Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Text Book;
1) Materials Selection in Mechanical Design
Writer: Michael F. Ashby.
References;
x George E. Dieter, Linda C. Schmidt: ENGINEERING DESIGN.
x ASM Handbook volume 20: Materials Selection and Design.
Evaluation;
SYNOPSIS OF COURSE:
This is course deals with one of the most important aspect in Materials Engineering i.e.
design as well as selection of different materials and Processes.
The specific objectives for the course are:
1. Describe, both conceptually and analytically, how system components work using
scientific engineering principles.
2. To gain experience in the selection of materials and optimization of behavior by
using a systematic methodology which combines materials properties with the
engineering function of the process or product design.
3. To defend materials selection effectively both orally and in written form.
4. To select and use appropriate industrial literature and library resources in the
solution of material selection and failure analysis problems.
REMEMBER!!!!
The true art of memory is the art of attention
Samuel Johnson
WHAT QUALITIES IN A GOOD ENGINEER? MINIMUM COMPUTER SKILLS?
JOB TITLE(s): Materials Designer, Design Engineer (Materials), Trainee Design Engineer.
The engineer is the key figure in the material progress of the world. It is his
engineering that makes a reality of the potential value of science by translating
scientific knowledge into tools, resources, energy and labor to bring them into the
service of man ... To make contributions of this kind the engineer requires the
imagination to visualize the needs of society and to appreciate what is possible as well
as the technological and broad social age understanding to bring his vision to reality
DESIGN (E
D ENGINE EERING DESIGN)
D ):
x A design may or may noot involve inventionn
x Goodd design reequires booth analysis and synnthesis.
x Typically we approach
a c
complex p
problems l design by decoomposing the
like t probleem into
manaageable paarts. Becauuse we neeed to undderstand hoow the paart will perrform in service,
s
we mmust be ab ble to calculate as much aboout the paarts expected behaavior as po ossible
beforre it existts in physsical formm by usingg the apprropriate disciplines
d s of science and
enginneering annd the neccessary co omputationnal tools. This is called analysis . It usually
u
invollves the siimplificatiion of the real worldd through models.
x Synthhesis invoolves the identificaation of the
t design n elementts that wiill compriise the
produuct, its deecomposition into parts,
p and the combbination off the part solutionss into a
total workable system.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS:
x The selection of a specific material for a particular use is a very complex process.
However, one can simplify the choice if the details about
(i) Operating parameters,
(ii) Manufacturing processes,
(iii) Functional requirements and
(iv) Cost considerations are known.
x There are thousands and thousands of materials available and it is very difficult for an
engineer to possess a detailed knowledge of all the materials. However, a good grasp of
the fundamental principles which control the properties of various materials help one to
make the optimum selection of material.
x In this respect, materials science and engineering draw heavily from the engineering
branches, e.g. metallurgy, ceramics and polymer science.
1) This Figure
The role of the materials engineer in the design and manufacture of today's highly
sophisticated products is varied, complex, exciting, and always changing.
Materials selection specialists have been practicing their art since the beginning of
recorded time.
The first caveman, searching for food, required an implement that would not break
during use.
Although wood, stone, and bone were the only structural materials available, there
were still choices: hard wood versus soft wood, and hard stones and flint, which
would sharpen when broken, versus soft stones.
While prehistoric man learned only from experience, learning nevertheless took place,
and the art of materials selection became a valued skill within the community.
As other materials, such as copper and iron, became available, the skill became almost
mystical, with knowledge passed down from father to son, until the middle to late
19th century. By then the blacksmith had replaced the alchemist.
At this point, the blacksmith had become the local expert in materials selection and
shaping and was recognized as a valuable and enabling member of the community.
The role of the materials selection expert has evolved.
Today when we think of materials selection specialists, we think of those who have
been formally trained as metallurgical or materials engineers.
Modern engineered materials are now available that have attractive but complex
properties.
Therefore, it is becoming essential to develop a much closer working relationship
between those who design a component and those who advise the designer on
materials selection.
