Juice ~9o2.1 Divtsibility o f the Atom.

45 [

PHYSICAL SECTION.
.Stated 3leeling, held Wednesday, November 27, 19oz.

TIlE Q U E S T I O N OF THE D I V I S I B I L I T Y OF THE A T O M .

By A. STANLEY MACKENZIE, P~I.D,

M e m b e r of t h e Institute.

T h e r e has never been a time since the atomic theory of

m a t t e r first took its place in the world of science as a tried
and tested h y p o t h e s i s t h a t its reasonableness or sufficiency
has not been questioned. It is true t h a t the objection of
m a n y people to the t h e o r y has been based on a priori rea-
soning, and not on the capability or incapability of the
t h e o r y to co-ordinate e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence. Indeed, the
fact is too f r e q u e n t l y lost s i g h t of t h a t this is one of the
prime objects of a theory, if not the only logical object.
T h e f u n d a m e n t a l m e a n i n g of a t h e o r y is an i m a g i n e d
mechanical model that, w i t h its supposed motions, charac-
teristic properties, degrees of freedom, etc., will s i m u l a t e
and reproduce for us, w h e n s u b j e c t e d to the laws of dyna-
mics as we know t h e m for o r d i n a r y matter, the behaviors
of u n k n o w n agencies. T h e atomic t h e o r y has always met
with m u c h objection, because it forces us, we are told,
to believe in the existence of absolutely hard, round, per-
fectly elastic small bodies, or else of bodiless centers of
force, or of g h o s t l y pieces of electricity g e t t i n g their appar-
ent mass in an equally g h o s t l y way, or else of infinitesimal
cyclones of e t h e r differentiated from the o m n i p r e s e n t e t h e r
only in t h a t t h e y are in vortical motion, t h a t is, t h a t t h e y are
in suspension in a continuous fluid of their own material, and
only on account of their m o t i o n are singled out for our
comprehension. W e are told t h a t the m i n d c a n n o t a d m i t
the existence of such t h i n g s as realities of the same n a t u r e
as the bodies we can lay our h a n d s on. In this kind of
objection we are c o n f o u n d i n g two quite different concep-
tions. In the first and m o s t i m p o r t a n t instance the atomic
t h e o r y is a mechanical m o d e l - - a m a t h e m a t i c a l model, if you
45 2 l~Iad'cttzie : [J. F. I.,

like; in th e second place, it is an effort to speci fy t he ulti-

m a t e physical c o n s t i t u e n t s of m a t t e r . W e do believe t h a t
in so far as o u r r e s e a r c h e s h a v e car r i ed us we h a v e in
m a t t e r a c o a r s e - g r a i n e d s t r u c t u r e ; b u t we m u s t a d m i t t h a t
we may h a v e m i s n a m e d t he i n h e r e n t or essential n a t u r e of
t h e a t o m ; we m a y h a v e called it a little, hard, r o u n d piece
of m a t t e r (with m o s t of the p r o p e r t i e s we associate w i t h
m o l a r bodies) w h e n it was a piece of e t h e r ; or we m a y
h a v e called it e t h e r w h e n it was electricity, etc.; b u t in
e v e r y case the s am e a n a l y t i c a l t r e a t m e n t w oul d apply, t h a t
is, we s h o u l d r e t a i n p r a c t i c a l l y t he s am e t h e o r y w i t h an
a l t e r e d n o m e n c l a t u r e . T h e t es t of a good t h e o r y is not its
b e a u t y or s y m m e t r y , nor its a p r i o r i likelihood, b u t its accu-
r a c y as a m o d e l and its s u g g e s t i v e n e s s , By this t est t h e
a t o m i c t h e o r y is a g o o d one, and all a d v a n c e in our knowl-
e d g e c o n c e r n i n g t he b e h a v i o r of m a t t e r as such has b e e n
m a d e u n d e r its g u i d a n c e . B ut t he special claim it has to
g o o d n e s s is t h a t n o t h i n g has b e e n a d v a n c e d t h u s far w h i c h
will take its place.
I t has, h o weve r , b e e n m a i n l y on o t h e r g r o u n d s t h a t criti-
cism, n o t captious, has b e e n d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e a t o m i c
theory. I t is t h a t i t ' h a s not g o n e far e n o u g h ; we are l eft
w i th s e v e n t y - o d d kinds of atoms, w i t h no s u g g e s t i o n for an
e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e i r difference, w i t h no link to e s t a b l i s h
t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n ; and t he t h o u g h t has b e e n a l m o s t an
u n i v e r s a l one d u r i n g t he whole pas t c e n t u r y t h a t this con-
n e c t i o n m u s t exist, and t h a t t he n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t kinds
of a t o m s can be r e d u c e d and s om e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n
t h e m established. E v e n D al t on m a k e s t h e f o l l o w i n g admis-
sion : " W e do not k n o w t h a t a n y one of t h e bodi es denomi-
n a t e d e l e m e n t a r y is a b s o l u t e l y i n d e c o m p o s a b l e . " As earl y
as i816, while the a t o m i c t h e o r y was still in t he h y p o t h e s i s
stage, P r o u t m a d e his f a m o u s d e d u c t i o n f r o m t he r a t h e r
i n a c c u r a t e n u m b e r s t hen k n o w n for the a t o m i c w e i g h t s of
t h e elemen ts , t h a t t hes e are exact m u l t i p l e s of t h a t of
h y d r o g e n , an d t h a t c o n s e q u e n t l y all the o t h e r a t o m s are
c o m p o u n d s of t he h y d r o g e n atom. It is safe to say t h a t
t h e r es u lt of the w or k done in r e l a t i v e a t o m i c w e i g h t deter-
m i n a t i o n since the t i m e of P r o u t has b e e n to m a k e t h e s e
June, I9o.~.] Divisibih'ty of tTle Atom. 453

