International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 11011107

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue

An understanding of very high cycle fatigue of metals

I. Marines , X. Bin, C. Bathias
CNAM/ITMA, 2 rue Conte, 75003 Paris, France

Abstract

For modern technical applications like cars, trains, and aircrafts, the durability of some components is between 108 and 1010
cycles. However, there are very few experimental results beyond 107 cycles, where the standard fatigue limit is predicted using
statistical approaches. Generally, it is said that the probability of failure is given with the Gaussian curve, which is not always true.
The SN curves of metallic materials have been assumed by hyperbolic relationships. However, in some cases the asymptote is
not really horizontal. That means that the fatigue strength at 106 cycles is higher that at 108 cycles. Thus, the SN curve in the
gigacycle regime must be determined in order to guarantee the real fatigue strength and safe life of mechanical components. In
this paper, the state of the art in this field is summarized through our own results.
2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Gigacycle fatigue; SN curves; Metallic materials; Piezoelectric fatigue machines

1. Introduction Safe-life design based on the infinite-life criterion was

High cycle fatigue has become a major concern in
design and durability of engineering components and
structures. This concern has led to increased research
activities in high cycle fatigue, including basic under-
standing of failure mechanisms, development of new
experimental techniques, analysis methods, and life-pre-
diction methods.
In several industries, the required design lifetime of
many components often exceeds 108 cycles. This
requirement is applicable to aircraft (gas turbine disks
1010 cycles), automobiles (car engine 108 cycles), and
railways (high speed train 109 cycles) among others (Fig.
1). Although a large amount of fatigue data has been
published in the form of SN curves, the data in the
literature have been limited to fatigue lives up to 107
cycles (Fig. 2). Time and cost constraints rule out the
use of conventional fatigue tests of more than 107 cycles
to check the structural materials. A possibility of acceler-
ated testing of specimens is now considered by using
high frequency cyclic loading (piezoelectric fatigue
systems) [1,2].
Corresponding author. Tel.: +33-1-5880-8441; fax: +33-1-4027-
2341.
E-mail address: marines@cnam.fr (I. Marines).
initially developed through the 1800s and early 1900s.
One development is the stress-life or SN approach
related to the asymptotic behaviour of steels. Some
materials display a fatigue limit or endurance limit at
a higher number of cycles (typically 106). Most other
materials do not exhibit this response, instead of that
they display a continuously decreasing stress-life
response, even at a great number of cycles (106109)
(Fig. 3), which is more correctly described by a fatigue
strength at a given number of cycles.
Generally speaking, the fatigue SN curve for steels
was always considered to be asymptotic, i.e. horizontal
to the N axis, and hence no test was carried out beyond
109 cycles to check the following of this asymptote
(Fig. 2).
This absence of tests was convenient when Wohler
had introduced the fatigue limit at 106 cycles [3] because
many industrial applications, such as steam engines, had
a smaller fatigue life compared to modern machines; the
gigacycle fatigue regime is more appropriate for the
modern technology. This means that the concept of infi-
nite fatigue life is not correct [4,5]. In fact, the fatigue
life for modern machines is actually in the range of 109
1010 cycles. This range is higher than the range of 106
cycles proposed by Wohler, but it does not still mean
an infinite life.
For the first time (19841997), it was reported by

