5/17/2017 IntermodalcontainerWikipedia

Intermodalcontainer
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anintermodalcontainerisalargestandardizedshippingcontainer,designedandbuiltfor
intermodalfreighttransport,meaningthesecontainerscanbeusedacrossdifferentmodesof
transportfromshiptorailtotruckwithoutunloadingandreloadingtheircargo.[1]Intermodal
containersareprimarilyusedtostoreandtransportmaterialsandproductsefficientlyandsecurely
intheglobalcontainerizedintermodalfreighttransportsystem,butsmallernumbersarein
regionaluseaswell.Thesecontainersareknownunderanumberofnames,suchassimply
container,cargoorfreightcontainer,ISOcontainer,shipping,seaoroceancontainer,container
vanor(Conex)box,seaorccan.[nb1]

Intermodalcontainersexistinmanytypesandanumberofstandardizedsizes,butninetypercent A40foot(12m)longshipping
oftheglobalcontainerfleetaresocalled"dryfreight"or"generalpurpose"containers,[2][3] container.Eachoftheeightcorners
durableclosedsteelboxes,mostlyofeithertwentyorfortyfoot(6or12m)standardlength.[2][4] hasanessentialtwistlockfittingfor
Thecommonheightsare8feet6inches(2.6m)and9feet6inches(2.9m)thelatterareknown hoisting,stacking,andsecuring
asHighCubeorHiCubecontainers.[5]

Justlikecardboardboxesandpallets,thesecontainersareameanstobundlecargoandgoodsinto
larger,unitizedloads,thatcanbeeasilyhandled,moved,andstacked,andthatwillpacktightlyin
ashiporyard.Intermodalcontainersshareanumberofkeyconstructionfeaturestowithstandthe
stressesofintermodalshipping,tofacilitatetheirhandlingandtoallowstacking,aswellasbeing
identifiablethroughtheirindividual,uniqueISO6346reportingmark.

In2012therewereabout20.5millionintermodalcontainersintheworldofvaryingtypestosuit
differentcargoes.[4][nb2]Containershavelargelysupplantedthetraditionalbreakbulkcargoin
In2012therewereover20million
2010containersaccountedfor60%oftheworld'sseabornetrade.[7][8]Thepredominant intermodalcontainersintheworld.
alternativemethodsoftransportcarrybulkcargowhethergaseous,liquidorsolide.g.bybulk
carrierortankship,tankcarortruck.Forairfreight,themorelightweightIATAdefinedunitload
deviceisused.

Contents
1 History
2 Description
3 Types
Freighttraincarryingcontainers
4 Specifications
throughWestKingmanCanyon,
5 Stackingcontainers
6 Nonstandardanduncommonsizes Arizona
6.1 Palletwidecontainers
6.2 48footcontainers
6.3 53footcontainers
6.4 60footcontainers
6.5 Smallcontainers
7 Reportingmark
8 Handling
9 Transport
9.1 Rail
9.2 Ship
9.3 Plane
10 Securingandsecurity Makingcontainersstackablemade
10.1 Securingcontainersandcontents loadingandtransportonlargeships
10.2 Security feasibleandefficient
11 Nonshippinguses
11.1 Containerizedequipment
11.2 Repurposing
12 Seealso
13 Notes
14 References
15 InternationalStandards
16 Furtherreading
17 Externallinks

History
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Bythe1830s,railwaysonseveralcontinentswerecarryingcontainersthatcouldbetransferredto
othermodesoftransport.TheLiverpoolandManchesterRailwayintheUnitedKingdomwasone
ofthese."Simplerectangulartimberboxes,fourtoatruck,theywereusedtoconveycoalfrom
theLancashirecollieriestoLiverpool,wheretheyweretransferredtohorsedrawncartsby
crane."[10]EarlyversionsofstandardizedcontainerswereusedinEuropebeforeWorldWarII.
Constructionofthesecontainershadasteelframewithwoodenwalls,floor,roofanddoors.

ThefirstinternationalstandardforcontainerswasestablishedbytheBureauInternationaldes
ContainersetduTransportIntermodal(B.I.C.)in1933,andasecondonein1935,primarilyfor
transportbetweenEuropeancountries.Americancontainersatthistimewerenotstandardized,
andtheseearlycontainerswerenotyetstackableneitherintheU.S.norEurope.InNovember Transferringfreightcontainersonthe
1932,thefirstcontainerterminalintheworldwasopenedbythePennsylvaniaRailRoad London,MidlandandScottish
CompanyinEnola,PA.ThedevelopmentofcontainerizationwascreatedinEuropeandtheUSas Railway(LMS1928)
awaytorevitalizerailcompaniesaftertheWallStreetCrashof1929,inNewYork,resulting
economiccollapseanddropinallmodesoftransport.[11]

InApril1951atZrichTiefenbrunnenrailwaystationtheSwissMuseumofTransportandthe
BureauInternationaldesContainers(BIC)helddemonstrationsofcontainersystemsfor
representativesfromanumberofEuropeancountries,andfromtheUnitedStates.Asystemwas
selectedforWesternEurope,basedontheNetherlands'systemforconsumergoodsandwaste
transportationcalledLaadkisten(lit."Loadingbins"),inusesince1934.Thissystemusedroller
containersfortransportbyrail,truckandship,invariousconfigurationsupto5,500kg
(12,100lb)capacity,andupto3.1by2.3by2metres(10ft2in7ft612in6ft634in)in
size.[12][13]ThisbecamethefirstpostWorldWarIIEuropeanrailwaystandardoftheInternational Freightcarinrailwaymuseum
UnionofRailwaysUIC590,knownas"paBehlter."ItwasimplementedintheNetherlands, BochumDahlhausen,showingfour
Belgium,Luxembourg,WestGermany,Switzerland,SwedenandDenmark.[14] differentUIC590pacontainers