n u m b e r s on the whole to a p p r o x i m a t e more and more to

whole numbers. It is true t h a t the n u m b e r for chlorine is
almost exactly 35; b u t n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g that, the closeness
of m a n y of the n u m b e r s to multiples of t h a t of h y d r o g e n
is remarkable. T h e Hon. R. J. S t r u t t has d e t e r m i n e d
r e c e n t l y the chance t h a t the relative atomic w e i g h t s should
a p p r o x i m a t e so closely as t h e y do to whole numbers, sup-
posing their values to have been d e t e r m i n e d in some hap-
hazard m a n n e r . He found it to be as small as I in I,ooo;
so that, as he remarks, we h a v e s t r o n g e r reason for believ-
ing in the t r u t h of some modification of Prout's law t h a n
in t h a t of m a n y historical events which are universally
accepted as u n q u e s t i o n a b l e .
If there is one t h i n g more t h a n a n o t h e r t h a t makes us
look with h o p e f u l n e s s for a proof of some such relationship
as Prout's, it is the aid it should give t o w a r d the i n t r o d u c t i o n
of a t h e o r y of gravitation. T h e r e is no n a t u r a l phenom-
enon more universal and less u n d e r s t o o d t h a n the non-
selective action of gravitation, and it is one to which atten-
tion is seldom called in text-books on physics; t h e y are
apt to leave beginners w i t h the impression t h a t g r a v i t y
"should act on all bodies alike, b u t m a g n e t i s m differently.
T h i s fact early s u g g e s t e d to G r a h a m t h a t all the different
e l e m e n t s m a y have the same a t o m or u l t i m a t e particle, b u t
existing in different c o m b i n a t i o n s of m o v e m e n t . Lavoisier,
again, was careful to state t h a t he called certain t h i n g s
e l e m e n t s only because with the m e a n s at his disposal t h e y
were indivisible. T h e i r chemical i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a d led
such m e n as Kopp, Dumas, Berthelot and others to con-
sider seriously the po.ssibility of the compositeness of the
a t o m as the only e x p l a n a t i o n of certain a n o m a l o u s phenom-
ena which t h e y h a d noted.
In 1887 L o c k y e r published a book e n t i t l e d " T h e Chem-
istry of the Sun," in w h i c h he s u m m e d up the results of a
long series of his i n v e s t i g a t i o n s in the d o m a i n of the
s p e c t r u m analysis of h e a v e n l y bodies. Certain v a r i a t i o n s
in the intensity, characteristics and circumstances sur-
r o u n d i n g the appearance of spectral lines led h i m to t h e
belief t h a t the so-called e l e m e n t s could be reduced to
454 A[n'c~'e1~.~ie: [J. F. I.,

s i m p l e r forms, and t h a t t hes e s i m p l e r f or m s a c t u a l l y e x i s t e d

n n d e r th e e n o r m o u s l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s of t he sun and
some of th e stars. T h i s h a d b e e n s u g g e s t e d b y Brodie and
H u n t , y ear s before, f r om a s t u d y of the simplification w h i c h
m a t t e r u n d e r w e n t f r om e l e v a t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e , even of
those t e m p e r a t u r e s we can control and p r o d u c e on t h e
earth.
No one of th e s e v a r i o u s c o n j e c t u r e s took definite form,
or led to a specific f o r m u l a t i o n of an e x t e n s i o n of t he a t o m i c
theory. S u c h a step has l a t e l y come, h o w e v e r , and it arose
f r o m the u n e a r t h i n g of a set of p h e n o m e n a w h i c h h a v e
b e en o b s e r v e d foe o n l y a s c a n t dozen or so of years, and t h e
i m p o r t a n t results f r o m w hi c h h a v e com e u p o n us with
s t a r t l i n g s u d d e n n e s s a nd t a k e n us c o m p l e t e l y b y surprise.
T h e y p r o m i s e n o t only to reveal to us a r e l a t i o n s h i p of t he
e l e m e n t s to each other, b u t to r e d u c e all t he e l e m e n t s to
c o m p o u n d s of a c o m m o n stuff ; indeed, to tell us t he a c t u a l
w e i g h t and p r o p e r t i e s of this 2tr-atom, this f u n d a m e n t a l
piece of m a t t e r out of w h i c h all t h e k n o w n d i f f e r e n t ki nds
of m a t t e r are made. T h i s h y p o t h e s i s goes far b e y o n d
P r o u t ' s wild g u e s s ; it n o t only r educes t he n u m b e r of
e l e m e n t s , it cuts t he a t o m - - t h e " u n c u t t a b l e . " It is a m a g -
nificent g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , and m o s t fertile in t he possibilities
it holds forth, if it can be p u t on an e s t a b l i s h e d footing.
In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d the genes i s of this new h y p o t h -
esis, it is n e c e s s a r y to give a r a p i d s u m m a r y of t he experi-
m e n t a l e v i d e n c e a c c u m u l a t e d al ong t h e s e lines d u r i n g t h e
last few years.
In 1859 Pliicker n o t i c e d the p h o s p h o r e s c e n c e on t h e
walls of a v a c u o u s glass t u b e o p p o s i t e t h e c a t h o d e w h e n
an electric d i s c h a r g e is p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t he tube. It
s e e m e d as if s o m e t h i n g e m a n a t e d f r o m t h e c a t h o d e and
t r a v e l e d a w a y in s t r a i g h t lines, a nd Plticker f o u n d t h a t
t h es e c a t h o d e " r a y s " are deflected b y a m a g n e t . Goldstein,
in 1876, f o u n d t h a t t hes e r a ys s t a r t e d off n o r m a l l y from t he
cathode, and he c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e y w ere w aves in t he
ether. D u r i n g t he y e a r s I879 to I885 Crookes m a d e a pro-
f o u n d s t u d y of these r a y s and c o n s i d e r e d t h a t we h a d h e r e
to deal with the m o t i o n of neg:~tively electrified particles
June, I9o2. ] Divisibility of the Atom. 455

