Summary of ANSI S12.

60-2002, "Acoustical Performance

Criteria, Design Requirements and Guidelines for Schools"

This summary is not meant to take the place of the full standard. The complete
standard is available online from the Acoustical Society of America:asastore.aip.org.
The text in italics is supplemental information provided by Acoustics.com and is not a
part of the actual standard.

Background Noise Levels

Background noise is comprised of noise from building systems, exterior sound

transmission, and sound transmission from adjacent spaces. Excessive background
noise can seriously degrade the ability to communicate.

For core learning spaces with internal volumes of 20,000 cubic feet or less,
one-hour steady-state background noise levels should not exceed 35 dBA.

For core learning spaces with internal volumes of 20,000 cubic feet or more,
one-hour steady-state background noise levels should not exceed 40 dBA.

If the noisiest one-hour period during which learning activities take place is
dominated by transportation noise, the maximum noise limits are increased by
5 dB.

Controlling the background noise levels within a space involves careful consideration
of several building systems. Noise from HVAC, electrical fixtures, light fixtures, and
plumbing systems should all be considered in the noise control design. According to
this standard, it is the architect or designers responsibility to specify systems and
installation methods in order to meet the background noise levels required in the
standard. The implementation of the noise control design is the responsibility of
the contractor.

The standard goes on to list several minimum specifications for HVAC systems
including selection of grilles and diffusers, airflow velocities, and duct lining. Light
fixtures with low-noise ballasts are recommended in learning spaces. Several
suggestions are outlined to limit noise from the plumbing system including, locate
restrooms away from classrooms, do not run piping above learning spaces, use cast
iron waste water pipes when possible, and resiliently isolate all water piping from the
structure. An important issue that is mentioned in the standard is planning. One of the
best ways to reduce problems with background noise is to isolate quite areas, such as
classrooms, from noisier areas, such as mechanical equipment rooms.
Exterior sound transmission can also contribute to background noise. In order to limit
this concern, issues to consider in the design of a new school include, site location,
existing exterior noise levels at the site, and prediction of future noise levels.

The background noise levels specified in this standard are very stringent. In order to
meet the specified levels, a designer will need to consider background noise while in
the design phase. Locate noisy areas away from quieter areas. You will also need to
work closely with the mechanical engineer to specify an adequate HVAC system. A
Noise Criteria of approximately 25-35 will be required. Also discuss sound control
options with the plumbing and electrical engineers.

Reverberation Time

Although some reverberation within a space can aide in speech distribution, longer
reverberation times will cause a build-up of noise and degrade speech intelligibility.

The maximum reverberation time for core learning spaces with internal
volumes of greater than 10,000 cubic feet should not exceed 0.6 seconds.

For core learning spaces with internal volumes of more than 10,000 but less
than 20,000 cubic feet the maximum reverberation time is 0.7 seconds.

Reverberation time for spaces with more than 20,000 cubic feet of internal
volume is not specified, however, guidelines are given in Annex C of the
standard.

The reverberation time within an existing space can be tested with special equipment.
Calculations can be done in order to determine what the reverberation time will be in
a proposed new space. An explanation of the formulas and how they work can be
found in Annex C of the standard. Variables that affect the reverberation time include
the volume of the space and the amount of sound absorption within the room. In order
to determine the amount of sound absorption, a material's absorption coefficient
multiplied by the surface area for that material must be calculated. Once the amount
of absorption for each material has been calculated, the sum of these will give the total
amount of sound absorption within the room. Laboratory-certified sound absorption
coefficients should be available from the manufacturer of the material.

It is the designer or architect's responsibility to ensure that a space meets the required
reverberation times by providing the appropriate amount of absorptive materials.
In order to achieve the required reverberation time, acoustical treatments will be
necessary on either the walls or the ceiling, or most likely both. There are several
options of acoustical treatments available. If reverberation time is considered in the
design phase, the acoustical treatments can be a part of the design rather than an
unwanted addition. In order to determine the amount of absorptive material
necessary, the best locations for the materials, and different material options, contact
an acoustical consultant. An acoustical consultant can assist you with all of the
necessary calculations and limit your liability.

Sound Transmission Class

The amount of airborne sound blocked from transmitting through a partition is

measured in a Sound Transmission Class (STC) rating. A higher STC rating will
Sound transmission through walls will add to the background noise level in the space,
degrading the ability to hear and understand speech.

Single or composite walls, floor-ceiling and roof-ceiling assemblies should provide

specific sound transmission class (STC) ratings when separating a core learning space
from an adjacent space:

STC-45 if the adjacent space is a corridor, staircase, office or conference room,

STC-50 if the adjacent space is another core learning space, speech clinic,
health care room or outdoors,

STC-53 if the adjacent space is a restroom,

STC-60 if the adjacent space is a music room, mechanical equipment room,

cafeteria, gymnasium or indoor swimming pool.

Classroom doors should be rated as STC-30 or more, and music room doors
as STC-40 or more. Entry doors across a corridor should be staggered to
minimize noise transmission.

STC ratings ranging from 45-60 are outlined for assemblies separating ancillary
spaces from adjacent spaces.

(Note: Open-plan classroom designs will not meet the requirements of this
standard.)
Achieving a specific STC rating depends highly on the materials and the installation
methods used. Wall and ceiling assemblies can be specified and detailed to meet a
required STC rating. This is the architect or designer's responsibility. However,
specifying an STC level is not all that will be required. It is important to note that
sound transmission can be strongly affected by sound leakage through penetrations,
joints, and over or around the structure.

The number and location of penetrations through the wall, as well as the number and
location of electrical outlets should be considered in the design. In order to meet a
specified STC, installation methods become crucial. Placement and installation
instructions for the electrical system are given within Annex B in order to limit sound
transfer between rooms. For single stud walls, electrical boxes should not be located
within the same stud space. For staggered or Dual stud walls, boxes should be
separated by at least 24". If back-to-back electrical boxes cannot be avoided, they
should be enclosed in full gypsum board enclosures that do not contact the framing of
the other row of studs. Additionally, all joints and air gaps should be sealed air tight
with caulking or acoustical sealant.

As mentioned previously, background noise is a major concern in learning facilities.

STC ratings will help to limit the background noise levels within a space (depending
on the effect of sound transmission on the background noise level). It may be
necessary to increase a required STC rating in order to meet a specified background
noise level requirement.

Sound transmission problems can be avoided or lessened by good site selection and
good space planning.

Typical, single stud construction will not meet the required STC ratings. The walls
will most likely require staggered or dual stud construction and/or multiple layers of
drywall. (There are also specialty products that can help ensure compliance.) It is
also important to note that acoustical ceiling tiles will not prevent sound transmission
over the wall. Walls surrounding core learning spaces should extend to the deck of the
building structure in order to adequately control sound transmission.

Carefully consider the placement of electrical outlets. Do not place them back-to-
back. Again it will be important to work with your electrical engineer in order to
specify installation instructions that will limit sound transmission. Specify on your
drawings for contractors to seal all joints and penetrations with an acoustical
sealant.

Most importantly, do not locate mechanical equipment rooms, restrooms, music

rooms, gymnasiums, cafeterias, or any other noisy space adjacent to a class room or
core learning space.

Impact Insulation Class

Impact Insulation Class (IIC) is a rating for the ability of a floor-ceiling assembly to
block impact/structure borne noise from transmitting to the space below. A floor-
ceiling assembly with a low IIC rating will potentially cause distracting noise in the
room below, leading to possible annoyance and problems with communication.

IIC ratings for floor-ceiling assemblies above core learning spaces should be at
least IIC-45 and preferably IIC-50 (measured without carpeting on the floor).

In new construction, gymnasia, dance studios or other high floor impact

activities shall not be located above core learning spaces.

In existing facilities IIC-65-70 (depending on the volume of the space below)

is recommended if gymnasia, dance studios or other high floor impact activities
are located above core learning spaces.