Theuseofstandardizedsteelshippingcontainersbeganduringthelate1940sandearly1950s,
whencommercialshippingoperatorsandtheUSmilitarystarteddevelopingsuchunits.[15]In
1948theU.S.ArmyTransportationCorpsdevelopedthe"Transporter",arigid,corrugatedsteel
container,abletocarry9,000pounds(4,100kg).Itwas8ft6in(2.59m)long,6ft3in(1.91m)
wide,and6ft10in(2.08m)high,withdoubledoorsononeend,wasmountedonskids,andhad
liftingringsonthetopfourcorners.[16]AfterprovingsuccessfulinKorea,theTransporterwas
developedintotheContainerExpress(CONEX)boxsysteminlate1952.Basedonthe
Transporter,thesizeandcapacityoftheConexwereaboutthesame,[nb3]butthesystemwas
mademodular,bytheadditionofasmaller,halfsizeunitof6ft3in(1.91m)long,4ft3in
(1.30m)wideand6ft1012in(2.10m)high.[19][20][nb4]CONEXescouldbestackedthreehigh,
In1975,manycontainersstill
andprotectedtheircontentsfromtheelements.[17]By1965theUSmilitaryusedsome100,000 featuredrivetedaluminumsheetand
Conexboxes,andmorethan200,000in1967.[20][23]makingthisthefirstworldwideapplication postwallconstruction,insteadof
ofintermodalcontainers.[17] welded,corrugatedsteel. [9]

From1949onwards,engineerKeithTantlingerrepeatedlycontributedtothedevelopmentof
containers,aswellastheirhandlingandtransportationequipment.In1949,whileatBrownTrailersInc.ofSpokane,hemodifiedthe
designoftheirstressedskinaluminum30foottrailer,tofulfilanorderoftwohundred30by8by8.5feet(9.14m2.44m2.59m)
containersthatcouldbestackedtwohigh,forAlaskabasedOceanVanLines.Steelcastingsonthetopcornersprovidedliftingand
securingpoints.[24]

In1955truckingmagnateMalcomMcLeanboughtPanAtlanticSteamshipCompany,toformacontainershippingenterprise,later
knownasSeaLand.ThefirstcontainersweresuppliedbyBrown,whereMcLeanmetKeithTantlinger,andhiredhimasvicepresident
ofengineeringandresearch.[25]UnderthesupervisionofTantlinger,anew35ft(10.67m)x8ft(2.44m)x8ft6in(2.59m)SeaLand
containerwasdeveloped,thelengthdeterminedbythemaximumlengthoftrailersthenallowedonPennsylvanianhighways.Each
containerhadaframewitheightcornercastingsthatcouldwithstandstackingloads.[26]Tantlingeralsodesignedautomaticspreadersfor
handlingthecontainers,aswellasthetwistlockmechanismthatconnectswiththecornercastings.

TwoyearsafterMcLean'sfirstcontainership,theIdealXstartedcontainershippingontheU.S.EastCoast,[27]MatsonNavigation
followedsuitbetweenCaliforniaandHawaii.JustlikePanAtlantic'scontainers,Matson'swere8ft(2.44m)wideand8ft6in(2.59m)
high,butduetoCalifornia'sdifferenttrafficcode,Matsonchosetomaketheirs24ft(7.32m)long.[28]In1968,McLeanbegancontainer
servicetoSouthVietnamfortheUSmilitarywithgreatsuccess.

ISOstandardsforcontainerswerepublishedbetween1968and1970bytheInternationalMaritimeOrganization.Thesestandardsallow
formoreconsistentloading,transporting,andunloadingofgoodsinportsthroughouttheworld,thussavingtimeandresources.[29]

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TheInternationalConventionforSafeContainersisa1972regulationbytheIntergovernmental
MaritimeConsultativeOrganizationonthesafehandlingandtransportofcontainers.Itdecrees
thateverycontainertravellinginternationallybefittedwithaCSCSafetyapprovalPlate.[30][31]
Thisholdsessentialinformationaboutthecontainer,includingage,registrationnumber,
dimensionsandweights,aswellasitsstrengthandmaximumstackingcapability.

Longshoremenandrelatedunionsaroundtheworldstruggledwiththisrevolutioninshipping
goods.[32]Forexample,by1971aclauseintheInternationalLongshoremen'sAssociation(ILA)
contractstipulatedthattheworkof"stuffing"(filling)or"stripping"(emptying)acontainerwithin Everyinternationalshipping
50milesofaportmustbedonebyILAworkers,orifnotdonebyILA,thattheshipperneededto containermusthavea"CSCPlate"
payroyaltiesandpenaltiestotheILA.UnionsfortruckersandconsolidatorsarguedthattheILA
ruleswerenotvalidworkpreservationclauses,becausetheworkofstuffingandstripping
containersawayfromthepierhadnottraditionallybeendonebyILAmembers.[32]In1980theSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesheard
thiscaseandruledagainsttheILA.[33]