of m a t t e r projected with e n o r m o u s velocities n o r m a l l y from

the electrode, c a u s i n g fluorescence, phosphorescence and
h e a t by their i m p a c t on the walls of the vessel and objects
placed in the tube, and m e c h a n i c a l m o t i o n by i m p i n g i n g on
l i g h t l y m o u n t e d vanes, etc. He called this indeed a f o u r t h
state of matter. T h e two views, ( I ) t h a t the rays are dis-
t u r b a n c e s of the ether, and (2) t h a t t h e y are electrified par-
ticles of matter, have each h a d its school of supporters.
T h e fact t h a t the rays are deflected in a m a g n e t i c field
points at once to the l a t t e r explanation and has presented
an u n a n s w e r a b l e a r g u m e n t to the ether-theory believers.
J. J. T h o m s o n and others have calculated from the a m o u n t
of this m a g n e t i c deflection the velocity of the m o t i o n of
the rays ; it is a b o u t 3 x Io9 c e n t i m e t e r s per second. Thom-
son has f o u n d also t h a t the radiation is not h o m o g e n e o u s ;
t h a t a part of it is not deflected at all, and produces no
phosphorescence. He has, moreover, f o u n d t h a t for the
same potential difference b e t w e e n the electrodes the mag-
netic deflection is the same in all gases. It was found also
t h a t w h e n the cathode rays fall upon an obstacle or con-
striction in the t u b e the rays are diffusely reflected, and
t h a t the far side of the obstacle acts itself as a cathode.
W h e n c a t h o d e rays, therefore, fall upon a surface it becomes
a cathode to all i n t e n t s and purposes.
Closely connected w i t h these rays a r e the so-called
" c a n a l rays," s t u d i e d by Goldstein in 1898. T h e y come
from the yellow layer n e x t the eathode and can be observed
best when t h e y stream out b a c k w a r d t h r o u g h a perforated
cathode. T h e y travel in s t r a i g h t lines, b u t produce no
l u m i n e s c e n c e and are not d e v i a t e d in a m a g n e t i c field. T h e y
have a velocity of a b o u t 3"6 x io 7 c e n t i m e t e r s per second,
and the ratio of the mass of a particle, m, to the charge it
carries, e, is a b o u t 3"3 x io -'~, which is in accordance (as we
shall see later) with the supposition t h a t it is o r d i n a r y
a t o m s w h i c h are projected and at work in this phenomenon.
It seems probable t h a t t h e y are part of the r e t u r n stream
of particles to the cathode.
T h e early e x p e r i m e n t e r s with c a t h o d e rays found t h a t
even very thin bodies cast black s h a d o w s ; b u t in 1892
456 31ackeJt:ie ." [J. F. I.,

Hertz discovered t h a t gold and a l u m i n i u m foils t r a n s m i t t e d

some of the rays, and concluded from this t h a t the l a t t e r
could not be particles of matter, and t h a t t h e y m u s t be
e t h e r waves, perhaps of the n a t u r e of u l t r a v i o l e t light.
In I887 H e r t z h a d found t h a t w h e n u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t fell
on a body the rays would discharge it if n e g a t i v e l y charged,
b u t would have no effect (or according to Branly a very
feeble effect) on a positive charge. If the body is u n c h a r g e d ,
the i l l u m i n a t i o n by ultraviolet l i g h t gives it a c h a r g e which
is almost always positive. T h e air b e t w e e n two condenser
plates becomes a c o n d u c t o r w h e n ultraviolet l i g h t fails on
one or both of t h e m , and there is a leakage c u r r e n t across
the dielectric. It is e v i d e n t t h a t the gas plays a large part
in the discharge, b u t this discharge is also d e p e n d e n t upon the
metal of which the plates are formed. Since t h a t time a cor-
r e s p o n d i n g effect has been f o u n d with X-rays, b u t it is there
entirely produced by the gas and is quite i n d e p e n d e n t of
the m a t e r i a l of which the plates are made.
A t a b o u t the same time it was observed t h a t gases could
be electrified and m a d e c o n d u c t i n g by b e i n g b r o u g h t near
hot metals, and t h a t electrified bodies in the gas would be
discharged. T h e gases in all these cases behave as if t h e y
h a d become ionized; and this supposition has been m o s t
f r u i t f u l as an explanation of the p h e n o m e n a involved.
I m p o r t a n t advances now came w i t h g r e a t rapidity. In
1894 L e n a r d m a d e the cathode rays pass out of the v a c u o u s
vessel in which t h e y were produced, by p u t t i n g a very thin
a l u m i n i u m window in the vessel opposite the cathode. H e
f o u n d a diffuse l i g h t s p r e a d i n g out from the window to a
short distance, 5 centimeters, into the outer air. These
rays seem to possess all the properties of the cathode rays
inside, b u t to d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m t h e y are called " L e n a r d
rays." T h e y cause bodies to p h o s p h o r e s c e ; t h e y affect
p h o t o g r a p h i c plates ; t h e y discharge positively or n e g a t i v e l y
c h a r g e d bodies; t h e y m a k e the air c o n d u c t i n g ; etc. By
a d m i t t i n g the rays t h a t pass t h r o u g h the window, not to t h e
o u t e r air, b u t to a n o t h e r enclosed space, the pressure and
kind of gas in w h i c h could be regulated, I,enard f o u n d t h a t
the absorption of the rays was constant, no m a t t e r w h a t
 June, I 9 o 2 . ] Divisibility of the Atom. 457

was t h e n a t u r e or pressure of the gas, provided the d e n s i t y

was always the same. T h i s is a m a t t e r of prime i m p o r t a n c e
from a theoretical standpoint, for it makes the absorptive
power depend only on the d e n s i t y of the gas and not on its
chemical composition or its physical state. L e n a r d observed,
also, t h a t these L e n a r d rays are deflected by a m a g n e t
in exactly the same w a y as are the cathode rays, and t h a t
t h e y h a v e a velocity a b o u t one-third t h a t of light. T h e
deflection is i n d e p e n d e n t of the n a t u r e and the pressure of
the gas t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e y pass. L e n a r d still inclined
towards the ether t h e o r y ot these radiations. Most of the
upholders of this theory have held t h a t the vibrations of the
e t h e r were transversal, b u t J a u m a n n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e y
m i g h t be longitudinal. T h e chief support of an ether
. t h e o r y is the fact t h a t the rays can pass t h r o u g h substances
and even out of the t u b e into the open air, and the chief
difficulty the t h e o r y has m e t w i t h is in a c c o u n t i n g for the
action of a m a g n e t . T h e electrified particle t h e o r y accounts
for this action at once. In t895 Perrin p e r f o r m e d some ex-
p e r i m e n t s which m a k e for the particle theory. He c a u g h t
the c a t h o d e rays in a sort of F a r a d a y ice-pail and f o u n d t h a t
t h e y c h a r g e d the vessel upon which t h e y struck with nega-
tive electricity, and J. J. T h o m s o n has proved t h a t the rays
carry t h e i r charges with t h e m w h e n deflected by a m a g n e t .
T h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s b r o u g h t out a n o t h e r most i m p o r t a n t fact,
namely, t h a t the rays m a k e the gas t h r o u g h which t h e y
pass, a conductor for the time being. T h o m s o n s u g g e s t e d
t h a t t h e y break the gas up into some kind of ions, and this
explained to h i m w h y he h a d failed to find a deflection of
the rays in an electrostatic field, as he h a d expected if t h e y
were electrified particles ; for, since t h e y move in a conduct-
ing field, t h e y would be no more deflected t h a n a current in
a wire. Later, T h o m s o n was able to get rid of these ions
by u s i n g h i g h e r vacua, and he t h e n found t h a t the rays
were deflected in an electrostatic field. T h e deflection
u n d e r these circumstances, c o m b i n e d w i t h the m a g n e t i c
deflection, leaves us practically w i t h no alternative b u t to
believe t h a t the rays are electrified m a t t e r in some form.
In t9oo L e n a r d showed t h a t the i m p a c t of ultraviolet
 435 3/fackene[e : [J. F. I..

