effect in the finished product as described on pages 88 to
Pitting can be materially reduced by
91. Alloy steels are readily welded by welding processes
such as MIG/MAG and TIG.
High Strength, Low Alloy Steels The high strength, low
alloy steels make up a group of steels with chemical com-
positions specially developed to give higher physical prop-
erty values and materially greater corrosion resistance
than are obtainable from the carbon steel group. These
steels contain, in addition to carbon and manganese,
other alloying elements that are added to obtain greater
strength, toughness, and hardening qualities.
High strength, low alloy steel is generally used when
savings in weight are important. Its greater strength and
corrosion resistance require less reinforcement and, there-
fore, fewer structural members than fabrications made
with carbon steel. Its better durability is also an advantage
in these applications. Among the steels in this classifica-
tion are oil-hardening steel, air-hardening steel, and high
speed steel.
High strength, low alloy steel is readily adaptable to
fabrication by shearing, plasma cutting, laser cutting,
water jet cutting, punching, forming, riveting, welding
without quenching, and tempering heat treatment by the
fabricator.
Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steels As the name im-
plies, stainless and heat-resisting steels possess unusual
resistance to corrosion at both normal and elevated tem-
peratures. This superior corrosion resistance is accom-
plished by the addition of chromium to iron. The corrosion
resistance of the stainless steels generally increases with
increasing chromium content. It appears that when chro-
mium is present, a thin layer of chromium oxide is bonded
to the surface, and this oxide prevents any further oxida-
tion (ordinary rusting, which is the most common kind
of corrosion). Eleven and five-tenths percent chromium is
generally accepted as the dividing line between low alloy
steel and stainless steel. Although other elements such as
copper, aluminum, silicon, nickel, and molybdenum also
increase the corrosion resistance of steel, they are limited
in their usefulness.
Some stainless steels have practically an indefi-
nite life even without cleaning. Stainless steels are
also resistant to corrosion at elevated temperatures
which are the result of oxidation, carburization, and
sulfidation (deterioration of the surface caused by the
action of oxygen, carbon, and sulfur, respectively).
Users of stainless steel have experienced some diffi-
culty with pitting. This usually occurs when the ma-
terial is exposed to chlorides, or at points where the
steel is in contact with other materials, such as leather,
glass, and grease.
treating the area with strong oxidizing agents such as
some chromates or phosphates. The addition of molyb-
denum to austenitic nickel-chromium steels also helps
control pitting.
The uses for stainless steels are many, and there are
many varieties to choose from. Stainless steels have the
following advantages:
They resist corrosion and the effects of high
temperatures.
They maintain the purity of materials in contact with
them.
They permit greater cleanliness than other types of
steel.
Stainless-steel fabrications usually cost little to
maintain.
Low strength-to-weight ratios are possible both at
room and elevated temperatures.
They are tough at low temperatures.
They have high weldability.
They are highly pleasing in appearance and require a
minimum of finishing.
In general, stainless steels are produced in either the
electric arc or the induction furnace. The largest tonnages
by far are melted in electric arc furnaces.
Stainless and heat-resisting steels are commonly
produced in finished forms such as plates, sheets, strip,
bars, structural shapes, wire, tubing, semifinished cast-
ings, and forgings. These steels fall into five general clas-
sifications according to their characteristics and alloy
content:
1. Five percent chromium, hardenable (martensitic)
500 series
2. Twelve percent chromium, hardenable (martensitic)
400 series
3. Seventeen percent chromium, nonhardenable
(ferritic) 400 series
4. Chromium-nickel (austenitic) 300 series
5. Chromium-nickel-manganese (austenitic) 200series
Series 400 and 500 (Martensitic) Steels
in these two groups
are primarily heat resisting and retain a large part of their
properties at temperatures up to 1,100F. They are some-
what more resistant to corrosion than alloy steels, but they
are not considered true stainless steels.
These steels contain carbon, chromium, and some-
times nickel in such proportions that they will undergo
hardening and annealing. Chromium content in this group
ranges from 11.5 to 18 percent; and carbon, from 0.15 to
1.20 percent, Table 3-3 (p. 84).
Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 83
 Table 3-3 Typical Compositions of Martensitic Stainless Steels