IIC is a major concern for multi-story educational facilities. The floor-ceiling system
should be specified and constructed in order to meet the specified IIC rating. Installing
carpet on the floor above will help reduce impact sounds. It may be necessary to
isolate the finished floor from the structural floor or to isolate the ceiling from the
floor above. For any vibrating machinery located on the floor above or on the roof
structure, rubber pads or spring systems should be installed. As with all requirements
in the standard, it is the architect or designers responsibility to make the necessary
steps in specification and design, but careful construction and installation will be
necessary to ensure compliance.
 2. How is sound measured?
o 2.1 What are the units for measuring sound
o 2.2 What are the methods for measuring sound

2.1 What are the units for measuring sound

The SCENIHR opinion states:
3.3.3.Units of noise exposure
3.3.3.1. Sound pressure level and dB SPL
One parameter of the acoustic (sound) wave which is generally used to assess sound exposure to
humans is the sound pressure level expressed in Pa or Pa. Human ear audible sound pressure levels
range from 20 Pa (hearing threshold) till 20 Pa (pain threshold), resulting in the scale 1:10,000,000.
Since using such a large scale is not practical, a logarithmic scale in decibels (dB) was introduced which
is also in agreement with physiological and psychological hearing sensations.
dB of sound pressure level (dB SPL) is defined as: 20 log10 p1/p0 where p1 is actually measured sound
pressure level of a given sound, and p0 is a reference value of 20Pa, which corresponds to the
lowest hearing threshold of the young, healthy ear. In the logarithmic scale the range of human ears
audible sounds is from 0 dB SPL (hearing threshold) to 120-140 dB SPL (pain threshold) (see table 1
below).
Table 1: Typical sound pressure levels for daily life sounds
3.3.3.2. Loudness level and filter A [dB(A)]
The human ear is not equally sensitive to sounds (tones) of the same sound pressure levels but
different frequencies. This subjective or perceived magnitude of a sound by an individual is called its
loudness. The loudness of a sound is not equal with its sound pressure leveland differs for different
frequencies. In order to assess loudness of a sound the isophonic curves are explored. Isophonic curves
relate the characteristic of a given tone expressed indB SPL to its subjective loudness level expressed in
phones (see figure 1 below). As it could be seen in the figure below, the frequencies 3-4 kHz are the most
 sensitive withinsound frequency range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz that can be heard by human ear. For
frequencies lower than 3-4 kHz and higher sound frequencies, the ear becomes less sensitive.

Normal equal-loudness-level contours for pure tones

While sound pressure measurements should give a reading of the sound pressure in dB SPL, in the
context of human hearing it is more practical to provide also a value which corresponds more closely to
the hearing sensation or loudness in phones. The A, B, and C filters used currently in sound-level meters
were aimed at mimicking isoloudness curves over frequency under different conditions of sound
intensities, i.e. for sounds of low, medium, and high loudness levels, respectively (IEC 651, 1979). The A
network modifies the frequency response to follow approximately the equal loudness curve of 40 phons,
while the C network approximately follows the equal loudness curve of 100 phons. A B network is also
mentioned in some texts but it is no longer used in noise evaluations. The popularity of the A network has
grown in the course of time. In current practice, the A- weighting curve filter is used to weight sound
pressure levels as a function of frequency, approximately in accordance with the frequency response
characteristics of the human auditory system for pure tones. This means that energy at low and
high frequencies is de-emphasized in relation to energy in the mid-frequency range.
Correlation between noise effect hearing loss and sound exposure levels measured in A, B, or C
weightings would not be very different. B (or even C) weightings provide a better correspondence
between loudness and moderate (or high) acoustic levels, however A weighting differs only from B and C
as underweighting frequencies below about 500 Hz. Since the human ear is much more resistant to
noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) at and by low frequencies A weighting is more in correspondence with
NIHL risk.
It should be noted that the A-filter has been adopted so generally that sound pressure levels frequently
quoted in audiology literature simply in dB are in fact A-weighted levels. Many older general
purpose sound level meters are restricted solely to A-weighted sound pressure level measurements.
3.3.3.3. Decibel measures in audiometry
Different decibel measures are used in audiometry (evaluation of hearing sensitivity) than
insound pressure measurement. They depend on the reference value.
Pure-tone audiometric thresholds are expressed in dB HL (hearing level) and are referred to hearing
thresholds of normal hearing young individuals. The differences between dB HL anddB SPL arise from
isophonic curves. Their corresponding values are given in the table below.
Table 2: Audiometric hearing thresholds of normal ears
Similarly to dB HL, the dB nHL (normal hearing level) values are referred to hearing thresholds of normal
hearing individuals but they regard non-tonal sound stimuli (e.g. clicks).

Source & : SCENIHR, Potential health risks of exposure to noise from personal music players and mobile

phones including a music playing function (2008), Section 3.3.3.Units of noise exposure
Level 1: Summary
 Level 2: Details
Level 3: Source

2.2 What are the methods for measuring sound

The SCENIHR opinion states:
3.3.4.Methodology of noise measurement
Sounds are usually identified by their frequency spectrum, which is also relevant to human perception
because the ear analyses sounds in the cochlea by a spectral analysis.
The elemental component of a frequency spectrum is a sine wave or sinusoid with a specific frequency.
All sound waves can be described as a linear superposition of sinusoids. Each sinusoid can be
characterized by its frequency, its amplitude and the phase in relation to the zero-time mark. Sinusoids
with the same frequency and amplitude superimpose either constructively by adding up to a sinusoid with
double amplitude if the phase difference is zero and destructively by cancelling out if the phase difference
is 180 degrees (or antiphase) resulting in no sound of that characteristic frequency at a given point.
Sound originating from speech and music can similarly be described by their spectrum. In general terms
signals can be divided in signals with a tonal character and with a noisy character.
o Signals with a tonal character exhibit a spectrum made up of a basic frequencycomponent (f0)
with harmonics (components that have a frequency which is an integer multiple of the basis frequency
(n*f0) and a related phase.
o Signals with a noisy character exhibit a spectrum which is more complex than a linear
superposition of basic frequencies and their harmonics.
Sound measurements are done by determining the amplitude of the spectral components or by detecting
the sound pressure through a physical device, e.g. a microphone. The totalsound level of a signal is a
root-sums-of-squares of the amplitude of all the spectral components.
Signal levels, including noisy signals and music, are measured by placing a calibratedsound meter (SPL
meter) at the centre head location of a potential listener. This method is generally used to determine the
risk for hearing loss in working conditions.
The method distinguishes between various possible measures:
1. The averaged level, which is the average level of all frequency components over a certain time
period
1. The level measurement can be recorded by filtering according to the A, B or C
filter; dB (A)
2. The peak level indicating the highest level recorded either of the total (weighted) signal or of
specific components
3. The 8-hour equivalent level (Lequ, 8h) which is a measure for the risk on hearing damage based on
certain criteria
The method can also be used to determine the level of music in the open field. Due to the dependence of
sound waves on the exact listening situation, as detailed in 3.2, it is clear that this type of measurement is
not suitable to head phone use where only a small space between the head phones and the inner ear is
exposed to sound waves.
 Sound levels of signals presented through headphones are usually measured by artificial ears. Most
common are two types, the occluded ear simulator (OES) and the 2 cc coupler. In audiometry and hearing
aid specifications all measurements are measured using one of these two couplers. The design of the
couplers is based on the resonance properties of theear canal and the impedance of the tympanic
membrane.
In the link of sound transfer from the open field to the ear, there is another transfer characteristic to be
included and that is the baffle effect of head and torso. The head effects are usually determined by using
a manikin or as they are also called HATS, head and torso simulator. It consists of a torso and head in
which artificial ears are included. The sound pressure is measure at the eardrum. If compared with the
free field, this gives the head-related transfer function (HRTF).
It is obvious that HATS and the couplers are based on measurements, averaged over many torsos and
ears of both genders taking a multitude of anatomic features into account. Sound levels in individual ears
will always differ somewhat from these values. These have to do with the following features:
o Shape of the torso and clothing
o Hair style and head shape
o Shape and volume of the outer ear and ear canal
o Impedance of the tympanic membrane
o Distortion of the sound field caused by other listeners or objects in the room
For the purpose of estimating the risk of the use of individual music players we assume that the
calculated sound levels based on the use of artificial heads and ears are good estimates of the real
levels.
The risk for hearing damage depends on sound or noise level and exposure time. Criteria were originally
developed using working conditions as a reference which are typically measured in the open field. If we
want to assess the risk of PMPs we have to compare the levels produced by earplugs or headphones
with the measurements done in free field. This implies we have to determine the HRTFs for the different
PMPs.
The output level of a PMP is determined by using an artificial ear. It measures the actualsound pressure
at the eardrum. To calculate the risk for hearing damage, the free field level has to be calculated by using
the inverse HRTF.
op 12 Acoustic
Enclosures for Noise
Control
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This article throws light upon the top twelve acoustic

enclosures for noise control. The acoustic enclosures
are: 1. Noise Barriers 2. Acoustic Curtains 3. Semi-
Enclosures 4. Close-Fitting Enclosure 5. Basic Panel SRI
6. Enclosure Construction 7. Panel Joints 8. Acoustic
Doors 9. Ventilation 10. Windows 11. Internal Absorption
12. Isolation of Vibrations.