light on a c o n d u c t o r placed in a v a c u u m caused the lat-

ter to give out rays c h a r g e d n e g a t i v e l y and deviable by a
m a g n e t , like the cathode rays.
In i895, the y e a r after the appearance of L e n a r d ' s
work on the L e n a r d rays, came a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t dis-
covery, t h a t of R 6 n t g e n of the rays called after him, or
simply " X r a y s . " H e f o u n d t h a t when the electric dis-
charge is p a s s i n g t h r o u g h a v a c u o u s tube covered with
black paper, which is opaque to visible, ultraviolet, c a t h o d e
and L e n a r d rays, a radiation is e m i t t e d by the t u b e
t h r o u g h the black paper, which acts on p h o t o g r a p h i c plates
or a fluorescent screen at a g r e a t distance. T h e s e rays
are accordingly m u c h more p e n e t r a t i v e t h a n c a t h o d e r a y s ;
in fact, all bodies are more or less t r a n s p a r e n t to this
radiation, and r o u g h l y in the inverse ratio of their densi-
ties. T h e y are absorbed to a certain e x t e n t by air and
other gases. T h e y discharge both positively and nega-
tively electrified bodies when t h e y fall upon them, w h e t h e r
the bodies be conductors or insulators. T h e y ionize
the gas t h r o u g h which t h e y pass and make it conducting.
T h e y are not deflected by a m a g n e t , and hence are not
c a t h o d e rays. T h e y come most s t r o n g l y from the phos-
phorescent patches on the wall of the t u b e m a d e by the
c a t h o d e rays. T h e y do not possess the properties of ultra-
violet rays of bein K r e g u l a r l y reflected, refracted and polar-
ized. W h e n t h e y fall obliquely on a sheet of m e t a l the
other side of the m e t a l gives off r a d i a t i o n s which affect a
p h o t o g r a p h i c plate, b u t w h i c h have not e x a c t l y the proper-
ties of the original rays. W h e n e v e r the X-rays strike a
metal surface there is e m i t t e d by the surface secondary
radiations consisting of two p a r t s : one not deviable in a
m a g n e t i c field and in m a n y ways similar to the p r i m a r y
radiation, and a n o t h e r part deviable, and consisting of rays
a g r e e i n g in t h e i r properties with c a t h o d e rays. T h e s e sec-
o n d a r y rays have n o t a b l y a less p e n e t r a t i v e power t h a n the
p r i m a r y rays, b u t t h e y still ionize a gas and discharge elec-
trified bodies. R 6 n t g e n at first s u p p o s e d the X-rays to be
l o n g i t u d i n a l vibrations of the ether. These radiations
are not h o m o g e n e o u s ; t h a t is, t h e y are not all equally
June, 1 9 o 2 . ] Divisibility of the Atom. 459
a b s o r b e d b y a given substance. T h o u g h t h e y ionize the
gas t h r o u g h which t h e y pass, as do ultraviolet light and
c a t h o d e rays, y e t t h e y differ from the ultraviolet rays in
that the latter ionize a gas only after b e i n g reflected from a
fluorescent s u b s t a n c e or a m e t a l plate, etc. Air loses its
p o w e r to c o n d u c t after p a s s i n g t h r o u g h w a t e r or cotton
wool; this fact and the small value of the velocity of the
ions of a c o n d u c t i n g gas m a k e it seem p r o b a b l e that the
ion is tile center of an a g g r e g a t i o n of a considerable num-
ber of molecules.
In I897 Stokes s u g g e s t e d a very plausible explanation of
the X-rays. A s s u m i n g that the c a t h o d e rays are m o v i n g
n e g a t i v e l y electrified particles, s u r r o u n d e d , in consequence,
by a m a g n e t i c field of force, w h e n the rays strike s u d d e n l y
on an obstacle there will be e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c induction, due
to the s t o p p a g e of the quasi-current, and a thin pulse of mag-
netic and electric force will be p r o p a g a t e d t h r o u g h the
m e d i u m ; it is this pulse in the e t h e r which c o n s t i t u t e s the
X rays. J . J . T h o m s o n and L e h m a n n have independently,
at a b o u t the same time, given the same explanation. It can
be s h o w n that such pulses w o u l d be of the s a m e n a t u r e as
ordinary light in m a n y ways, but, b e i n g pulses, would differ
from such regular trains of waves as c o n s t i t u t e light in
h a v i n g less absorption b y matter, and would h a v e no regu-
lar period and no r e g u l a r reflection and refraction and no
diffraction. This simple explanation is now very generally
accepted, and we h a v e the X-rays p u t in their proper place
as ether waves, along with infra-red, visible and ultraviolet
rays, and c o n s e q u e n t l y in an entirely different c a t e g o r y
from the c a t h o d e and L e n a r d rays, w h i c h are streams of
n e g a t i v e l y electrified particles.
In I896 Becquerel discovered that u r a n i u m and its salts
e m i t {even after b e i n g k e p t in the dark for years) radiations
which have a g r e a t m a n y properties in c o m m o n with ultra-
violet rays, wittl c a t h o d e rays and w i t h X-rays, and yet the
u r a n i u m rays cannot be identified as b e l o n g i n g to any one
of these three groups. T h e y travel in straight lines; t h e y
affect p h o t o g r a p h i c plates and fluorescent bodies; t h e y dis-
charge electrified bodies w h e n t h e y fall upon them. Ill
46o ~1c~cke~tzie : [J. F. I.,

