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6 5 6
Fig. 3-55 Parts are prebent and restrained.
5
Before After 4
Welding Welding 4 3
2 1
1
X
Direction of Welding
Added stiffening Added stiffening is a technique
that can be used only on plate. It consists of pulling
Weld from the plate into line with strong backs and welding ad-
B to A E to D
C to B F to E ditional stiffeners to the plate to make it retain its plane.
D to C G to F A benefit is also derived from the shrinkage in the con-
necting welds.
Fig. 3-60 Example of procedure and sequence of welding by the
backstep method.
Summary of Distortion Control
Following is a summary of the basic means that can be
A B C D E F G applied in the control of distortion.
1 4 2 6 3 5
Metal expansion Some metals expand more than oth-
ers. A metal with a high coefficient of expansion distorts
more than one with a lower coefficient. For example,
stainless steel has a high coefficient, and care must be
taken to keep distortion to a minimum.
Distortion effects The kind of welding process
Direction of Welding used has an influence on distortion. Gas welding pro-
Weld from duces more distortion than shielded metal arc welding
B to A C to B and the forms of automatic and semiautomatic weld-
D to C
F to E
G to F
E to D
ing. Use higher deposition rate processes. Use higher
speed welding methodsmetal cored electrodes and
Fig. 3-61 Example of procedure and sequence of welding by the mechanized welding. Use welding methods that give
skip-stop, backstep method. deeper penetration and thus reduce the amount of weld
joint instead of a single-V groove butt joint. Weld those furnace with an oxyfuel flame or high frequency induc-
joints that cause the most contraction first. tion heating. Preheating is also used to slow the cooling
rate when working on materials with a sensitive micro-
Fix tack welds first Weak welds or cracked tack welds
structure. The carbon equivalence, thickness, amount
should be chipped or melted out before proceeding with
of hydrogen in the welding process and the restrained
the weld.
the joint is being welded contribute to the preheating
Peening Peening the weld is effective. Too much temperature.
peening, however, causes a loss of ductility and impact
properties. Postheating The most common method of stress re-
lieving is postheating. This kind of heat treatment must
Control of Residual Stress be done in a furnace capable of uniform heating under
A welded structure develops many internal stresses that temperature control. The method of heating must not be
may lead to cracking or fracture. Under normal condi- injurious to the metal being treated. The work must be
tions, these stresses are not a threat to the structure. How- supported so that distortion of any part of the weldment
ever, for certain kinds of code welding requirements, and is prevented. The rise in temperature must be gradual,
on those structures where there is chance of cracking, and all parts of the weldment must be heated at a uni-
stress relief is necessary, Fig. 3-65. Both hot and cold pro- form rate. Mild steel is usually heated to about 1,100 to
cesses are used. 1,200F. Other steels may require a higher temperature,
depending upon the yield characteristics of the metal.
Preheating It is often necessary to control or reduce Some alloy steels are brought up to a temperature of
the rate of expansion and contraction in a structure dur- 1,600F or higher.
ing the welding operation. This is done by preheating When the weldment reaches the maximum temper-
the entire structure before welding and maintaining the ature, it is permitted to soak. The length of time de-
heat during welding. Considerable care must be taken to pends upon the thickness of plate and the plasticizing
make sure that preheat is uniform throughout the struc- rate of the steel of which it is made. The rate is usually
ture. If one part of the structure is heated to a higher 1 hour per inch of thickness. The weldment should be
temperature than another, internal stresses will be set permitted to soak long enough to ensure relief to the
up, thus offsetting the advantages sought through pre- thickest part.
heating. After the weld is completed, the structure must The reduction of temperature must be gradual
be allowed to cool slowly. Preheating may be done in a and at a rate that will ensure approximately uniform
CHAPTER 3 REVIEW
INTERNET ACTIVITIES
Internet Activity A
Using your favorite search engine, look up the history of steelmaking. Make a
timeline showing when improvement or changes took place in the steelmaking
industry.
Internet Activity B
Find a Web site about a steel manufacturer. See what is new today in steelmaking.
Write a report about your findings.