Description
Ninetypercentoftheglobalcontainerfleetconsistsof"dryfreight"or"generalpurpose"
containersbothofstandardandspecialsizes.[2][3]Andalthoughlengthsofcontainersvaryfrom
8to56feet(2.4to17.1m),accordingtotwo2012containercensusreports[nb5]about80%ofthe
world'scontainersareeithertwentyorfortyfootstandardlengthboxesofthedryfreightdesign.[4]
Thesetypicalcontainersarerectangular,closedboxmodels,withdoorsfittedatoneend,and
madeofcorrugatedweatheringsteel(commonlyknownasCorTen)[nb6]withaplywoodfloor.[34]
Althoughcorrugatingthesheetmetalusedforthesidesandroofcontributessignificantlytothe
container'srigidityandstackingstrength,justlikeincorrugatedironorincardboardboxes,the
corrugatedsidescauseaerodynamicdrag,andupto10%fueleconomylossinroadorrail
transport,comparedtosmoothsidedvans.[35] Fortyfoot(12.2m)containersmake
up70%oftheworld'scontainer
Standardcontainersare8foot(2.44m)wideby8ft6in(2.59m)high,[nb7]althoughthetaller volume,whichismeasuredin
"HighCube"or"hicube"unitsmeasuring9feet6inches(2.90m)havebecomeverycommonin TEUs[4]
recentyears.Bytheendof2013,highcube40ftcontainersrepresentedalmost50%ofthe
world'smaritimecontainerfleet,accordingtoDrewry'sContainerCensusreport.[37]

About90%oftheworld'scontainersareeithernominal20foot(6.1m)or40foot(12.2m)
long,[4][38]althoughtheUnitedStatesandCanadaalsouselongerunitsof45ft(13.7m),48ft
(14.6m)and53ft(16.15m).ISOcontainershavecastingswithopeningsfortwistlockfasteners
ateachoftheeightcorners,toallowgrippingtheboxfromabove,below,ortheside,andtheycan
bestackeduptotenunitshigh.[39][nb8]Regionalintermodalcontainers,suchasEuropeanand
U.S.domesticunitshowever,aremainlytransportedbyroadandrail,andcanfrequentlyonlybe
stackeduptothreeladenunitshigh.[39]Althoughthetwoendsarequiterigid,containersflex
somewhatduringtransport.[43] Thestandardcastingsontheeight
cornersofeachcontainer.The
Containercapacityisoftenexpressedintwentyfootequivalentunits(TEU,orsometimesteu).A twistlockproperisdonethrougha
twentyfootequivalentunitisameasureofcontainerizedcargocapacityequaltoonestandard20 largerovalholeonthetoporbottom.
foot(6.1m)longcontainer.Thisisanapproximatemeasure,whereintheheightoftheboxisnot
considered.Forexample,the9ft6in(2.9m)tallhighcube,aswellas4foot3inch(1.3m)halfheight20foot(6.1m)containersare
equallycountedasoneTEU.Similarly,extralong45ft(13.72m)containersarecommonlydesignatedastwoTEU,nodifferentthan
standard40feet(12.19m)longunits.TwoTEUareequivalenttoonefortyfootequivalentunit(FEU).[44][45]

In2014theglobalcontainerfleetgrewtoavolumeof36.6millionTEU,basedonDrewryShippingConsultants'Container
Census.[46][nb9]Moreover,in2014forthefirsttimeinhistory40footHighcubecontainersaccountedforthemajorityofboxesin
service,measuredinTEU.[46]

Manufacturingpricesforregular,dryfreightcontainersaretypicallyintherangeof$1750$2000U.S.perCEU(containerequivalent
unit),[47]andabout90%oftheworld'scontainersaremadeinChina.[38]Theaverageageoftheglobalcontainerfleetwasalittleover5
yearsfromend1994toend2009,meaningcontainersremaininshippinguseforwellover10years.[6]

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Bottomstructurefeatures

Fortyfootorlongercontainerstypicallyhaveagoosenecktunnel,anindentationinthefloorstructure,thatmesheswiththegooseneckondedicated
containersemitrailers.Thegoosenecktunnelisclearlyvisibleintheundersideofatoppledovercontainer(firstpicture),aswellasinacontainer's
interior,whereittakesthespaceotherwisecoveredbywoodflooring.Gooseneckcontainertrailershowingtwistlockcouplingsforfortyfootboxesatits
fourcorners.Twentyfootcontainersontheotherhand,frequentlyhaveforkliftpockets,accessiblefromthesides(lastpicture). [nb10]

Types
Otherthanthestandard,generalpurposecontainer,manyvariationsexistforusewithdifferent
cargoes.Themostprominentofthesearerefrigeratedcontainers(a.k.a.reefers)forperishable
goods,thatmakeupsixpercentoftheworld'sshippingboxes.[3][38]Andtanksinaframe,forbulk
liquids,accountforanother0.75%oftheglobalcontainerfleet.[3]

Althoughthesevariationsarenotofthestandardtype,theymostlyareISOstandardcontainers
infacttheISO6346standardclassifiesabroadspectrumofcontainertypesingreatdetail.Aside
fromdifferentsizeoptions,themostimportantcontainertypesare:[50][nb11]