these respects t h e y behave exactly as do all the t h r e e

groups of r a d i a t i o n s referred to above. Like the c a t h o d e
and X-rays, t h e y ionize a gas t h r o u g h which t h e y pass a n d
make it conducting, and R u t h e r f o r d has s h o w n t h a t t h e
velocity of the ions is the same for a gas m a d e c o n d u c t i n g
by u r a n i u m radiations as for one m a d e so by X-rays. T h e
cathode, R S n t g e n and u r a n i u m rays all act as nuclei for
water c o n d e n s a t i o n in a dust-free atmosphere. T h e ura-
n i u m radiations do not show a n y r e g u l a r reflection, refrac-
tion or polarization, at least not the m o s t active rays, and
in this respect are again like c a t h o d e a n d R S n t g e n rays,
and unlike u l t r a v i o l e t radiation. Metallic u r a n i u m will n o t
hold a charge unless in a v a c u u m , t h u s a c t i n g as if ultra:
violet l i g h t fell upon it. T h e u r a n i u m r a d i a t i o n is n o t
homogeneous, b u t is composed of rays of different penetra-
bility. R u t h e r f o r d has m a d e a detailed s t u d y of t h e s e
properties, and divides the u r a n i u m radiations into two
g r o u p s : the one, a, more i n t e n s e and very easily absorbed:
the other, fl, more feeble and very p e n e t r a t i n g .
Soon it was found t h a t t h o r i u m and its c o m p o u n d s h a v e
the same general radio-active properties as u r a n i u m , b u t t h e
radiations are more p e n e t r a t i n g . In a d d i t i o n to the "rays,'"
R u t h e r f o r d has shown t h a t the t h o r i u m c o m p o u n d s give
off an " e m a n a t i o n " or gas, which is p r o b a b l y m a d e up
of fine m a t e r i a l particles, themselves radio-active, and
which has the power of m a k i n g bodies on which it
falls radio-active. M. and Mme. Curie have isolated
from pitch-blende two new substances, p o l o n i u m (seem-
i n g l y allied to b i s m u t h ) and r a d i u m (allied to barium),
w i t h a radio-activity ioo,ooo times as g r e a t as t h a t of uran-
i u m ; the p o l o n i u m radiations are at the same time v e r y
little penetrative. F r o m the same kind of m a t e r i a l D e b i e r n e
has m a d e a c t i n i u m (allied to thorium). Still more active
substances of this kind are now prepared by De Hahn, of
Hanover. T h e r a d i a t i o n s from all such s u b s t a n c e s are
g r o u p e d u n d e r the generic title of " B e c q u e r e l rays." T h e
radiation of r a d i u m is composed of three parts: (I) rays n o t
d e v i a t e d in a m a g n e t i c or electrostatic field and not v e r y
p e n e t r a t i v e ; (2) a small a m o u n t of non-deviable rays w h i c h
June, x9o2.] Diz,iszbi/ity of the Atom. 46I
are very penetrative, and (3) d e v i a b l e rays w h i c h are very
penetrative. T h e latter give the s a m e v a l u e for ~n as do
e
c a t h o d e rays, and indeed have all the properties of cathode
rays,including the carrying of a charge of n e g a t i v e electricity,
a n d are i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from t h e m except in the m e t h o d
of production. T h e same is g e n e r a l l y true of all Becquerel
r a y s ; t h e y are, therefore, v e r y like the s e c o n d a r y X-rays.
A n y s u b s t a n c e placed near a radio-active b o d y acquires
itself a radio-activity, the so-called " i n d u c e d radio-activity,"
which m a y persist even for days at a time. A t a very high
t e m p e r a t u r e R u t h e r f o r d has s h o w n that the radio-active
properties of t h e s e s u b s t a n c e s is destroyed. M a c L e n n a n
has lately i m p a r t e d radio-active properties to m a n y sub-
s t a n c e s b y l e t t i n g c a t h o d e rays i m p i n g e on t h e m for half
an hour, and b y l e t t i n g the light from a spark-discharge
fall on them, and then g e n t l y h e a t i n g t h e m ; b u t similar
e x p e r i m e n t s m a d e with ultraviolet rays and X-rays h a v e
failed.
Zeeman, in I896, noticed t h a t the b r i g h t lines in the
s p e c t r u m of a source of light placed b e t w e e n the poles of
an e l e c t r o m a g n e t were w i d e n e d w h e n the field was t u r n e d
on. T h e same effect is p r o d u c e d in the absorption line
s p e c t r u m of a v a p o r w h e n the latter is placed in a strong
m a g n e t i c field. A n explanation of this p h e n o m e n o n was
f u r n i s h e d Dy the e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c t h e o r y of Lorentz, which
a s s u m e s t h a t in all bodies small electrified particles, or ions,
or "elektrons," are p r e s e n t with a definite mass and charge,
and that all light p h e n o m e n a are due to motions of these
ions. T h e s e ions w h e n m o v i n g in a m a g n e t i c field expe-
rience mechanical forces which influence their periods.
Lorentz's t h e o r y s u g g e s t e d at once that the edges of the
widened lines should be polarized, and on looking into the
m a t t e r Z e e m a n found this to be so. Lorentz's t h e o r y
e x p l a i n e d f u r t h e r that w h e n v i e w e d along the lines of mag-
netic force a single line was b r o a d e n e d b e c a u s e it has
b e c o m e really a d o u b l e t w i t h its two c o m p o n e n t s circularly
polarized in opposite directions, and w h e n v i e w e d at right
angles to the m a g n e t i c force the b r o a d e n i n g was d u e to the
462 l~ackeJz,s'ie : [J. F. I.,

fact t h a t the single line has become a triplet with the mid-
dle ray plane polarized parallel to the lines of m a g n e t i c
force and the e x t r e m e rays plane polarized p e r p e n d i c u l a r to
those lines. T h e t h e o r y also required t h a t the distance
b e t w e e n the e x t r e m e rays in e i t h e r case should be depend-
ent upon the ratio of the mass of an ion to its charge, a n d
t h a t ~n should be equal to
e
H