AISI Composition (%)1

Type Carbon Chromium Other2
403 0.15 11.513.0 0.5 silicon
410 0.15 11.513.5
414 0.15 11.513.5 1.252.5 nickel
416 0.15 12.014.0 1.25 manganese, 0.15 sulfur (min.),
0.060 phosphorus,
0.60 molybdenum (opt.)
416Se 0.15 12.014.0 1.25 manganese, 0.060 phosphorus,
0.15 selenium (min.)
420 0.15 (min.) 12.014.0
431 0.20 15.017.0 1.252.5 nickel
440A 0.600.75 16.018.0 0.75 molybdenum
440B 0.750.95 16.018.0 0.75 molybdenum
440C 0.951.20 16.018.0 0.75 molybdenum
1
Single values denote maximum percentage unless otherwise noted.
2
Unless otherwise noted, other elements of all alloys listed include maximum contents of 1.0% manganese,
1.0% silicon, 0.040% phosphorus, and 0.030% sulfur. The balance is iron.

Because of their lower chromium content, steels in the slowly or annealed after forging or welding to prevent
martensitic groups do not offer quite as much corrosion cracking.
resistance as types in the ferritic and austenitic groups.
Series 400 (Ferritic) The chromium content of this group
They are satisfactory for mildly corrosive conditions. They
ranges from 11.5 to 27 percent, and the carbon content is
are suitable for applications requiring high strength, hard-
low, generally under 0.20 percent, Table 3-4. There is no
ness, and resistance to abrasion and wet or dry erosion.
nickel. Ferritic stainless steels cannot be hardened by heat
Thus they are suitable for coal-handling equipment, steam
treatment although hardness may be increased by cold
and gas turbine parts, bearings, and cutlery.
working. Suitable hot or cold working, followed by an-
These steels are satisfactory for both hot and cold
nealing, is the only means of refining the grain and im-
working. They are air hardening and must be cooled
proving ductility.

Table 3-4 Typical Compositions of Ferritic Stainless Steels

AISI Composition (%)1

Type Carbon Chromium Manganese Other2
405 0.08 11.514.5 1.0 0.10.3 aluminum
430 0.12 14.018.0 1.0
430F 0.12 14.018.0 1.25 0.060 phosphorus,
0.15 sulfur (min.),
0.60 molybdenum (opt.)
430FSe 0.12 14.018.0 1.25 0.060 phosphorus, 0.060 sulfur,
0.15 selenium (min.)
442 0.20 18.023.0 1.0
446 0.20 23.027.0 1.5 0.25 nitrogen

Single values denote maximum percentage unless otherwise noted.

1

2
Unless otherwise noted, other elements of all alloys listed include maximum contents of 1.0% silicon, 0.40% phos-
phorus, and 0.030% sulfur. The balance is iron.

84 Chapter 3 Steel and Other Metals

 Stainless steels in the ferritic group have a low coef-
ficient of thermal expansion and good resistance to corro-
sion. They are adaptable to high temperatures. Since their
ductility is fair, they can be fabricated by the usual meth-
ods such as forming, bending, spinning, and light draw-
ing. Welding is possible, but the welds have low toughness
and ductility, which can be improved somewhat by heat
treatment. These steels may be buffed to a high finish re-
sembling chromium plate.
For the most part, ferritic stainless steels are used for
automotive trim, applications involving nitric acid, high
temperature service requiring resistance to scaling, and
uses that call for low thermal expansion.
Series 200 and 300 (Austenitic)The chromium content
of the austenitic group ranges from 16 to 26 percent,
the nickel from 3.5 to 22 percent, and the carbon from
0.15 to 0.08 percent, Table 3-5. These steels are more