Noise Control: Acoustic Enclosure # 1. Noise

Barriers:
Any solid medium placed substantially perpendicular to the
ground will act as a barrier to sound, i.e., it will provide a
measure of noise reduction in the area shadowed by the
barrier. Depending on the nature of the medium (of this
barrier), it may reflect the sound (in the case of hard, dense
surfaces), or absorb it (in the case of soft, porous media).
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Usually, both of these processes are present in most cases;
but the nature of the medium makes one of them
predominant. In addition, the degree of noise reduction
provided by a barrier also depends on the physical form of the
barrier (specifically its effective height and length).
Buildings, stored materials and other solid obstructions can all
act as noise barrier on an open site. Earth embankments can
also act as sound barriers. On the other hand, unless such
noise barriers are suitably sited, they may merely transfer a
noise problem from one area to another.
In order to be most effective, a noise barrier must be placed
as close as possible either to the source of noise or the
position of its receiver. Moreover, there should be no gaps or
joints in the barrier, otherwise sound would leak through
these. Ideally, the length of the barrier should be at least ten
times its height. If this is not possible, then the barrier should
curve around the source of noise.
To act as an effective insulator of sound, the material of noise
barrier should have a surface density (also known as
superficial weight) of at least 7 kg/m2. A number of common
building construction materials meet this requirement, as
shown in Table 1.
Building debris, sand bags, mounds of earth, or even barriers
built from old tyres and other discarded materials are other
possibilities for permanent barriers. Top soil can often be used
to seal such barriers. If noise barriers are to be constructed
on purpose, wood wool slabs fixed to timber posts can form a
very effective, durable and low-cost barrier.
Sound absorbent materials, on the other hand, are normally
poor insulators of sound (in the sense that such materials
readily transmit sound through them. The usefulness of
absorbent materials lies in their use as linings to reduce the
reflections of sound incident on particular surfaces.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

They are especially useful for the lining of screens or

semi-enclosures where the purpose is to:
(a) Reduce the sound generated by a source of noise (such
as a noisy machine or tool); and
(b) Reduce, at the same time, the overall noise level (in the
vicinity of the noise source), which would otherwise be
reflected by the unlined sound barrier, and thus add to the
discomfort of the machine operator.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The average values of the absorption coefficient of some

typical sound-absorbing materials (used for lining of covers
and enclosures) are listed in Table 2. The absorption
coefficient, when multiplied by 100, represents the percentage
of sound absorbed by the material.

A simple sound barrier can give, in general, an anticipated

noise reduction of up to 15 db. In the majority of practical
cases, though, a noise reduction of about 10 dB is regarded
as more typical.
Acoustic treatment of noise in a particular area involves
basically a choice between modular acoustic panels (forming
a rigid structure) or non-rigid acoustical curtains of lead-
loaded vinyl (or other similar materials). Rigid steel barriers
(acoustical steel panels) offer good attenuation of sound.
Such barriers are capable of providing a noise reduction of 15
dB or more.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The main disadvantage of such steel barriers is that they are

fairly heavy and relatively costly. In addition, they are also
difficult to erect and dismantle. From this point of view, thick
plywood is a relatively lighter material; but plywood does not
offer the same noise reduction performance as steel.
Noise Control: Acoustic Enclosure # 2. Acoustic
Curtains:
In contrast to rigid noise barriers, acoustic curtains provide
easy maintenance and operational flexibility; but they are
quite limited from the point of view of actual noise reduction.
This is especially true if such curtains are designed as
barriers (to contain sound), and not as absorbers of sound.
However, the acoustic performance of curtains can be
enhanced by an addition of absorptive foam to their interior
surface. In this case, the level of noise absorption achieved
the curtains depends on the thickness of the foam layer and
the area covered by it.
This, however, presents certain practical problems:
(a) Thinner layers of foam are poor absorbers of noise (but
they allow for complete coverage of the curtain).
(b) Thicker foams have good noise absorption properties; but
they generally need to be applied in strips or segments. This
reduced their overall effectiveness.
(c) Exposed foam surfaces are subject to abrasion and other
damages. (This limitation may be overcome by applying a
protective outer covering.)
(d) Foams may present the hazards of fire and toxic fumes.
In order to overcome the above-mentioned limitations inherent
with the foam-lined acoustic curtains, a number of appropriate
materials have been developed. One such material
incorporates a lead septum as its central element (to act as a
noise barrier), with layers of glass-fibre on one or both sides
(to act as an absorber of sound).
The outer surfaces are protected by layers of aluminized
glass-fibre cloth or glass-fibre scrim. Both of these covering
materials provide structural integrity to the glass- fibre layers.
In addition, the aluminized cloth also provides environmental
protection.
Such specially-designed materials may be finished with a
quilted surface in order to produce an attractive outer surface.
In addition, quilting also has the desirable property of
providing acoustic decoupling of the noise impacting on and
penetrating the curtain.
However, a disadvantage of quilting is that, due to the
presence of stitch holes, the substrata are not fully protected
against harsh environments. This implies that plain surface
finishes should normally be used under harsh environmental
conditions.

Noise Control: Acoustic Enclosure # 3. Semi-

Enclosures:
These are also known as partial enclosures or acoustic sheds
to distinguish them from complete enclosures (used in the
case of noisy machines). Partial enclosures are structures
erected around a source of noise, but not fully enclosing the
source; thus leaving sufficient space for the operator to
operate the noisy machine or tool.
In partial enclosures, the main structure may or may not be of
sound insulating material; but it will have an inner lining of
sound-absorbent material in order to reduce the reflections of
sound inside the acoustic shed.
In the case of portable acoustic sheds, fairly lightweight
construction (e.g., plywood on timber framing) is used. It is
important that there should be no gaps at the joints or comers
of an acoustic shed. On the other hand, block work is to be
preferred for permanent acoustic sheds.
Even in this case, however, all joints should be properly
made. Any gaps between the sides and ground can be sealed
with a flap of suitable heavy- grade, flexible material. The
recommended thickness for the sound absorbent lining is 5.0
cm (or 2.5 cm, if mounted on battens). Mineral wool or glass-
fibre linings normally require a wire mesh or perforated screen
covering to ensure that they stay in place.
In partial enclosures, sound will be radiated directly through
the open end of the shed. This, however, can be stopped with
the help of an acoustic screen. The screen used for this
purpose may or may not be lined with a sound absorbent
material on the side of the operator.
Semi-enclosures for machines have openings (either for
access or ventilation) The main structure, in this case,
consists of a sound insulating material, with a suitably high
surface density (10 kg/m2 or more), and a sound-absorbent
lining at least 2.8 cm thick.
It is possible to reduce the thickness of the lining, though if
any high-frequency noise is present. The favoured materials
for the sound-absorbent linings are glass-fibre or rock-wool
(behind a wire mesh or a perforated screen) or acoustic tiles.
Typical sound reduction obtained by various types of partial
enclosures is shown in Table 3.

