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and is more effective when the welded members are al- backing.

backing. Care must be exercised so that proper procedures


lowed to cool in the clamps. However, clamping does are followed when using joint spacers.
not entirely eliminate warping. Whenthe clamps are re-
moved after cooling, the plates spring back so that they Jigs and Fixtures Jigs and fixtures prevent warping
are pulled into alignment. by holding the weldment in a fixed position to reduce
movement. They are widely used in production welding
Spacing of Parts Another method is to space parts out of since, in addition to reducing warping, they permit po-
position before welding, Fig. 3-56. Experience is neces- sitioning of the weldment and its parts, thus materially
sary to determine the exact amount to allow for a given increasing the speed of welding.
job. The arms will be pulled back to the proper spacing
Strong Backs Strong backs are temporary stiffeners for the
by the shrinkage forces of the welding. Figure3-57 shows
purpose of increasing the resistance to distortion. They
the vertical plate of a T-joint out of alignment. This is
are removed after the welding is completed and cooled.
done before welding. When the completed weld shrinks,
This method is used in shipbuilding and for other large
it will pull the vertical plate into the correct position. Be-
structures.
fore welding, the welder should make sure that all joints
are fitted properly and do not have too great a gap. If, Distortion Control During Welding
however, bad fitup does occur, joint spacers such as strip,
Distortion may be reduced by using a sequence of
bar, or ring can be inserted in the joint root to serve as a
welding known as wandering that provides for making
welds at different points of the weldment. The shrink-
age set up by one weld is counteracted by the shrinkage
set up by another. This is accomplished by employing
either the method shown in Fig. 3-58, called chain in-
termittent fillet welds, or that shown in Fig. 3-59, called
staggered intermittent fillet welds. If the job requires a
continuous weld, the unwelded spaces may be welded in
the same order. Less longitudinal distortion is achieved
with the staggered than with the chain intermittent fil-
let weld.

6 5 6
Fig. 3-55 Parts are prebent and restrained.
5

Before After 4
Welding Welding 4 3

2 1
1
X

Fig. 3-57 The plate is set up


Fig. 3-56 Parts are spread out-of-square away from the
before welding to reduce weld. The weld shrinkage will Fig. 3-58 Chain intermittent Fig. 3-59 Staggered intermit-
distortion. bring it back to square. fillet welds. tent fillet welds.

104 Chapter 3 Steel and Other Metals


If it is found advisable to distribute the stresses or to made to the beginning, and the unwelded sections are
help prevent their accumulation, the backstep method of completed.
welding may be employed. This method consists of break- In a balanced welding sequence an equal number
ing up the welds in short sections and depends upon weld- of welders weld on opposite sides of a structure at the
ing in the proper direction. The general progression of same time, thus introducing balanced stresses. The
welding is from left to right, but each bead is deposited wandering techniques given previously and balanced
from right to left, Fig. 3-60. Backstep welding reduces welding all contribute to the simultaneous completion
locked-up stresses and warping. of welded connections in large fabrications. Thus dis-
Distortion may also be held at a minimum through tortion caused by restraint and reduction in local heat-
the use of the skip-stop, backstep method, a combina- ing is reduced.
tion of skip and backstep welding. This is done in the
sequence shown in Fig. 3-61. The direction of welding is Correction of Distortion
the same as that employed in the backstep method except after Welding
that the short welds are not made in a continuous se- If warping has occurred in a structure, the following cor-
quence. One is made at the beginning of the joint, a sec- rective measures may be used.
tion is skipped, and the second weld is applied near the
center. Then a third weld is applied after further spacing. Shrinkage Shrinkage consists of alternate heating
After the end of the seam has been reached, a return is and cooling, frequently accompanied by hammering or
mechanical working, thus shrinking excess material in a
wrinkle or buckle.
A B C D E F G
Shrink welding Shrink welding is a variation of
1 2 3 4 5 6
shrinkage in which the heat is applied by running beads of
weld metal on the convex side of a buckled area. On cool-
ing, the combined shrinkage of the heated base metal and
the added weld metal remove the distortion. The beads of
weld metal may then be ground off if a smooth surface is
desired.