Table 3-5 Typical Compositions of Austenitic Stainless Steels

Composition (%)1
AISI
Type Carbon Chromium Nickel Other2
201 0.15 16.018.0 3.55.5 0.25 nitrogen,
5.57.5 manganese,
0.060 phosphorus
202 0.15 17.019.0 4.06.0 0.25 nitrogen,
7.510.0 manganese,
0.060 phosphorus
301 0.15 16.018.0 6.08.0
302 0.15 17.019.0 8.010.0
302B 0.15 17.019.0 8.010.0 2.03.0 silicon
303 0.15 17.019.0 8.010.0 0.20 phosphorus,
0.15 sulfur (min.),
0.60 molybdenum (opt.)
303Se 0.15 17.019.0 8.010.0 0.20 phosphorus, 0.06 sulfur,
0.15 selenium (min.)
304 0.08 18.020.0 8.012.0
304L 0.03 18.020.0 8.012.0
305 0.12 17.019.0 10.013.0
308 0.08 19.021.0 10.012.0
309 0.20 22.024.0 12.015.0
309S 0.08 22.024.0 12.015.0
310 0.25 24.026.0 19.022.0 1.5 silicon
310S 0.08 24.026.0 19.022.0 1.5 silicon
314 0.25 23.026.0 19.022.0 1.53.0 silicon
316 0.08 16.018.0 10.014.0 2.03.0 molybdenum
316L 0.03 16.018.0 10.014.0 2.03.0 molybdenum
317 0.08 18.020.0 11.015.0 3.04.0 molybdenum
321 0.08 17.019.0 9.012.0 Titanium (5 % carbon min.)
347 0.08 17.019.0 9.013.0 Niobium + tantalum
(10 % carbon min.)
348 0.08 17.019.0 9.013.0 Niobium + tantalum
(10 % carbon min.,
but 0.10 tantalum max.),
0.20 cobalt

Single values denote maximum percentage unless otherwise noted.

1

2
Unless otherwise noted, other elements of all alloys listed include maximum contents of 2.0% manganese,
1.0% silicon, 0.045% phosphorus, and 0.030% sulfur. The balance is iron.

Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 85

numerous and more often used than steels of the 400
series. They differ widely from the chromium alloys due
principally to their stable structure at low temperatures.
They offer a low yield point with high ultimate tensile
strength at room temperatures, a combination that makes
for ductility. They are not hardenable by heat treatment,
but they harden when cold worked to a degree varying
with each type.
Austenitic stainless steels provide the maximum resis-
tance to corrosion, and they are well suited to standard
fabrication. They have the ductility required for severe
deep drawing and forming. They are easily welded. By
controlling the chromium-nickel ratio and degree of cold
reduction, a material with high tensile strength is pro-
duced that is especially suitable for lightweight welded
structures.
At high temperatures, the chromium-nickel types
have good oxidation resistance and high rupture and
creep-strength values. They are very satisfactory for high
temperature equipment because of their relatively high
coefficient of thermal expansion.
The chromium content of the duplex group ranges
from 18.0 to 29.0 percent, the nickel from 2.5 to 8.5 per-
cent, and the carbon from 0.03 to 0.08 percent, Table3-6.
These steels are characterized by a low carbon, BCC
ferrite, FCC austenite microstructure. Interest in these
alloys over the 300-series austenitic stainless-steel al-
loys is due to their resistance to stress corrosion crack-
ing, crevice corrosion, general corrosion, and pitting.
From a strength standpoint they have yield strengths
that are twice that of the 300-series alloys, so they are
used where thinner sections and weight reduction is de-
sirable. These duplex stainless-steel (DSS) alloys have
the advantages of both the ferritic and austenitic stain-
less steels, but also some of the disadvantages. Normally
postweld heat treatment (PWHT) is not necessary or
recommended. The DSS alloys have weldability charac-
teristics better than those of ferritic stainless steels but
worse than those of austenitic steels. Good mechanical
and acceptable corrosion resistance is available from
these alloys in the as-welded condition for most applica-
tions. It is essential to follow a qualified welding proce-
dure to control the cooling rate. Very rapid cooling rates
are to be avoided. This can best be accomplished by
controlling the heat input. The welding procedure must
contain minimum and maximum values of all param-
eters controlling heat input as well as specified interpass
and preheat control.