Noise Control: Acoustic Enclosure # 4. Close-

Fitting Enclosure:
Now we turn our attention to complete enclosures. We shall
consider close-fitting enclosures in the present section. For
the specific case of the source and recipient of noise in the
same room, the approximate reduction in reverberant sound
pressure level at a point in the room, due to enclosure of the
source, is given by the relation
((SPL)1 -(SPL)2= SRI-(10log10Se-10log10 Ae), (1)
where (SPL)1 = reverberant sound pressure level (in dB) in the
room before enclosure- (SPL)2=the same after the enclosure;
SRI = sound reduction index (in dB) of the enclosure wall; S e=
surface area of the enclosure (in m2 ) radiating sound into the
room; and Ae=total absorption (in Sabines) inside the
enclosure. The last parameter Ae may be calculated from the
relation
Ae = e Se. (2)
where e = average absorption coefficient inside the
enclosure.
Among the parameters which can be used to maximise the
reduction of noise in an enclosure, the overall surface area
Se can be more or less discounted. The reason is that,
whether the enclosure is a large walk-in type or a small one
the difference in overall surface area likely to occur in practice
has only a small effect on the overall performance.
The area term, therefore, can be regarded as more or less
constant for the particular machine being enclosed. The
design parameter offering the most scope for achieving a
given target reduction in the noise level is the sound reduction
index R of the enclosure wall It follows, therefore, that in the
design of enclosures most attention should be given to the
ways and means of achieving a sufficiently high sound
reduction index.
We note here, however, that the above relation for the
reduction in sound pressure level (Eq. (1)) is valid only for the
transmission of airborne noise from the inside of the
enclosure to outside.
It may so happen that the mechanical excitation of the
enclosure structure by the enclosed machine and the
subsequent transformation of structure-borne vibrational
energy into the airborne acoustic energy outside the
enclosure, may well be the dominant component of the total
energy received by the recipients of noise.
When this is the case, Eq. (1) does not apply, and there is no
simple way to calculate the amount of mechanically
transmitted energy. In order to minimise the effect of this
uncertainty, the design of an enclosure should aim to keep
mechanical transmission of energy to an absolute minimum.
There are three basic rules for maximising the performance of
close-fitting acoustic enclosures.
These can be summarised as follows:
(a) The overall sound reduction index of the structure of
enclosure must be as high as possible.
(b) Maximum absorption of sound at all frequencies of interest
must be provided inside the enclosure.
(c) The mechanical isolation between the structure of
enclosure and the machine must be as complete as possible.
We discuss the practical implementation of these basic rules
in the following sections. We start with the first basic rule, viz.,
the maximisation of sound reduction index (SRI). In this
connection, there are two basic assessments to be made.
The first of these is to fix the sound reduction index (SRI) to
be provided by the basic panel structure. The second is
concerned with the amount of reduction in the potential SRI
(that provided by the basic panel structure) due to the effect of
various weak areas that are inevitably present in any
practical structure.
Noise Control: Acoustic Enclosure # 5. Basic
Panel SRI:
The most significant parameter determining the sound
reduction index of a given partition is its superficial weight
(also known as surface mass or surface density). In fact,
the amount of acoustic energy transmitted by a partition, and
hence its sound transmission coefficient and sound reduction
index, is calculable from the well-known mass law.
In the form most widely used in acoustic design and
related fields, the mass law for the sound reduction index
SRI may be written as:
SRI = 20 log10 (Mf) 43 dB2 (3)
where M = superficial weight of the panel (in kg/m2) and f =
the frequency under consideration (in Hz). This relation, as
written above, applies to the particular case where the sound
energy is impinging on the partition from a direction normal to
its surface. This condition is probably true for much of the
energy generated inside a close-fitting enclosure.
In a large plant room/however, the sound energy would tend
to reach the enclosure walls from many directions, though it
may not be the case of true random incidence presented by
the fully reverberant test laboratory.
This type of incidence (the one lying somewhere between the
normal incidence and true random incidence) is known as
field incidence. Random or field incidence modifies the mass
law to some extent.
It has been found that the sound reduction index is maximum
for the normal incidence, minimum for random incidence and
somewhere in between for the field incidence, for any given
frequency. Moreover, the SRI increases with frequency for all
the three cases.
For the specific case of a close-fitting enclosure, it would be
more conservative (and on the safer side) to assume field
incidence (rather than normal incidence) for design purposes.
In order to select the panels required for the enclosure of a
particular machine, the first step is to determine the SRI
required at a particular frequency. When this has been done,
the next step is to determine the required superficial weight of
the panel with the help of Eq. (3), using the value of SRI
determined earlier. This procedure should be repeated for all
frequencies of interest.
The third step is to decide as to the form of the panel to be
constructed to achieve the required superficial weight. In the
case of close-fitting enclosures, for example, it is unlikely that
the normal masonry materials will be suitable.
Enclosures over individual machines will almost certainly be
of temporary nature (since the machine may have to be
moved at some time). At the very least, the machine may
need to be completely demounted for major repairs, etc.
This requirement implies that the enclosure should take some
form of modular panel construction. The basic mass skin of
the panel could be timber (plywood or chipboard),
plasterboard, or asbestos cement.
All of these materials have their own special advantages,
provided the surface density required does not result in an
inordinate panel thickness. This possible drawback may
sometimes be overcome by making use of a sandwich
construction with the required surface density provided by the
lead sheet.
The panel materials mentioned above, however, suffer in
varying degrees from their susceptibility to damage, lack of
structural strength and the difficulty of sealing That is the
reason why the majority of modular panels used now a days
for close-fitting acoustic enclosures utilize plain sheet steel as
the fundamental mass barrier.
Steel may not appear, at first sight, to be the most suitable
material for a sound reduction panel. Although steel has the
advantage of its high density and structural strength, it has
very little internal damping. The result is that the sound
reduction index of steel shows many departures from the
mass law (arising from a number of resonance and
coincidence effects).
This disadvantage of steel, however, is very effectively offset
by the second requirement for enclosure panels, viz., that
they should provide as much internal absorption of acoustic
energy as possible.
Thus the addition of any of the commonly used absorptive
materials to a steel sheet exerts a considerable amount of
damping on the panel. The result is that the resonance and
coincidence effects mentioned above become far less
pronounced, and the panel obeys the mass law much more
closely.
The damping of sound is achieved whether the absorptive
medium is bonded to the panel, or merely supported against
the inside surface of the panel by means of a second steel
sheet, which thus forms a double-skin panel. Among these,
the second alternative is more widely used in practice.
The inner skin is usually formed of some open material
(such as perforated sheet steel, welded or woven wire mesh,
or expanded metal), which exposes the absorptive face of the
lining material to the internal sound field in the enclosure.

Noise Control: Acoustic Enclosure # 6.

Enclosure Construction:
The basic construction of a pre-fabricated acoustic panel is an
outer cover of plain sheet steel, a layer of absorptive material
of sufficient thickness, and an inner open sheet retaining
skin. Though having a double-skin construction the panel thus
formed will probably behave, at low frequencies, more like a
homogeneous, damped panel of the same total weight.
In the middle to high frequency range, however the behaviour
of the panel will probably be better than that predicted by the
mass law (i.e., an extra sound reduction of about 5 dB at 500
Hz, and even more at higher frequencies. This means that the
total superficial weight of the panel can be less than that
predicted by the mass law.
As with all noise-control products, it is best to use the
performance figures supplied by manufacturers, and based
upon laboratory tests, for specific designs of enclosures. On
the other hand, one can utilize the guidelines mentioned
above to obtain a design estimate of the likely superficial
weight of the double skin panel.
For example, if frequencies up to about 250 Hz are the
deciding factor, one should use the prediction of the mass law
corresponding to field incidence. On the other hand, if the
noise in the middle and high frequency range (500 Hz and
above) is the problem, a superficial weight of about 75% of
that predicted by the mass law will probably be sufficient.
Obtaining the required superficial weight of the panel is simply
a matter of selecting appropriate steel sheet thickness and
absorbent material density, so that they add up to the total
required.
If the mass barrier is to be provided by the outer skin alone,
and the weight required demands excessive thickness, it is a
common practice to increase the overall depth of the panel
(up to as much as 10 cm), and make up part of the extra
depth with a mass in fill (such as plaster board or lead sheet)
to give the required overall weight.
In that case, the rest of the space between the outer and inner
skins is filled with the absorptive material.
Effect of Weak Areas:
If the close-fitting enclosure could be constructed as a
completely uniform one-piece box, then the overall sound
reduction index as used in the noise reduction formula, given
in Eq. (1), would be virtually the same as that of the basic
panel from which the box is constructed. This is indeed the
case for very small machines coverable by a lift-on box, and
where no ventilation or access is required.
On the other hand, real enclosures almost always suffer from
a number of potentially weak areas. Unless very carefully
designed, such weak areas will have the effect of reducing the
value of the overall sound reduction obtainable from the basic
panel construction. The reason for this is easily seen if the
transmission of sound through a non-homogeneous panel is
considered on an energy-sharing basis.
The sound reduction index (SRI) is given by the relation
SRI = 10 log10 (1/T), (4)
where T is the sound transmission coefficient, defined as the
ratio of the acoustic energy transmitted through the partition to
the total acoustic energy incident upon it.
The amount of energy transmitted through an area Si of the
partition, having a transmission coefficient Ti is equal to the
product SiTi (i = 1,2,, n and n = no. of elemental areas of the
partition). Thus the average transmission coefficient T1V for the
complete panel is given by the weighted mean

