awpa Pacha

Journal of Andean Archaeology

ISSN: 0077-6297 (Print) 2051-6207 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ynaw20

Huaca Dos Cabezas

Christopher B. Donnan

To cite this article: Christopher B. Donnan (2014) Huaca Dos Cabezas, awpa Pacha, 34:2,
117-146, DOI: 10.1179/0077629714Z.00000000018

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 HUACA DOS CABEZAS

Christopher B. Donnan

Huaca Dos Cabezas is an enormous Moche structure on the north coast of Peru. Although it was heavily eroded by both
wind and water after its abandonment ca. 650 C.E., and was extensively damaged by massive looting that took place
during the early Colonial Period, archaeological and iconographic evidence make it possible to reconstruct its size, form,
exterior ornamentation, and summit access. It is also possible to identify changes that resulted from three successive
phases of its construction. The structure has several unusual features, including a pyramid with zigzag corners,
double stairways providing access to the pyramids summit, and a black and white diamond pattern on its exterior sur-
faces. After the Inca conquered the north coast ca. 1470 C.E., a small shrine was built at Huaca Dos Cabezas.
Although the large-scale looting that occurred during the early Colonial Period destroyed and buried the shrine, the
looting does not appear to have yielded any signicant treasure.

La Huaca Dos Cabezas es una enorme estructura Moche, ubicada en la Costa Norte del Per. Aunque ha sido
erosionada por el viento y el agua luego de su abandono alrededor del ao 650 de N.E., y ha sido extensivamente
daada por el saqueo masivo que tuvo lugar en el periodo Colonial Temprano, la evidencia arqueolgica e
iconogrca permite reconstruir su tamao, forma decoracin exterior y el acceso a la cima de la estructura. Ha
sido posible identicar modicaciones que resultaron de las tres fases sucesivas de construccin. La estructura posee
caractersticas poco comunes, incluyendo esquinas en forma de zigzag, escaleras dobles que permiten el acceso a la
cima de la pirmide y decoracin en blanco y negro y forma de diamante en la supercie externa de la fachada.
Despus de la conquista Inca, alrededor de 1470 N.E., se construy un pequeo adoratorio en la Huaca Dos
Cabezas. Aunque el saqueo en gran escala que ocurri en el periodo Colonial Temprano destruy y sepult el adoratorio,
no parece que ste rindiese una cantidad considerable de tesoros.

he Moche peoplewhose civilization ourished

T on the north coast of Peru between approxi-
mately 100800 C.E.constructed numerous
mud-brick structures of monumental scale. One of
the largest of these is Huaca Dos Cabezas, located
near the delta of the Jequetepeque River (Figure 1).

Christopher B. Donnan, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1553

(cdonnan@anthro.ucla.edu)

awpa Pacha, Journal of Andean Archaeology, Volume 34, Number 2, pp. 117146. Copyright # 2014 Institute of Andean Studies. All rights reserved.

