UNIT V FUELS AND COMBUSTION 9

Solid, Liquid and Gaseous fuels, Combustion process, Enthalpy of formation,

Enthalpy and internal energy of combustion, Higher and lower heating
values, Adiabatic combustion temperature, First law analysis of Reacting
systems.

Combustion equation, Stochiometric air fuel ratio, Excess air, Composition of

combustion products, Analysis of combustion products, Air-fuel ratio from
analysis of combustion products.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
Fuels can be classified according to whether :
1. They occur in nature called primary fuels or are prepared called
secondary fuels ;
2. They are in solid, liquid or gaseous state

SOLID FUELS
Coal. Its main constituents are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
moisture and ash. Coal passes through different stages during its formation
from vegetation. These stages are enumerated and discussed below :
Plant debrisPeatLigniteBrown coalsub-bituminous coalBituminous
coalSemibituminous coalSemi-anthracite coalAnthracite coal
Graphite.
Peat. It is the first stage in the formation of coal from wood. It contains huge
amount of moisture and therefore it is dried for about 1 to 2 months before it
is put to use. It is used as a
domestic fuel in Europe and for power generation in Russia. In India it does
not come in the categories of good fuels.
Lignites and brown coals. These are intermediate stages between peat
and coal. They have a woody or often a clay like appearance associated with
high moisture, high ash and low heat contents. Lignites are usually
amorphous in character and impose transport difficulties as they break
easily. They burn with a smoky flame. Some of this type are suitable for local
use only.
Bituminous coal. It burns with long yellow and smoky flames and has high
percentages
of volatile matter. The average calorific value of bituminous coal is about
31350 kJ/kg. It may be of two types, namely caking or noncaking.
Semi-bituminous coal. It is softer than the anthracite. It burns with a very
small amount of smoke. It contains 15 to 20 per cent volatile matter and has
a tendency to break into small sizes during storage or transportation.
Semi-anthracite. It has less fixed carbon and less lustre as compared to
true anthracite and gives out longer and more luminous flames when burnt.
Anthracite. It is very hard coal and has a shining black lustre. It ignites
slowly unless the furnace temperature is high. It is non-caking and has high
percentage of fixed carbon. It burns either with very short blue flames or
without flames. The calorific value of this fuel is high to the tune of 35500
kJ/kg and as such is very suitable for steam generation.
Wood charcoal. It is obtained by destructive distillation of wood. During the
process the volatile matter and water are expelled. The physical properties
of the residue (charcoal), however depends upon the rate of heating and
temperature.
Coke. It consists of carbon, mineral matter with about 2% sulphur and small
quantities of hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorus. It is solid residue left after
the destructive distillation of certain kinds of coals. It is smokeless and clear
fuel and can be produced by several processes. It is mainly used in blast
furnace to produce heat and at the same time to reduce the iron ore.
Briquettes. These are prepared from fine coal or coke by compressing the
material under
high pressure.

LIQUID FUELS
The chief source of liquid fuels is petroleum which is obtained from wells
under the earths crust. These fuels have proved more advantageous in
comparison to sold fuels in the following respects.
Advantages :
1. Require less space for storage.
2. Higher calorific value.
3. Easy control of consumption.
4. Staff economy.
5. Absence of danger from spontaneous combustion.
6. Easy handling and transportation.
7. Cleanliness.
8. No ash problem.
9. Non-deterioration of the oil in storage.
Petroleum. There are different opinions regarding the origin of petroleum.
However, now it is accepted that petroleum has originated probably from
organic matter like fish and plant life etc., by bacterial action or by their
distillation under pressure and heat. It consists of a mixture of gases, liquids
and solid hydrocarbons with small amounts of nitrogen and sulphur
compounds. In India, the main sources of Petroleum are Assam and Gujarat.
Heavy fuel oil or crude oil is imported and then refined at different refineries.
The refining of crude oil supplies the most important product called petrol.
Petrol can also be made by polymerization of refinery gases. Other liquid
fuels are kerosene, fuels oils, colloidal fuels and alcohol.
GASEOUS FUELS
Natural gas. The main constituents of natural gas are methane (CH4) and
ethane (C2H6). It has calorific value nearly 21000 kJ/m3. Natural gas is used
alternately or simultaneously with oil for internal combustion engines.
Coal gas. Mainly consists of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
It is prepared by carbonisation of coal. It finds its use in boilers and
sometimes used for commercial purposes.
Coke-oven gas. It is obtained during the production of coke by heating the
bituminous coal. The volatile content of coal is driven off by heating and
major portion of this gas is utilised in heating the ovens. This gas must be
thoroughly filtered before using in gas engines.
Blast furnance gas. It is obtained from smelting operation in which air is
forced through layers of coke and iron ore, the example being that of pig iron
manufacture where this gas is produced as by product and contains about
20% carbon monoxide (CO). After filtering it may be blended with richer gas
or used in gas engines directly. The heating value of this gas is very low.
Producer gas. It results from the partial oxidation of coal, coke or peat
when they are burnt with an insufficient quantity of air. It is produced in
specially designed retorts. It has low heating value and in general is suitable
for large installations. It is also used in steel industry for
firing open hearth furnaces.