and, on the basis of Eq. (4), the average sound reduction

index for the complete partition may be written as
(SRI)av = 10 log 10 (1/Tav). (8)
It is this average value of sound reduction index which should
be used in the basic formula given in Eq. (1).
In an enclosure, the weak areas (such as doors, windows,
ventilation openings, etc.) will, more often than not, have a
higher transmission coefficient than the basic panel.
Thus the average transmission coefficient of the whole
enclosure will be higher than that of the basic panel, i.e., the
average sound reduction will be lower. Obviously, the
weakening effect of such areas of different construction will be
much less if the individual sound reduction index of each of
such weak areas in the following sections.

Noise Control: Acoustic Enclosure # 7. Panel

Joints:
Almost without exception, practical acoustic enclosures are
constructed from individual panels joined together at their
edges to form the complete enclosure. The size of individual
panels is fixed by the overall size of the surface of which it
forms a part, the size of the opening or viewing area required,
or simply the available size of the basic sheet material of
which it is constructed.
The main requirement of joints between the panels is that
they must allow no leakage of acoustic energy through them.
From this point of view, a good practical guide to the design of
leak-proof panel joints is to regard them as having to be
airtight. This will invariably require the use of some form of
soft, flexible sealing strip of rubber.
There are three methods in common use in the current
commercial designs of panel joints:
These methods are:
(a) Joining of edges by integral flange;
(b) Joining of edges by separate channel strip; and
(c) Complete panel support by a separate frame.

Noise Control: Acoustic Enclosure # 8. Acoustic

Doors:
Access is probably the most important facility required in an
enclosure. It is perfectly feasible to provide access to the
enclosure by making one or more complete panels
removable. It is more usual, however, for one or more panels
to be attached by hinges to form a door.
This is especially true in the case of enclosures where
frequent access for maintenance, work loading, or even direct
operation of the machine is required.
Acoustic doors are of fundamental importance in the field of
noise control. It is of fundamental importance to construct the
door leaf to the same specification as the basic enclosure
panel, wherever possible.
In addition, one should also ensure that the construction of
the enclosure in the region of the door is sufficiently stiff to
prevent the progressive sag or other distortion of the door
frame, leading to the appearance of gaps around the edges
when the door is closed.
Enclosure doors must also be provided with the same degree
of sealing as is available to doors in the conventional masonry
surroundings. Sliding doors can be used to good effect in pre-
fabricated enclosures; but without positive seal compression
on closure, their effectiveness is limited to a noise reduction of
about 15-20 db.

Noise Control: Acoustic Enclosure # 9.

Ventilation:
In a vast majority of cases, noisy machines requiring an
enclosure are either consuming or generating energy. In
either case, one by-product will be heat radiation. If the
machine has to be enclosed, then the resulting heat must be
removed; otherwise the temperature inside the enclosure
would rise to an unacceptable level.
The simplest way to remove the surplus heat is through
ventilation, which is essential also if machine operators have
to spend any appreciable amount of time inside the enclosure.
The basic design of the ventilating system for an acoustic
enclosure is essentially the same as that for any room; but
more careful attention has to be paid to the acoustics of the
system.
The ventilating system will certainly have fan noise; but it will
almost always be much less than the noise produced by the
offending machine. Of more concern, in this case, is the
weakening of the acoustic structure of the enclosure by the
holes required in it to pass the air in and out.
The solution to this problem, though, is quite straight forward.
It requires merely the fitting of a duct-type silencer to both
intake and discharge openings. With the enclosure of
machines other than internal combustion engines, for which
the volume of air required is much less, the air-flow may be
ducted to and from the enclosure, with the fan mounted
outside the enclosure.
This arrangement is perfectly acceptable under the
following circumstances:
(a) Silencers on both ducts are located immediately next to
the wall or roof of the enclosure.
(b) Any connecting ducting pieces, between the outside of the
enclosure and the duct silencer, are made of suitably heavy or
lagged material to prevent breakout of un-attenuated noise
through the connector wall.
(c) The effects of fan noise on the surrounding areas are
examined and treated as required.
Work Feed:
The machine being enclosed, in many cases, may be the one
involved directly in production (such as automatic pressing
from strip feed), as opposed to the so-called service
machinery (e.g., an air compressor). In addition to any other
features, the design of enclosures for the machines directly
involved in production requires openings for feeding in and
taking out work.
As with any other opening, the overriding requirement in this
case is to preserve the acoustic integrity of the panel (i.e., to
provide an attenuated opening). For machines which require
long or continuous feeds, the routine solution is to provide an
acoustically lined tunnel through which the work has to pass.
Other machines may require a supply of material only
periodically, the continuous feed coming from their own
hopper, as in the case of granulators for recycling scrap
plastic.
It may often be sufficient in such cases to provide a flap in the
enclosure the flap being hinged rather than sliding so that a
good seal can be ensured when the flap is closed. If the flap
is horizontal (or even inclined), its weight may be sufficient to
seal it adequately; otherwise a quick-release wedge catch will
be required.

Noise Control: Acoustic Enclosure # 10.

Windows:
Machine enclosure often require some means of inspecting
their interior without necessarily opening the access doors.
Inspection is necessary from the point of view of both safety
and production operations.
For example, it is much cheaper to leave gauges and meters
(indicating machine performance) attached to the machine
itself than to extend them outside. Moreover, operators
feeding an enclosed machinery from the outside also require
visual access to the machine. This is achieved through the
use of windows.
The design of windows for high noise reduction is of universal
importance in buildings. In this respect, acoustic windows are
not very different from acoustic doors. Design of windows for
acoustic enclosures is similar to that for doors and windows in
a building where high noise reduction is required.
There is, however, the obvious limitation in design flexibility
due to the restricted airspace that can be accommodated
between panes of double glazing. The loss of sound
attenuation resulting from this restriction can be offset to
some extent by using heavy panes.
Even then, the eventual sound reduction index of the window
itself will very likely be less than that of the basic panel
construction. It follows, therefore, that if the average sound
reduction index for the panel as a whole if not to be seriously
reduced, areas of inspection windows should be as low as
possible.
Entries for Services:
The services required to be supplied to or from the
enclosed machines may include one or more of the
following:
(a) Electrical power;
(b) Compressed air;
(c) Water;
(d) Oil;
(e) Gas;
(f) Hydraulic fluid;
(g) Fuel; and
(h) Engine exhaust gases.
As in the case of work feed, the objective here is to bring the
various pipes and conduits through the enclosure wall without
weakening it acoustically. When a new installation for a noisy
machine is designed, the services can be brought in under the
wall via a trough set in the foundation.
If the trough is covered and absorbent material laid in under
the cover to fill the gaps around pipes, etc., attenuation of
sound through the trough will be adequate. The services
which can be transported in flexible pipes may be passed
through the airways of ventilation air silencers
More often, however, services have to be brought through the
actual enclosure wall. When this is the case, one may provide
a very heavy plate panel which carries connectors on both
sides, so that the required service is brought up and
connected to the outside, and a separate section joins the
inside connector to the machine.
Alternatively, one may provide a clearance hole in the wall
panel and pass the service through, after making provision for
adequate sealing of the hole.
Of these two alternatives, the method of making a specific
panel for the services is preferable, especially if more than
one service has to be introduced The reason is that if these
services has to be introduced. The reason is that if these
services are taken through the wall, each has to be sealed
separately.