117
 awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology
It was the largest structure ever built in the
Jequetepeque Valley, and one of the largest ever con-
structed in South America. This article presents the
archaeological and iconographic evidence that makes
it possible to reconstruct the size, form, exterior
surface ornamentation, and summit access of Huaca
Dos Cabezas over several stages of construction.
The large pyramid that dominates the Dos Cabezas
site was severely damaged by looting during the
Colonial Period, leaving its summit with two
humps or headsthus the name Huaca Dos
Cabezas (two heads). Today, the entire archaeological
118
Volume 34, Number 2
Figure 1. Map of the north coast
of Peru.
site where it is located is known simply as Dos
Cabezas. The site extends over an area of approxi-
mately 1 km2, bordered by the Pacic Ocean to the
west, by cultivated elds to the south and east, and
by the Jequetepeque River to the north. No archaeo-
logical excavation had been conducted at the site prior
to 1994, when our project began, and little was
known about its ancient occupation. Our excavations
demonstrated that it was occupied as early as the
Preceramic Periodca. 1800 B.C.E.and may
have been inhabited continuously from that time
until the beginning of the Moche occupationca.
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas
300 C.E. (Donnan 2001, 2003, 2007). The site
ourished during the Moche occupation, reaching
its greatest size and population during that time
when most of the monumental architecture also was
constructed, including Huaca Dos Cabezas and
several smaller structures nearby.1
Huaca Dos Cabezas
Huaca Dos Cabezas would have been the most
impressive architectural feature at the site during the
Moche occupation, and it still is today. Located
near the center of the site, the architectural complex
consisted of a large rectangular platform measuring
approximately 231 m north-south by 167 m east-
west, and rising more than 6 m above the surrounding
terrain (Figures 2 and 3). A truncated pyramid,
located near the southwest corner of the platform,
measured approximately 90 m north-south by 90 m
east-west, and its summit was more than 30 m
above the surrounding terrain.
A massive wall, hereafter referred to as the West
Wall, extended north-south for more than 100 m
Figure 2. Huaca Dos Cabezas showing the platform, patio, pyramid, and the West Wall. The center portion of the pyramid was severely
damaged by Colonial Period looting, resulting in a large backdirt pile along its north side; view looking south.
119
along the west side of the large platform (Figures 2
and 3). More than 8 m thick and 6 m high, the
West Walls south end connected to the northwest
corner of the pyramid, while its north end connected
to a wall which may have extended across the north
side of the platform. There were probably walls on
the east and south sides of the platform as well,
although we found no remnants of them. The walls
along the sides of the platform would have enclosed
an enormous patio with the pyramid situated near
its southwest corner (Figure 3). Along the West
Wall, there appear to have been two doorways that
provided access to the patio, one near its south end,
close to where the West Wall abuts the north face
of the pyramid. The second doorway, approximately
37 m further north, was so heavily eroded that its
original size and form could not be reconstructed;
its presence is simply implied by a break in the wall
at this location. There also may have been access to
the patio along its north and east sides, and from
the west portion of its south side. The lack of standing
walls on these sides, however, makes it impossible to
determine how, and where, this access was achieved.
 awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology
Unfortunately, Huaca Dos Cabezas has been
heavily eroded by both wind and water since its aban-
donment ca. 650 C.E. Moreover, the pyramid that
dominates its southwest corner was extensively
damaged by massive looting that took place during
the early Colonial Period. Nearly the entire center
of the pyramid was dug out, and thousands of cubic
meters of broken adobe and clay mortar were
removed through a large cut near the center of its
north side (Figures 2 and 3). Backdirt from the
looting buried much of the pyramids north face.
Because of the erosion and looting, the original size
and form of the pyramid are extremely difcult to
reconstruct.
It is very unfortunate that the Colonial Period
looting so heavily damaged the pyramid. However,
we thought it possible that the massive pile of backdirt
120
Volume 34, Number 2
Figure 3. Huaca Dos Cabezas;
view from above. The large,
crater-like hole that resulted from
the Colonial Period looting is
near the center of the pyramid,
and the backdirt is along the
north side.
dumped along its north side had protected that portion
of the pyramid from erosion during the ve centuries
since the looting occurred. If so, excavation of the
backdirt could reveal enough remnants of the original
architecture to suggest its form and its relationship to
the large patio area in front of it. With this in mind,
we decided to excavate beneath the backdirt.
We began the excavation where the West Wall
abuts the northeast corner of the pyramid (Figures 2
and 3). As the excavation proceeded, it became clear
that nearly the entire surface of the large patio in
front of the pyramid was eroded, and the only original
oor remaining was located adjacent to the pyramids
north face, beneath the Colonial Period backdirt.
Therefore, we focused our excavation on this area. It
soon became clear that the backdirt from the
Colonial Period looting had preserved an abundance
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas
of architectural features (Figure 4), which allowed us
to make detailed reconstructions of the pyramids
original appearance (Figures 5 and 6).
The pyramid had been built in a series of con-
struction phases, each encapsulating the earlier
phase with thick layers of solid adobe masonry that
expanded its footprint and height. Our excavations
revealed information about the last four construction
phases that we designated as Phases 1, 2, 3, and 4,
121
Figure 4. The north side of the
pyramid after the backdirt was
removed; view looking southeast.
with Phase 1 being the earliest. Many earlier con-
struction phases preceded Phase 1, but they were
buried deep inside the pyramid and could not be
exposed without causing considerable damage to
the pyramid. Moreover, because Phase 1 was
largely obscured by the enlargement of the pyramid
in Phase 2, only small portions of it could be
revealed. Phases 2 and 3 were much more exposed
than Phase 1 and could be more fully reconstructed.
Figure 5. The north side of the
pyramid as it would have appeared
in Phase 2; view looking southeast
(illustration by Bill Munns).
 awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology
Figure 6. The pyramid as it would have appeared in Phase 2; view looking southwest (illustration by Bill Munns).
Phase 4, the last phase of construction before the
pyramid was abandoned, was heavily eroded but we
were able to identify many of its features. The
description that follows will focus on the architecture
and surface ornamentation of Phases 2, 3, and 4,
commenting only occasionally about what is
known of Phase 1.
Phase 2
Bench
At the base of the pyramids north face was a low
bench that extended across nearly its entire width,
from its east side to the corner on the west side
where the West Wall abutted the pyramid
(Figure 6), a distance of approximately 87.5 m.
The bench of solid adobe was built directly on the
122
Volume 34, Number 2
patio oor and was approximately 110 cm high
and 350 cm wide. It was plastered, and its north
face was painted yellow. Three stairways gave access
to the top of the bench from the patio oor. Two
were located near the center of the pyramid
(Figures 6 and 7). The easternmost had seven
steps, 180 cm wide. The westernmost had ve
steps, 140 cm wide.2 A third stairway, which
appears to have had four steps, was located on the
far west side of the bench, adjacent to the West
Wall.
Above the bench, the north face of the pyramid had
a series of step-backs between 15 m high and 12 m
thick (Figures 6 and 7). A 4-m-high wall rose from
the top of the bench to the rst step-back. It had a
double baseboard and its surface was painted white.
Above the double baseboard the pyramids white
surface was painted in a pattern of large black
diamonds.
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas
Double Stairway 1
On top of the bench, a large double stairway was con-
structed near the center of the pyramid, and its north
side was painted white with black diamonds
(Figure 7). It was built directly against the north
face of the pyramid, with steps leading up from
both sides and converging toward the top.
Unfortunately, the upper portion of this double stair-
way was destroyed by the Colonial Period looting,
leaving only 18 steps on the east side (Figure 8) and
16 steps on the west side (Figure 9). Although
several of the lower steps on the west side were
destroyed, their size and position could be recon-
structed from string lines and painted plaster on the
adjacent wall (Figure 10). During construction,
string lines had been pressed into the freshly plastered
surface of the adjacent wall to indicate where the steps
were to be built. After the steps were built, the adja-
cent wall above the steps was replastered and
painted white with a black diamond pattern.
During Phase 2 the double stairway probably had
22 steps on each side, thus making it possible to
step up from the top of the double stairway onto
the pyramids rst step-back, which was 395 cm
above the top of the bench (Figure 7).
123
Figure 7. The center portion of
the pyramids north face as it
would have appeared in Phase 2;
view looking southwest
(illustration by Bill Munns).
Double Stairway 2
On top of the pyramids rst step-back, a second
double stairway opened out rather than converging
toward its top (Figure 7). It was painted black, as
was the north face of the pyramid at this elevation.
Several steps on the east side of Double Stairway 2
were destroyed by the Colonial Period looting, but
remnants suggest that it originally had 16 steps.
The west side of the stairway had been completely
destroyed, but string lines and broken plaster on the
adjacent wall of the pyramid provided clear evidence
that it was constructed to be a mirror image of the
east side. Therefore, from the top of Double
Stairway 2 it would have been possible to step up
onto the second step-back, 290 cm above the rst
step-back.
Double Stairway 3
On top of the second step-back, a third double stair-
way converged toward the top like Double Stairway 1
(Figure 7). It was painted red, as was the north face of
the pyramid at this elevation. The west side of Double
Stairway 3 was entirely destroyed, but we found traces
awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology Volume 34, Number 2

