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SECTION 5
GAS COMPRESSION
1 Gas Compression
1.1 Theory of Compression
1.2 Gas Compressor Types
2 Centrifugal Compressors
3 Compressor Selection
3.1 Centrifugal Compressor Operating Curves
3.2 Surge Control
7 Interstage Cooling
Table
Figures
1 GAS COMPRESSION
Produced gas or off-gas from the separators will vary in pressure depending
upon the pressure at which the associated separator is operating.
A typical gas compression train can be seen in Figure 5.1 in which the gas
undergoes various stages of compression.
First, gas from the final separator is raised in pressure by routing the gas
through a low pressure compressor, then through a medium pressure
compressor so that the pressure is the same as that in the combined inlet
and test separator gas discharge manifold.
The next stage is to raise the pressure of the combined gases to that at
which the dehydration plant operates. This is achieved by passing the gas
through the high pressure gas compressors.
Once the gas has been dried to the required specification, it is normal to
use some of it for fuel gas and purge gas prior to routing the remainder to
the export gas compression train, where its pressure is finally raised to
meet export gas pipeline requirements.
Before the gas leaves the installation it is routed through the gas metering
system in order to accurately register the amount of gas being exported.
Pressure rises
Volume decreases
Temperature rises
Power is required
Compressing gas to half its original volume, doubles its absolute pressure.
NB
Applying the principles given above to a compressor situation we can see
the basis of our original statement that a relationship exists between
pressure and volume. The three pistons illustrated in Figure 5.2
demonstrate this fact.
The piston on the left has a reading of 0psig within it. In absolute terms this
is read as 14.7psia. If we push the piston down, as in the right-hand drawing
the internal pressure will read 14.7psig, or, in absolute terms 29.4psia.
In general, if small volumes with high discharge pressures are required then
a reciprocating compressor is more suitable. When large volume flowrates
of gas are required to be handled with modest discharge pressures the axial
type of compressor is most suitable.
For intermediate and fairly high volume flowrates the centrifugal type of
machine is more suitable. These machines may be designed to operate at
pressures in the region of 350bar, and are the type normally used on the gas
compression trains offshore.
2 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
The velocity of the gas is increased across the impeller, in other words, the
gas has picked up kinetic energy from the rotor. The gas enters at the
centre or eye of the impeller, the vanes on the impeller force the gas to
the outside rim then throw it away from the rim at high velocity. The gas
leaves the tip of the impeller at its highest velocity, and then enters the
diffuser.
The size of the flow passage in the diffuser is much larger than in the
impeller, so the gas slows down.
When the gas slows down, its kinetic energy decreases. Some of this kinetic
energy is lost to friction along the walls of the diffuser, but most of it is
converted to other forms of energy.
A simple analogy can be used when considering the impeller action on the
molecules. Imagine what happens when an object such as a stone is
attached to a piece of string held in the hand and rotated. A force, which is
termed centrifugal tries to pull the string from the hand. In the case of
the rotating impeller, it is this force which accelerates the molecules and,
from Newton's Second Law, the acceleration, or velocity increase, is
proportional to the force.
Using the same analogy, replace the object with another which has twice
the mass; rotate it at the same speed as in the first case and it will be
observed that the force is greater. If this force could be measured it would
be found that its magnitude had doubled leading to the conclusion that the
centrifugal force is proportional to the mass.
Finally from the rotating mass analogy, if the same mass was used but at
double the rate of rotation, a further increase in centrifugal force would be
observed. In this case, its magnitude would be four times as large,
indicating a relationship in which the centrifugal force is proportional to the
square of the rotational speed. This leads to the conclusion that the
pressure developed by the centrifugal compressor is approximately
proportional to the square of the rotational speed.
3 COMPRESSOR SELECTION
Allowance must also be provided for changes in the system; for example,
the partial closure of a valve might change the system characteristic from
that of A to that of B. In such a case the operating conditions will change to
those represented by Point 2, and, as will be discussed later the change
must now allow the compressor to reach an unstable operating condition.
It must be stressed that this analysis has been applied to a fixed speed
compressor and ignores the flexibility of operating conditions which a
variable speed machine provides.
Refer to Table 5.1. The table shows the relationship between the number of
impellers, compression ratio, temperature rise and power consumption.
EXAMPLE
21 + 1.013 22.013
Rc = = = 2.2
9 + 1.013 10.013
From Table 5.1 the temperature rise across the machine was found to be
78C. Since the suction temperature is 27C, the calculated discharge
temperature is 105C (ie 78 + 27). The actual operating discharge
temperature for this type of configuration (refer to Figure 5.5) is 108C
which equates with the calculated value.
Operating curves are produced for all centrifugal compressors. In Figure 5.6,
the graphs of various speeds (expressed as a percentage of the design
speed) are plotted against compression ratio and capacity.
Note in Figure 5.6 that the operating curves are bounded on each side by a
line. On the left-hand side this line is referred to as the surge condition and
on the right-hand side the line is known as the stonewall condition.
Surge occurs at some minimum compressor capacity at a particular speed.