Noise Control: Acoustic Enclosure # 11. Internal

Absorption:
The object of providing absorptive treatment inside the
enclosure is the minimise the build-up of reverberant energy
there. In the absence of an enclosure, the acoustic energy
generated by the machine is free to radiate in all directions.
On the other hand, if the machine is enclosed in a box with
non-absorbent internal surfaces, then the sound energy
originally free to travel in all directions is reflected back, and
the sound pressure level inside the enclosure increases due
to multiple reflections of sound.
Since the sound reduction index of the panels of an enclosure
remains constant (being a property only of the enclosure
construction), it follows that the sound pressure level outside
the enclosure construction), it follows that the sound pressure
level outside the enclosure will vary directly as the sound
pressure level inside it.
Thus it is evident that if the sound level inside the enclosure
can be reduced, a corresponding noise reduction will be
obtained outside. Such a reduction is achieved by providing
the maximum possible amount of noise absorption inside the
enclosure.
Almost invariably, the absorption required inside the enclosure
will be broad band in nature. Thus the acoustic treatment
most often used in close-fitting enclosures is the use of
blanket-type porous absorber. This is true even in the case of
enclosures for machines which produce strong discrete-
frequency noise.
The reason is that the use of such materials is dictated by the
practical engineering limitations on the design of a practical
modular panel for enclosures.
Thickness of the lining is the only significant performance
parameter which the designer of acoustic panels has at his
disposal. In general, the design rule for this purpose is the
lower the frequency, the thicker the absorptive material
required for lining. Traditionally, the panel thickness for
perforated modular enclosures is either 5 cm (for noise
reduction of up to 35 dB) or 10 cm (to give a noise reduction
of up to 45 dB).
Once the thickness of absorbent material has been selected,
there is not much to choose between one type of material and
another. The main design parameter for the choice of
absorptive materials is their density, and this should be in the
range from 30 to 100 kg/m2. Much lighter material may not
have the required acoustic absorption properties. On the other
hand, a much denser material may be wasteful.
When it comes to securing the absorptive lining to the inside
of the enclosure panel, open-celled polyurethane foam slabs
offer a definite advantage, since they require no support other
than a suitable contact adhesive applied locally (even on the
underside of ceiling panels).
On the other hand, although modern foams can have a very
high fire resistance rating, foam slabs used for the acoustic
lining of enclosure panels may prove to be a safety hazard,
particularly if the machine to be enclosed is likely to splash oil
or grease.
Foam slabs, therefore, are not the best choice for a lining
material for enclosure panels The more usually employed
material is some type of semi-rigid, resin bonded mineral or
glass-fibre slabs which are readily available. Since these are
laminated materials, they do require protection against
mechanical damage, and physical support against the walls
(especially under ceiling panels).
To take care of these requirements, the panels are provided
with sheets of perforated steel, welded mesh, or expanded
metal and supported off the wall by folded channel sections or
battens. Of course, the total weight of lining and supporting
skin must be included in the panel weight when estimating the
likely sound reduction.
One should keep in mind, however, the fact that even mineral
or glass- fibre slabs are not fully safe. Continuous splash of
oil, for example, can be just as much of a safety hazard of
progressively absorbed by mineral wool slabs as by the slabs
of polyurethane foam slabs.
One method of combating this hazard is to wrap the slabs of
absorptive material (before retaining them behind the
protective facing) with a very thin polyester or similarly
impervious film. This may have some effect on the absorption
of high frequency noise; but there is virtually no effect on the
low frequency absorption (which may probably be determining
the design parameters of the enclosures).

Noise Control: Acoustic Enclosure # 12.

Isolation of Vibrations:
The main objective of providing vibration isolation is to ensure
that the acoustic enclosure is required to deal with airborne
noise only from the machine enclosed by it.
In order to ensure that any sound radiation resulting from
the mechanical vibrations in the wall is small, the
following three conditions should be satisfied:
(a) The machine itself must be adequately isolated from its
support slab or framing.
(b) All pipes and ducts (for services) to and from the machine,
which pass through the enclosure wall, must have a flexible
section between the wall and machine.
(c) In situations requiring very high reduction of sound, air-
borne noise inside the enclosure must be prevented from
entering the floor slab and being transmitted under the
enclosure as mechanical vibration.
There is hardly anything special about providing adequate
vibration isolation for a machine just because it is inside an
enclosure. Even the provision of vibration isolation for service
connections should present no basic difficulty.
Some services (e.g.. electrical power, fuel, cooling air, etc.)
will be carried by cables or pipes which can be easily made
flexible. On the other hand, services involving high pressures
(e.g., compressed air, hydraulic oil, and high-pressure water)
may pose some problems due to the fact that high-pressure
flexible pipes tend to stiffen with use.
However, flexible pipes can still provide excellent
isolation (even in the case of high-pressure services) if
the following precautions are observed:
(i) Flexible hose should be located as close to the machine as
possible.
(ii) The axis of the hose should be aligned at 90 to the
direction of vibration.
(iii) Adjacent rigid piping should not be supported by hanging it
from the flexible hose.
(iv) Torque loads on hoses should be avoided.
Instead of using flexible hoses for services, one may also
pass the rigidly connected pipe through an over-sized hole in
the enclosure wall and pack around with sealed flexible
material. The effective prevention of airborne noise entering
the foundation slab inside the enclosure will also require a
floating floor inside.

Sound and noise levels

What is sound?

Sound is the result of pressure variations in the air. These pressure

variations set the eardrum into motion and produce what we humans
perceive as sound. The sound is transmitted from the eardrum
through the ossicles to the cochlea where it is converted into electrical
signals that continue on to the brain. The human ear can distinguish
sound pressure within a very large area. A special measuring scale is
used to describe the strength of the sound in the working area of the
ear. The resultthe sound pressure levelis expressed in decibels
(dB).

In the logarithmic sound pressure scale, two equally strong sources of

sound provide a sound pressure level that is 3 dB higher than just one
source. Ten equally strong sources of sound provide a level that is 10
dB higher and one hundred equally loud sources of sound cause a 20
dB higher level. The following formula can be used to calculate the
total sound pressure level of several equally strong sources of sound:

Lp (total) = Lp + 10*lg(n)
where (n) is the number of equal sources and Lp is the sound
pressure level from a source.

Sound travels at different frequencies (oscillations per second) and

the sensitivity of the human ear to them varies. The instrument (sound
level meter) used to measure noise is designed to take this into
account. The measurement result is filtered and given in an A-
weighted level to resemble the sound pressure that the human ear
experiences. The resulting sound level is then stated in dB(A). There
is also filtering according to a C-weighted level that is used for high-
frequency sounds; the result is then stated as dB(C).

In most environments, the sound level varies during the time spent in
it, which is taken into account by using a type of average sound level,
called the equivalent sound level (Seq), for a period of time, such as
an eight-hour workday.

What is noise?

The difference between sound and noise is that noise is usually

defined as undesirable sound. Such sounds may be perceived as just
disturbing and annoying, or they may be directly harmful for hearing.
What is sound and what is noise is indeed purely subjective,
determined by the attitude toward the noise source.

Eliminating or reducing the noise at a workplace is often very

profitable. The safer and healthier the working environment, the less
likely that the employer will sustain the costs of absenteeism,
accidents, and employees who are unable to work at full capacity. A
good sound environment requires a preventive, consistent and long-
term approach to noise issues. And the employer is always
responsible for achieving this objective.

Compressed air blowing generates noise

Noise from compressed air systems is frequently found in industry.
There are two types of blowing noises. One is impulse noise, which
occurs when venting valves and cylinders. The second type occurs
when using compressed air for blowing something clean, cooling,
transporting or sorting. Blowing noise occurs when the compressed air
expands out from the system. This occurs at high speed and often
through an open pipe or a hole. When air freely expands, turbulence
is created, which in turn generates loud noise.

Basic facts about sound

Many special terms and expressions are used in acoustics, the

science of sound. Some of the most common are briefly described
here.