Figure 8. The east stairs that

provided access to the top of the
bench, and the east side of Double
Stairway 1; view looking
southwest.

Figure 9. The west stairs that

provided access to the top of the
bench, and the west side of Double
Stairway 1; view looking southeast.

124
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas
of its rst three steps on the east side. The lowest step
was still in place, and the next two could be recon-
structed from string lines and plaster remnants
(Figure 11). The height and width of these steps
were similar to those of the two double stairways
below and would have had about the same angle of
125
Figure 10. String lines, broken
plaster, and painted surfaces that
indicate missing steps on the west
side of Double Stairway 1.
ascent. We estimated that this double stairway had
22 steps on each side, making it possible to step up
onto the pyramids third step-back, which was
430 cm above the second step-back.
Above the top of the third step-back there was evi-
dence of three more step-backs. All appear to have
Figure 11. String lines, broken
plaster, and painted surfaces that
indicate missing steps on the east
side of Double Stairway 2.
 awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology
been painted white, being devoid of the color and
ornamentation that characterize the pyramid below
this elevation. In the reconstruction of the pyramid
shown in Figure 6, these three step-backs are
shown, along with four more that would have made
the pyramid a little higher than its elevation today.
A Moche ceramic vessel (Figure 12) provides a
remarkable parallel to these three double stairways.
Its chamber depicts a structure with three step-backs
and three double stairwaysthe lowest one converging
toward the top, the middle one opening, and the upper
one again converging. Above the double stairways is a
building with a gure inside, seated on a dais. This
ceramic vessel suggests that the double stairways on
the Dos Cabezas pyramid provided access to architec-
ture located somewhere near its summit.
Figure 12. Ceramic vessel depicting three double stairways,
41.2/8022, courtesy of the Division of Anthropology, American
Museum of Natural History.
126
Volume 34, Number 2
The architecture on top of large Moche pyramids,
such as Huaca de la Luna (Figure 13) and Huaca El
Brujo (Figure 14), consisted of numerous rooms,
patios, and courtyards that were connected by corri-
dors, ramps, and stairways. Both of these pyramids
had ramps leading up to the center of the north
face, where there was entry to a patio anked by
higher architecture on both the east and west sides.
Instead of ramps, the Dos Cabezas pyramid had
double stairways leading to the center of the north
face, where there also may have been an entrance to
a patio anked by higher architecture on both the
east and west sides. However, because of the extensive
damage from looting and erosion, there is no way to
determine the location or form of that summit
architecture.
Area of the West Wall
Except for the bench along the base of the pyramids
north face, no architectural features were found east of
the double stairways (Figure 6). West of the double
stairways, however, there were several architectural
features (Figure 15).
Dais 1. West of the double stairways, a dais was built
on top of the bench (Figure 15). In Phase 2 it was well
forward of the pyramids north face, and thus it would
have been possible to walk behind it. Because this dais
was encapsulated by an enlargement that occurred in
Phase 3, it was well preserved, and its original size and
form could be reconstructed in detail (Figures 15 and
16). It is remarkably similar to daises depicted in
Moche art, which consist of a solid rectangular
platform with a low wall along the back
(Figure 17). The seat of Dais 1 consisted of a
rectangular enclosure, 30 cm high, 166 cm north-
south, and 188 cm east-west, lled to a height of
15 cm with clean sand and chunks of adobe. It was
capped with a layer of adobes set with clay mortar
that formed the seat. The back of the dais was
constructed on top of this seat, with two parallel
rows of adobes. The entire exterior of the dais was
plastered, and red pigment was applied on all
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas
Figure 13. Huaca de la Luna, Moche Valley (courtesy of Proyecto Arqueolgico Huacas del Sol y de La Luna).
surfaces except the seat and the top of the back. Two
post holes along each side of the dais suggest that it
was roofed (Figure 15).
Near the center of the dais seat, a hole approxi-
mately 22 cm in diameter had been cut through
the layer of adobes that capped the sand and
broken adobe ll. Some of the ll beneath the hole
had been removed, one half of a Spondylus shell
and approximately ten ulluchus were put inside the
hole, and the ll was then replaced (McClelland
2008: 6162). We could not determine when this
occurred, but the hole probably was not present
when the dais was built and used during Phase
2. Perhaps it was created when the dais was enlarged
in Phase 3.
In front of Dais 1, there was a rectangular pedestal
adjacent to the north face of the bench (Figure 15). Its
127
eroded condition prevented us from determining its
original height. It appears to have been painted red.
Dais 2. A second dais was located on the patio oor
near the large West Wall (Figure 15). It was a simple
seat with a low back, similar to Dais 1. Because it was
extensively eroded, we could only determine part of
its size and form. Its entire exterior was plastered,
and yellow paint was applied to all surfaces except
the seat and the top of the back. It probably did
not have a roof because no post holes were found
adjacent to it. A narrow corridor between Dais 2
and the West Wall had two steps that led up from
the oor of the patio to a ramp which passed
behind the back of the dais.
The east side of the West Wall was painted white
with a pattern of large black diamonds (Figure 15),
 awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology Volume 34, Number 2