Table 3-6 Chemical Compositions of Typical Duplex Stainless Steels

Composition1,2,3
Alloy UNS Number C Cr Ni Mo N Other Elements
329 S32900 0.08 23.028.0 2.55.0 1.02.0
44LN S31200 0.030 24.026.0 5.56.5 1.22.0 0.140.20
DP3 S31260 0.030 24.026.0 5.57.5 2.53.5 0.100.30 0.200.80 Cu;
0.100.50 W
2205 S31803 0.030 21.023.0 4.56.5 2.53.5 0.080.20
2304 S32304 0.030 21.524.5 3.05.5 0.050.6 0.050.20
255 S32550 0.04 24.027.0 4.56.5 2.93.9 0.100.25 1.52.5 Cu
2507 S32750 0.030 24.026.0 6.08.0 3.05.0 0.240.32
Z1004 S32760 0.030 24.026.0 6.08.0 3.04.0 0.20.3 0.51.0 Cu;
0.51.0 W
3RE60 S31500 0.030 18.019.0 4.255.25 2.53.0
U50 4
S32404 0.04 20.522.5 5.58.5 2.03.0 0.20 1.02.0 Cu
7MoPLUS S32950 0.03 26.029.0 3.55.2 1.02.5 0.150.35
DP3W S39274 0.03 24.026.0 6.08.0 2.53.5 0.240.32 0.20.8 Cu;
1.52.5 W
1
Single values are maximum percentages.
2
2.5 Mn max.
3
0.701.0 Si max.
4
Z100Zeron 100; U50Uranus50.
American Welding Society, Welding Handbook, Vol. 4, 8th ed., p. 310.

86 Chapter 3 Steel and Other Metals

Tool Steels Tool steels are either carbon or alloy steels
capable of being hardened and tempered. They are pro-
duced primarily for machine tools that cut and shape
articles used in all types of manufacturing operations.
Tool steels vary in chemical composition depending
upon the end use. They range from plain carbon types
with no appreciable alloying elements to high-speed
cutting types containing as much as 45percent of alloy-
ing elements.
There are many different types of tool steel includ-
ing high speed, hot work, cold work, shock-resisting,
mold, special-purpose, and water-hardening tool steels.
They have a carbon range from 0.80 to 1.50percent car-
bon and may also contain molybdenum, tungsten, and
chromium.
Tool steels are usually melted in electric furnaces, in
comparatively small batches, to meet special require-
ments. They are produced in the form of hot- and cold-
finished bars, special shapes, forgings, hollow bar, wire,
drill rod, plate, sheets, strip, tool bits, and castings.
Tool steels may be used for certain hand tools or me-
chanical fixtures for cutting, shaping, forming and blank-
ing materials at normal or elevated temperatures. They
are also used for other applications when wear resistance
is important.
Tool steels are rarely welded and must be preheated
to do so. After-treatment is also necessary. Tool steel is
most often welded to resurface cutting tools and dies.
Special hard-surfacing electrodes are required for this
work, depending upon the type of deposit required. (See
Chapter 12, pp. 330333.)
Carbon Equivalency The importance of carbon as an
alloy has been demonstrated. It has the most pronounced
effect on the ease with which a metal will harden upon
cooling from elevated temperatures. The amount of
carbon present in a particular alloy is very important.
The higher the carbon content, the higher the hardness
of the steel.
While carbon is very important, other alloys will also
promote hardenability. So the carbon equivalency of
these alloys must be understood. There are a variety of
formulas that will aid in calculating the carbon equiva-
lency (CE). The following formula is one example and is
intended for use with carbon and alloy steels that contain
more than 0.5 percent carbon, 1.5 percent manganese,
3.5 percent nickel, 1 percent chromium, 1percent copper,
and 0.5 percent molybdenum.
CE = %Carbon + ____ %Mn %Ni+ ____
+ ____
%Cr
6 15
%Cu
+ _____ %Mo
+ _____
1 4
Once the carbon equivalency has been determined,
a better understanding of the proper preheat and in-
terpass temperature, welding techniques and meth-
ods can be applied. It must be understood that with
increased hardenability the possibility of cracking also
increases.
SAE/AISI Steel
Numbering System
The various types of steels are identified by a number-
ing system developed by the Society of Automotive En-
gineers (SAE) and the American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI). It is based on a chemical analysis of the steel. This
numbering system makes it possible to use numerals on
shop drawings that indicate the type of steel to be used in
fabrication.
In the case of the simple alloy steels, the second digit
generally indicates the approximate percentage of the pre-
dominant alloying element in the steel. Usually the last
two or three digits indicate the average carbon content
in points, or hundredths of 1percent. Thus the digit 2 in
2340 identifies a nickel steel. The digit 3 denotes approxi-
mately 3 percent nickel (3.253.75), and 40 indicates 0.40
percent carbon (0.350.45). The digit 7 in 71360 indicates
a tungsten steel of about 13 percent tungsten (1215) and
0.60percent carbon (0.500.70).
The first number designations for the various types of
SAE/AISI steels are given in Table 3-7. The specific clas-
sification numbers and the alloy amounts they denote are
given in Tables 3-8 through 3-18 (p. 8890).
Consult Table 3-19 (p. 91) which gives the mechanical
properties of various ferrous metals. Note that in the case
of steel, the tensile strength and hardness increases, and
the ductility decreases as the carbon content increases.
Table 3-7 First digit of SAE/AISI
Numbering System
The first digit is for the major alloying element:
1Carbon
2Nickel
3Nickel-chromium
4Molybdenum
5Chromium
6Chromium-vanadium
7Tungsten
5 8Nickel-chromium-molybdenum
9Silicon-manganese
Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 87
 Table 3-8 Carbon Steels