Generalpurposedryvans,forboxes,cartons,cases,sacks,bales,pallets,drums,etc., FortyfootHighcubeactively
Specialinteriorlayoutsareknown,suchas: refrigeratedcontainerrefrigerating
rollingfloorcontainers,fordifficulttohandlecargo equipmentvisibleonthefrontend.
garmentainers,forshippinggarmentsonhangers(GOH)[52][53]
Ventilatedcontainers.Essentiallydryvans,buteitherpassivelyoractivelyventilated.For
instancefororganicproductsrequiringventilation
Temperaturecontrolledeitherinsulated,refrigerated,and/orheatedcontainers,for
perishablegoods
Tankcontainers,forliquidsorgases.Frequentlythesearedangerousgoods,andinthecase
ofgasesoneshippingunitmaycontainmultiplegasbottles
Bulkcontainers(sometimesbulktainers),eitherclosedmodelswithrooflids,orhardorsoft
opentopunitsfortoploading,forinstanceforbulkminerals.Containerizedcoalcarriers Aspinecarwitha20fttank
and"binliners"(containersdesignedfortheefficientroadandrailtransportationofrubbish containerandanopentop20ft
fromcitiestorecyclinganddumpsites)areusedinEurope. containerwithcanvascover
Opentopandopensidecontainers,forinstanceforeasyloadingofheavymachineryor
oversizepallets.Opensidesarealsousedforventilatinghardyperishableslikeapplesor
potatoes.
Platformbasedcontainerssuchas:
flatrackandbolstercontainers,forbarrels,drums,crates,andanyheavyorbulky
outofgaugecargo,likemachinery,semifinishedgoodsorprocessedtimber.Empty
flatrackscaneitherbestackedorshippedsidewaysinanotherISOcontainer
collapsiblecontainers,rangingfromflushfoldingflatrackstofullyclosedISOand
CSCcertifiedunitswithroofandwallswhenerected.[54]

ContainersforOffshoreusehaveafewdifferentfeatures,likepadeyes,andmustmeetadditional
strengthanddesignrequirements,standardsandcertification,suchastheDNV2.71byDet
Aflatrackcontainerloadedwitha
NorskeVeritasandtheEuropeanstandardEN12079:OffshoreContainersandAssociatedLifting
smallvesselloadedbyareach
Sets.[55] stacker.

Amultitudeofequipment,suchasgenerators,hasbeeninstalledincontainersofdifferenttypesto
simplifylogisticsseecontainerizedequipmentformoredetails.

Swapbodyunitsusuallyhavethesamebottomcornerfixturesasintermodalcontainers,andoftenhavefoldinglegsundertheirframeso
thattheycanbemovedbetweentruckswithoutusingacrane.Howevertheyfrequentlydon'thavetheuppercornerfittingsofISO
containers,andarenotstackable,norcantheybeliftedandhandledbytheusualequipmentlikereachstackersorstraddlecarriers.They
aregenerallymoreexpensivetoprocure.[56]

Specifications
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Basicdimensionsandpermissiblegrossweightsofintermodalcontainersarelargelydetermined
bytwoISOstandards:[nb12]

ISO668:2013Series1freightcontainersClassification,dimensionsandratings
ISO14961:2013Series1freightcontainersSpecificationandtestingPart1:General
cargocontainersforgeneralpurposes

Weightsanddimensionsofthemostcommonstandardizedtypesofcontainersaregiven
below.[nb13]Valuesvaryslightlyfrommanufacturertomanufacturer,butmuststaywithinthe
tolerancesdictatedbythestandards.Emptyweight(tareweight)isnotdeterminedbythe
standards,butbythecontainer'sconstruction,andisthereforeindicative,butnecessaryto
calculateanetloadfigure,bysubtractingitfromthemaximumpermittedgrossweight.
Two45foot'Highcube'containers
onaRollon/rolloff(RoRo)tractor.
The9ft6heightoftheboxesis
identifiedbydiagonalyellowand
blackmarkingsonthetopcornersof
thecontainer

20container 40container 40highcubecontainer 45highcubecontainer

imperial metric imperial metric imperial metric imperial metric
length 1910.5 6.058m 400 12.192m 400 12.192m 450 13.716m
external
width 80 2.438m 80 2.438m 80 2.438m 80 2.438m
dimensions
height 86 2.591m 86 2.591m 96 2.896m 96 2.896m
length 193 5.867m 3954564 12.032m 394 12.000m 444 13.556m
interior
width 781932 2.352m 781932 2.352m 77 2.311m 781932 2.352m
dimensions
height 795764 2.385m 795764 2.385m 89 2.650m 891516 2.698m
width 78 2.343m 78 2.343m 76" 2.280m 78 2.343m
dooraperture
height 75 2.280m 75 2.280m 85 2.560m 854964 2.585m
internalvolume 1,169ft 33.1m 2,385ft 67.5m 2,660ft 75.3m 3,040ft 86.1m
maximum
66,139lb 30,400kg 66,139lb 30,400kg 68,008lb 30,848kg 66,139lb 30,400kg
grossweight
emptyweight 4,850lb 2,200kg 8,380lb 3,800kg 8,598lb 3,900kg 10,580lb 4,800kg
netload 61,289lb 28,200kg 57,759lb 26,200kg 58,598lb 26,580kg 55,559lb 25,600kg

Stackingcontainers
Atstackingloadbearinglocations,40footcontainersarethestandardunitlength,and45ft,48ft,
and53ftallstackatthe40ftcouplingwidth.Otherunitscanbestackedontopof20ftunitsonly
iftherearetwoinarow(40ftcouplingwidth)but20ftunitscannotbestackedontopof40ft
units,oranyotherlargercontainer.

Thecouplingholesrequireadoublemaletwistlocktosecurelymatestackedcontainerstogether.