Direction of Welding
Added stiffening Added stiffening is a technique
that can be used only on plate. It consists of pulling
Weld from the plate into line with strong backs and welding ad-
B to A E to D
C to B F to E ditional stiffeners to the plate to make it retain its plane.
D to C G to F A benefit is also derived from the shrinkage in the con-
necting welds.
Fig. 3-60 Example of procedure and sequence of welding by the
backstep method.
Summary of Distortion Control
Following is a summary of the basic means that can be
A B C D E F G applied in the control of distortion.
1 4 2 6 3 5
Metal expansion Some metals expand more than oth-
ers. A metal with a high coefficient of expansion distorts
more than one with a lower coefficient. For example,
stainless steel has a high coefficient, and care must be
taken to keep distortion to a minimum.
Distortion effects The kind of welding process
Direction of Welding used has an influence on distortion. Gas welding pro-
Weld from duces more distortion than shielded metal arc welding
B to A C to B and the forms of automatic and semiautomatic weld-
D to C
F to E
G to F
E to D
ing. Use higher deposition rate processes. Use higher
speed welding methodsmetal cored electrodes and
Fig. 3-61 Example of procedure and sequence of welding by the mechanized welding. Use welding methods that give
skip-stop, backstep method. deeper penetration and thus reduce the amount of weld

Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 105


metal needed for the same strength and amount of heat
input.
Use of welding positioners Use welding positioners to 4 2
Wrong
achieve maximum amount of flat position welding, thus
allowing the use of larger diameter electrodes or welding
procedures with higher deposition rates and faster weld-
ing speeds.
1 3
Balanced forces One shrinkage force can be bal- Right
anced with another by prebending and presetting in Fig. 3-62 Distortion is re-
a direction opposite to the movement caused by weld duced by welding from both Fig. 3-63 Minimum number
shrinkage. Shrinkage will pull the material back into sides. of passes.
alignment.
Forcible restraints Effective control can be achieved
by restraining the parts forcibly through the use of clamps, Wandering sequences The employment of wandering
fixtures, and tack welds. Use strong backs and tack welds sequences of welding, such as skip welding and backstep
to maintain fitup and alignment. Control fitup at every welding, prevents a local buildup of heat and thus reduces
point. The welder must be careful not to overrestrain the shrinkage.
parts. This increases the stresses during welding and the
tendency for cracking. Weld toward the unrestrained part End fixing To make sure that welds will not fail at the
of the member. end and carry on into the joint, the welds on the ends of
members should be fixed or welded around the end. This
Clamping parts during fabrication During fabrication is referred to as boxing and is used when a fillet weld is
the parts can be clamped or welded to a heavy fixture that wrapped around the corner of a member as a continuation
can be stress relieved with the weldment, thus ensuring of the principal weld.
dimensional tolerance and stability.
Avoid overwelding Too
Heat distribution Distribute the welding heat as much welding increases
60 Max.

evenly as possible through a planned welding sequence distortion. Excessive weld


and planned weld positions. Welders should start weld- size and too many weld
ing at points on a structure where the parts are very re- passes cause additional heat
strained or fixed and move on to points having a greater input, Fig.3-63. A stringer 1/32 to 1/16 Max.
relative freedom of movement. On assemblies, joints bead produces less distor-
that will have the greatest amount of shrinkage should tion than a weave bead,
30
be welded first and then the joints with less expected and a single pass is better
shrinkage last. Complex structures should be welded than several passes. Use the
with as little restraint as possible. Sequence subassem- smallest leg size permis-
blies and final assemblies so that the welds being made sible when fillet welding. Reduce Bevel Angles
continually balance each other around the neutral axis Use fewer weld passes. with Large Root Opening
of the section.
Reduce weld metal Ex-
Increase speed with heat As the heat input is increased, cessive widths of groove
the welding speed should be increased. welds add nothing to
General rule about warping All other things being strength, but they increase
U Preparation
equal, a decrease in speed and an increase in the number weld shrinkage as well as
of passes increase warping. welding costs. The root
opening, included angle,
Welding from both sides Welding from both sides re- and reinforcement should
duces distortion, Fig. 3-62. Welding from both sides at the be kept to a minimum,
same time all but eliminates distortion. Fig. 3-64. Select joints Use Double V
Preparation
Welding direction The welding direction should be that require little weld
away from the point of restraint and toward the point of metal.For example, choose Fig. 3-64 Correct edge
maximum freedom. a double-V groove butt preparation and good fitup.