SAE No. Carbon Range (%) Manganese Range (%) Phosphorus, Max. (%) Sulfur, Max. (%)
1010 0.050.15 0.300.60 0.045 0.055
1015 0.100.20 0.300.60 0.045 0.055
X1015 0.100.20 0.701.00 0.045 0.055
1020 0.150.25 0.300.60 0.045 0.055
X1020 0.150.25 0.701.00 0.045 0.055
1025 0.200.30 0.300.60 0.045 0.055
X1025 0.200.30 0.701.00 0.045 0.055
1030 0.250.35 0.600.90 0.045 0.055
1035 0.300.40 0.600.90 0.045 0.055
1040 0.350.45 0.600.90 0.045 0.055
1045 0.400.50 0.600.90 0.045 0.055
1050 0.450.55 0.600.90 0.045 0.055
1055 0.500.60 0.600.90 0.040 0.055
1060 0.550.70 0.600.90 0.040 0.055
1065 0.600.75 0.600.90 0.040 0.055
X1065 0.600.75 0.901.20 0.040 0.055
1070 0.650.80 0.600.90 0.040 0.055
1075 0.700.85 0.600.90 0.040 0.055
1080 0.750.90 0.600.90 0.040 0.055
1085 0.800.95 0.600.90 0.040 0.055
1090 0.851.00 0.600.90 0.040 0.055
1095 0.901.05 0.250.50 0.040 0.055

Table 3-9 Free-Cutting Steels

SAE No. Carbon Range (%) Manganese Range (%) Phosphorus Range (%) Sulfur Range (%)
1112 0.080.16 0.600.90 0.090.13 0.100.20
X1112 0.080.16 0.600.90 0.090.13 0.200.30
1115 0.100.20 0.701.00 0.045 max. 0.0750.15
X1314 0.100.20 1.001.30 0.045 max. 0.0750.15
X1315 0.100.20 1.301.60 0.045 max. 0.0750.15
X1330 0.250.35 1.351.65 0.045 max. 0.0750.15
X1335 0.300.40 1.351.65 0.045 max. 0.0750.15
X1340 0.350.45 1.351.65 0.045 max. 0.0750.15

Table 3-10 Manganese Steels

SAE1 No. Carbon Range (%) Manganese Range (%) Phosphorus, Max. (%) Sulfur, Max. (%)
T1330 0.250.35 1.601.90 0.040 0.050
T1335 0.300.40 1.601.90 0.040 0.050
T1340 0.350.45 1.601.90 0.040 0.050
T1350 0.450.55 1.601.90 0.040 0.050
1
The silicon range of all SAE basic alloy steels is 0.150.30%. For electric alloy steels, the silicon content is 0.15% minimum.