Water or illuminating gas. It is produced by blowing steam into white hot

coke or coal. The decomposition of steam takes place liberating free
hydrogen, and oxygen in the steam combines with carbon to form carbon
monoxide according to the reaction :
C + H2O CO + H2
The gas composition varies as the hydrogen content if the coal is used.
Sewer gas. It is obtained from sewage disposal vats in which fermentation
and decay occur. It consists of mainly marsh gas (CH4) and is collected at
large disposal plants. It works as a fuel for gas engines which in turn drive
the plant pumps and agitators. Gaseous fuels are becoming popular because
of following advantages they possess.
Advantages :
1. Better control of combustion.
2. Much less excess air is needed for complete combustion.
3. Economy in fuel and more efficiency of furnace operation.
4. Easy maintenance of oxidizing or reducing atmosphere.
5. Cleanliness.
6. No problem of storage if the supply is available from public supply line.
7. The distribution of gaseous fuels even over a wide area is easy through
the pipe lines and
as such handling of the fuel is altogether eliminated.
8. Gaseous fuels give economy of heat and produce higher temperatures (as
they can be
preheated in regenerative furnances and thus heat from hot flue gases can
be recovered).

THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL COMBUSTION PROCESSES

It is often instructive to study the combustion of a fuel by assuming that the
combustion is complete. A combustion process is complete if all the carbon
in the fuel burns to CO2, all the hydrogen burns to H2O, and all the sulfur (if
any) burns to SO2. That is, all the combustible components of a fuel are
burned to completion during a complete combustion process (Fig. 158).
Conversely, the combustion process is incomplete if the combustion
products contain any unburned fuel or components such as C, H2, CO, or OH.
Insufficient oxygen is an obvious reason for incomplete combustion, but it is
not the only one. Incomplete combustion occurs even when more oxygen is
present in the combustion chamber than is needed for complete combustion.
This may be attributed to insufficient mixing in the combustion chamber
during the limited time that the fuel and the oxygen are in contact. Another
cause of incomplete combustion is dissociation, which becomes important at
high temperatures. Oxygen has a much greater tendency to combine with
hydrogen than it does with carbon. Therefore, the hydrogen in the fuel
normally burns to completion, forming H2O, even when there is less oxygen
than needed for complete combustion. Some of the carbon, however, ends
up as CO or just as plain C particles (soot) in the products. The minimum
amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a fuel is called the
stoichiometric or theoretical air. Thus, when a fuel is completely burned
with theoretical air, no uncombined oxygen is present in the product gases.
The theoretical air is also referred to as the chemically correct amount of air,
or 100 percent theoretical air. A combustion process with less than the
theoretical air is bound to be incomplete. The ideal combustion process
during which a fuel is burned completely with theoretical air is called the
stoichiometric or theoretical combustion of that fuel (Fig. 159).