Figure 14. Huaca El Brujo,

Chicama Valley (after Gwin 2004:
108).

similar to the ornamentation of the north face of the the north face of the bench where it abutted the
pyramid from the top of the bench to the rst step- West Wall. It appears to have been the height of the
back. There was a rectangular structure adjacent to bench and to have been painted yellow (Figure 15).

Figure 15. Architectural features

at the northwest corner of the
pyramid as they would have
appeared in Phase 2; view looking
southwest (illustration by Bill
Munns).

128
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas
Four steps built into this structure provided access from
the oor of the patio to the top of the bench.
Between the north side of the rectangular structure
and the back of Dais 2, a ramp led up from the oor
of the patio through a doorway in the West Wall and
Figure 17. Moche ceramic vessel depicting a gure seated on a
dais ( private collection).
129
Figure 16. Dais 1 as it appeared
in Phase 2; view looking
southwest. The remains of two
wood posts are from the Phase 3
enlargement.
then turned left into a long corridor (Figures 18 and
19). The inside of the doorway was painted white, as
was the east wall of the long corridor. Two shorter
corridors extended west from the long corridor.
One of these turned right inside the West Wall,
where there were steps suggesting that a stairway
enabled climbing to the top of the wall and walking
along it (Figure 19). The second short corridor may
have continued the entire distance through the West
Wall. If so, it would have provided access to the
large patio in front of the pyramid.
Long Corridor. At the south end of the long corridor
a stairway led up along the west side of the pyramid
(Figures 19 and 20). After climbing the rst six
steps of this stairway, it would have been possible to
step to the right onto a walkway that led to a room
of which only the south and west walls remain.
Alternatively, by continuing up the stairway to the
elevation of the pyramids rst step-back, it would
have been possible to step to the left onto a
walkway that extended around the northwest corner
of the pyramid. There, a barrier wall prevented
access to the front of the pyramid (Figure 19). The
barrier wall and the face of the zigzag walkway
above the rst step-back were painted black.
awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology Volume 34, Number 2

Figure 18. Individual standing

in the doorway that provided
access to the long corridor; view
looking southwest.

Figure 19. Overview of the

architecture at the northwest
corner of the pyramid as it would
have appeared in Phase 2
(illustration by Bill Munns).

130
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas

Figure 20. The northwest corner

of the pyramid; view looking
southeast.

On the level of the second step-back there was a

similar zigzag walkway extending around the north-
west corner of the pyramid. Although the corner of
the pyramid at this elevation was almost completely
destroyed by erosion, Figure 19 suggests its original
form, with access by a narrow stairway along the pyr-
amids west side. This reconstruction also posits a red
barrier wall and red face of the zigzag walkway, similar
to the black ones below.
A Moche ceramic vessel provides a remarkable illus-
tration of zigzag walkways at the corner of a stepped
pyramid (Figure 21). It even has indications of stairs
providing access from one step-back to another.

Low-Relief Friezes
During Phase 2, the pyramids north face had two low-
relief friezes with colorfully painted geometric designs
(Figure 22).3 One was on the black wall between the
rst and second step-backs (Figure 7). In Phase 2 it
was approximately 83 cm above the top of the rst
step-back, and consisted of yellow horizontal bands
above and below a panel of geometric step-fret designs Figure 21. Ceramic vessel depicting a pyramid with zigzag
painted with six alternating colors (Figure 23a). corners and stairways (Museo Colchagua, Chile).

131
 awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology Volume 34, Number 2

Figure 22. Cleaning one of the

low-relief friezes; view looking
southwest.

Although only remnants of this frieze remain, it is likely
that it extended from the east side of the black barrier
wall to the east side of the pyramid (Figure 6).
The second low-relief frieze was on the red wall,
between the second and third step-backs (Figure 7).
It was approximately 81 cm above the top of the
second step-back and consisted of purple horizontal
bands above and below a panel of interlocking step-
fret forms of a different design, painted with six
alternating colors (Figure 23b). Like the frieze that
decorated the black wall below, this frieze probably
extended from the east side of the red barrier wall
to the east side of the pyramid.
Phase 3
Although most of the pyramids form and surface
ornamentation remained the same in Phase 3 as
in Phase 2, there were some important changes.
Dais 1 was enlarged, resulting in its back abutting
the pyramids north face, so it was no longer poss-
ible to walk behind it (Figures 24 and 25). The

Figure 23. Colors and patterns

of geometric friezes: (a) the one
on the black wall between the rst
and second step-back; (b) the one
on the red wall above the second
step-back (illustration by Bill
Munns).