where H i s the intensity of the magnetic field, V the velo-

city of light, and 2t and 2 the wave-lengths of the extreme
rays. Experiment'has verified these predictions of theory.
It f u r t h e r appeared t h a t it was the effect of the m a g n e t i c
force on the n e g a t i v e ions which produced the p h e n o m e n a .
F u r t h e r work by Zeeman, Cornu, Preston, Larmor, Mich-
elson and others has shown t h a t the p h e n o m e n o n is m u c h
more complicated t h a n i n d i c a t e d above, and t h a t a line
m a y be broken up into more c o m p o n e n t s t h a n three, b u t
the elektron t h e o r y still accounts for these a d d i t i o n a l pecu-
liarities w h e n it is viewed in g r e a t e r detail; b u t the m a i n
features for our purpose are those a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d .
Such is the e n o r m o u s a m o u n t of e x p e r i m e n t a l m a t e r i a l
g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r by investigators in this small d e p a r t m e n t
of science in a short time ; the bare recital of their results
has taken considerable time. W e are now in a position to
see how the evidence p r e s e n t e d by this g r e a t mass of experi-
m e n t s has been able to shed l i g h t on the n a t u r e of the ulti-
m a t e s t r u c t u r e of matter.
W h e n dealing with the cathode rays and allied phe-
n o m e n a we saw t h a t there were two theories to correlate
and a c c o u n t for the observed f a c t s - - a n e t h e r t h e o r y and a
corpuscular theory. E i t h e r one will a c c o u n t for the rays
s t a r t i n g normally to the cathode and t r a v e l i n g in s t r a i g h t
lines, for the h e a t i n g effects and for phosphorescence, and
for the p u r e l y mechanical effects. T h e deflection of the
rays by m a g n e t i c and by electrostatic forces seems explicable
on the corpuscular t h e o r y o n l y ; b u t their passage t h r o u g h
a thin-walled tube is so readily explained on the e t h e r
June, 19o2.] Divisibility of the Atom. 463

t h e o r y t h a t it has given g r e a t support to such a t h e o r y and

for a time caused considerable trouble to the a d h e r e n t s of
the corpuscular theory. J. J. T h o m s o n has given some atten-
tion to this point. H e points out first t h a t the rays m a y
not really pass t h r o u g h t h e w a l l , b u t only s t a r t afresh on the
other side. He shows t h a t the motion of the particles shot
off from the outside of the w i n d o w in the L e n a r d experi-
m e n t w o u l d be of the n a t u r e of an impulse, and the
m o m e n t u m gained would be proportional to this impulse ;
and as the deflection of the rays by a m a g n e t is proportional
to their m o m e n t u m , we should expect to find t h a t deflection
i n d e p e n d e n t of the n a t u r e and pressure of the gas outside
the t u b e ; and this is exactly what L e n a r d noticed. But
inside the tube also the m a g n e t i c deflection is i n d e p e n d e n t
of the n a t u r e and pressure of the gas, and y e t the motion
there is not impulsive and the masses of the molecules of
the different gases vary greatly. T h i s led T h o m s o n to the
question, w h a t are the corpuscles or particles w h i c h carry
the charges ? T h e first l i g h t t h r o w n on this m a t t e r is the
observation by L e n a r d t h a t the rays outside the tube in air
at a pressure of half an a t m o s p h e r e travel only 5 milli-
meters before their i n t e n s i t y is halved. In the l i g h t of the
kinetic t h e o r y of gases we can deduce from this t h a t the
mass of a corpuscle c a n n o t be t h a t of a molecule of air.
Moreover, it c a n n o t be t h a t of an a g g r e g a t e of molecules,
because L e n a r d observed t h a t the distance traversed by the
r~ys is inversely proportional to the d e n s i t y of the gas. This
leaves only the possibility t h a t the corpuscles are of smaller
mass t h a n o r d i n a r y molecules and atoms. T h o m s o n was
satisfied t h a t this s u g g e s t i o n would a c c o u n t for the observed
p h e n o m e n a ; for if an a t o m is m a d e u p of a g r e a t n u m b e r
of holes and corpuscles, the holes b e i n g p r e d o m i n a n t , the
m e a n free p a t h of a corpuscle would be inversely propor-
tional to the n u m b e r of corpuscles it would meet, t h a t is, to
the n u m b e r of corpuscles in u n i t of volume, t h a t is, to the
mass in u n i t of volume, or the density. T h i s is exactly
w h a t L e n a r d found, if we a s s u m e t h a t the p e n e t r a t i n g dis
tance of the corpuscles is their m e a n free path. Moreover,
if all a t o m s are composed of the same corpuscles, w h a t e v e r
464 Mac/een ~e> ." rJ. F. I.,

t h e gas, th e m a g n e t i c deflections w o u l d be the s a m e for all

substances, as was f o u n d by L e n a r d to be t he case.
T h i s was c o n j e c t u r e . W h a t was now w a n t e d was experi-
m e n t s wh ich would d e t e r m i n e n u m e r i c a l l y t he mass of t h e
carriers of t h e n e g a t i v e electricity. One e x p e r i m e n t w hi ch
we h a v e a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d to g a v e s om e e v i d e n c e in this
direction. T h e a m o u n t of the w i d e n i n g of a line in the
Z e e m a n p h e n o m e n o n g a v e a m e a s u r e of U, and Z e e m a n
e
f o u n d it to be a b o u t TO- r C. G. S., E. M. units. T h e val ues of
for o r d i n a r y e l e c t r o l y t e s are well k n o w n ; t h a t for hydro-
e
g e n b e i n g a b o u t Io = 4 units. J . J . T h o m s o n and o t h e r s now
d i r e c t e d t h e i r e n e r g i e s to finding t he v a l u e of m and of e,

for ionized gases ; t he p r o d u c t of t he two v a l u e s w oul d g i v e

~. T h o m s o n ' s first m e t h o d was to let c a t h o d e rays fall on
a t h e r m o p i l e for a gi ve n t i m e and thus m e a s u r e t h e i r e n e r g y ,
W," a f t e r t h e y pass t he t h e r m o p i l e t h e y are c a u g h t in a
vessel c o n n e c t e d w i t h a c a p a c i t y and an e l e c t r o m e t e r and
t h e total charge, {2, on t h e m m e a s u r e d ; at t h e s a m e t i m e
t h e r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e , p, of t he b e n d i n g of t he rays in a
m a g n e t i c field of s t r e n g t h , H, is m e a s u r e d . T h e n

m
--
_
--
1g G I / " J "~
e W-'