For example, the theoretical combustion of methane is Notice that the

products of the theoretical combustion contain no unburned methane and no
C, H2, CO, OH, or free O2. In actual combustion processes, it is common
practice to use more air than the stoichiometric amount to increase the
chances of complete combustion or to control the temperature of the
combustion chamber. The amount of air in excess of the stoichiometric
amount is called excess air. The amount of excess air is usually expressed
in terms of the stoichiometric air as percent excess air or percent
theoretical air. For example, 50 percent excess air is equivalent to 150
percent theoretical air, and 200 percent excess air is equivalent to 300
percent theoretical air. Of course, the stoichiometric air can be expressed as
0 percent excess air or 100 percent theoretical air. Amounts of air less than
the stoichiometric amount are called deficiency of air and are often
expressed as percent deficiency of air. For example, 90 percent
theoretical air is equivalent to 10 percent deficiency of air. The amount of air
used in combustion processes is also expressed in terms of the equivalence
ratio, which is the ratio of the actual fuelair ratio
to the stoichiometric fuelair ratio. Predicting the composition of the
products is relatively easy when the combustion process is assumed to be
complete and the exact amounts of the fuel and air used are known. All one
needs to do in this case is simply apply the mass balance to each element
that appears in the combustion equation, without needing to take any
measurements. Things are not so simple, however, when one is dealing with
actual combustion processes. For one thing, actual combustion processes
are hardly ever complete, even in the presence of excess air. Therefore, it is
impossible to predict the composition of the products on the basis of the
mass balance alone. Then the only alternative we have is to measure the
amount of each component in the products directly. A commonly used device
to analyze the composition of combustion gases is the Orsat gas analyzer.
In this device, a sample of the combustion gases is collected and cooled to
room temperature and pressure, at which point its
volume is measured. The sample is then brought into contact with a
chemical that absorbs the CO2. The remaining gases are returned to the
room temperature and pressure, and the new volume they occupy is
measured. The ratio of the reduction in volume to the original volume is the
volume fraction of the CO2, which is equivalent to the mole fraction if ideal-
gas behaviour is assumed (Fig. 1510). The volume fractions of the other
gases are determined by repeating this procedure. In Orsat analysis the gas
sample is collected over water and is maintained saturated at all times.
Therefore, the vapor pressure of water remains constant during the entire
test. For this reason the presence of water vapor in the test chamber is
ignored and data are reported on a dry basis. However, the amount of H2O
formed during combustion is easily determined by balancing the combustion
equation.

ENTHALPY OF FORMATION AND ENTHALPY OF

COMBUSTION
The molecules of a system possess energy in various forms such as sensible
and latent energy (associated with a change of state), chemical energy
(associated with the molecular structure), and nuclear energy (associated
with the atomic structure), as illustrated in Fig. 1514. In this text we do not
intend to deal with nuclear energy. We also ignored chemical energy until
now since the systems considered in previous chapters involved no changes
in their chemical structure, and thus no changes in chemical energy.
Consequently, all we needed to deal with were the sensible and latent
energies. During a chemical reaction, some chemical bonds that bind the
atoms into molecules are broken, and new ones are formed. The chemical
energy associated with these bonds, in general, is different for the reactants
and the products. Therefore, a process that involves chemical reactions
involves changes in chemical energies, which must be accounted for in an
energy balance (Fig. 1515). Assuming the atoms of each reactant remain
intact (no nuclear reactions) and disregarding any changes in kinetic and
potential energies, the energy change of a system during a chemical
reaction is due to a change in state and a change in chemical composition.
That is, (154) Therefore, when the products formed during a chemical
reaction exit the reaction chamber at the inlet state of the reactants, we
have _Estate _ 0 and the energy change of the system in this case is due to
the changes in its chemical composition only. In thermodynamics we are
concerned with the changes in the energy of a system during a process, and
not the energy values at the particular states. Therefore, we can choose any
state as the reference state and assign a value of zero to the internal energy
or enthalpy of a substance at that state. When a process involves no
changes in chemical composition, the reference state chosen has no effect
on the results. When the process involves chemical reactions, however, the
composition of the system at the end of a process is no longer the same as
that at the beginning of the process. In this case it becomes necessary to
have a common reference state for all substances. The chosen reference
state is 25C (77F) and 1 atm, which is known as the standard reference
state. Property values at the standard reference state are indicated by a
superscript () (such as h and u). When analyzing reacting systems, we
must use property values relative to the standard reference state. However,
it is not necessary to prepare a new set of property tables for this purpose.
We can use the existing tables by subtracting the property values at the
standard reference state from the values at the specified state. The ideal-gas
enthalpy of N2 at 500 K relative to the standard reference state, for
example, is h 500 K _h_ 14,581 _ 8669 _ 5912 kJ/kmol. Consider the
formation of CO2 from its elements, carbon and oxygen, during a steady-flow
combustion process (Fig. 1516). Both the carbon and the oxygen enter the
combustion chamber at 25C and 1 atm. The CO2 formed during this process
also leaves the combustion chamber at 25C and 1 atm. The combustion of
carbon is an exothermic reaction (a reaction dur-ing which chemical energy
is released in the form of heat). Therefore, some heat is transferred from the
combustion chamber to the surroundings during this process, which is
393,520 kJ/kmol CO2 formed. (When one is dealing with chemical reactions,
it is more convenient to work with quantities per unit mole than per unit
time, even for steady-flow processes.) The process described above involves
no work interactions. Therefore, from the steady-flow energy balance
relation, the heat transfer during this process must be equal to the
difference between the enthalpy of the products and the enthalpy of the
reactants.
That is, (155) Since both the reactants and the products are at the same
state, the enthalpy change during this process is solely due to the changes
in the chemical composition of the system. This enthalpy change is different
for different reactions, and it is very desirable to have a property to
represent the changes in chemical energy during a reaction. This property is
the enthalpy of reaction hR, which is defined as the difference between
the enthalpy of the products at a specified state and the enthalpy of the
reactants at the same state for a complete reaction. For combustion
processes, the enthalpy of reaction is usually referred to as the enthalpy of
combustion hC, which represents the amount of heat released during a
steady-flow combustion process when 1 kmol (or 1 kg) of fuel is burned
completely at a specified temperature and pressure (Fig. 1517). It is
expressed as