132
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas
form of the dais also changed. Arms were built on
the sides of the seat, with two posts in each arm
indicating that the dais continued to have a roof.
After Dais 1 was enlarged, it was replastered and
painted red on all surfaces except the seat and the
top of the back. The size and form of Dais 2
remained unchanged, and it continued to be
133
Figure 24. Individual standing in
Room 1, facing Dais 1; view
looking southeast.
yellow on all surfaces except for the seat and the
top of the back (Figure 25).
Area of the West Wall
West Room. With the back of Dais 1 abutting the
pyramids north face, a room-like space was created
Figure 25. Architectural features
at the northwest corner of the
pyramid as they would have
appeared in Phase 3; view looking
southwest (illustration by Bill
Munns).
 awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology
on top of the bench on the pyramids far west side
(Figures 24 and 25). This room was enclosed to the
east by Dais 1, to the south by the pyramids north
face, and to the west by the West Wall. Its north
side was open and overlooked the patio. Access to it
was by the steps alongside the West Wall. There
were four post holes in the oor of the room,
located in a line near the north edge of the bench
(Figure 25). They suggest that the area was roofed
in Phase 3, with the posts supporting beams along
the north side of the room, and other beams
socketed into the pyramids north face.4 The double
baseboards along the south and west walls of the
room previously had been painted white, but in
Phase 3 a black diamond pattern was added.
Phase 4
Patio
In Phase 4, the oor of the patio was elevated, uti-
lizing windblown sand instead of solid adobes to
create volume. The top of the sand was leveled
and capped with a thick layer of clay, raising the
oor 40 cm above the level of the Phase 3 patio.
More sand was then leveled over the new oor
surface and capped with another thick layer of
clay, raising the oor level to 110 cm above the
level of the Phase 3 patio oor. Creating volume
using windblown sand instead of adobe masonry is
consistent with evidence that Dos Cabezas began
to be inundated with windblown sand near the
end of the Moche occupation (Moseley et al.
2008). The inhabitants dealt with the sand by oor-
ing over it, using it as ll in construction, and/or
building on top of it.
In Phase 4, the height of the bench extending
across the entire north side of the pyramid was
raised approximately 120 cm with solid adobe
masonry, and its north face was painted red
(Figure 26). Access to the upper surface of the
Phase 4 bench could not be determined.
134
Volume 34, Number 2
Double Stairway 1
Double Stairway 1 was enlarged during Phase 4 so
that its north side was even with the north face of
the bench (Figures 26 and 27), and the steps on
both its east and west sides were raised by additional
layers of adobes (Figure 27). These changes made
the stairway considerably larger than it was in
Phases 2 and 3. There were probably 14 steps on
each side of the double stairway, making it possible
to step up from the top onto the pyramids rst
step-back, which was approximately 280 cm above
the new top of the bench. Although there is very
little evidence for the color of Double Stairway 1 in
Phase 4, it appears to have been painted red.
Double Stairway 2
In Phase 4, the top of the pyramids second step-back
was raised 80 cm by the addition of solid adobe
masonry (Figure 27). Three more steps were then
added to each side of Double Stairway 2 so it was poss-
ible to step from the top of the stairway up onto the new
level of the second step-back. The surfaces of Double
Stairway 2 were painted black, as they had been in
Phases 2 and 3. The low-relief horizontal band and geo-
metric frieze were preserved from Phases 2 and 3 and
appear to have been repainted using the same colors as
before. In addition, a series of low-relief anthropo-
morphic gures was added above both of the geometric
friezes. Although only small traces of a few of these
gures remained (Figure 28), it was possible to deter-
mine that they were standing frontal with clawed feet
pointing outward and elements which look like tentacles
projecting from the sides of their torsos. They appear to
have been approximately 190 cm tall and were repeated
along this level of the pyramids north face. Alana
Cordy-Collins made an extensive study of the remains
of these gures and believes that they were probably
decapitators. She developed a possible version of them
based on other images of decapitators in Moche art
(Cordy-Collins 1992), and this version has been used
in our Phase 4 reconstructions (Figures 26 and 27).
Between the pyramids second and third step-
backs, most of the surface was painted red, just as
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas

Figure 26. The pyramid as it would have appeared in Phase 4; view looking southwest (illustration by Bill Munns).

Figure 27. The center portion of

the pyramids north face as it
would have appeared in Phase 4;
view looking southwest
(illustration by Bill Munns).