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1102 I. Marines et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 11011107
Fig. 1. Fatigue life of some components in modern machinery.
Fig. 2. ASTM standard 2002/designation E46890 (reapproved
1998) fatigue SN curve.
Fig. 3. The concept of gigacycle SN curve, where the material can
have different behaviour, only using high frequency fatigue systems
are possible to study it.
Japanese researchers that the metals could fail after 107
cycles [68]. Bathias and co-workers experimentally
established the concept of gigacycle fatigue failure very
recently (1990s) [1,2,4,5,9]. Up to now, the international
standard SN curve is still assumed as a quasi-hyperbolic
relation (Fig. 2), but in reality the asymptote is not hori-
zontal; it means that fatigue initiation mechanisms from
106 to 109 cycles is a new topic of great interest for
advanced technologies. Consequently, the SN curve
must be determined in order to guarantee the real fatigue
strength in high cycle regime.
The fatigue strength is strongly dependent on the num-
ber of chosen cycles to stop the test. On the opposite, it
can be said that the fatigue threshold is not so dependent
on the number of cycles when the crack growth rate is
ranging between 1010 and 1013 m/cycle [2,9]. From
the design point of view, the determination of the fatigue
threshold is not efficient without the nominal stress,
related to the fatigue initiation in the gigacycle regime.
In this paper, the international standardization of SN
curve is discussed. A new practical recommendation of
the fatigue strength up to the gigacycle regime is sug-
gested.
2. Stochastic prediction of the gigacycle fatigue
strength
First of all, the fatigue limit is given for an infinite
number of cycles to failure. A classical way to determine
the infinite fatigue life is to use a Gaussian function [10].
Using, e.g. the staircase method, the fatigue limit is
given by the average alternating stress sf, and the prob-
ability of fracture is given by the standard deviation of
the scatter (s). Roughly speaking, it is said that s f3s
gives a probability of fracture close to zero. Assuming
this is equal to 10 MPa, the true infinite fatigue limit
should be s f30 MPa. However, our experiments show
that between sf for 106 cycles and sf for 109 cycles, the
difference is greater than 30 MPa for many alloys.
The so-called SD approach to the average fatigue limit
is certainly not the best way to reduce the risk of rupture
in fatigue. Whereas one is conscious that it is only a last
resort, only experience can remove this ambiguity by
appealing to some tests of the accelerated fatigue. Today,
some piezoelectric fatigue machines are very reliable,
capable of producing 1010 cycles in less than one week,
whereas the conventional systems require more than
three years of tests for only one specimen.
To summarize the present standardization, it is admit-
ted that the concept of fatigue limit is bound to the
hypothesis of the existence of a horizontal asymptote on
the SN curve between 106 and 107 cycles. Thus, a sam-
ple that reaches 107 cycles and is not broken is con-
sidered to have an infinite life; i.e. in fact, this is a con-
venient and economical approximation, but is not a
rigorous approach.
The main goal of this paper is to introduce a new
practical definition of the fatigue strength up to the giga-
cycle regime (Figs. 3 and 4).
Many experiments [7] have shown that the probability
of failure in fatigue is not log N.
For practical applications, design uses a safety coef-
ficient k and the practical safe fatigue limit is ksf. Often
k is equal to 0.5 (Fig. 4) if sf is determined between 106
and 107 cycles.
 I. Marines et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 11011107 1103

Fig. 5. 2024/T3 aluminum alloy SN curve (R = 0.1).