which is _393,520 kJ/kmol for carbon at the standard reference state. The
enthalpy of combustion of a particular fuel is different at different
temperatures and pressures. The enthalpy of combustion is obviously a very
useful property for analyzing the combustion processes of fuels. However,
there are so many different fuels and fuel mixtures that it is not practical to
list hC values for all possible cases. Besides, the enthalpy of combustion is
not of much use when the combustion is incomplete. Therefore a more
practical approach would be to have a more fundamental property to
represent the chemical energy of an element or a compound at some
reference state. This property is the enthalpy of formation h f , which can
be viewed as the enthalpy of a substance at a specified state due to its
chemical composition. To establish a starting point, we assign the enthalpy
of formation of all stable elements (such as O2, N2, H2, and C) a value of
zero at the standard reference state of 25C and 1 atm. That is,
H f _ 0 for all stable elements. (This is no different from assigning the
internal energy of saturated liquid water a value of zero at 0.01C.) Perhaps
we should clarify what we mean by stable. The stable form of an element is
simply the chemically stable form of that element at 25C and 1 atm.
Nitrogen, for example, exists in diatomic form (N2) at 25C and 1 atm.
Therefore, the stable form of nitrogen at the standard reference state is
diatomic nitrogen N2, not monatomic nitrogen N. If an element exists in
more than one stable form at 25C and 1 atm, one of the forms should be
specified as the stable form. For carbon, for example, the stable form is
assumed to be graphite, not diamond. Now reconsider the formation of CO2
(a compound) from its elements C and O2 at 25C and 1 atm during a
steady-flow process. The enthalpy change during this process was
determined to be _393,520 kJ/kmol. However, Hreact _ 0 since both
reactants are elements at the standard reference state, and the products
consist of 1 kmol of CO2 at the same state. Therefore, the enthalpy of
formation of CO2 at the standard reference state is _393,520 kJ/kmol (Fig.
1518). That is, The negative sign is due to the fact that the enthalpy of 1
kmol of CO2 at 25C and 1 atm is 393,520 kJ less than the enthalpy of 1
kmol of C and 1 kmol of O2 at the same state. In other words, 393,520 kJ of
chemical energy is released (leaving the system as heat) when C and O2
combine to form 1 kmol of CO2. Therefore, a negative enthalpy of formation
for a compound indicates that heat is released during the formation of that
compound from its stable elements. A positive value indicates heat is
absorbed. You will notice that two h f values are given for H2O in Table A
26, one for liquid water and the other for water vapor. This is because both
phases of H2O are encountered at 25C, and the effect of pressure on the
enthalpy of formation is small. (Note that under equilibrium conditions, water
exists only as a liquid at 25C and 1 atm.) The difference between the two
enthalpies of formation is equal to the hfg of water at 25C, which is 2441.7
kJ/kg or 44,000 kJ/kmol. Another term commonly used in conjunction with
the combustion of fuels is the heating value of the fuel, which is defined as
the amount of heat released when a fuel is burned completely in a steady-
flow process and the products are returned to the state of the reactants. In
other words, the heating value of a fuel is equal to the absolute value of the
enthalpy of combustion of the fuel. That is, The heating value depends on
the phase of the H2O in the products. The heating value is called the higher
heating value (HHV) when the H2O in the products is in the liquid form,
and it is called the lower heating value (LHV) when the H2O in the
products is in the vapor form (Fig. 1519). The two heating values are related
by

