Cathodoluminescence
Cathodoluminescence is an optical and electromagnetic
phenomenon in which electrons impacting on a
luminescent material such as a phosphor, cause the
emission of photons which may have wavelengths in the
visible spectrum. A familiar example is the generation of
light by an electron beam scanning the phosphor-coated
inner surface of the screen of a television that uses a
cathode ray tube. Cathodoluminescence is the inverse
of the photoelectric eect, in which electron emission is
induced by irradiation with photons.
Spectrometer CCD
electron beam
parabolic mirror
CL PMT
sample
secondary electrons
cooling stage
5 300 K
EBIC
Sketch of a cathodoluminescence system: The electron beam ted with a cathodoluminescence detector, or an opti-
passes through a small aperture in the parabolic mirror which cal cathodoluminescence microscope, may be used to
collects the light and reects it into the spectrometer. A charge- examine internal structures of semiconductors, rocks,
coupled device (CCD) or photomultiplier (PMT) can be used for ceramics, glass, etc. in order to get information on the
parallel or monochromatic detection, respectively. An electron composition, growth and quality of the material.
beam-induced current (EBIC) signal may be recorded simultane-
ously.
1 Origin of cathodoluminescence
Luminescence in a semiconductor results when an
electron in the conduction band recombines with a hole
in the valence band. The excess energy of this transi-
tion can be emitted in form of a photon. The energy
(color) of the photon, and the probability that a photon
and not a phonon will be emitted, depends on the ma-
terial, its purity, and the presence of defects. However,
rst the electron has to be excited from the valence band
into the conduction band. In cathodoluminescence, this
occurs as the result of an impinging high energy elec-
tron beam onto a semiconductor. However, these pri-
mary electrons carry far too much energy to directly ex-
cite electrons. Instead, the inelastic scattering of the pri-
mary electrons in the crystal leads to the emission of
secondary electrons, Auger electrons and X-rays, which
1
in turn can scatter as well. Such a cascade of scattering
events leads to up to 103 secondary electrons per inci-
dent electron.[1] These secondary electrons can excite va-
lence electrons into the conduction band when they have
a kinetic energy about three times the band gap energy
of the material (Ekin 3Eg ) .[2] The excess energy is
transferred to phonons and thus heats the lattice. One of
the advantages of excitation with an electron beam is that
the band gap energy of materials that are investigated is
not limited by the energy of the incident light as in the
case of photoluminescence. Therefore, in cathodolumi-
nescence, the semiconductor examined can, in fact, be
almost any non-metallic material. In terms of band struc-
ture, classical semiconductors, insulators, ceramics, gem-
stones, minerals, and glasses can be treated the same way.
2 Cathodoluminescence mi-
croscopy
In geology, mineralogy, materials science and semicon-
ductor engineering, a scanning electron microscope t-
2.1 Cathodoluminescence in a scanning
electron microscope
In these instruments a focused beam of electrons im-
pinges on a sample and induces it to emit light that is
collected by an optical system, such as an elliptical mir-
ror. From there, a ber optic will transfer the light out
of the microscope where it is separated into its compo-
nent wavelengths by a monochromator and is then de-
tected with a photomultiplier tube. By scanning the mi-
croscopes beam in an X-Y pattern and measuring the
light emitted with the beam at each point, a map of the
optical activity of the specimen can be obtained (cathodo-
luminescence imaging). Instead, by measuring the wave-
length dependence for a xed point or a certain area, the
spectral characteristics can be recorded (cathodolumines-
cence spectroscopy). Furthermore, if the photomultiplier
tube is replaced with a CCD camera, an entire spectrum
can be measured at each point of a map (hyperspectral
imaging). Moreover, the optical properties of an object
2 6
can be correlated to structural properties observed with
the electron microscope.
The primary advantages to the electron microscope based
technique is its spatial resolution. In a scanning elec-
tron miscroscope, the attainable resolution is on the or-
der of a few ten nanometers,[3] while in a (scanning)
transmission electron microscope, nanometer-sized fea-
tures can be resolved.[4] Additionally, it is possible to
perform nanosecond- to picosecond-level time-resolved
measurements if the electron beam can be chopped
into nano- or pico-second pulses by a beam-blanker or
with a pulsed electron source. These advanced techniques
are useful for examining low-dimensional semiconductor
structures, such a quantum wells or quantum dots.
While an electron microscope with a cathodolumines-
cence detector provides high magnication, an optical
cathodoluminescence microscope benets from its ability
to show actual visible color features directly through the
eyepiece. More recently developed systems try to com-
bine both an optical and an electron microscope to take
advantage of both these techniques. [5]
3 Extended applications of
cathodoluminescence
Although direct bandgap semiconductors such as GaAs
or GaN are most easily examined by these techniques,
indirect semiconductors such as silicon also emit weak
cathodoluminescence, and can be examined as well. In
particular, the luminescence of dislocated silicon is dif-
ferent from intrinsic silicon, and can be used to map de-
fects in integrated circuits.
Recently, cathodoluminescence performed in electron
microscopes is also being used to study surface plasmon
resonances in metallic Nanoparticles.[6] Surface plasmons
in metal nanoparticles can absorb and emit light, though
the process is dierent from that in semiconductors.