Fig. 4. Safe fatigue curve using a safety coefficient to safe-life

design. All the failed specimens have been analysed by scan-
ning electron microscopy (SEM). Some inclusions are
found in this alloy. When the maximum stress is high
3. Remark on the statistical analysis in the and the fatigue life is less than 106 cycles, the fatigue
megacycle regime cracks have been initiated from these broken inclusions
(Fig. 6). It is called mode A. When the maximum stress
According to the ASTM standardization, it is assumed is smaller and the fatigue life is more than 106 cycles,
that a log N relation takes into account the scatter of it is believed that the persistent slip bands are the main
fatigue results up to the megacycle regime. The staircase mechanism to initiate fatigue cracks at the surface
method is based on this assumption. Thus, the prediction (Fig. 7).
of fatigue strength for the so-called infinite life depends It seems that the large scatter around 106 cycles is
on this assumption. related to the competition between these two mech-
In order to show the limitation of this approach, an anisms of crack initiation.
investigation of the distribution of fatigue lifetime about A statistical analysis has been done using the cumulat-
high strength aluminium alloy 2024T3 has been done in ive frequency model for three levels of loading (Fig. 8).
our laboratory. This analysis is made using the fatigue life tests results
The specimen used in our study was dog-bone speci- to make an approach with the Wo hler normal curve, that
men type with a thickness of 4 mm and a length of is presented as a continuous curve.
130 mm. The statistical results are shown in Fig. 8. It is found
Test machine was INSTRON 8501. It can be con- that when s max = 260 MPa, the dispersion of total fatigue
trolled by computer, which assures the tests load fluctu-
ation less than 0.1 kN on constant amplitude.
First, more than 100 specimens are tested under con-
stant amplitude loads at 13 stress levels. The R ratio is
0.1, the test frequency between 10 and 30 Hz and the
maximum stress between 175 and 400 MPa. When the
maximum stress smax is, respectively, of 300, 280, 260
and 240 MPa, the dispersion of lifetime is very large,
about 20 specimens at each stress level are used to obtain
enough samples to statistically analyse the distribution
of log N versus smax.
The experimental results of total fatigue lifetime were
shown in Fig. 5. According to this figure, it could be
found that the experimental points were very dispersed
when the stress level was in a range from s max = 300
to s max = 240 MPa. In other words, the scatter is
maximum around 106 cycles, where the standard fatigue
limit is determined. In fact, all test data are concentrated
in two modes, depending on if the initiation is related Fig. 6. Rupture initiation at a broke inclusion (specimen no. 3602,
to slip bands (before 106) or to an inclusion (after 106). s max = 360 MPa).
1104 I. Marines et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 11011107
Fig. 7. Inclusions broke and slip bands at mode B specimen
(specimen no. 26064, s max = 260 MPa).
Fig. 8. Cumulate frequency of lifetime using three different levels of
stress (Fig. 5), 2024/T3 aluminum (R = 0.1).
lifetime is very large. Through statistical examination,
the test points did not confirm to a log N distribution
even at a significance level of 50%.
It should be pointed out that in the stress range from
300 to 240 MPa, it was impossible to draw an acceptable
SN curve which is capable to be used by the industries
with these test data. For example, when the stress level
is 260 MPa, the experimental data display a consider-
able scatter.
The test data are statistically analysed with the math-
ematical method. We adopt the same plan for analysing
the scatter of the lifetime test results relative to the six
levels of loading.
The statistical results, the mean number of lifetime
at fracture Nf, the standard deviation s, the correlation
coefficient m, and the critical value: the lower limit and
the upper limit with a significance level of 98% (p) are
shown in Table 1.
According to the above observations, we have tried to
draw an SN curve separately with the test data in differ-
ent modes. We obtained an SN curve in a new form,
which was composed of two SN curves (shown in
Fig. 5).
This new SN curve was also statistically analysed.
Based on the two-mode hypothesis, the cumulative fre-
quency of total fatigue lifetime at the three stress levels
was presented in Fig. 9. The statistical testing results
showed that the experimental data are in agreement with
the log N distribution, separately for mode A and mode
B. As it is compared with the statistical results in Figs.
8 and 9, the dispersion of this new SN curve gained
remarkable improvement.
From a large fatigue experiment on aluminium alloy
2024/T3, it was shown that the fatigue lifetime has a
very large dispersion at the stress range from 300 to 240
MPa. After statistical analysis, it can be indicated that
the experimental data were not concentric with a single
curve. Thus, a fatigue curve in a new form was determ-
ined, which was composed of two different curves, and
its dispersion was improved very well. Each curve
accepted as a log N distribution. Two fatigue limits con-
ditions were also obtained with this new curve, s max =
220 MPa for N f = 106 cycles; and s max = 170 MPa for
N f = 107 cycles.
These results show that there is not only one log N
distribution between 105 and 107 cycles. Thus, it is not
correct to use the standard deviation rule to predict safe
fatigue strength from the data obtained up to 107 cycles.
The only way is to test specimens in the gigacycle
regime to find the appropriate fatigue strength according
to the life of the components.
It seems to be a safer and a better solution to avoid
any statistical speculation. Assuming that the fatigue life
of components is within the range of gigacycle fatigue,
our suggestion is to determine experimentally the fatigue
strength at 109 or 1010 cycles. In this case, the fatigue
strength can be assumed as the safe fatigue life, because
the number of cycles to failure is equal or larger than
the fatigue life of the components. Anyway, the word
infinite fatigue life is not suitable because the SN
curve does not present any horizontal asymptote.
4. Absence of an asymptote on the gigacycle curve
In this paragraph, several examples are given to show
different shapes of the gigacycle SN curve for typical
iron based alloys used by the automobile industry. All
the data are obtained on a piezoelectric fatigue machine
at 20 kHz. The difference between the fatigue strength
at 106 and 109 cycles is emphasized. There is no rule.
The slope of the SN curve in the gigacycle regime
depends on the hardness and the tensile strength of the
steels. However, this gap can reach 200 MPa for the
highest strength.
Four alloys are discussed below: carbon steel, cast
iron, spring steel and martensitic stainless steel.
 I. Marines et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 11011107 1105