Nonstandardanduncommonsizes Loadbearingofcontainerstackingis
atthe40ftcoupling

Palletwidecontainers

PalletWidecontainershaveabout4inches(10.2cm)moreinternalfloorwidththanstandardcontainerstoaccommodatemoreEuro
pallets,commoninEurope.[58]Thesecontainerstypicallyhaveaninternalwidthof2.44m(9618in),tobeabletoloadeithertwoorthree
ofthe1.2m(4714in)longby0.8m(3112in)widepalletssidebyside.ManyseashippingprovidersinEuropeallowtheseasoverhangs
onstandardcontainersaresufficientandtheyfitintheusualinterlockspaces(orwiththesamefloorpanelthesideribsofpalletwide
containersareembossedtotheoutsideinsteadofbeingmoldedtotheinside).[59]

The45ft(13.72m)palletwidehighcubecontainerhasgainedparticularlywideacceptance,asthesecontainerscanreplacethe13.6m
(44ft738in)swapbodiesthatarecommonfortrucktransportinEurope.TheEUhasstartedastandardizationforpalletwide
containerizationintheEuropeanIntermodalLoadingUnit(EILU)initiative.[60]

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AustralianRACEcontainersarealsoslightlywidertooptimisethemfortheuseofAustralia
StandardPallets.

48footcontainers

The48foot(14.63m)shippingcontainerisaHighCubecontainerinthatitis9ft6in(2.90m)
tallontheexterior.Itis8ft6in(2.59m)widewhichmakesit6inches(15cm)widerthanISO
standardcontainers.[61]ThissizewasintroducedbycontainershippingcompanyAPLin1986,
andisuseddomesticallyinNorthAmericaonroadandrail,[62]andmaybetransportedondeckby
ship.Thissizebeing8feet(2.44m)longerand6inches(15cm)widerhas29%morevolume
capacitythanthestandard40ftHighCube,[63]yetthecosttomoveitbytruckorrailarealmost
thesame.
53'48'45'40'and(2x)20'containers
53footcontainers stacked

Generalpurpose53foot(16.15m)containerswereintroducedintheUnitedStatesin1989,and
areusedbothintheU.S.A.andCanada,mainlyfordomesticroadandrailtransport.[62]Theyare
consideredHighcubes,basedontheir9ft6in(2.90m)ISOstandardheight.Theirwidthof8ft
6in(2.59m)howevermakesthem6inches(15cm)widerthanISOstandardcontainers.[61]These
largeboxeshave60%morecapacitythanstandardheight40foot(12.19m)containers,enabling
shipperstoconsolidatemorecargointofewercontainers.[63][64][65]

Generally,NorthAmerican53footcontainerswerenotconstructedstrongenoughtoendurethe
rigorsofoceantransport,butin2007containercarrierAPLintroducedthefirst53footocean Fortyfivefootcontainerscanbeseen
capablecontainers.Allnew,reinforced53footboxeswerebuiltspecificallyforinternational stickingout2feet,aspartofthe
tradeanddesignedtowithstandoceanvoyagesonitsSouthChinatoLosAngelesservice.[62]In fortyfootcontainerstacksattheback
2013however,APLstoppedofferingvesselspacefor53footcontainersonitstransPacific ofthisship.
ships.[66]Nevertheless,In2015bothCrowleyandTOTEMaritimeeachannouncedthe
constructionoftheirrespectivesecondcombinedcontainerandrollon/rolloffshipsforPuerto
Ricotrade,withthespecificdesigntomaximizecubiccargocapacitybycarrying53foot,102
inch(2,591mm)widecontainers.[67][68]WithinCanada,Oceanexoffers53footcontainerocean
servicetoandfromtheislandofNewfoundland.[69]Fiftythreefootcontainersarealsobeingused
onsomeAsiaPacificinternationalshippingroutes.[57]

Swift53ftIntermodalcontainer

60footcontainers

InMay2017,CanadianTireandCanadianPacificRailwayannounceddeploymentofthefirst60footintermodalcontainersinNorth
America.ThecontainersallowCanadianTiretoincreasethevolumeofgoodsshippedpercontainerby13%.[70]

Smallcontainers

TheUnitedStatesmilitarycontinuestousesmallcontainers,stronglyreminiscentoftheirTransporterandConexboxesofthe1950sand
1960s.TheseeithercomplywithISOstandarddimensions,orareadirectderivativethereof.CurrentterminologyoftheUnitedStates
armedforcescallsthesesmallcontainersBicon,TriconandQuadcon,whichcorrespondwithISO668standardsizes1D,1Eand1F
respectively.Thiscomesdowntocontainersof8ft(2.44m)height,andwithafootprintsizeeitheronehalf(Bicon),onethird(Tricon)or

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onequarter(Quadcon)thesizeofastandard20foot,oneTEUcontainer.[71][72][73]
Atanominallengthof10feet(3.0m),twoBiconscoupledtogetherlengthwisematchone20footISOcontainer,buttheirheightis6
inches(15cm)shyofthemorecommonlyavailable10footISOcontainersofsocalledstandardheight,whichare8ft6in(2.59m)tall.
TriconsandQuadconshoweverhavetobecoupledtransverselyeitherthreeorfourinarowtobestackablewithtwentyfoot
containers.[74]Theirlengthof8ft(2.44m)correspondstothewidthofastandard20footcontainer,whichiswhythereareforklift
pocketsattheirends,aswellasinthesidesoftheseboxes,andthedoorsonlyhaveonelockingbareach.Thesmallestofthese,the
Quadcon,existsintwoheights:96in(2.44m)or82in(2.08m).[75]OnlythefirstconformstoISO668standarddimensions(size1F).