88 Chapter 3 Steel and Other Metals

 Table 3-11 Nickel Steels

SAE1 Carbon Manganese Phosphorus, Sulfur, Nickel

No. Range (%) Range (%) Max. (%) Max. (%) Range (%)
2315 0.100.20 0.300.60 0.040 0.050 3.253.75
2330 0.250.35 0.500.80 0.040 0.050 3.253.75
2340 0.350.45 0.600.90 0.040 0.050 3.253.75
2345 0.400.50 0.600.90 0.040 0.050 3.253.75
2515 0.100.20 0.300.60 0.040 0.050 4.755.25
1
The silicon range of all SAE basic alloy steels is 0.150.30%. For electric alloy steels, the silicon content is 0.15% minimum.

Table 3-12 Nickel-Chromium Steels

SAE1 Carbon Manganese Phosphorus, Sulfur, Nickel Chromium

No. Range (%) Range (%) Max. (%) Max. (%) Range (%) Range (%)
3115 0.100.20 0.300.60 0.040 0.050 1.001.50 0.450.75
3120 0.150.25 0.300.60 0.040 0.050 1.001.50 0.450.75
3130 0.250.35 0.500.80 0.040 0.050 1.001.50 0.450.75
3135 0.300.40 0.500.80 0.040 0.050 1.001.50 0.450.75
3140 0.350.45 0.600.90 0.040 0.050 1.001.50 0.450.75
X3140 0.350.45 0.600.90 0.040 0.050 1.001.50 0.600.90
3145 0.400.50 0.600.90 0.040 0.050 1.001.50 0.450.75
3150 0.450.55 0.600.90 0.040 0.050 1.001.50 0.450.75
3215 0.100.20 0.300.60 0.040 0.050 1.502.00 0.901.25
3220 0.150.25 0.300.60 0.040 0.050 1.502.00 0.901.25
3240 0.350.45 0.300.60 0.040 0.050 1.502.00 0.901.25
3245 0.400.50 0.300.60 0.040 0.050 1.502.00 0.901.25
3250 0.450.55 0.300.60 0.040 0.050 1.502.00 0.901.25
3312 0.17 max. 0.300.60 0.040 0.050 3.253.75 1.251.75
3415 0.100.20 0.300.60 0.040 0.050 2.753.25 0.600.95

The silicon range of all SAE basic alloy steels is 0.150.30%. For electric alloy steels, the silicon content is 0.15% minimum.
1

Table 3-13 Molybdenum Steels

SAE1 Carbon Manganese Phosphorus, Sulfur, Chromium Nickel Molybdenum

No. Range (%) Range (%) Max. (%) Max. (%) Range (%) Range (%) Range (%)
X4130 0.250.35 0.400.60 0.040 0.050 0.801.10 0.150.25
4140 0.350.45 0.600.90 0.040 0.050 0.801.10 0.150.25
4150 0.450.55 0.600.90 0.040 0.050 0.801.10 0.150.25
4320 0.150.25 0.400.70 0.040 0.050 0.300.60 1.652.00 0.200.30
X4340 0.350.45 0.500.80 0.040 0.050 0.500.80 1.652.00 0.200.30
4615 0.100.20 0.400.70 0.040 0.050 1.652.00 0.200.30
4620 0.150.25 0.400.70 0.040 0.050 1.652.00 0.200.30
4640 0.350.45 0.500.80 0.040 0.050 1.652.00 0.200.30
4815 0.100.20 0.400.60 0.040 0.050 3.253.75 0.200.30
4820 0.150.25 0.400.60 0.040 0.050 3.253.75 0.200.30

The silicon range of all SAE basic alloy steels is 0.150.30%. For electric alloy steels, the silicon content is 0.15% minimum.
1

Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 89