Sound

Sound is a wave generated by a source that sets the surrounding air

particles in motion. The movement then spreads to other air particles
that are further away from the source. The sound wave propagates in
air at a speed of 340 m/s (1115 ft/s). In liquids and solids the
propagation velocity is greater: 1,500 m/s (4,920 ft/s) in water and
5,000 m/s (16,400 ft/s) in steel.

Noise and tones

Noise can consist of a single pure tone, but is usually composed of

many tones of varying strength. The disturbing effect of a sound
depends not only on the strength of the tones; frequency also has an
effecthigh tones are more disturbing than low tones. Pure tones are
more disturbing than a composite sound.

Frequency
The number of oscillations per second determines the frequency of
the sound wave. The unit of frequency is the hertz, Hz. Sounds exist
in a very wide frequency range; the audible range for young people is
between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. For low tones, the air particles
oscillate slowly and produce bass notes. High tones provide treble
notes. The boundary between high and low tones is usually set at 500
Hz.

Infrasound and ultrasound

Sound with frequencies below 20 Hz is called infrasound. Sound with

a frequency greater than 20,000 Hz is called ultrasound.

Decibel, dB

The strength of the sound is indicated by the sound level in the unit
dB. An increase in the sound level of 1 dB is barely perceptible. A 10
dB increase in the sound level anywhere within hearing range is
perceived by the ear as twice as loud. Conversely, a reduction of 10
dB is perceived as reducing the sound level by 50%.

Sound level measurement

When measuring the strength of sound, an instrument that emulates

the varying sensitivity of the human ear to sounds with different tonal
composition is often used. This is called the A-weighted sound level
and the unit is called dB(A).

Equivalent noise level (Leq)

The sound from noise sources often changes significantly during a

certain period of time. To allow for these changes we measure the
average, the equivalent sound level or noise dose, during this period.

Hearing loss
Humans have five senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. The
sense in first place is sight. It is important for us to be able to perform
at school or work.

After vision, hearing is usually considered to be the next most

important sense. We use speech and hearing to communicate with
each other. Hearing is also our most sensitive and most important
warning mechanism. It receives impressions from all directions and is
open to impulses both when we are awake and when we are asleep.

Modern society has created an environment in which the ear is the

sensory organ most frequently and easily injured. The ear is not
designed to tolerate or exclude many of the sounds and noises
generated in todays industrial society. Loud recurrent noise can
seriously injure the ear.

Damage to hearing can completely or partially isolate individuals from

their surroundings. Such hearing damage can never be repaired. In
the past a noisy machine was considered to be a symbol of strength,
power and prosperity. People became used to the noise; they
accepted it because the noisy machine meant income and
sustenance. Becoming deaf or nearly deaf because of noise exposure
was considered to be part of the job. Today we do not have to just
accept this explanation. We have the ability to reduce or exclude
noise, both in the workplace and in everyday life. People just have to
be made aware of the dangers and possibilities so that they will want
to do something to reduce noise levels. Many experts and researchers
consider noise to be one of our greatest environmental problems.

They usually talk about three types of impacts associated with noise:

Psychological
The psychological impact includes irritation due to continuous or
repeated noise. With such disruption the intensity does not have to be
high, especially in connection with relaxation and sleep. A dripping
faucet or the muffled rumbling of traffic is sufficient. Irritating noise in
the workplace reduces work capacity and performance. Generally
speaking, irritation rises with sound strength and noise, which contains
distinctive, high-pitched tones, is particularly disturbing.

Masking

When noise is masking it means that it prevents the ear from

perceiving other sounds, such as conversations and warning signals.
Masking noise can therefore increase the risk of accidents in the
workplace.

Physical

Physically, noise primarily affects us by damaging the inner ear, either

acutely in response to a very intense noise such as a rifle shot, or
gradually through continuous exposure to industrial noise. Other noise
impact of a physical nature can include elevated blood pressure,
altered respiration and altered gastric acid production. Circulation,
sleep and digestion can suffer, leading to headache, nausea, tense
muscles, and general mental and physical fatigue, which in turn can
impair concentration.

When the ear is stressed with loud noises, the sound-sensitive hair
cells in the inner ear can be damaged. The louder the sound, the less
time needed for an injury to occur.

When exposed to loud sounds, individuals may experience a feeling of

a lid covering the ears, their hearing worsens and they may hear
buzzing or ringing in the ears. In most cases, the ear recovers after a
whilethe damage was only temporary, but still shows that the
individual has been exposed to more noise than the ear can tolerate.
This clear warning signal should be taken very seriously.

After repeated exposure to loud sounds the ear may eventually no

longer be able to recover. The ear has sustained permanent hearing
damage that cannot be reversed. There is also a high risk that the
buzzing or ringing in the ear will become permanent. Exposure to loud
noise primarily affects the ability of the ear to perceive higher
frequencies, treble sounds.

Even a relatively moderate hearing loss can cause problems because

it often leads to difficulties in understanding conversations, especially
in large groups in which several people talk simultaneously, or if
background noise is present. In many cases, people do not discover
an impending hearing injury until a late stage, because they gradually
become used to the worsening situation. To some extent the brain
compensates for hearing loss by using other senses, such as by
reading lips when others speak. But this response also contributes to
delayed detection of hearing impairment.

In most cases, hearing loss is a permanent injury that can only be

inadequately compensated by technical means such as a hearing aid.

Tinnitus

Tinnitus is defined as perception of sound even when there is no noise

in the environment. It can be experienced as buzzing, ringing and
monotonous sounds in the head. Tinnitus is often a component of
noise damage, but also occurs in connection with hearing loss that
has another cause. Tinnitus can also occur even without any
measurable hearing loss. When we refer to tinnitus as a problem, we
mean permanent tinnitus that bothers the individual. Tinnitus occurs to
varying degrees in about 10-15% of the population. Severe tinnitus
affects about 3-5%.
The exact cause of tinnitus is unknown. One theory is that the hair
cells become so damaged that they send false signals to the brain.
The brain perceives these signals as sound. Essentially, the hair cells
have been shocked by the noise and locked themselves in a position
where they transmit signals even when there is no sound in the
environment.

In most cases tinnitus is a temporary problem, but for some people it

can be permanent, comparable to chronic pain and it is important to
seek help. In addition, stress, fatigue and depression can make
tinnitus worse. Tinnitus does not respond to treatment with
medications or to surgery, but there is treatment that provides relief
and support.

Hyperacusis

Another form of hearing loss that can occur is hypersensitivity to

sound, which means that moderately loud sounds are perceived as
uncomfortably loud. It often occurs in connection with tinnitus, though
not always.

Sound distortion

In yet another form of injury, sounds are distorted. Even when sounds
are clearly audible, they are perceived with lower quality because of
the damage to the ear. Diplacusis, or double hearing, is one form of
sound distortion. It can manifest as a pure tone perceived as two
tones in combinations that can be very discordant, or the same tone
may be perceived as having a different pitch in the left ear than in the
right. This condition can be very annoying, such as when listening to
music.

One common misconception is that people get used to noise. A

positive attitude toward noise will reduce some of the physical
reactions, but the adverse effects on the hearing organ are
unavoidable, causing fatigue and paralysis of some hair cells. When
people become used to noise, it is because they have a hearing loss
for the frequencies where the noise is most intense. People who have
become accustomed to a certain type of noise may become
insensitive to all the frequencies included in just that particular noise.

As mentioned earlier, sound occurs when a sound pressure wave

affects the eardrum and the cochlea of the inner ear. The membrane
of the cochlea vibrates and affects the sensory hairs, which are bent
at the frequency corresponding to the pressure wave. If the hair cells
are strongly irritated over time, metabolism is disrupted and the
sensory cells become temporarily dysfunctional. The individual
becomes hard of hearing. If the cells are allowed to recover in peace
and quiet following a stress that is not too strong or prolonged, they
can recover and become functional again. If the stress is repeated day
after day, the hair cells are unable to normalize between exposures.
The blood supply and metabolism of the cell have changed in such a
way that it can no longer function.

The worst part about hearing loss is that it is insidious. The high
frequencies above the speech range are affected first. The individual
no longer hears the birds chirping or crickets singing. In the end, the
speech range is also affected.