106 Chapter 3 Steel and Other Metals


Fig. 3-65 The construction
industry uses a tremendous amount
of welding. This welder is working
on some column splices. Note
the safety lines, fall protection,
and personal protective clothing
for the welding. If you like working
out-of-doors and like heights, this
might just be the line of work for
you. Network Productions/The
Image Works

joint instead of a single-V groove butt joint. Weld those furnace with an oxyfuel flame or high frequency induc-
joints that cause the most contraction first. tion heating. Preheating is also used to slow the cooling
rate when working on materials with a sensitive micro-
Fix tack welds first Weak welds or cracked tack welds
structure. The carbon equivalence, thickness, amount
should be chipped or melted out before proceeding with
of hydrogen in the welding process and the restrained
the weld.
the joint is being welded contribute to the preheating
Peening Peening the weld is effective. Too much temperature.
peening, however, causes a loss of ductility and impact
properties. Postheating The most common method of stress re-
lieving is postheating. This kind of heat treatment must
Control of Residual Stress be done in a furnace capable of uniform heating under
A welded structure develops many internal stresses that temperature control. The method of heating must not be
may lead to cracking or fracture. Under normal condi- injurious to the metal being treated. The work must be
tions, these stresses are not a threat to the structure. How- supported so that distortion of any part of the weldment
ever, for certain kinds of code welding requirements, and is prevented. The rise in temperature must be gradual,
on those structures where there is chance of cracking, and all parts of the weldment must be heated at a uni-
stress relief is necessary, Fig. 3-65. Both hot and cold pro- form rate. Mild steel is usually heated to about 1,100 to
cesses are used. 1,200F. Other steels may require a higher temperature,
depending upon the yield characteristics of the metal.
Preheating It is often necessary to control or reduce Some alloy steels are brought up to a temperature of
the rate of expansion and contraction in a structure dur- 1,600F or higher.
ing the welding operation. This is done by preheating When the weldment reaches the maximum temper-
the entire structure before welding and maintaining the ature, it is permitted to soak. The length of time de-
heat during welding. Considerable care must be taken to pends upon the thickness of plate and the plasticizing
make sure that preheat is uniform throughout the struc- rate of the steel of which it is made. The rate is usually
ture. If one part of the structure is heated to a higher 1 hour per inch of thickness. The weldment should be
temperature than another, internal stresses will be set permitted to soak long enough to ensure relief to the
up, thus offsetting the advantages sought through pre- thickest part.
heating. After the weld is completed, the structure must The reduction of temperature must be gradual
be allowed to cool slowly. Preheating may be done in a and at a rate that will ensure approximately uniform

Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 107


Vibratory Stress Relieving This technique uses a low
Table 3-28 Suggested Preheat Temperatures frequency, high amplitude vibration to reduce the re-
sidual stress levels to the point where they cannot cause
Carbon Equivalent (%) Temperature (F)
distortion or other problems. A vibration generator is
Up to 0.45 Optional clamped to the workpiece or attached to the tooling
0.450.60 200400F fixture. The vibration level is then adjusted to create
Above 0.60 400700F the desired amplitude, and sine waves pass through
the parts, relaxing the microstructure. It usually takes
between 15 and 30 minutes for a full treatment. The
size and weight of the workpiece determines the time
temperatures throughout all parts. Structures of dif- required.
ferent thicknesses sometimes may require as long as
48hours to cool. Cryogenic Stress RelievingCryogenic stress relieving
The temperature at which the work may be with- takes various structures at a very slow rate down from
drawn from the furnace depends upon the varying thick- room temperature to 300F by exposing them to liquid
nesses and rigidity of the members. This may be as low nitrogen vapors. This is done at roughly 1F per minute.
as 200F or as high as 600F. It is important that the Once a structure reaches its proper temperature, it is al-
air surrounding the furnace be quiet enough to ensure lowed to soak at a holding temperature for 24 to 36 hours.
uniform temperature. Table 3-28 gives some suggested The molecules in the structure get closer together as the
preheat temperatures based on the carbon equivalency temperature drops. They are at a much lower energy level
of the steel. and a better bond forms. If a fracture zone exists due to
It is not always possible to heat the entire structure, a weak molecular bond or no bond, this is improved and
as, for example with pipelines. In such cases it may be these voids are filled in. As with steel if these voids are
possible to relieve stress by heating only one portion of filled in, the structure can withstand more force. At the
the structure at a time. It is important that the member end of this holding period the structure is slowly warmed
be able to expand and contract at will. Otherwise, ad- back up to room temperature. This is again done very
ditional stresses will be introduced into the structure slowly at a rate of approximately 1F per minute. This
that may be greater than the original stresses being process helps align the molecules so there is less stress.
treated. A conventional heat treatment can be done prior to the
cryogenic process.
Full Annealing Annealing is superior to all other meth-
ods, but it is very difficult to handle. Work that is fully an- Mechanical LoadingIn mechanical loading, the base
nealed must be heated up to 1,600 to 1,650F. This causes metal is stressed just at the point of yielding by applica-
the formation of a very heavy scale and there is danger of tion of internal pressure to a pressure vessel: This pro-
collapse on some types of weldments. cedure works well with a simple weldment. On vessels
Cold Peening In cold peening, the bead is hammered where the plate is not of uniform thickness or where
to stretch it and counteract shrinkage due to cooling. there are reinforcements, however, not all the metal can
Cold peening of the weld metal causes plastic flow, be stretched to the same extent. It is important that only a
thereby relieving the restraint that causes the residual very small yielding takes place. Otherwise, there is dan-
stress. In effect the toes of the weld that were in tension ger of strain hardening or embrittling the steel. Hydrau-
have now been placed in compression. This greatly lic pressure, rather than air pressure, is used because of
reduces the tendency for cracking. Effective peening the dangers in connection with air pressure if the vessel
requires considerable judgment. Peening is identical should rupture.
to cold working the steel and, if overdone, will cause
Reducing Stress through Welding TechniqueWhile
it to lose ductility and become work hardened. Over-
it is impossible to completely control the residual
peening may result in cracks or the introduction of new
stresses due to the welding operation without pre-
residual stresses.
heating or postheating, the amount of stress can be
The weld should be peened at a temperature low enough
minimized if the following welding procedures are
to permit the hand to be placed upon it. The root and face
employed:
layers of the weld should not be peened. A pneumatic
chisel with a blunt, rounded edge is used. Hand peening The product should be designed to incorporate the
cannot be controlled properly. types of joints having the lowest residual stress.