At this minimum capacity the compressor does not provide sufficient
discharge pressure and as a result flow reversals occur. That is to say, the
compressor discharges gas to a system but the system then returns it.
Dealing with those curves that lie between the surge and stonewall
conditions, consider the case where 75% of the design flowrate enters the
compressor. From Figure 5.6 it can be determined that at 75% of compressor
capacity and at 100% speed the compression ratio has a value of 109% of its
design value. At the above stated conditions the compression ratio has
increased. If the compression ratio is higher it means that any of the
following may occur:
The only way that the compressor can operate at its original compression
ratio is by slowing the unit down to about 97% speed (refer to Figure 5.6).
Therefore, some form of speed control is required on the unit to give
operational flexibility. Speed control is determined by drive type. Some of
the most frequently used methods are listed below:
When the compressor is driven by an engine, the compressor speed
may be changed by changing the engine speed
If the compressor is driven by a direct current electric motor,
compressor speed may be changed by varying the voltage
In the case of alternating current electric motors, compressor speed
can be changed by altering the alternating current frequency
With a single shaft, variable speed turbine coupled directly to a
compressor, compressor speed is changed by altering turbine speed
A compressor driven by a split shaft gas turbine permits the speed of
the compressor to be changed but independent of turbine speed
For fixed speed compressors control is obtained using a recycle gas
system. Such a system may also be fitted to a variable speed
compressor
The following points arising out of Figure 5.6 are also worthy of note:
(1) If at 100% speed the gas flowrate to the compressor is less than 58% of
design flowrate, then some discharge gas will have to be recycled to
suction to prevent surging.
(2) The compressor will not develop 100% compression ratio at a speed
less than 95% of design speed. Also if the machine runs at a speed
greater than 100% of design speed then it will always create a
compression ratio greater than the design ratio.
The above data relates to the specific compressor exemplified in Figure 5.6,
however, similar comments can be made about any set of compressor
curves.
Surge can begin in any one of the impellers in the compressor but then
affects the whole compressor.
The excessive axial displacement can very quickly damage internal and end
labyrinth seals. If surge is allowed to continue the violent cycling can reach
an intensity which can tear external piping, shatter impellers and bend
rotors.
However, the main task of the machine is to compress all the gas made
available to it, so the surge control must be set up so that under normal
conditions recycling does not take place unnecessarily.
Gas enters the casing and, with the aid of the impeller, is forced at high
velocity to the walls of the casing. Here the conversion of energy takes
place. That is to say, velocity energy is converted to pressure energy. An
examination of the compressor components in greater detail is contained in
the following paragraphs.
This is the name given to the part of the compressor which contains the
other principal components of the centrifugal compressor. In the simplest of
examples the casing contains a single, shaft-mounted impeller as shown in
Figure 5.3.
When greater discharge pressures are required several impellers are usually
placed in series on the same shaft, each taking suction from the discharge
of the previous impeller. Such an arrangement is called a multistage
compressor as opposed to the single impeller or single-stage unit.
Figure 5.8 depicts such a unit in which the top half of the casing can be
lifted off easily in order to gain access to the internals. The casing divides
at the horizontal centre line, the two halves being located by dowel pins
and held together by bolts.
Note that, if required, the drive shaft can be extended from one compressor
to another thereby permitting one drive unit to drive two (or more)
compressors.
When the end plate is unbolted and removed, internals consisting of the
shaft and impellers etc can be removed as a complete unit. The cylindrical
design of this type of casing provides high structural integrity. By virtue of
the symmetry, stresses (induced as a result of temperature increases) are
equally distributed thereby minimising distortional effects which may often
be prevalent in other forms of compressor casing. The vertically split type
casing is sometimes found with an end plate at each end of the unit.
The impeller is the part in a compressor which rotates and increases gas
pressure. (It is also referred to as a wheel.) It is mounted on the compressor
shaft. The impeller can comprise three main components, the blades, the
disc (or hub) and the cover.
The shaft has to be fabricated from a high quality metal which can be
engineered to fine tolerances. These requirements would lead to the
construction of a costly assembly and therefore to minimise the costs
incurred the shaft is usually fabricated from mild steel and later coated
with a hardened metal such as stainless steel or chromium.
Certain points on the shaft surface are subjected to more wear than others.
This is particularly the case at sealing arrangements and therefore at these
points the shaft is often equipped with a removable sleeve fabricated from
hardened alloys. This sleeve may be renewed when the degree of wear has
become excessive.
One can imagine that in a multistage compressor very high thrusts are trying
to force the rotor to the compressor suction end. These thrust forces must
be minimised and there are a number of ways of achieving this goal. One
method is to mount the impellers back to back on the shaft as illustrated in
Figure 5.11.
In this way the thrust of each impeller cancels out the other. However, the
most popular way of reducing the induced thrust forces is with the aid of a
device called the balancing drum or balancing piston. As can be seen in
Figure 5.12 the balance drum is fitted to the shaft at a point behind the last
impeller. One side of the drum experiences the compressor discharge
pressure whilst the other side is connected to compressor suction by the
pressure balance line. By judicious sizing of the drum the magnitude and
direction of the resultant thrust can be controlled.