U.S.NavytractormovesQuadcon U.S.NavyloadTriconcontainersinto U.S.NavymovingaBiconbox.Note

containersatKinRedPortin aLockheedC5Galaxytransport theforkliftpocketsonlyinthesides,
Okinawa(2005) aircraft(2006) notattheends.

Triconintruckbedforleafcollection
orwoodchippercatcher.

Reportingmark
EachcontainerisallocatedastandardizedISO6346reportingmark(ownershipcode),fourletters
longendingineitherU,JorZ,followedbysixdigitsandacheckdigit.[76]Theownershipcode
forintermodalcontainersisissuedbytheBureauInternationaldesContainers(International
containerbureau,abbr.B.I.C.)inFrance,hencethenameBICCodefortheintermodalcontainer
reportingmark.SofarthereexistonlyfourletterBICCodesendingin"U".

TheplacementandregistrationofBICCodesisstandardizedbythecommissionsTC104and
TC122intheJTC1oftheISOwhicharedominatedbyshippingcompanies.Shippingcontainers
arelabelledwithaseriesofidentificationcodesthatincludesthemanufacturercode,the
ownershipcode,usageclassificationcode,UNplacardforhazardousgoodsandreferencecodes
foradditionaltransportcontrolandsecurity.

FollowingtheextendedusageofpalletwidecontainersinEuropetheEUhadstartedthe
IntermodalLoadingUnit(ILU)initiative.Thisshowedadvantagesforintermodaltransportof
containersandswapbodies.ThisledtotheintroductionofILUCodesdefinedbythestandard
EN13044whichhasthesameformatastheearlierBICCodes.TheInternationalContainer
OfficeBICagreedtoonlyissueownershipcodesendingwithU,JorZ.Thenewallocationoffice
oftheUIRR(InternationalUnionofCombinedRoadRailTransportCompanies)agreedtoonly
issueownershipreportingmarksforswapbodiesendingwithA,B,C,DorKcompanieshaving Variousmarkingsontherearendofa
aBICCodeendingwithUcanallocateanILUCodeendingwithKhavingthesamepreceding container
letters.SinceJuly2011thenewILUcodescanberegistered,beginningwithJuly2014all
intermodalISOcontainersandintermodalswapbodiesmusthaveanownershipcodeandbyJuly
2019allofthemmustbearastandardconformingplacard.[77]

Handling

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Containersaretransferredbetweenrail,truck,andshipbycontainercranesatcontainerterminals.
Forklifts,reachstackers,straddlecarriers,andcranesmaybeusedtoloadandunloadtrucksor
trainsoutsideofcontainerterminals.Swapbodys,sidelifters,tiltdecktrucks,andhooktrucks
allowtransfertoandfromtruckswithnoextraequipment.

ISOstandardcontainerscanbehandledandliftedinavarietyofwaysbytheircornerfixtures,but
thestructureandstrengthof45foot(typeE)containerslimitstheirtoleranceofsidelifting,nor
cantheybeforklifted,basedonISO3874(1997).[78]

Transport Acargocontainerbeingtransferred
fromarailcartoaflatbedtruck,
Containerscanbetransportedbycontainership,truckandfreighttrainsaspartofasinglejourney liftedbyareachstacker
withoutunpacking.Unitscanbesecuredintransitusing"twistlock"pointslocatedateachcorner
ofthecontainer.EverycontainerhasauniqueBICcodepaintedontheoutsideforidentification
andtracking,andiscapableofcarryingupto2025metrictons.Costsfortransportarecalculatedintwentyfootequivalentunits(TEU).

Rail

Whencarriedbyrail,containersmaybecarriedonflatcarsorwellcars.Thelatterarespecially
designedforcontainertransport,andcanaccommodatedoublestackedcontainers.However,the
loadinggaugeofarailsystemmayrestrictthemodesandtypesofcontainershipment.The
smallerloadinggaugesoftenfoundinEuropeanrailroadswillonlyaccommodatesinglestacked
containers.Insomecountries,suchastheUnitedKingdom,therearesectionsoftherailnetwork
throughwhichhighcubecontainerscannotpass,orcanpassthroughonlyonwellcars.Onthe
otherhand,IndianRailwaysrunsdoublestackedcontainersonflatcarsunder25kVoverhead
electricalwires.Thewiresmustbeatleast7.45metres(24ft5in)abovethetrack,butIRisable
todosobecauseofitslargeloadinggaugeandtheextrastabilityprovidedbyits1,676mm
(5ft6in)track.ChinaRailwayalsorunsdoublestackedcontainersunderoverheadwires,but
mustusewellcarstodoso,sincethewiresareonly6.6metres(21ft8in)abovethetrackand Aportionofa"doublestack"
containertrainoperatedbyUnion
1,435mm(4ft812in)(standardgauge)doesnotprovideadequatestabilitytorundoublestacked PacificRailroad,thecontainersare
containersonflatcars.[79] ownedbyPacerStacktrain,thewell
carsbyDTTX.
Ship

About90%ofnonbulkcargoworldwideistransportedbycontainer,andthelargestcontainershipscancarryover19,000TEU.Between
2011and2013,anaverageof2,683containerswerereportedlostatsea.[80]Otherestimatesgoupto10,000ofthese10%areexpectedto
containchemicalstoxictomarinelife.[81]

Plane

Containerscanalsobetransportedinplanes,asseenwithinintermodalfreighttransport.However,transportingcontainersinthiswayis
typicallyavoidedduetothecostofdoingsuchandthelackofavailabilityofplaneswhichcanaccommodatesuchawkwardlysized
cargo.