where m is the mass of H2O in the products per unit mass of fuel and hfg is
the enthalpy of aporization of water at the specified temperature. The
heating value or enthalpy of combustion of a fuel can be determined from a
knowledge of the enthalpy of formation for the compound involved.

FIRST-LAW ANALYSIS OF REACTING SYSTEMS

chemically reacting systems involve changes in their chemical energy, and
thus it is more onvenient to rewrite the energy balance relations so that the
changes in chemical energies are explicitly expressed. We do this first for
steady-flow systems and then for closed systems.
Steady-Flow Systems
Before writing the energy balance relation, we need to express the enthalpy
of a component in a form suitable for use for reacting systems. That is, we
need to express the enthalpy such that it is relative to the standard
reference
Once the reactants and their states are specified, the enthalpy of the
reactants Hreact can be easily determined. The calculation of the enthalpy of
the products Hprod is not so straightforward, however, because the
temperature of the products is not known prior to the calculations. Therefore,
the determination of the adiabatic flame temperature requires the use of an
iterative technique unless equations for the sensible enthalpy changes of the
combustion products are available. A temperature is assumed for the
product gases, and the Hprod is determined for this temperature. If it is not
equal to Hreact, calculations are repeated with another temperature. The
adiabatic flame temperature is then determined from these two results by
interpolation. When the oxidant is air, the product gases mostly consist of
N2, and a good first guess for the adiabatic flame temperature is obtained by
treating the entire product gases as N2. In combustion chambers, the
highest temperature to which a material can be exposed is limited by
metallurgical considerations. Therefore, the adiabatic flame temperature is
an important consideration in the design of combustion chambers, gas
turbines, and nozzles. The maximum temperatures that occur in these
devices are considerably lower than the adiabatic flame temperature,
however, since the combustion is usually incomplete, some heat
loss takes place, and some combustion gases dissociate at high
temperatures (Fig. 1526). The maximum temperature in a combustion
chamber can be controlled by adjusting the amount of excess air, which
serves as a coolant. Note that the adiabatic flame temperature of a fuel is
not unique. Its value depends on (1) the state of the reactants, (2) the
degree of completion of the
reaction, and (3) the amount of air used. For a specified fuel at a specified
state burned with air at a specified state, the adiabatic flame temperature
attains its maximum value when complete combustion occurs with the
theoretical amount of air.
ANALYSIS OF EXHAUST AND FLUE GAS
The combustion products are mainly gaseous. When a sample is taken for
analysis it is usually cooled down to a temperature which is below the
saturation temperature of the steam present. The steam content is therefore
not included in the analysis, which is then quoted as the analysis of the dry
products. Since the products are gaseous, it is usual to quote the analysis by
volume. An analysis which includes the steam in the exhaust is called a wet
analysis.
Practical analysis of combustion products :
The most common means of analysis of the combustion products is the
Orsat apparatus which is described below :
Construction. An Orsats apparatus consists of the following :
(i) A burette
(ii) A gas cleaner
(iii) Four absorption pipettes 1, 2, 3, 4.
The pipettes are interconnected by means of a manifold fitted with cocks S1,
S2, S3 and S4 and contain different chemicals to absorb carbon dioxide
(CO2), carbonmonoxide (CO) and oxygen (O2). Each pipette is also fitted
with a number of small glass tubes which provide a greater amount of
surface. These tubes are wetted by the absorbing agents and are exposed to
the gas under analysis. The measuring burrette is surrounded by a water
jacket to prevent, changes in temperature and density of the gas. The
pipettes 1, 2, 3, 4 contain the following chemicals :
Pipette 1 : Contains KOH (caustic soda) to absorb CO2 (carbon dioxide)
Pipette 2 : Contains an alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid to absorb O2
(oxygen)
Pipette 3, 4 : Contain an acid solution of cuprous chloride to absorb CO
(carbonmonoxide) Furthermore the apparatus has a levelling bottle and a
three way cock to connect the apparatus either to gases or to atmosphere.
Procedure. 100 cm3 of gas whose analysis is to be made is drawn into the
bottle by lowering the levelling bottle. The stop cock S4 is then opened and
the whole flue gas is forced to pipette 1. The gas remains in this pipette for
sometime and most of the carbondioxide is absorbed. The levelling bottle is
then lowered to allow the chemical to come to its original level. The volume
of gas thus absorbed is read on the scale of the measuring bottle. The flue
gas is then forced through the pipette 1 for a number of times to ensure that
the whole of the CO2 is absorbed. Further, the remaining flue gas is then
forced to the pipette 2 which contains pyrogallic acid to absorb whole of O2.
The reading on the measuring burette will be the sum of volume of CO2 and
O2. The oxygen content can then be found out by subtraction. Finally, as
before, the sample of gas is forced through the pipettes 3 and 4 to absorb
carbonmonoxide completely. The amount of nitrogen in the sample can be
determined by subtracting from total volume of gas the sum of CO2, CO and
O2 contents. Orsat apparatus gives an analysis of the dry products of
combustion. Steps may have been taken to remove the steam from the
sample by condensing, but as the sample is collected over water it becomes
saturated with water. The resulting analysis is nevertheless a true analysis of
the dry products. This is because the volume readings are taken at a
constant temperature and pressure, and the partial pressure of the vapour is
constant. This means that the sum of the
partial pressures of the remaining constituents is constant. The vapour then
occupies the same
proportion of the total volume at each measurement. Hence the vapour does
not affect the result of the analysis.
Note. Quantitatively the dry product analysis can be used to calculate A/F
ratio. This method of obtaining the A/F ratio is not so reliable as direct
measurement of air consumption and fuel consumption of the engine. More
caution is required when analysing the products of consumption of a solid
fuel since some of the products do not appear in the flue gases (e.g. ash and
unburnt carbon). The residual solid must be analysed as well in order to
determine the carbon content, if any. With an engine using petrol or diesel
fuel the exhaust may include sunburnt particles of carbon and this quantity
will not appear in the analysis. The exhaust from internal combustion
engines may contain also some CH4 and H2 due to incomplete combustion.
Another piece of equipment called the Heldane apparatus measures the
CH4 content as well as CO2, O2 and CO.