In fact, the most efficient structural designs are now generated by incorporating, from
the beginning, the complex properties of modern engineered materials into the design
synthesis step (matching form to function).
The actual selection of a material to satisfy a design need is effectively performed
every day in literally dozens of different ways by people of many different
backgrounds.
The selection process can range from simply re-specifying a previously used material
(or one used by a competitor) through finite element analyses or modelling routines to
precisely identify property requirements.
Additionally, the selection may be done by someone formally trained in metallurgy
and materials science or by designers themselves. There is no unique individual role
when it comes to materials selection.
Today, the selection of the material and its processing, product design, cost,
availability, recyclability, and performance in final product form have become
inseparable.
As a result, more and more companies are forming integrated product development
(IPD) teams to ensure that all needed input is obtained concurrently.
Whether it is used in a small company or a large company the IPD approach has been
shown to lead to a better result and to achieve this result faster.
The integration of material, process, and product design relies on individuals who are
trained in materials selection and can work in a team environment.
Often, it is the materials specialist, familiar with the frequent, conflicting needs of
design, production, and marketing, who can assume the role of mediator to focus on
the final product.
Starting with the initial design and material choice, through prototype manufacture
and testing, and continuing to final production, the materials selection specialist is an
essential team member.
Worldwide, the vast majority of manufacturing firms are small and cannot afford the
luxury of a formally trained materials scientist or materials selection specialist.
Rather, they have individuals trained in many areas, one of which is materials. In a
smaller enterprise, these individuals actually select materials as a part of their daily
design activity.
Whether that training was gained as a part of another degree program, as part of a
community college associates program, on the job, the result is the development of an
individual trained in the many and varied facets of materials selection.
INFORMATION OF SOME ENGINEERING MATERIALS
GROUP: CERAMICS
Info Overview Design Issues Typical Environmental issues
Design Design Products
strengths weaknesses
Materials
Glasses Glasses are amorphous solids based Transparent, Low tensile windows Silicon oxide (silica) is
on silicon oxide (the same as sand). or easily strength naturally occurring, but energy
coloured bottles is used to purify it to make
Glass is soft and mouldable when Low toughness glass for engineering
hot, making shaping High ovenware applications.
straightforward; when cool and solid resistance to
it is strong in compression, but corrosion optical fibres Because of the large energy
brittle and weak in tension. costs in making glass it is cost
Easy to shape effective to recycle it.
Glass is transparent or can be easily
coloured. Special glasses are made
into fibres for optical
communications.
Alumina Alumina is an ionic ceramic, Excellent Low tensile spark plugs Alumina is naturally occurring,
aluminium oxide. It is mainly used corrosion strength but energy is used to purify it
for its electrical insulation (e.g. resistant electrical for engineering application.
spark plugs) or for its hardness (e.g. Low toughness insulators (e.g.
cutting tools). Low density on pylons)
Difficult to
Like all ceramics, alumina is Resistant to shape cutting tools
intrinsically hard and strong in high
compression, but has low toughness temperatures grinding
and tensile strength. wheels
High electrical
Due to its high melting point, resistance fuse bodies
alumina can only be processed in
powder form.
INFORMATION OF SOME ENGINEERING MATERIALS
GROUP: CERAMICS
Silicon Silicon carbide is a covalent Excellent Low tensile electrical Silicon and carbon are
carbide ceramic. It is mainly used for its corrosion strength insulators (e.g. abundant materials, but energy
very high hardness (e.g. cutting resistant semiconductor is used to purify them and to
tools), and for its electrical Low toughness substrate) produce silicon carbide powder
properties. Low density for engineering application.
Difficult to cutting tools
Like all ceramics, silicon carbide is Resistant to shape
intrinsically hard and strong in high grinding
compression, but has low toughness temperatures wheels
and tensile strength.