Securingandsecurity
Securingcontainersandcontents

Therearemanyestablishedmethodsandmaterialsforstabilizingandsecuringintermodalcontainersloadedonships,aswellasthe
internalcargoinsidetheboxes.Conventionalrestraintmethodsandmaterialssuchassteelstrappingandwoodblockingandbracinghave
beenaroundfordecadesandarestillwidelyused.Polyesterstrappingandlashing,andsyntheticwebbingsarealsocommontoday.
Dunnagebags(alsoknownas"airbags")areusedtokeepunitloadsinplace.

Flexibagscanalsobedirectlyloaded,stackedinfoodgradecontainers.Indeed,theirstandardshapefillstheentiregroundsurfaceofa
20'ISOcontainer.

Containerscanbe Dockworkerssecuring PolyesterLashing PolyesterStrappingand

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5/17/2017 IntermodalcontainerWikipedia

horizontallyconnected containersonashipwith Application DunnageBagapplication

withlashingbridge steellashingbarsand
fittings turnbuckles

Applicationincontainer

Security

Intermodalcontainerswhichcontainvaluablescanbethetargetofbreakinsandburglarywhenleftunattended.Inthesecases,the
containermaybefittedwithasecuritysystemconsistingofamotiondetectorandpanelinsidethecontainer.Thepanelcantriggera
siren,strobe,orlighttodeterintruders,orusearadiosignaltoalertsecurityguards.

Itemsthatwerepackedincorrectlymaycomelooseandcauseafalseresponsefromaninsidemotiondetector.Ifcriminalsbreakinby
cuttingthroughawallofthecontainer,theobstructedmotiondetectorbecomesuseless.Tomographicmotiondetectorsworkwellin
intermodalcontainersbecausetheydonotrequirealineofsighttodetectmotion.Theentirecontaineriscoveredbyavolumetricsensing
meshthatisnotblockedbyequipmentorinventory.Tomographicmotiondetectionisnotpronetomisdetectionduetodirtbuildupasis
thecaseforbeamsandinfraredsensors.

Nonshippinguses
Containerizedequipment

Containersizedunitsarealsooftenusedformovinglargepiecesofequipmenttotemporarysites.
Specialisedcontainersareparticularlyattractivetomilitariesalreadyusingcontainerisationto
movemuchoftheirfreightaround.Shipmentofspecializedequipmentinthiswaysimplifies
logisticsandmaypreventidentificationofhighvalueequipmentbyenemies.Suchsystemsmay
includecommandandcontrolfacilities,mobileoperatingtheatres[82]orevenmissilelaunchers[83]
(suchastheRussian3M54Klubsurfacetosurfacemissile).

Completewatertreatmentsystemscanbeinstalledincontainersandshippedaroundtheworld.[84] File:HammelmannDieselunitbuilt
intocontainer
Electricgeneratorscanbepermanentlyinstalledincontainerstobeusedforportablepower.[85]

Repurposing

Containershavelongbeenusedforotherpurposes,typicallybutnotalwaysattheendof
theirvoyaginglives.USmilitaryoftenusedtheirConexcontainersasonsitestorage,or
easilytransportablehousingforcommandstaffandmedicalclinics.[86]Nearlyallofover
150,000ConexcontainersshippedtoVietnamremainedincountry,primarilyasstorage
orothermobilefacilities.[23]Permanentorsemipermanentplacementofcontainersfor
storageiscommon.Aregularfortyfootcontainerhasabout4,000kg(8,818lb)ofsteel,
whichtakes8,000kWh(28,800MJ)ofenergytomeltdown.Repurposingusedshipping
containersisincreasinglyapracticalsolutiontobothsocialandecologicalproblems.

Shippingcontainerarchitectureemploysusedshippingcontainersasthemainframingof
modularhomedesigns,wherethesteelmaybeanintegratedpartofthedesign,orbe
camouflagedintoatraditionallookinghome.Theyhavealsobeenusedtomake
ContainerCityinCholula,Mexicousesfifty
temporaryshops,cafes,andcomputerdatacenters,e.g.,theSunModularDatacenter.
oldseacontainersfor4,500m2(48,000sqft)
Intermodalcontainersarenotstrongenoughforconversiontoundergroundbunkers ofworkshops,restaurants,galleries,etc.,as
withoutadditionalbracing,asthewallscannotsustainmuchlateralpressureandwill wellassomehomes.
collapse.Also,thewoodenfloorofmanyusedcontainerscouldcontainsomefumigation
residues,renderingthemunsuitableasconfinedspaces,suchasforprisoncellsorbunkers.Cleaningorreplacingthewoodfloorcan
maketheseusedcontainershabitable,withproperattentiontosuchessentialissuesasventilationandinsulation.