108 Chapter 3 Steel and Other Metals


The degree of residual stress caused by the weld- Avoid highly localized and intersecting weld areas.
ing process should be considered when choosing a Use electrodes that have an elongation of at least 20
process. percent in 2 inches.
Plan assembly welding sequences that permit the Peening is an effective method of reducing stresses
movement of component parts during welding, which and partly correcting distortion and warping. Root and
do not increase joint fixity, and in which joints of face layers and layers more than 18 inch thick should
maximum fixity are welded first. not be peened.

CHAPTER 3 REVIEW

Multiple Choice 7. A steel structure that is 2 to 6 inches thick and 5 to


Choose the letter of the correct answer. 6feet wide is referred to as a ______. (Obj. 3-2)
a. Bloom
1. Metals are separated into which of the two major
b. Billet
groups? (Obj. 3-1)
c. Slab
a. Alloys and castings
d. None of these
b. Slabs and plates
c. Billets and blooms 8. The operation of reducing the cross section and in-
d. Ferrous and nonferrous creasing the length of a metal bar or wire by pulling
it through a series of conical, tapering holes in a die
2. The first recorded use of iron dates back to what
plate is ______. (Obj. 3-2)
century? (Obj. 3-1)
a. Excursion
a. 3700 b.c.
b. Extrusion
b. 1350 b.c.
c. Drawing
c. 1000 b.c.
d. Both a and b
d. a.d. 1600
9. In which grain orientation direction does a rolled
3. Steel is made up of what two elements? (Obj. 3-1)
steel section have the least strength? (Obj. 3-2)
a. Coke and limestone
a. X
b. Granite and oxygen
b. Y
c. Carbon and iron
c. Z
d. None of these
d. E
4. What are the basic raw materials that go into the
10. Which of the following is an important variable in
steelmaking process? (Obj. 3-1)
any heat-treating process? (Obj. 3-3)
a. Heat, oxygen, and slag
a. Carbon content
b. Limestone, coke, and iron ore
b. Temperature of heating
c. Scrap, rutile, and cellulous
c. Time allowed for cooling
d. All of these
d. All of these
5. Which of the following is a steelmaking process?
11. Which of the following is a state of matter?
(Obj. 3-1)
(Obj. 3-4)
a. Electric
a. Solids
b. Basic oxygen
b. Liquids
c. Open hearth
c. Gases
d. Both a and b
d. All of these
6. Once the steel has been produced it must be
12. ______ is the capacity of a metallic substance to
processed into usable material by which method?
form a strong bond of adherence under pressure or
(Obj. 3-2)
when solidifying from a liquid state. (Obj. 3-5)
a. Bending and twisting
a. Weldability
b. Forging
b. Fusibility
c. Rolling
c. Volatility
d. Both b and c
d. Electrical conductivity

Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 109


13. ______ is the ease with which a metal may be va- 20. Which of the alloying elements are used in the mak-
porized. (Obj. 3-5) ing of steel? (Obj. 3-6)
a. Weldability a. Krypton, neon, and lanthone
b. Fusibility b. Carbon, silicon, and manganese
c. Volatility c. Chromium, nickel, and niobium
d. Thermal conductivity d. Both b and c
14. The ______ of a substance is the ability of the sub- 21. A medium carbon steel has a carbon percent range
stance to conduct electric current. (Obj. 3-5) of ______. (Obj. 3-7)
a. Electrical conductivity a. 0.08% to 0.30%
b. Thermal conductivity b. 0.30% to 0.60%
c. Melting point c. 0.60% to 1.70%
d. Catalyst d. Both a and b
15. The ______ is the amount of expansion a metal un- 22. The refining of bauxite ore is the fundamental
dergoes when it is heated and the amount of contrac- production process for making which nonferrous
tion that occurs when it is cooled. metal? (Obj. 3-8)
(Obj. 3-5) a. Copper
a. Expansion coefficient b. Titanium
b. Thermal conductivity c. Gold
c. Coefficient of thermal expansion d. Aluminum
d. Vaporization 23. Which ASTM number is used to identify a titanium
16. ______ is the weight of a volume of material alloy made up of 98.885 percent titanium, 0.05 per-
compared with an equal volume of water. cent nitrogen, 0.10 percent carbon, 0.015 percent
(Obj. 3-5) hydrogen, and 0.35 percent oxygen? (Obj. 3-9)
a. Mass a. 1
b. Density b. 2
c. Specific gravity c. 3
d. Both a and c d. All of these
17. Porosity means ______. (Obj. 3-5) 24. When a material is heated, it expands, and when it
a. How dense a material is cools, it contracts. This is true for all the materials
b. How well a material will let a fluid pass listed except ______. (Obj. 3-10)
through it a. Steel
c. How tall the material is b. Aluminum
d. How much the material weighs compared to an c. Titanium
equal volume of water d. Water
18. Loading of a material will cause it to lose its form. 25. Distortion in weldments can occur in which direc-
The ability of the material to return to its original tions? (Obj. 3-10)
shape after the load has been removed is known as a. Longitudinal
its ______. (Obj. 3-5) b. Transverse
a. Plasticity c. Diagonal
b. Impact property d. Both a and b
c. Elastic limit 26. Which of the following methods can be used for
d. None of these controlling expansion and contraction forces?
19. The endurance level of a material undergoing a fa- (Obj. 3-10)
tigue test is ______. (Obj. 3-5) a. Sequencing the welds
a. The maximum load level at which no fatigue b. Joint design
cracking will occur no matter how many times it c. Presetting the joint
is cycled d. All of these
b. The time in service before a fatigue crack can be 27. How can the residual stresses of welding be
expected controlled? (Obj. 3-10)
c. 120 percent of the tension stress failure point a. Preheat
d. Calculated after the failure of the material b. Peening

110 Chapter 3 Steel and Other Metals


c. Vibratory or cryogenically 31. Name at least four steelmaking processes. (Obj.3-1)
d. All of these 32. What can be done to control warping? (Obj. 3-2)
28. A method used to put the toes of a weld in compres- 33. Name the five types of carbon steels and give the
sion instead of tension to reduce distortion and pre- range of carbon content for each. (Obj. 3-4)
vent cracking is called ______. (Obj. 3-10) 34. List 10 applications for the use of titanium.
a. Channeling (Obj.3-8)
b. Slugging
35. Name three ways to avoid overwelding. (Obj.3-10)
c. Peening
d. None of these 36. Name three factors that are important in the choice
of weld joints. (Obj. 3-10)
Review Questions 37. If a weld is deposited lengthwise along a strip of
Write the answers in your own words. steel, what effect will it have upon the piece of steel
29. List five events that happened in this country to spur when it cools? (Obj. 3-10)
the growth of steelmaking. (Obj. 3-1) 38. What are the two major aspects of contraction in all
30. Describe at least five steps in the continuous casting types of welding? Explain. (Obj. 3-10)
process. (Obj. 3-1)

INTERNET ACTIVITIES

Internet Activity A
Using your favorite search engine, look up the history of steelmaking. Make a
timeline showing when improvement or changes took place in the steelmaking
industry.
Internet Activity B
Find a Web site about a steel manufacturer. See what is new today in steelmaking.
Write a report about your findings.

Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 111

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