Definitions of terms in practical questions

Although students will not be ask to recall or quote these definitions in any examination, question
papers will expect students to recognise these terms and answer questions involving their use.

Accuracy: An accurate measurement is one which is close to the true value. The accuracy of a
measurement depends on factors such as the quality of the measuring device and the skill of the
person taking the measurement. For example, if a measuring device such as a weighing balance has a
zero error (in other words, it does not read zero when no mass is placed on it) then all readings will
be inaccurate, unless allowance is made when the measurements are taken. Some quantities such as
g, the acceleration due to gravity, have an accepted value. An accepted value comes from the work
of many scientists who have measured the value, agreed with it and published the value. These
values can be checked via text books, data tables or through the internet (remembering that some
internet sources especially those with open editing or owned by interest groups - may not always
prove to be reliable).

Anomalous data: Anomalous readings are those which fall outside the normal, or expected, range of
measurements. If we take a large number of readings, we can be more certain about saying which
readings are anomalous (i.e. do not fit the pattern established by the others) and which are not.
Anomalous readings are easy to see on a graph as a point, or points, which do not lie on or near the
best-fit line. Anomalous readings should be removed from any data which is being used to calculate a
mean (average) value.

Average: The arithmetical mean of a set of data is usually referred to as the average. This mean value
gives you an estimate of the true value, assuming that no reading is anomalous. For example, if you
measure the length of a piece of wire four times and obtain values of 6.2 cm, 6.1 cm, 6.3 cm and 6.2
cm, the average (mean) value for the length is 6.2 cm. It is only an estimate because your measuring
instruments may be giving you false readings in some way, or other variables may have affected what
you were trying to measure.

Concordant readings: If readings have been taken several times and the readings are identical, or
close to each other, then they are described as concordant. In the example above, the four readings
for the length of the wire are concordant. However, if the readings were 6.2 cm, 7.1 cm, 6.3 cm and
6.1 cm then the readings would not be concordant. The reading of 7.1 cm is likely to be anomalous
and should be checked again. Any average taken from the readings should only include the
concordant readings and not anomalous ones. Usually, readings which are concordant are likely to be
reliable. Concordant readings are frequently encountered in titrations in chemistry, where titre values
are said to be concordant if they are within 0.20 cm3 of each other.

Control variable: A control variable is one that will affect the outcome of the investigation. Control
variables must be kept constant otherwise the investigation will not be valid (a fair test) e.g. if you
were investigating the effect of light on the rate of photosynthesis of a plant, you must keep the
temperature around the plant constant as any change in temperature would also affect the results. If
you did not keep the temperature constant, the experiment would not be valid (a fair test).

Correlation: Correlation is the relationship between the two variables in a given experiment. This is
often obtained from a graph. If the gradient (slope) of a graph is positive (i.e. the graph slopes
upwards) we can say there is a positive correlation. If the gradient is negative, we can say there is a
negative correlation between the variables. If a straight line goes through the origin of a graph and
the gradient is positive, we can say that the variables are directly proportional to each other. Even if
two factors correlate very well together, remember that it is not certain that the change in one
variable causes the change in the other.

Data: This is a term normally used for the set of numerical values recorded in an experiment. We
usually record data in tables to make comparisons easy.

Dependent variable: The dependent variable is the quantity that changes as a result of changes made
to another variable (the independent one) e.g. if we chose to vary the height of a ramp and measure
the acceleration of a trolley as it runs down the ramp, the height of the ramp is the independent
variable and the acceleration of the trolley is the dependent variable.

Fair test: A fair test is a series of experiments or measurements in which only the values of one
variable are changed. A fair test can usually be achieved by keeping all other variables constant, or
controlled. Experiments that meet these criteria are said to be valid.

Independent variable: The independent variable is the one which we vary an experiment in order to
see the effect on the dependent variable e.g. we might vary the height of a ramp (independent
variable) and then measure the acceleration of a trolley which rolls down it (dependent variable).