AIR-FUEL RATIO FROM ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTS

When analysis of combustion products is known air-fuel ratio can be

calculated by the
following methods :
1. Fuel composition known
(i) Carbon balance method (ii) Hydrogen balance method
(iii) Carbon-hydrogen balance method.
2. Fuel composition unknown
(i) Carbon-hydrogen balance method.
1. Fuel composition known
(i) Carbon balance method. When the fuel composition is known, the carbon
balance method
is quite accurate if combustion takes place with excess air and when free
(solid) carbon is not present in the products. It may be noted that the Orsat
analysis will not determine the quantity of solid carbon in the products.
(ii) Hydrogen balance method. This method is used when solid carbon is
suspected to be present.
(iii) Carbon-hydrogen balance method. This method may be employed when
there is some
uncertainty about the nitrogen percentage reported by the Orsat analysis.
2. Fuel composition unknown
When the fuel composition is not known the carbon-hydrogen balance
method has to be employed.
HOW TO CONVERT VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS TO WEIGHT ANALYSIS ?
The conversion of volumetric analysis to weight analysis involves the
following steps :
1. Multiply the volume of each constituent by its molecular weight.
2. Add all these weights and then divide each weight by the total of all and
express it as
percentage.
HOW TO CONVERT WEIGHT ANALYSIS TO VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS ?
1. Divide the weight of each constituent by its molecular weight.
2. Add up these volumes and divide each volume by the total of all and
express it as a percentage.
WEIGHT OF CARBON IN FLUE GASES
The weight of carbon contained in one kg of flue or exhaust gas can be
calculated from the
amounts of CO2 and CO contained in it.