Table 1
Statistical results relative to the six levels of loading

Specimens used at Load smax/smin (MPa) Fatigue lifetime at Scatter (s) Correlation Lower limit and upper
every level rupture NR (cycles) coefficient m limit (p = 98%)

10 320/32 86 014 0.026 0.005 45 317/157 428

20 300/30 531 875 0.289 0.051 100 274/271 426
22 280/28 518 246 0.421 0.074 200 546/1 125 854
20 260/26 1 032 865 0.435 0.076 198 471/3 885 469
23 240/24 1 877 413 0.378 0.072 385 247/3 267 537
5 210/21 6 584 014 0.036 0.005 405 2974/6 821 043

pressed air. The temperature of the center section of

some specimens was measured by a thin thermocouple
( = 0.1 mm), carefully attached to the specimen sur-
face. Some specimens of the SG cast iron were used for
conventional fatigue tests at a loading frequency of 25
Hz. Fracture surfaces were observed after testing by
SEM.
Figs. 10 and 11 present some SN curves of steel and
SG cast iron loaded in tensioncompression and tension
tension. The crack initiation appears up to 109 cycles,
Fig. 9. Cumulate frequency of lifetime in two modes (R = 0.1). and sometimes after 109 cycles. It is an affirmation of
the not infinite life in fatigue to some materials, and the
4.1. Gigacycle fatigue of carbon steel and SG cast different behaviour that every material has after 106
iron cycles; to be sure of fatigue strength at high fatigue life-
time, we must explore this regime experimentally, which
The chemical composition of SG cast iron and carbon is possible with piezoelectric fatigue systems.
steel is as follows: It must be noticed that the shape of the SN curves
in the gigacycle fatigue is not constant. It is difficult to
predict the shape of an unique SN curve between 106
C P Sn Mn Mg Cu Mo Ti Cr S Si Ni
and 109 cycles.
However, it is clear that for this type of alloy, the
Cast 3.45 0.019 0.03 0.13 0.0310.024 0.013 0.043 0.02 0.13 3.21 0.59
difference sf between the fatigue strength at 106 and
iron
109 cycles is less than 50 MPa. Nevertheless, in the high
strength steels, the difference between the fatigue
strength of 106 and 109 cycles is ranging from 50 to 200
MPa (Figs. 12 and 13).
The results show no noticeable frequency effect on
the fatigue behaviour in cast iron. For ratios R = 0 and
C P Co Mn Al S Si R = 1, the high frequency (20 kHz) fatigue data closely
matched the conventional frequency (25 Hz) test results
Carbon steel 0.08 0.025 0.14 0.4 0.02 0.025 0.1

