wnet = h + ke + ke

All terms in this form of the energy balance equation are in units of Energy/kg.
Sometimes, especially when determining power output/input, it is useful to multiply
both sides of this equation by the mass flow rate.

First Law Problem Solving Approach:

1. Draw a picture. On the picture mark the system datum, boundary and all the
information given in the question.
2. Is the initial (inlet) state fixed? How much extra information needed?
3. Is the final (exit) state fixed? How much extra information needed?
4. What is my data source - tables, charts etc?
5. Write down relevant equations (1st Law, 2nd Law, PV work integral, etc.)
6. Make appropriate assumptions and state them clearly.
7. Analyse problem for solution approach. A generic approach that often works is:
a) Use tables/charts etc. to determine as many relevant properties of inlet &
exit states as possible
b) Use 1st Law to determine one more property of inlet or exit state
c) From new property, determine other relevant properties from tables, etc.
d) If problem remains unsolved, try to use any information provided or
assumed that hasnt previously been used (e.g. mass balance).
8. Number crunch the answer.
9. Evaluate answer check that final value makes sense. Unreasonable answers
often indicate an incorrect assumption, or errors in unit
conversion.
Steady Flow Engineering Devices (24 & 27 August, C&B 5-4)

Read over the sections in the textbook about the following devices. For each, try to
determine what assumptions are reasonable, and why (e.g. why nozzles have no input
work):

Nozzles and Diffusers

Turbines and Compressors
Throttling Valves
Mixing Chambers
Heat Exchangers
Pipes and Ducts

Make a list of 3 places where youd find each device (e.g. Compressors are often used
in refrigerators). What is the purpose of the device in each situation?

Browse ahead through the textbook sections on power cycles and refrigeration cycles.
Which of the devices above are used in each of these, and what is their function in
these cycles?
Unsteady Flow Processes (27 August, C&B 5-5)

Unsteady flow systems involve changes in the control volume over time. This could
be mass influx or efflux, changes in the shape and size of the control volume, or
changes in the energy/state of the substance in the control volume.

Mass and Energy balance relationships may be used in a similar way as for steady
flow systems, but with explicit accounting for the energy and mass within the
control volume, as well as inputs and outputs.

So long as we are only interested in the initial and final equilibrium states (and not,
for example, how quickly the changes occur), these process can usually be analysed
as though they occur with uniform flow over the duration of the process. While this
is unlikely to be true, it doesnt impact on total energy or mass transfers.
APPENDIX

Common Process Terminology (add to this list to generate a glossary for reference):
Adiabatic: process in which there is no heat transfer
Isothermal: constant temperature
Isobaric: constant pressure
Isochoric: constant (specific) volume
Isenthalpic: constant enthalpy (h)
Isentropic: constant entropy (s)