Similarly, cathodoluminescence has been exploited as a
probe to map the local density of states of planar di-
electric photonic crystals and nanostructured photonic
materials.[7]
4 See also
Luminescence
Electron-stimulated luminescence
Photoluminescence
Cathodoluminescence microscope
Scanning electron microscopy
REFERENCES
5 Further reading
Cathodoluminescence microscopy: Optical imaging
and spectroscopy with deep-subwavelength resolu-
tion, T. Coenen, B. J. M. Brenny, E. J. R. Vesseur,
and A. Polman, MRS Bulletin 40, 359 (2015)
Angle-resolved cathodoluminescence nanoscopy, T.
Coenen, University of Amsterdam (2014)
Cathodoluminescence plasmon microscopy [PDF],
M. Kuttge, Utrecht University (2009)
Electron beams set nanostructures aglow [PDF], Na-
ture 493, 143 (2013)
Angle-resolved cathodoluminescence imaging po-
larimetry, C. I. Osorio, T. Coenen, B. J. M. Brenny,
A. Polman, and A. F. Koenderink, ACS Photonics,
DOI: 10.1021/acsphotonics.5b00596 (2015)
Imaging of hidden modes in ultra-thin plasmonic
strip antennas by cathodoluminescence, E. S.
Barnard, T. Coenen, E. J. R. Vesseur, A. Polman,
and M. L. Brongersma, Nano Lett. 11, 4265 (2011)
Directional emission from plasmonic Yagi-Uda an-
tennas probed by angle-resolved cathodolumines-
cence, T. Coenen, E. J. R. Vesseur, A. Polman, and
A. F. Koenderink, Nano Lett. 11, 3779 (2011)
B. G. Yacobi and D. B. Holt, Cathodoluminescence
Microscopy of Inorganic Solids,New York, Plenum
(1990)
C. E. Norman, Microscopy and Analysis, March
2002, P.9-12
S. A. Galloway et al., Physica Status Solidi (C),
V0(3), P.1028-1032 (2003)
C. M. Parish and P. E. Russell, Scanning Cathodo-
luminescence Microscopy, in Advances in Imaging
and Electron Physics, V.147, ed. P. W. Hawkes,
P. 1 (2007)
Lhnemann, J. (2013). Luminescence of group-III-
V nanowires containing heterostructures (pdf) (PhD
Thesis). Humboldt-Universitt zu Berlin.
6 References
[1] Mitsui, T; Sekiguchi, T; Fujita, D; Koguchi, N. (2005).
Comparison between electron beam and near-eld
light on the luminescence excitation of GaAs/AlGaAs
semiconductor quantum dots. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys.
44: 18201824. Bibcode:2005JaJAP..44.1820M.
doi:10.1143/JJAP.44.1820.
[2] Klein, C. A. (1968). Bandgap dependence and re-
lated features of radiation ionization energies in semi-
conductors. J. Appl. Phys. 39: 20292038.
Bibcode:1968JAP....39.2029K. doi:10.1063/1.1656484.
 3

[3] Lhnemann, J.; Hauswald, C.; Wlz, M.; Jahn, U.; Hanke,
M.; Geelhaar, L.; Brandt, O. (2014). Localization
and defects in axial (In,Ga)N/GaN nanowire heterostruc-
tures investigated by spatially resolved luminescence spec-
troscopy. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 47: 394010.
arXiv:1405.1507 . Bibcode:2014JPhD...47M4010L.
doi:10.1088/0022-3727/47/39/394010.
[4] Zagonel; et al. (2011). Nanometer Scale Spectral Imag-
ing of Quantum Emitters in Nanowires and Its Correlation
to Their Atomically Resolved Structure. Nano Letters.
11: 568. doi:10.1021/nl103549t. PMID 21182283.
[5] What is Quantitative Cathodoluminescence?". 2013-10-
21.
[6] Garca de Abajo, F. J. (2010). Optical
excitations in electron microscopy. Re-
views of Modern Physics. 82: 209275.
arXiv:0903.1669 . Bibcode:2010RvMP...82..209G.
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.82.209.
[7] Sapienza, R.;Coenen, R.; Renger, J.; Kuttge, M.; van
Hulst, N. F.; Polman, A (2012). Deep-subwavelength
imaging of the modal dispersion of light. Nature Ma-
terials. 11: 781787. Bibcode:2012NatMa..11..781S.
doi:10.1038/nmat3402. PMID 22902895.

7 External links
An introduction to CL (from the Laboratory of Sed-
imentary System of the Seoul National University
From the discovery of the electron to subwavelength
microscopy: An introduction to cathodolumines-
cence DELMIC Microscopy Blog
Cathodoluminescence intensity mapping: Adding
an extra dimension to your research DELMIC Mi-
croscopy Blog
Glowing yellow calcite and green aragonite:
Cathodoluminescence sheds light in geosciences
DELMIC Microscopy Blog
Quick look cathodoluminescence analyses and their
impact on the interpretation of carbonate reservoirs.
Case study of mid-Jurassic oolitic reservoirs in the
Paris Basin
Scientic Results about High Spatial Resolution
Cathodoluminescence
Gatan, a company oering commercial cathodolu-
minescence systems for SEM and TEM
Attolight, a company oering commercial cathodo-
luminescence systems
DELMIC, a company oering commercial cathodo-
luminescence systems
HORIBA Scientic, a company oering commer-
cial cathodoluminescence systems
4 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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