Seealso
BBCBox Containerization GWRContainer
Containership CustomsConventiononContainers Intermediatebulkcontainer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_container 9/14
5/17/2017 IntermodalcontainerWikipedia
LogisticsVehicleSystem SECU Re:STARTMall
MILSTD129 Unitload BoxparkMall
NewYorkCentralcontainer Containerterminaldesignprocess
RACE Largestdomestic53footcontainer
Rollercontainer companies(fleetsize)

Notes
1.Basedonsizealone,atleast5%ofintermodalcontainersdonotcomplywithISOstandards,andshouldtechnicallynotbecalledISOcontainers.[2]
2.Upfromanestimated18.6millionin2011[6]
3.(8'6"length,6'3"widthand6'10"height,and9000lbscapacity),[17][18]
4.Somesourcesalsomentiona12footversion.[21][22]
5.TheContainerisationInternationalMarketAnalysisReport:WorldContainerCensus2012,andtheDrewryMaritimeResearchreport:Container
Census2012
6.Originally"CORTEN",atrademarkofU.S.SteelCorporation
7.Using"standard"tomean'standardheight',asintendedwithintheISO668standard,[36]asopposedtomeaningdryvanorgeneralpurpose
container.[4]
8.AlthoughISOstandard1496of1990onlyrequiredninehighstacking,andonlyofcontainersratedat24,000kg,[40]currentUltraLargeContainer
VesselsofthePostNewPanamaxandMaerskTripleEclassarestackingthemtenorelevenhigh.[41][42]
9.Upfromanestimated34.5millionTEUin2013[3]
10.Infrequentlytherearetwosets,[48]anoutersetwhichmaybeusedforloadedhandling,andaninnersetonlyforunloadedhandling,bysmaller
forklifts.[49]
11.FrequentlyusedabbreviationsforthemostcommonISO6346typesare:GP(GeneralPurpose),HC/HQ(HighCube),OT(OpenTop),RF
(Refrigerated),RK(Rack)andTK(Tank).[51]
12.Theterm"Series1"inthestandardsnamesexpressestheinterrelatednatureofthestandards,leavingroomforanothersuchseriesinthefuture.In
fact,in2012MichelHennemand,presidentoftheInternationalContainerBureau(BIC),andchairofISOTechnicalcommittee104,subcommittee
SC1:Generalpurposecontainers,askedwhetherthetimehascometodevelopanewseriesofstandardsoncontainers(Series2),toaccommodate
newsizeslikeAmerican53footandEuropeanPalletwidecontainers.Anewserieswhich,giventhesignificantinvestmentsrequiredbythe
industry,wouldreplacethecurrentseriesofstandards(series1)inthenext20or25years.[57]
13.FortyfivefootcontainerswerenotstandardizedbytheISOuntilthe2005AmendmentNo.2totheISO668:1995standard.[36]

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InternationalStandards
ASTMD572800StandardPracticesforSecurementofCargoinIntermodalandUnimodalSurface
Transport
ISO668:2013Series1freightcontainersClassification,dimensionsandratings
ISO830:1999FreightcontainersVocabulary
ISO1161:1984Series1freightcontainersCornerfittingsSpecification
ISO1496Series1freightcontainersSpecificationandtesting
ISO14961:2013Part1:Generalcargocontainersforgeneralpurposes
ISO14962:2008Part2:Thermalcontainers
ISO14963:1995Part3:Tankcontainersforliquids,gases,andpressurizeddrybulk
ISO14964:1991Part4:Nonpressurizedcontainerfordrybulk
ISOcontainersealondoorlock
ISO14965:1991Part5:Platformandplatformbasedcontainers
ISO2308:1972Hooksforliftingfreightcontainersofupto30tonnescapacityBasicrequirements
ISO3874:1997Series1freightcontainersHandlingandsecuring
ISO6346:1995FreightcontainersCoding,identificationandmarking
ISO9897:1997FreightcontainersContainerequipmentdataexchange(CEDEX)Generalcommunicationcodes
ISO/TS10891:2009FreightcontainersRadiofrequencyidentification(RFID)Licenceplatetag
ISO14829:2002FreightcontainersStraddlecarriersforfreightcontainerhandlingCalculationofstability
ISO17363:2007SupplychainapplicationsofRFIDFreightcontainers
ISO/PAS17712:2006FreightcontainersMechanicalseals
ISO181852:2007FreightcontainersElectronicseals

Furtherreading
George,Rose.NinetyPercentofEverything:InsideShipping,theInvisibleIndustryThatPutsClothesonYourBack,GasinYour
Car,andFoodonYourPlate(2013),describestypicalseavoyageexcerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/NinetyPercent
EverythingShippingInvisible/dp/0805092633/)
InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO),Freightcontainers,Volume34ofISOstandardshandbook,International
OrganizationforStandardization,4thedition,2006.ISBN9267104268
Levinson,Marc.TheBox:HowtheShippingContainerMadetheWorldSmallerandtheWorldEconomyBigger,Princeton,N.J.:
PrincetonUniversityPress,2006.ISBN0691123241excerptandtextsearch(https://books.google.com/books?id=WDN5omS5L
O0C&printsec=frontcover)
Donovan,Arthur&Bonney,Joseph"TheBoxThatChangedTheWorld",EastWindsor,NewJersey,CommonwealthBusiness
Media,2006ISBN9781891131950

Externallinks
InternationalConventionforSafeContainers(Geneva,2December1972)(http://www.admi
WikimediaCommonshas
raltylawguide.com/conven/containers1972.html) mediarelatedtoShipping
TrackandtracebyShippingContainers(http://wheremy.com/containertracking/) containers.
TrackandtraceContainerCargos(http://www.trackingcargo.net/)
Freightcontainertypesandsizessummary(http://shippingcontainerinfo.com/sizetypeinfo/widespreadcontainersizetype)
ContainerHandbook(http://www.containerhandbuch.de/chb_e/index.html)byGDV,thecollectiveofGermaninsurance
companies
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5/17/2017 IntermodalcontainerWikipedia

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