T h e v alu e of *~ t h u s g o t was I"5 X IO-r, and was inde-

e
p e n d e n t of th e gas and of t h e n a t u r e of t he electrodes.
In a second e x p e r i m e n t he m e a s u r e d the deflections pro-
duced b y a m a g n e t i c field, H , and by an e l e c t r o s t a t i c field,
F , w h e n each ac t e d ove r a distance, f, and so a r r a n g e d t h e
forces t h a t the deflections, /~, were equal. T h e n
m He/
e F#"

The value for m t h u s f o u n d was I" 3 X IO-r. Similar

g

m e a s u r e m e n t s by L e n a r d and Kaufmann g a v e similar

results.
June, I9o2.] Divisibili/y o f the A t o m . 465

In his t h i r d m e t h o d T h o m s o n i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e phenom e-
n o n n o t i c e d b y E l s t e r a nd Geitel of a d e c r e a s e in the conduc-
tion b e t w e e n two p l a t e s i l l u m i n a t e d by u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t w h e n
s u b j e c t e d to a m a g n e t i c force n o r m a l to t he lines of flow
b e t w e e n t h e plates. If t he s t r e n g t h of m a g n e t i c field, H ,
r e d u c e s th e flow to a m i n i m u m w h e n t he d i s t a n c e of t he
plates a p a r t is d, t h e n
m H2d 2
e 2V'
w h e r e V is th e v e l o c i t y of light. The result f o r - - w a s
e
I"4 IO -7.
H e r e are f o u r e n t i r e l y di f f er e nt w ays of g e t t i n g at t h e
v a l u e of m, an d t h e y all give t he s a m e result, nam el y, t h a t
e
m i s a b o u t IO-7, a nd t h a t it is i n d e p e n d e n t of t he kind of

m a t t e r e m p l o y e d . T h e s a m e v a l u e has been f o u n d b y
B e c q u e r e l in t h e case of t h e d e v i a b l e r a d i u m radiation.
W e h a v e t h u s t h e v a l u e s of m for o r d i n a r y e l e c t r o l y t e s
e
a n d for ionized gases, and t h e l a t t e r is a b o u t 1 of t h e
f o r m e r for th e case of h y d r o g e n . I t r e m a i n s to find t he
r e l a t i v e v a l u e s of e for h y d r o g e n and for t he ion of an ion-
ized gas, an d we can d e d u c e t h e r e l a t i v e values of m for t he
t w o cases. C . T . R . W i l s o n d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e ions pro-
d u c e d b y u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t act like t hos e p r o d u e e d by X-rays
in p r o v i d i n g nuelei in dust-free air a r o u n d w hi ch w a t e r
v a p o r can c o n d e n s e in small drops. If t h e n we could not e
t h e to tal c h a r g e c a r r i e d b y a collection of t hese drops w h e n
t h e y fall, an d a t t h e s a m e t i m e c o u n t t h e n u m b e r of them,
we w o u l d h a v e t h e c h a r g e on each. Moreover, if we can
find th e size of t h e dr ops we can find t h e i r n u m b e r . T h e
size of t h e drops can be d e t e r m i n e d f r om t h e i r r a t e of fall
as a cloud. In this f a s h i o n T h o m s o n f o u n d t he v a l u e of
e to be 6"5 X IO-10 C. G. S., E. S. units. F r o m a k n o w l e d g e
of t h e mass of h y d r o g e n r e q u i r e d to c a r r y a uni t of elec-
trieity, c o m b i n e d w i t h a use of t h e k i n e t i c t h e o r y of gases, it
is p r o v e d t h a t the v a l u e of e for h y d r o g e n is of t he s a m e o r d e r
VOL. CLIII. NO. 9~8. 3
466 Mackenzie : [J. F I,,

of m a g n i t u d e as t h a t w h i c h w a s f o u n d for the ion. Town-

send has p r o v e d this fact b y an entirely different m e t h o d ,
namely, b y the rate at w h i c h ions diffuse into gases. Since,
therefore, the e's are the s a m e for the two cases, and the m

for the corpuscle is a ~0~ of the m for h y d r o g e n in a liquid

e
electrolyte, it follows t h a t the mass of a corpuscle is a b o u t
~ - ~ of t h a t of a h y d r o g e n atom, and t h a t it is the s a m e for
all gases. T h e m a s s of this n e g a t i v e l y c h a r g e d corpuscle
in a gas at low p r e s s u r e is a b o u t 3 Io- ~ of a g r a m m e . It
is found, however, not only in low-pressure v a c u u m tubes,
b u t it is given off b y i n c a n d e s c e n t metals, b y m e t a l s illumi-
n a t e d b y u l t r a v i o l e t light, and b y radio-active s u b s t a n c e s ;
and in e v e r y case it has the s a m e m a s s and the s a m e charge,
and a velocity w h i c h is a large fraction of t h a t of light, the
r a d i u m corpuscles h a v i n g the g r e a t e s t velocity, namely, two-
thirds t h a t of light. T h o m s o n states that with the appliances
of ordinary m a g n i t u d e the quan'tity of such m a t t e r p r o d u c e d
is infinitesimally small; he calculated t h a t his m a c h i n e
g o i n g n i g h t and d a y for a y e a r w o u l d p r o d u c e only 1
of a gramme. T h i s at once explains w h y t h e c h e m i s t r y of
m a t t e r in this state is n o t studied.
T h e carriers of the positive electricity b e h a v e q u i t e differ-
ently from t h o s e of the negative, for it is f o u n d that the
s a m e q u a n t i t y , e, of electricity, i n s t e a d of b e i n g associated
w i t h a c o n s t a n t m a s s equal to v ~ of the m a s s of an ordi-
nary h y d r o g e n atom, is c o n n e c t e d w i t h a v a r i a b l e mass,
namely, one of the order of m a g n i t u d e of t h a t of a molecule
of the s u b s t a n c e u n d e r consideration, t h u s v a r y i n g w i t h the
n a t u r e of the gas in w h i c h the electrification is found.
W e have t h e n in following the n e g a t i v e charge been led
to a s o m e t h i n g of an invariable mass, of v e r y small a m o u n t
as c o m p a r e d with the m a s s e s of the molecules of ordinary
matter, and i n d e p e n d e n t of the kind of m a t t e r w i t h w h i c h
we f o u n d it a s s o c i a t e d - - a veritable ursto~. W h a t is this
corpuscle ? Is it a piece b r o k e n off from the ordinary a t o m
and at t h e s a m e time s p l i t t i n g up the neutralized electricity
on t h a t a t o m and t a k i n g the n e g a t i v e charge with it and
June, I 9 o 2 . ] Divisibility of the Atom. 467