Precision: Precision is usually determined by the apparatus being used, although it can be influenced
by technique. Most scientific instruments have scales if the sub-divisions on these scales are
smaller, then it is usually possible to take more precise readings. For example, it will be more
precise, when measuring a small temperature rise, to use a thermometer measuring to the nearest
0.1C than one measuring only to the nearest 1.0 C. Note, however, that this is not always the case.
Most digital stopwatches will measure to the nearest 0.01 s. This degree of precision is
unwarranted our own reaction times prevent readings taken to this level of precision from being
valid. Precision can be improved in an experiment by using more sensitive, or better graduated,
measuring devices; and by eliminating experimental error from factors such as parallax.

Reliability: The results of an investigation may be considered reliable if readings are repeated, and
concordant data is obtained. The more concordant your results are, the more reliable they are likely to
be. If the data collected is very unreliable, it is likely that there is something wrong with the
experiment! However, a simple way to improve the reliability of data is to repeat the experiment and
collect data to average. However, remember that anomalous data will need to be removed in order to
improve the reliability of the data.

Validity: Data collected may be considered valid if you can say yes to the question, Am I really
measuring what I am trying to measure? Validity refers to the technique and apparatus used for
collecting the data. In a valid experiment all variables are kept constant apart from those being
investigated. Normally only one variable is investigated at a time. Validity can be improved by
reducing any uncertainties (or errors). Note that validity is not really about human errors caused
when taking readings, it is about failing to control variables that may affect the outcome of an
experiment.
 Practical tips overview
The examination papers will test your ability to do some of these things:

describe the method for an investigation

take measurements

record results in the table

plot graphs to show results

analyse results

evaluate data

Method

Apparatus: Students might be asked to carry on an investigation using a given set of apparatus or
might look for how you use do the measurements with the apparatuses.

While describing an investigation, make sure every step is in correct order.

Reliability: You have to mention ways, how your experiment is more reliable. Some examples
include:

repeat readings
means all the values

plotting graphs

discard anomalous results

Safety precautions

You might have to mention safety precautions for the experimenter. Some examples include:

if you are using weights, make sure they cannot fall and land on your feet
make sure any clamp stands are fastened to the bench so they cannot
overbalance

if you are stretching wires or other objects that might break and spring
back, wear eye protection

if you are using electricity, make sure you are using a low-voltage source

if you are using water, make sure that any spills are mopped up so you do
not slip
 if you are projecting (firing) an object such as a ball bearing or an arrow
make sure that no one is in the area and that an adequate absorbent
target is in place

if you are describing the use of radioactive materials make sure you know
how they should be handled and stored safely

if you are timing the descent of an object such as a model parachute

make sure that any chairs or other furnitures are out of the way

Safety precautions can also refer to care of the apparatus. For example:

not stretching a spring too far so that it goes beyond its elastic limit
if you are using electricity to heat something, such as fuse wire, use a
heatproof mat to protect bench and dont touch hot wires

Measurements

During measurement, make sure to:

add units
record results in a table

avoid parallax error

avoid zero error

Graphs
Graphs are a good way of presenting results
It helps find anomalous results

Know the terms line of best fit and curve of best fit and when to use
them.

Know about the types of graphs: line and bar chart and when and where
to use them.

Be able to describe shapes of graph: linearity, passing through origin,

positive/negative slope/correlation, inverse relationship

Analyse results
give answers in appropriate significant figures in calculations. The results
of calculations should be given to the same number of significant figures
as in the measurement to calculate them
be able to write conclusion for a set of results or compare a conclusion
with prediction. You must say whether the prediction was correct with
reason.
Evaluation
commenting on sets of results
o deciding how accurate and reliable

o how precise or reliable the evidence is

o how to increase accuracy and reliability

Precision

Human reaction effects accuracy of measurement. Use more reliable

apparatus for measurement

Reliability

Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Multiple

pico P 10-12
nano n 10-9
micro 10-6
milli m 10-3
centi c 10-2
deci d 10-1
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109
tera T 1012
Physical Units

Quantity Units
Speed m/s
Velocity m/s
Acceleration m/s2
Distance m
Time s
Force N
Mass kg
Weight N
Momentum kg m/s
Moment Nm
Power W
Current A
Voltage v
Resistance
Energy J
Charge C
Frequency Hz
Time period s
Wave speed m/s
Wavelength m
o
Critical angle
Work done J
Gravitational field strength N
Density Kg/m3
Volume m3
Pressure Pa
Area m2
Height m
o
Temperature C
Radioactivity Bq