These two alloys are used for mechanical parts in the

automobile industry, with UTS of 510 and 340 MPa.
The fatigue tests were carried out under the following
conditions at a frequency of 20 kHz on a piezoelectric
test system. The R ratios investigated were 1 and 0 for
the SG cast iron, and 0.1 for the carbon steel. All the
specimens were finished with grades 500, 1200, 2400,
4000 emery papers. The tests were performed at room
temperature in air. During ultrasonic fatigue testing, the Fig. 10. Low carbon steel showing log N behaviour and decreasing
middle section of each specimen was cooled by com- lifetime after 106 cycles at 20 kHz.
1106 I. Marines et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 11011107
Fig. 11. Cast iron, frequency and specimen size effect, under fatigue
loads. Showing different behaviours after 106 cycles: (a) frequency
effect; (b) specimen size effect at 20 kHz.
Fig. 12. Spring steel behaviour until 1010 cycles. (a) 54SC6 steel; (b)
55SC7 steel.
Fig. 13. 17-4PH martensitic stainless steel behaviour continue
decreasing after 107 cycles.
between 105 and 107 cycles. For a given number of
cycles, the fatigue strength at low frequency is 10 or 20
MPa higher than that at 20 kHz. This difference is quite
small and could be explained by the scatter of the results.
Unfortunately, the comparison of the effect of fre-
quency in low carbon steel is not possible because there
are no tests at low frequencies (conventional servo
hydraulic machines).
4.2. Gigacycle fatigue of spring steels and martensitic
stainless steel
The examples of spring steels and mastensitic stain-
less steel are very interesting because these alloys are
used to make the critical mechanical parts working up
to 109 cycles. The chemical composition of the steels is:
C P Mn Mo Cr S Si Ni
54SC6 0.535 0.006 0.629 0.635 0.016 1.4 0.056
55SC7 0.510.58 0.035 0.60.8 0.60.8 0.04 1.21.6
17-4PH 0.07 0.04 1.0 0.5 17.5 0.03 5
The UTS of these steels are 1692, 1800 and 1420 Mpa,
respectively. Figs. 12 and 13 show the shape of the S
N curves between 106 and 109 cycles, where the steels
behaviour is different in each case. Depending on the
microstructure and UTS, the difference of fatigue
strength at 106 and 109 cycles varies from 60 to 150 and
200 MPa.
It is interesting to notice that the specimen diameters,
which are 10 and 3 mm, are not an important factor on
the results obtained for the grades of 55SC7 spring steel
at 20 kHz (Fig. 12), and cast iron (Fig. 11).
For technical applications, a difference of 100 or 200
MPa on the fatigue strength cannot be ignored. On the
other hand, if the steel UTS is higher, the SN curve
slope in the gigacycle regime is higher too. Several
mechanisms are involved to explain crack initiation in
gigacycle fatigue. The maximum shape of the fatigue
 I. Marines et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 11011107
strength in the gigacycle regime is found for the mar-
tensitic stainless steel (17-4 PH). Roughly speaking, it
can be pointed out that a progressive transition of mech-
anisms around 107108 cycles, sometimes induces a step
in the SN curve as it is mentioned by Murakami et al.
[11] or Nishijima [8] or Sakai [12], and Bathias [5]. Two
mechanisms are involved: initiation at the surface or at
the interior in relation with an inclusion.
5. Discussion and conclusion
Our results [2,5,9,13] show that beyond 107 cycles,
fatigue rupture can occur in all the alloys, even in low
carbon steel used for the car body manufacturing. In this
case, the SN curve is quasi-asymptotic and the inter-
national standardization is efficient to determine a safe
fatigue strength.
In some other cases, the difference of fatigue resist-
ance can decrease by 100, even 200 MPa, between 106
and 109 cycles. Under these conditions, the fatigue limit
of the spring steels and martensitic stainless steel,
defined by a statistical analysis between 106 and 107
cycles, cannot guarantee a safe design.
Assuming that the fatigue life of modern machines
is ranging in the gigacyclic regime, it is mandatory to
determine the safe fatigue strength for 109 cycles by
experiments.
1107
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