l e a v i n g t h e p o s i t i v e on t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e atom, and are

all t h e e l e m e n t s m a d e up of t h e s a m e corpuscles, b u t differ.
i n g f r o m one a n o t h e r in n u m b e r a nd a r r a n g e m e n t ? A n d
h a v e we t h e r i g h t to say t h a t we h a v e a c c o r d i n g l y f o u n d
t h e c o n n e c t i n g link b e t w e e n t h e e l e m e n t s ? T h i s is one
view, an d it s e e m s a v e r y p l a u s i b l e one. Or was it elec-
t r i c i t y o n ly t h a t was split off f r o m t h e a t o m ? B u t it has
mass, an d h o w are we to concei ve of e l e c t r i c i t y as e n d o w e d
w i t h mas s a n d a p a r t f r o m m a t t e r w i t h o u r p r e s e n t views ? I t
is t r u e t h a t if we h a v e a c o r p u s c l e of m a t t e r m o v i n g w i t h a
c h a r g e on it, it has an a p p a r e n t a d d e d mass d u e to t h e
m a g n e t i c field it be a r s w i t h it ; b u t is it r e a s o n a b l e to dis-
solve a w a y t h e c a r r i e r of t h e e l e c t r i c i t y a n d say t h a t t h e
l a t t e r still h as m a s s ? T h e s e q u e s t i o n s are still to be an-
swered. J . J . T h o m s o n ha s t r i e d s om e e x p e r i m e n t s to t est
w h e t h e r t h e mas s is to be as s oci at ed w i t h e l e c t r i c i t y alone
or w h e t h e r p a r t of it is d u e to a carrier, b u t his investiga-
tions h a v e n o t led h i m to a n y definite conclusion.
T h e r e s u l t s of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s briefly d e s c r i b e d a b o v e
a n d t h e n e w c o n c e p t i o n s b a s e d on t h e m h a v e b e e n of v a l u e
in o t h e r fields; t h e y can be us ed to a c c o u n t for electrical
a n d t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i o n in m e t a l s ; t h e y h a v e e v e n led to a
v e r y p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e M e n d e l e j e f f g r o u p s and
t h e a u r o r a borealis. B ut we m u s t confine o u r s e l v e s h e r e to
t h e i r b e a r i n g on t h e s t r u c t u r e of m a t t e r . T h e difficulty to
be o v e r c o m e in a p p l y i n g t h e m to this p r o b l e m lies in t h e
q u e s t i o n of t h e s e a t of t he mass, and w h e t h e r we h a v e in
t h e ion, or elektron, or corpuscle, a t h i n g of t he n a t u r e of an
atom, o n l y smaller, or s o m e t h i n g else. T h e m a t t e r seems to
be m a i n l y a q u e s t i o n of words. W e h a v e f o u n d a t h i n g w i t h a
m a s s T~~ of t h a t of a h y d r o g e n atom, u s i n g t h r o u g h o u t our
c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e t e r m m a s s in t h e onl y w a y we can m e c h a n i -
cally use it. N o w we k n o w m a t t e r only as a t h i n g h a v i n g
mass, an d we o n l y use t h e idea of m a s s in m e c h a n i c s as a
p r o p e r t y of m a t t e r ; h e n c e we k n o w a t o m s and m o l e c u l e s
o n ly as t h e y possess mass ; so if mass is o u r criterion, we
h a v e in t h e e l e k t r o n a s u b - a t o m , and since it is the s a m e
for all e l e m e n t s , we h a v e b y i n f e r e n c e t h e o r d i n a r y 7o-odd
a t o m s as a g g r e g a t i o n s of this sub-atom. If it shoul d t u r n
 468 Notes and Comments. [J. F. I.,

o u t to b e t r u e t h a t t h e e n e r g y is p u r e l y e l e c t r i c a l , it w o u l d
n o t m a t e r i a l l y a l t e r o u r a t o m i c t h e o r y , it w o u l d g i v e u s
s i m p l y a n e l e c t r i c a l " e x p l a n a t i o n " of m a s s - - a c o n c e p t f o r
w h i c h at p r e s e n t w e h a v e no e x p l a n a t i o n .
~PHYSICAL LABORATORY,
BRYN mAWR COLLEGE.

NOTES AND COMMENTS.

*' P E C U L I A R I T I E S OF T H E W R I T I N G OF H E A L T H Y P E R S O N S . " *

BY AUGUST DIEI:IL,
Assistant Physician, Clinic for the Insane, R u p r e c h t - - K a r l University,
Heidelberg (now Nervenartzt, Lilbeck).

P. 4 x x " It appears desirable after the initial step into the domain o f the
scientific study o f writing,t first to establish a firm basis for the comprehension
of the writing of those sound in health in order to avoid the danger of errors
and misunderstandings in the realm of the diseased."
P. 4. The persons whose writing was studied were four male and four
female attendants at the University clinic ( R u p r e c h t - K a r l . )
P. 5- The questions to which answers were sought were (I) w h e t h e r and
what regular relations exist between the various peculiarities of handwriting.
(2) How the chirography is influenced by slow and fast writing. (3) W h a t
changes it exhibits when the task is more difficult. (4) How far the individ-
ualities of h a n d w r i t i n g may be regarded as personal peculiarities and indicate
sex.
Ingenious devices together with the k y m o g r a p h i o n were used to measure
the length of the path pursued by the pen, and the time consumed.
The hospital attendants employed as subjects were of the educated peas-
ant class.
The experiments were u n d e r t a k e n in two series of five days each. The
writings were performed with a Kohinoor H.B. pencil k e p t properly sharpened,
and the substance written on was well-sized cards. The time chosen was
9.30 A.M.
The tasks assigned were as follows :
(i) Please write slowly and carefully t h e numbers I to IO on the card.
After this had been done :
(2) The same t h i n g once more.
After a pause of two minutes.
(3) Now, please, write the numbers I to io as fast as you can.
W h e n this was finished:
(4) Once more, please, as fast as possible.

* Translated Extracts from Doktor Dissertation.

tThis initial step was taken in x894by the trauslator in his book " Bibliotics."