High electrical
Due to its high melting point, resistance.
silicon carbide can only be
processed in powder form. High hardness
Diamond Diamond is covalently bonded pure Excellent Excellent Gemstones Mining of diamond is very
carbon, and has the highest Young's corrosion corrosion expensive, as the proportion of
modulus and hardness of all resistance resistance Cutting tools diamond in the rocks is very
materials. small. Manufacture of artificial
Low density Low density Grinding diamond is also a slow,
It is naturally occurring but can also wheels expensive process.
be manufactured. High electrical High electrical
resistance. resistance. Partly for its intrinsic value,
High purity diamonds are used as and partly because of its
gemstones in jewellery. High hardness High hardness energy-intensive production
routes, diamonds are almost
Diamond is increasingly used for its entirely recycled.
very high hardness in cutting tools.
POLYBUTYLENE TEREPHTHALATE
2. INNER HOUSING
(PBT)
Minimalist
Simple
Egg looks a bit
unstable
Material not very
durable as it will
smash when
dropped
Stable
Types of Wear
There are many types of wear. In designing for wear it is first important to identify the main
type of wear that is operative in a particular design, although often a given wear mechanism
gives way to a different mechanism as wear progresses, or several mechanisms act together.
There are four predominant situations where wear occurs:
Adhesive wear occurs when two solid bodies are in contact and move relative to
each other. The motion can be either sliding, rolling, or by impact.
Abrasive wear occurs when hard particles slide or roll across the surface under
pressure.
Erosion is the loss of material from a solid surface due to the interaction of that
surface with a fluid. The fluid may be a multicomponent fluid like steam, or a stream
of solid particles.
Surface fatigue is a form of surface damage in which particles of metal are detached
from a surface under cyclic stresses, causing pitting or spalling. The most common
occurrences of surface fatigue are in rolling-contact systems, as in gear teeth and
bearings.
Wear Models
Many models have been proposed for wear processes. The most general relationship
expresses wear by the volume of wear debris created, V.
This model is applicable for both adhesion and abrasive wear. However, for the latter
type of wear would be multiplied by a geometric term to account for the sharpness of
the particles.
The wear volume is inversely proportional to the hardness of the material that is
undergoing wear.
In general, the harder the wear surface the lower the wear.
Typical materials used in wear applications are tempered-martensitic steels, steels
surface hardened by carburizing, and cobalt alloys and ceramic materials applied as
surface layers.
Wear models are useful in designing against wear. However, the level of detail
involved precludes further examples here. The design starts with a thorough
understanding of the wear system, including the nature of the motion, the likely loads
and determination of contact stresses, the temperature, and environment (whether
there is corrosion or erosion).
This allows determination of the most likely types of wear, which permits the choice
of a wear model. An important determination at this stage is the allowable wear, and
the criterion of failure.
Determining the nature of the wear mechanism, its degree of severity, and the
characteristics of the wear process allows for the selection of an appropriate wear
model.
Since these equations all involve empirical coefficients that are material and
environment dependent, it is necessary to conduct wear tests on candidate materials
under conditions that approximate the design environment. Then the model is used to
determine the appropriate loads and dimensions in the design.
Wear Prevention
Design guidelines used to minimize wear can be divided into analysis methods, design
details of the product, the use of lubricants, and appropriate materials selection.
Analysis methods
In identifying of the type of wear that can be expected, look carefully at the surface
damage from wear failures from similar situations. Examine the wear surface with a
scanning electron microscope. Microscopic examination of the wear debris, and
spectrographic analysis of lubricants, which may contain wear debris, can shed light on the
nature of the wear processes that are taking place.
Design details
The overall aim in designing against wear should be to minimize contact stresses. One way
to achieve this is to add details that help maintain good alignment between contact surfaces.
When satisfactory wear life cannot be achieved by other means, use a sacrificial design
where one contact element is softer than the other and is intended to be replaced periodically.
Lubrication
The most general solution to excessive wear is lubrication. Lubrication provides a barrier
between the contact surfaces that reduces both friction and wear. Lubricants are usually
liquids, sometimes polymer solids, and rarely gases.
When a design depends on lubrication to control wear, a lubricant failure can be disastrous.
Lubricant failure can occur because of chemical breakdown or contamination, change in
properties due to excessive heat, or loss of lubricant.