135
 awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology
during Phases 2 and 3. The low-relief horizontal band
and low-relief geometric frieze were maintained from
the earlier phases (Figure 27), and above them the
anthropomorphic gures were added. Above the pyr-
amids third step-back, the pyramids north face con-
tinued to be painted white (Figure 26).
136
Volume 34, Number 2
Figure 28. Lower portion of one
of the decapitator gures on the
black wall between the rst and
second step-back.
The motivation for raising the height of the second
step-back may have been to make the height of the
rst and second step-backs approximately equal,
giving both sufcient height to portray 190-cm-
high decapitators and preserve the horizontal frieze
panels that existed in earlier phases. It did, however,
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas
make the horizontal frieze panel above the second
step-back only slightly above the walkway, while the
one above the rst step-back was approximately
83 cm above the walkway (Figure 27).
Area of the West Wall
Dais 1. Dais 1 was rebuilt on top of the newly raised
bench in Phase 4 (Figure 29). Both it and the pedestal
137
Figure 29. Architectural features
at the northwest corner of the
pyramid as they would have
appeared in Phase 4; view looking
southwest. The raised oor of the
patio covers the lower portion of
Dais 2 (illustration by Bill Munns).
in front of it appear to have been similar in size and
form to the way they were in Phase 3. Along the
east side of the dais there were two rounded
depressions in the oor that may have been made to
support round-bottom ceramic jars (Figure 29).
Scattered on the patio oor in front of the dais were
numerous fragments of roof comb ornaments in the
form of war clubs (Figure 30).5 These probably
adorned a roof that was constructed over the dais. A
Figure 30. Fragments of two
ceramic roof comb ornaments in
the form of war clubs, found on
the patio oor in front of Dais 1
(drawing by Jorge Gamboa).
 awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology
Moche neline painting depicts a dais with jars
alongside and a roof with war club ornaments
(Figure 31). The painting also depicts ceramic jars
along the side of the dais and a structure in front of
the dais that is similar to the pedestal adjacent to
the north face of the bench.6
Dais 2. Because the oor of the large patio was raised
in Phase 4, the lower portion of Dais 2 was below the
patio oor, and only the upper portion was visible
(Figure 29). There is no evidence that the size or
form of the upper portion was changed, but it was
repainted, changing it from yellow to red.
West Room. The room on the west side of the
pyramid was repainted white with a pattern of black
diamonds (Figure 29).7 But, from the west side of
the red dais to the far east side of the pyramid, the
Figure 31. Moche neline painting of a gure seated on a dais,
with roof comb ornaments in the form of war clubs (drawing by
Donna McClelland).
138
Volume 34, Number 2
lower part of the pyramid appears to have been
painted red (Figure 26).
Long Corridor
In Phase 4 the oor of the ramp leading through the
doorway in the West Wall was paved with a new layer
of adobes, as was the stairway at its far end. The center
portion of the long corridor, along with the two short
corridors and the small room that was accessed by the
stairway, appear to have been unchanged.
The oor of the lower zigzag walkway that extended
around the northwest corner of the pyramid at the
second step-back was elevated approximately 80 cm,
just as it was along the rest of the pyramids north
face. This would have required modifying the stairway
that provided access to it, and probably raising the
height of the barrier wall. There also may have been
alterations to the upper zigzag walkway and the stair-
way that provided access to it, but because this
portion of the pyramid was almost completely
destroyed by erosion no alterations could be identied.
Abandonment
Around 650 C.E. the site of Dos Cabezas was almost
completely abandoned due to a severe inundation of
windblown sand (Moseley et al. 2008). However, a
small residual population continued to inhabit the
site. Since the pyramid was no longer serving a cere-
monial purpose, squatters began living at the base
of its north side, where they would be sheltered
from the prevailing winds. They dug post holes into
the Phase 4 patio oor in order to construct rudimen-
tary shelters and built hearths adjacent to the north
face of the bench that extended across the width of
the pyramid. Fragments of their domestic ceramics
are the same style used during the Moche occupation
of Dos Cabezas (Donnan 2007: 8). Soon, however,
they too abandoned the site, their structures col-
lapsed, and their hearths were covered by windblown
sand and layers of soil eroding off the pyramid.
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas

Observations Regarding the Moche
Architecture
Our excavation of Huaca Dos Cabezas provided a
great deal of information about the form and
surface ornamentation of the pyramid and patio. It
revealed a style of monumental architecture pre-
viously unreported from Peru, one that contrasts dra-
matically with the monumental Moche architecture
excavated at Huaca El Brujo in the Chicama Valley
and Huaca de la Luna in the Moche Valley
(Figures 1, 13, and 14). The use of an elaborate
double stairway rather than a ramp to gain access to
upper elevations is one of the striking new features.
Others are the zigzag northwest corner of the
pyramid and the zigzag walkways that allowed indi-
viduals to walk around it, the use of barrier walls
along the walkways that would have separated
people at the northwest corner of the pyramid from
people at the centerthe latter presumably being
people of higher statusand nally, the stairway
inside the West Wall that would have made it possible
to gain access to the top of the wall.
Our excavations also provided important infor-
mation about the construction and maintenance of
Moche monumental architecture. String lines were
pressed into moist plaster to provide guidelines for
construction of steps. Water erosion that damaged
the painted and low-relief motifs and cut deep vertical
channels into the pyramids exterior indicate that the
Moche had difculty maintaining the exterior surface
of the structure. Many of the channels were patched
by lling them with courses of adobes set in mortar
and then plastering over them to create a new
surface. It may be that water damage was a signicant
factor in the repeated expansion of the pyramid; with
each expansion, an entirely new exterior was created.
Over time, that exterior continued to be eroded and
patched. Then another major renovation of the struc-
ture would begin, resulting in another entirely new
exterior.
Color was an essential aspect of the appearance of
the pyramid and patio. Nearly all surfaces were
painted, and a variety of colors was used (Table 1).
Complex color patterns and low-relief ornamentation
were employed in the lower levels of the structure,
where people had access by stairs and walkways and
it would be clearly visible to spectators in the patio
area. In contrast, the upper levels of the structure
were painted white. The only exterior surfaces that
were systematically left unpainted were where people
would walk or sit.
The face of the pyramid was decorated with hori-
zontal panels of low-relief geometric designs in

Table 1. Wall painting pigments

Color Identication Comments

Yellow Yellow ochre Goethite + traces of sodium chloride
Red Red ochre Hematite
White Calcite
Purple Red and yellow ochre + clay + charcoal Clay could be kaolinite; presence of salts
Black Charcoal
Green Clinoatacamite Mixed with some paratacamite (Zn-rich)
Gray (over white) Calcite + charcoal
Cream Yellow ochre + clay Clay is probably kaolinite
Pink Red ochre + calcite Presence of sodium chloride and gypsum

Note: The samples were analyzed by non-invasive and non-destructive portable X-ray uorescence (pXRF) and UV-Vis-NIR
spectrometry for chemical composition, complemented with X-ray diffraction (XRD) and optical microscopy (dispersions). Most
samples included both the pigment layers and the supporting material. The latter is a gray/brown ne to medium-grained mortar
composed of quartz sand, clay, and sometimes organic debris. Most samples contained traces of salts due to weathering.