4.4 Diaphragms
If the process gas can be made to enter the impeller in the same direction
as the impeller rotation then the efficiency of the compressor will be
increased. However, if the process gas enters in the opposite direction to
impeller rotation, the capacity and gas pressure rise of the unit can be
increased slightly.
The purpose of guide vanes is to control the flowrate of the gas in the
compressor. In some multistage compressors the inlet guide vane positions
are controllable thereby permitting some flexibility in operation.
Thrust bearings are those bearings which are used to locate the rotor axially
and at the same time absorb any axial rotor imbalance. In actual practice,
this imbalance force may vary from zero to several thousand pounds
depending on how the compressor is designed.
The main or journal bearings are utilised to maintain the rotor assembly in
its correct position especially when load or speed parameters change. There
are a number of types available which include the self-aligning sleeve and
roller type. Sometimes, in low pressure compressors, these bearings are
located on the outside of the case of the compressor. This enables
maintenance to be simplified.
4.9 Seals
Labyrinth
Restrictive carbon rings
Mechanical
Liquid film
Dry gas seals
The labyrinth seal is the simplest seal in use. It consists of a series of teeth
machined on the inside of a circular liner, fitted to very close tolerances
around the rotor shaft. A soft metal pad is sometimes used if the teeth have
been machined directly into the metal of the rotor shaft. The pad, being
soft metal and in close contact with the teeth, takes care of any wear and
can, during periods of overhaul, be changed rapidly.
Dependent upon the pressure differential across the seal the number of
teeth may vary. In low pressure machines as few as three to six teeth may
be sufficient, whereas in high pressure machines, as many as 20 teeth may
be required.
Some leakage from the high pressure side to the low pressure side is
allowed, but if the design is correct the leakage pressure would not exceed
the pressure of the low side to any great degree.
All rotating machinery has a lubrication system of one kind or another, and
gas compressors are no exception.
A seal oil system is necessary to prevent the escape of gas from the
compressor to the atmosphere and also to provide lubrication to the seal
moving parts. A typical seal oil system is shown in Figure 5.17.
The overall effect of this system is to eliminate the need for separate seal
oil systems at each end of the compressor. To ensure that the seal oil
pressure is above reference pressure, the seal oil head tank is positioned
above the compressor as shown in Figure 5.17.
Consider the oil flow through a typical seal oil system as shown in Figure
5.17. The main oil pump pumps oil out of the seal oil tank to a seal oil
cooler. The seal oil cooler removes the heat accumulated by the oil through
the system. The oil flows out of the seal oil cooler and into a filter unit
where any entrained debris in the oil is removed. The oil then flows to the
sealing arrangements on each end of the compressor unit. The majority of
oil entering the seal leaves through the primary seal outlet line and is
returned to the seal oil tank. However some of the oil passes right through
the sealing arrangement. That which flows through the outer seal is
returned to the seal oil tank but the oil which flows through the inner seal
may be contaminated with process gas. This gas has left the compressor
through the unoiled labyrinth seal. It is usually degassed in a drainpot with
the gas ultimately being burnt off or used for fuel, and the oil disposed of or
if possible reclaimed. If the process gas is pure then, after degassing, the oil
can be returned to the seal oil tank.
Of crucial importance to the operation of this system is the seal oil head
tank. Liquid level in the tank is maintained by a level controller which
controls the seal oil flowrate from the compressor to the seal oil tank. A
change in the normal operating level in the seal oil tank has the following
effects. Note that the tank is pressurised.
If the level rises, the level controller will open the level control valve
thereby permitting oil to flow out of the head tank and into the seal oil
tank.
Should the level fall, the level controller will close the level control valve
thereby reducing the oil flowrate back to the seal oil tank and allowing the
oil level in the head tank to be reinstated.
Several other points in the system in Figure 5.17 are worthy of note as
follows:
Where seal and lube oil systems are operated with the sumps and/or head
tanks venting to atmosphere, then consideration may be given to the use of
antistatic additives to ensure that any risk of sparks being generated is
removed.
7 INTERSTAGE COOLING
One factor that we have not yet touched upon in the interstage cooling
details is condensate recovery.
The drawing shows the layout of a simple compression system that is fitted
with interstage cooling. We can see that it has two stages of compression,
each with a ratio of 3.0. The suction temperature at the first stage is shown
as 80F. Discharge pressure is 30psia and temperature is 199F.
Our chart on temperature rise shows this to be correct, with the expected
temperature rise of 119 + 80F, suction temperature, gives the total of
199F.
The question arises, what would have been the final temperature if there
had been no interstage cooling?
Overall temperature rise = way above the maximum shown on your charts.
Volume reduction
Protection of machinery
The above calculations are based on the temperature rise chart for
reciprocating compressors. The centrifugal machines also have a similar
chart, but the expected temperature rises are much greater.
2.0 68 1.16
2.1 73 1.24
2.2 2-3 78 1.32
2.3 83 1.40
2.4 88 1.47
2.5 92 1.54
2.6 97 1.61
2.7 3-4 102 1.68
2.8 106 1.75
2.9 109 1.82
GAS COMPRESSION