Materials
Sliding between a hard metal surface and a softer metal surface will produce more wear on
both members than if both surfaces were hard. A hard steel (BHN 650) coupled with a soft
steel (BHN 250) will not protect the hard member from wear.
The lowest metal-to-metal adhesive wear and resistance to galling is achieved with two
hard surfaces (BHN 650).
Hard materials usually have low fracture toughness. An effective and economical approach
is to provide a high hardness layer on the surface of a lower hardness material. Depending on
the base material, this is achieved by diffusion treatments, surface hardening (in steels), hard
facing, and thermal spray coatings.
Diffusion treatments are usually applied to steels. The surface of low-carbon steel can be
made hard and wear resistant by diffusing carbon atoms (carburizing) or nitrogen atoms
(nitriding ) into the surface of a part. These surface treatment processes have been widely
adopted in the automotive industry.
Diffusion treatments require hours at high temperature for the diffusion of atoms to
produce a case depth of 0.0100.020 in. The change in surface composition leads to a minor
change in dimensions. Steels can also be surface hardened by selective hardening in which
only the outer surface of the part is heated into the austenitic range for hardening, and then
rapidly quenched to produce a hard martensitic layer on a soft, tough core. For large parts,
heating is accomplished by heating with a gas torch (flame hardening), while heating with an
induction coil or laser beam is used for smaller parts and greater precision in control of the
depth of the surface layer.
Hardfacing is the application of surface coatings using welding techniques. Surface layers
of 1/8 in. are common. Typical materials applied by hard facing are tool steels, iron
chromium alloys for resistance against high-stress abrasive wear, and cobalt-based alloys for
applications involving galling.
Thermal spraying builds up a surface layer by melting the material into droplets and
depositing them on the surface at high velocity. The droplets cool very rapidly and form an
interlocking layer of splats. Typical processes are flame spraying and plasma arc spraying.
These can deposit all wear-resistant metallic materials, and the higher-velocity spray
processes can deposit ceramic materials such as chromium and aluminum oxide and tungsten
carbide. Thermal spray processes can also be used to build up and repair worn parts.
LETS CONSIDER THE PROCESS OF BLANKING
QUESTION NO. 1
Being an engineer, you were asked to analyse a cylinder of atomic Hydrogen keeping in
view the fact of its leakage. Following data is from the Customer.
x Steel Vessel
x Temperature = 25C.
x Wall thickness = 4 mm.
x Inner surface exposed to H2 Concentration = 4.2moles/m3.
x Outer surface exposed to Atmosphere.
Solution:
We have, M = JAt
Where M= mass diffusing through a unit cross sectional area
J= Diffusion Flux
A= area across which diffusion is occurring
t= elapsed diffusion time
D = Do exp( -RT
Qd
)
where Do is a constant, Q the activation energy for diffusion, T the absolute temp (in K) and
R the gas constant.
-13.4 x 10-3
D = (0.1 x 10 - 6) exp( 8.314 x (25 273)
)
Now, finding J,
J = (4.478 x 10 - 3) 4 x4.2
10-3
M 20
t=
AJ 2 x 4.7 x10 7
T = 21,276,595.74 sec = 246.25 days
Now, the same customer wants you to design a cylinder which can hold same hydrogen
concentration for atleast 1.5 years.
QUESTION NO. 2
You were all alone incharge of designing of Gear (A gear is a rotating machine part which
has cut teeth that mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque. The cut teeth
are also called 'cogs'. Gears are one of the most important parts of any machine or a
mechanism)
Designing is done prior to manufacturing and includes calculation of the gear geometry,
taking into account gear strength, wear characteristic of the gear teeth, material selection,
gear alignment and provision for lubrication of gear. An important step of manufacturing is
the Carburising Process through which a gear can have
Calculate the time necessary to increase the carbon content to 0.35 wt% at 0.040 in below the
surface of the gear.
Now,
what if 1022 steel is used instead of 1020? Is it beneficial as far as time for carburizing is
concerned?
can tool steel be used instead of 1020 steel ? disadvantages?
Can steel having 0.1% carbon be case carburized at 850C?