139
 awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology Volume 34, Number 2

Figure 32. Low-relief style of the

black and white diamond pattern
found at the north end of the West
Wall; view looking west.

Phases 2 and 3. These designs, which were painted in reduced to a single band, consisting of a raised
numerous alternating colors, are frequently seen in net-like pattern that extends across the individuals
Moche art. In Phase 4, large anthropomorphic forehead. A lightly incised chevron pattern on the
gures were added above the low-relief geometric upper part of the raised portion recalls the way in
panels. These gures are similar to others that have which rope and string are depicted in Moche art,
been found as part of the iconography used at both suggesting that the pattern is meant to depict a
Huaca de la Luna and Huaca El Brujo. However, net. The Moche used nets for hunting deer and
the pattern of black diamonds on a white background
has not been reported from other Moche structures
and does not appear to have an antecedent in
Moche iconography. What, then, was its origin, and
why was it painted on the pyramid and the West
Wall at Dos Cabezas? One clue comes from an exca-
vation we made at the north end of the West Wall,
where we hoped to nd the northwest corner of the
patio. Here the West Wall had the same black
diamond pattern, but the pattern was created in low
relief as well as black and white pigment
(Figure 32). In low relief, it becomes clear that the
pattern was not meant to depict black diamonds on
a white background, but rather a raised net-like
pattern in white on a black background.
The raised pattern at the north end of the West
Wall is similar to a raised pattern found on a
burial mask from a high-status burial that we exca-
vated at the southwest corner of the pyramid Figure 33. Burial mask from Dos Cabezas with a low-relief
(Figure 33; Donnan 2007). Here the pattern is band across the forehead.

140
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas
for shing. Since the site of Dos Cabezas is located
immediately adjacent to a beach long known for its
unusually productive shing, the pattern probably
represents shing net. If the design across the fore-
head of the mask and the black and white pattern
on the pyramid and West Wall are meant to be
shing net, it may be that this pattern was deliber-
ately chosen as a symbol of this site and/or its
rulers.8
Although the Colonial Period looting of the
pyramid does not appear to have uncovered any
Moche burials, the southwest corner of the pyramid
was clearly used by the Moche for funerary purposes.
In this area we found the remains of many Moche
burials that had been looted in recent times, and we
excavated several others (Donnan 2007). We also
were able to document 12 successive construction
phases when the southwest corner was remodeled
by the Moche. The evidence indicates that the south-
west corner had an architectural form and construc-
tion sequence which differed greatly from the
pyramids north face.
The interior portions of the pyramid, which were
revealed by the Colonial Period looting, are heavily
eroded today, but one can still observe the remnants
141
of multiple construction phases, with plastered walls
and doorways. This suggests that the pyramid had
interior spaces, probably built at its summit and along
some of its exterior, which were subsequently lled
with adobes as the pyramids footprint was enlarged
and its height increased during later construction phases.
Chimu Inca Shrine and Colonial
Period Looting
Sometime after the Inca conquered the north coast
(ca. 1470 C.E.), a shrine was built at Huaca Dos
Cabezas. It was located at the north face of the
pyramid, west of Double Stairway 1 (Figures 34
and 35). A room created by breaking out a large
section of the adobe architecture9 was open on the
north side and appears to have had a thatched roof
supported by posts and beams. Its oor measured
approximately 245 cm north-south, 455 cm east-
west, and 50 cm above the top of the Phase 4
bench. A step near its northwest corner provided
access to it from the top of the bench.
Two carved posts, which probably had been
upright inside or in front of the room, had been
Figure 34. The shrine, created by
breaking out a section of the
pyramid west of Double Stairway
1; view looking southwest.
 awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology Volume 34, Number 2

Figure 35. The shrine with

carved posts lying in front of it;
view looking south. The man post
is on the left and the feline post is
on the right.

removed from their original positions and were left

lying in front of the room (Figure 35). They were
similar in size and artistic style: one depicting a
man holding a goblet (Figure 36) and the other a
feline holding a human head (Figure 37). The man
post had a strand of beads around the neck, strung
with cotton string. Some of the beads were shell
and others were glass of the types brought to Peru
by the Spaniards during the early Colonial Period.
The latter indicate that the post was in use during
the early part of the Colonial Period, and the shrine
probably was destroyed when looting of the
pyramid began. As the looting proceeded, the posts
and the shrine were buried in backdirt.
We could not determine when the shrine was
created, although it probably was during the
Chimu-Inca occupation of the Jequetepeque Valley
(ca. 14701530). Posts similar to the feline post at
Dos Cabezas were excavated at Farfan, a site approxi-
mately 10 km northeast of Dos Cabezas (Keatinge
and Conrad 1983). These posts (Figure 38) are associ-
ated with Inca architecture10 and have features similar
to those found on Chimu-Inca ceramics.
The backdirt we excavated from the Colonial
Period looting was almost entirely sterile, indicating
that the enormous amount of time and labor
expended in the process of removing the core of the Figure 36. The man post (drawing by Jorge Gamboa).