In the speech range, the consonants disappear first, followed by the

vowels. The effect can be surprisingly fast and devastating. Noise
damage often results in the generation of nerve impulses, which are
perceived as beeping or buzzing, consisting of pure tones or complex
tones within a given frequency range; in other words, the individual
experiences auditory sensations without any stimulation. This
phenomenon can cause extreme mental strain along with the actual
hearing damage. It is possible to adapt to noise, but sooner or later a
price must be paid for this adjustment.

Hearing damage can never be reversed.

Laws and regulations

The EU Directive 2006/42/EC and in the U.S., OSHA Regulations

1910.95 Occupational noise exposure are examples of regulations
governing what noise can be permitted in the workplace. OSHA is the
acronym for Occupational Safety and Health Administration, the
federal agency responsible for ensuring implementation of legislation
on health and safety at work in the U.S. Some countries have even
more stringent national requirements than those specified in the EU
Directives or OSHA.

Under the EU directive, the environment must meet the requirement

for the lowest possible noise level in light of technological advances
and the possibilities for controlling noise, especially by the sound
source. If the stated guidelines are exceeded the cause must be
investigated. A timetable for an action program must be formulated
and implemented. Noise exposure must be reduced as far as is
possible in practice under the specified values.

Employees must receive adequate information about the exceeded

levels and the measures taken. Information must also be provided
about the risk of hearing loss that exposure may pose and the
obligation to wear hearing protection.

Machinery and technical equipment must be designed based on the

latest technical developments for reducing noise. It is therefore
important to monitor technological developments with respect to noise
control. Noise reduction directly at the source of the noise is generally
the most efficient and economical.
When determining the lowest level of noise exposure that is
practicable, it is important to consider the latest technical advances
and possibilities for limiting the noise.

Under the EU Directive, the previous reference to the economic

feasibility of measures to prevent noise can no longer be used. One
aim of the EU Directive is to prevent companies and countries from
increasing their competitiveness through a poor working environment.

International and national regulations.

Virtually all legislation regarding noise at work defines the limit for the
maximum volume level to between 85 and 90 dB(A) Leq for eight
hours of exposure. This limit is based on the guidelines of the
International Standard ISO 1999:1990.

The European Directive 2003/10/EC, concerning the risks of exposure

to noise at work, defines the maximum limit as 87 dB(A) Leq for an
eight-hour day.

France, Sweden, Norway, New Zealand and Spain allow 85 dB(A) Leq
for an eight-hour day and an exchange rate of 3 dB(A), while the US
allows 90 dB (A) for an eight-hour day and an exchange rate of 5
dB(A).

If the exchange rate is 3 dB(A), it means that if the sound level

increases by 3 dB(A), the amount of time a person can be exposed to
it is cut in half.

In the UK, the Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 set a limit of
87 dB(A) Leq for eight hours of exposure, in line with the EC Directive.

Developing countries have traditionally adopted the laws and

regulations set by developed countries, without taking any greater
account to local circumstances. For example, in 1948 India set a limit
of 90 dB(A) for eight hours of exposure, but since most factories in
India have a six-day work week, total exposure is 48 hours per week.
As a result, cumulative exposure is higher than the limit approved in
developed countries.

OSHA 1910.95 sets values for noise exposure in the workplace. The
limits are based on a workers weighted average over an eight-hour
day. OSHA sets the maximum permissible exposure limit (PEL) to 90
dB(A) for everyone who works eight hours per day. These levels apply
for an exchange rate of 5 dB(A).

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in

the US recommends that the equivalent noise level that a worker is
exposed to should be limited to 85 dB(A) for an eight-hour day to
minimize the risk of hearing damage. Based on updated literature
studies, NIOSH has found that significant hearing loss can occur even
at levels in line with the OSHA PEL. NIOSH also recommends an
exchange rate of 3 dB(A) so that each increase of 3 dB(A) halves the
permitted exposure time.

Example: OSHA allows eight hours of exposure for noise levels of 90

dB(A), but only two hours of exposure to 100 dB(A). NIOSH
recommends limiting eight-hour exposure to below 85 dB(A). For 100
dB(A), NIOSH recommends less than fifteen minutes of exposure per
day.

In 1981 OSHA implemented new requirements to protect workers in

the manufacturing industry. In cases where the worker is exposed to a
weighted equivalent noise level of 85 dB(A) or more during an eight-
hour shift, the employer must implement a hearing conservation
program. Employers must measure the noise level, offer free annual
hearing tests, provide hearing protection and training, as well as
evaluate safety measures, unless they ensure that workers are
exposed to less than 85 dB(A) by changing work practices, tools and
equipment.

Proposed measures

Sound level measurement

A sound level meter that expresses the sound pressure level in the
unit dB(A) is used to measure the sound level. The measurement is
carried out by aiming the meters microphone toward the sound
source, at a distance of one meter (1 m) and at a 90 angle to the
direction of the sound. It is not complicated, just remember to use a
sound level meter that complies with IEC 61672 class 2 (replaces IEC
60651 (651) type 2), ANSI 51.4 requirements for the results to be
reliable.

To measure the equivalent noise level during an eight-hour shift, a

dosimeter is worn by the person whose noise exposure is to be
measured. A dosimeter is a meter that the individual carries that
measures the total noise that a person has been exposed to during
the measurement period.

Start by measuring the noise to which individual employees are

exposed. The general noise level should also be measured, but note
that it is important for the measurements to be made during
representative working conditions. Compare the levels measured with
the limits in the noise regulations.

Analyze the variations in noise levels around the work site or

workplace. The measurement is best presented using noise maps.
Determine how much the various sources of noise contribute to the
noise to which workers are exposed. Make sure to include the sources
of the noise, the noise level and the duration of exposure to noise.
This work should be done by an expert in the field because it requires
both more advanced equipment and more specialized knowledge.

Action plan

After carefully mapping out the noise, you can formulate a proposal for
an action plan. It is important for employees and health and safety
representatives to have the opportunity to submit proposals and
opinions. In many cases a combination of measures may be needed,
such as:

Measures right at the machine or noise source

Enclosing the noise source

Replacement of machinery and equipment with quieter models

Replacement or change in work practices

Measures in the work area involving e.g. sound absorbing materials

and screens

Sound insulation in the control or supervision cab

Job rotation

Practical aspects

Replacing traditional, loud machinery and production processes with

new noise-reducing methods is often capital-intensive.

The alternative method regarding protection against noise in the

workplace is to teach employees how to safely use hearing protection.
In this scenario, the safety measures for employees are based less on
technical solutions: rather, the emphasis is on controlling employee
attitudes and influencing use of hearing protection.
Research and studies in the field show that the use of hearing
protection is a less effective method of combating noise damage
because of the negative side effects that can occur in the workplace,
such as discomfort and difficulty communicating with others.

For this reason it is important to choose the right hearing protectors.

The choice of appropriate hearing protection depends on the relevant
noise situation in the workplace. Hearing protection must have the
right acoustic properties so that it insulates at the frequencies where
noise is present.

Hearing protection manufacturers provide the mean and standard

deviation for the damping effect of the product at different frequencies,
which helps calculate the likely noise protection at different
frequencies.

Silvent Technology

Silvent technology makes it possible to blow with compressed air at a

low noise level but without compromising on the high blowing force.
Instead of allowing the air to expand through one large hole, it is
divided into a number of small holes or slits, which increases the
frequency of the sound to levels beyond what the human ear can
perceive or be harmed. Through co-ejection of the surrounding still air,
the speed difference in the air stream is reduced, which also reduces
the noise level.

Another important factor to reduce the noise level is to control the air
and create a laminar flow that eliminates the turbulence that usually
creates noise when blowing with compressed air.

Silvent is continually developing its patented technology and has

introduced a whole new dimension to blowing technology. The effect is
achieved by surrounding a core of air traveling at supersonic speed
with a protective sheath of air moving parallel to the central air jet. The
core stream in the nozzle is generated by a Laval nozzle. The design
of the nozzle converts all of the energy stored in the compressed air
into kinetic energy without permitting the air jet to expand laterally
after it has passed through the nozzle. Because of the protective
sheath of air, the surrounding air does not slow down the core stream,
which can be used to full effect. The gas flow prevents turbulence,
thereby lowering noise levels.

Over the years Silvent has received several international patents for
its products which reduce both noise and power consumption when
blowing with compressed air.