142
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas
Figure 37. The feline post (drawing by Jorge Gamboa).
pyramid produced little in the way of burials. If it had,
we would have found clusters of looted material such
as human and animal bone, broken ceramics, copper
objects, textile fragments, and objects of wood and
cane. The only evidence we found of a looted burial
was in the backdirt, near the center of the pyramids
north face, approximately 50 cm above the oor of
the patio. There, in an area approximately 150 cm
in diameter, was a scatter of spindles, textile frag-
ments, ceramic sherds, and beads. One diagnostic
ceramic fragment was Chimu-Inca style (Figure 39),
and the beads included some of shell and some of
glass. Regardless of whether these objects came from
one grave or several, they provide clear evidence that
the looting could not have occurred prior to the
143
Figure 38. The feline post excavated at Farfan (after Keatinge
and Conrad 1983: Figure 9).
early part of the Colonial Period. Given that this
material was near the bottom of the backdirt pile, it
must have been from a burial that was found early
in the looting.
Fragments of wooden digging sticks and Spondylus
shells were found in the backdirt. The digging sticks
were very crude, and all exhibited extensive wear
(Figure 40). Nearly all appeared to have been
broken from larger implements. They probably were
used to break out solid adobe masonry during the
looting and were discarded when damaged.
We found more than 115 Spondylus shells scattered
randomly through the entire depth of the backdirt
(Figure 41). They were more numerous near the
center portion of the backdirt pile than toward the
 awpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology
Figure 39. Chimu-Inca bottle fragment found near the bottom
of the backdirt from the Colonial Period looting (drawing by
Jorge Gamboa).
Figure 40. Digging stick fragments found in the backdirt from
the Colonial Period looting.
144
Volume 34, Number 2
Figure 41. Spondylus shells found in the backdirt from the
Colonial Period looting.
east and west ends, but examples were found through-
out. Nearly all of the shells were one half of a com-
plete Spondylus. Although most were intact and
unmodied, some had a large hole broken out of
the center. Most of the shells appear to have been ran-
domly placed in the backdirt, but many were lying
horizontally, with the concave side down. Their
orientation toward the cardinal points seemed to be
random.
A few Spondylus shells were complete, with the
two valves still joined at the hinge in a fully
closed position. One complete shell was nearly
upright, resting on its hinge, but this may not
have been deliberate. In a few instances, two to
four shells were found in a cluster, but in all
other instances they were alone. The occurrence of
so many Spondylus shells scattered throughout the
backdirt is puzzling. They clearly did not come
from burials that had been found while the
pyramid was being looted, since, as stated above,
the only evidence that the Spaniards found burials
 Donnan: Huaca Dos Cabezas
was the small cluster of objects which could have
come from a single early Colonial Period burial.
The most plausible explanation for the occurrence
of so many Spondylus shells in the backdirt is that
they were deliberately put there by the native
people as an offering while the looting operation
was underway. It may have been their way of
making amends for the sacrilege of the looting itself.
Acknowledgments
Our excavations at Dos Cabezas were supported by
funds from National Geographic Society, the Lende
Foundation, and the Committee on Research of the
Academic Senate at UCLA. Preparation of this publi-
cation was made possible by support from the Cotsen
Institute of Archaeology at UCLA, and the Elbridge
and Evelyn Stuart Foundation.
Guillermo Cock served as co-director of the Dos
Cabezas Project. Alana Cordy-Collins participated
in the excavation, and provided reconstructions of
the decapitator gures that were added to the faade
in Phase 4. Bill Munns patiently worked with me
to create the computer-generated views of the archi-
tecture that accompany this article, Jorge Gamboa
illustrated the excavated objects, Donna McClelland
created the neline drawing, and Hillary Olcott
assisted me in preparing the illustrations for publi-
cation. Analysis of the pigments used in painting
the architecture was conducted by Christian Fischer
and Ellen Hsieh. Marydee Donnan, Joyce Marcus,
Karen Profet, and Don McClelland provided excel-
lent editorial suggestions for this article. I very
much appreciate the involvement of each of these
individuals and institutions.
Notes
1. Although these structures have not been excavated,
they can be condently attributed to the Moche
occupation due to their large cane-marked adobes,
which characterize Moche structures at Dos Cabezas.
2. The eastern stairway had more steps than the western
stairway because the oor of the patio in front of the
eastern stairs was 35 cm lower than the oor in front
of the western stairs.
145
3. The only evidence for decor in Phase 1 is that the
north side of the lowest part of the pyramid was
painted black up to the level of the rst step-back.
From the rst step-back to the second step-back
the pyramid was painted red, and all levels above
that were painted white. Each level was painted in
a single solid color, and appears to have had no
additional decoration.
4. These post holes may have existed during Phase 2. If
so, this portion of the bench would have been roofed
during that phase. Other areas of the bench may
have been roofed during Phases 2 and 3, but the
top of the bench was raised in Phase 4 and we did
not remove the Phase 4 architecture to determine
if there had been additional post holes in the Phase
2 and Phase 3 bench.
5. The roof of Dais 1, as it was originally constructed in
Phase 2 and subsequently enlarged in Phase 3, also
may have had roof comb ornaments in the form of
war clubs.
6. The ceramic vessel depicting double stairways
(Figure 12) also has a structure with war club roof
ornaments.
7. The diamonds painted at this time were off register
from those painted previously.
8. The Moche occupation at Dos Cabezas included one
area that appeared to have been inhabited by sher-
men and their families. The quality of the architec-
ture and the high frequency of neware ceramic
fragments in that area suggest that these people
were of a higher status than most other people
living at the site.
9. Breaking out the adobes exposed the black wall that
was part of the north face of the pyramid during
Phase 1.
10. Keatinge and Conrad, who excavated the posts at
Farfan, believed that they were part of a Chimu
building predating the arrival of the Inca (Keatinge
and Conrad 1983: 271276). However, recent
re-excavation of this building by Carol Mackey
clearly indicated that it dates to the Inca occupation
of the site (Mackey, pers. comm. 2013).
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