apposite reason that he should undertake this task. He held bother.
ther. Come back i n the morning and itll all be arranged,
a qualification that it was unlikely anybody else present
possessed; it was an ACV. This stood for Associate of the
College of Violinists, so he was the only fiddler at the top
table with a diploma to prove it!
In addition to Sir Alan Smith, who had addressed the
Society so ably, there were many other distinguished
guests at the dinner. These included the presidents or rep-
resentatives of major kindred scientific organisations: the
Oil and Colour Chemists Association, the Textile Institute,
the Society of Leather Technologists and Chemists, the
Colour Group, the Guild of Technical Dyers, and also the
International Wool Secretariat. A past prime warden of the
Dyers Company and the master of the Feltmakers Com-
pany were also present, representing two livery companies
whose support and encouragement were invaluable to the
Society. Some honorary secretaries of Regions and Stu-
dent Sections, who played a great part in Society affairs,
were attending. Also present were Society medallists, hon-
orary members and past presidents.
To the great amusement of his audience, Dr McDonald
proceeded to discourse on some o f the qualities that he
thought might have earned the guests their positions of
eminence and influence, for example, telling a story illus-
trating the value of efficiency. A few years ago, a womans
father and uncle both died on the same day. The woman
expressed the desire that they should be buried in their best
suits and produced a brown suit and a blue one that she had
found in the cupboard. The next day she arrived at the
undertakers to view her relatives, but she found that the
suits were on the wrong folk. I think m y father would look
better in the brown one, she said. No bother, said the
undertaker, you can come back in the afternoon and itll all
be arranged. She returned that afternoon but was still
undecided. I think after all that father would look better in
the blue one. Could you change them round again? No
TransDort Phenomena in Textile Finishing
Equipment
J Groot Wassink
Chemical Engineering Department
Twente University of Technology
PO Box 217
7500 AE Enschede
The Netherlands
Presented at the 13th Congress of the International
Federation of Associations of Textile Chemists and
Colourists in London on 21 September 1984.
The application of transport phenomena to textile
finishing processes is emphasised. By combination of the
predominant transfer processes (momentum, mass and
heatfmass transfer) and the engineering objective
(operation, design and innovation), three cases are
selected dealing with (a) momentum transfer and
operation of a rotating washing machine, (6) mass
transfer and design of an open-width washing machine
and (c) heatfmass transfer in connection with the
innovation o f porous roller dryers.
212 JSDC Volume 101 July/August 1985
replied the undertaker. Next morning she still could not
make up her mind. Would you mind changing them again?
Are you sure its not too much trouble? she asked. No, its
no bother, was the reply, I just change the heads.
In similar vein Dr McDonald continued, and proposed the
toast the Guests.
Cyril Furniss said that he was particularly pleased t o
respond to the toast i n his capacity of principal of the Scot-
tish College of Textiles. In recent years the Society had
made an enthusiastic contribution to the continuing
development of coloration education at the college, espe-
cially through its initiative in setting u p the Scottish Student
Section based at Galashiels. He thanked Stewart Schofield,
for his untiring energy in ensuring the success of this pro-
ject, and David Blackburn, w ho was continuing to lead the
Societys support. Mr Furniss looked forward to graduates
from the colleges new honours degree course in colour
science being eligible for consideration for the Societys
chartered colourist qualification in recognition of their pro-
fessional status.
The Society, as the senior chartered body representing
colour scientists and technologists, had a particular
responsibility to ensure that coloration education in the U K
was safeguarded by bringing maximum pressure t o bear
on the government and those industries dependent on the
services of highly qualified professional colourists. The few
remaining specialist departments in universities and col-
leges were the only real source of new seed-corn for the
coloration profession. M r Furniss urged the Society to nur-
ture and protect these educational facilities. The Societys
previous record and present initiative provided him with
every confidence that it would not be failing in its efforts in
this direction.
INTRODUCTION
The textile industry may be characterised on the one hand
by product-oriented thinking, and o n the other byconstruct-
ional skill in the lay out of the various equipment used in
textile processing. In textile finishing there is generally a
striking lack of knowledge of the principles of engineering.
In the 1960s it was proposed by Meier-Windhorst in Ger-
many111 and by Parish i n England 121 that chemical
engineering principles be introduced into the mathematical
description of textile finishing processes. The theory of
transport phenomena, so successfully applied in chemical
engineering, was advanced as a powerful means of aiding
the understanding of the operation, design and innovation
of textile finishing equipment. At the Twente University of
Technology in Enschede a research programme was
started on washing and (pre-)dryingprocesses in which the
scientific approach mentioned above was emphasised. The
results were reported at earlier IFATCC congresses 131 and
published in the literature 14-91,
This contribution is intended to give an idea of the
methodology, as well as the results o f the engineering
 TABLE 1

Applications of Textile Engineering Research

_ _
Application
Engineering ~ ~~

objective Momentum transfer Mass transfer Heat and mass transfer

Operation Rotating washing machine
Design Open-width
washing machine
Innovation Porous roller dryer

research carried out in collaboration with industry and TNO constant initial pressure i n the beam of the washing
in our laboratory. The methodology used is detailed in this machine. It will be shown that momentum transfer, giving
paper, and is summarised in Table 1. rise to hydrodynamic behaviour of equipment, is most
One parameter is the specific transport phenomenon important for the operation of the rotating washing
(momentum, heat and mass transfer) that is predominant machine. If in the batch of fabric axial flow is prevented (by
in the process to be investigated. Asecond parameter is the centrifugal action andfor by sealing the sides of the batch)
engineering objective aimed at (operation, design and the momentum transfer equation reads as Eqn 1.
innovation). The combination of both parameters gives rise
to different fields of interest o f which three examples were
selected
-dP
=_ - v+pw2r
dr K
The first example deals with the significance of fluid flow
and pressure drop in the operation of a rotating washing Pressure Darcy Centrifugal
machine. Secondly it is shown that knowledge of mass gradient flow action
transfer in open-width washing machines leads to
improved equipment design. In the third example the The continuity equation is given by Eqn 2.
importance of transport phenomena in the innovation of
equipment for pre-drying and drying of fabrics by means of dv v
porous rollers is demonstrated. - +- =o
dr r
OPERATION: MOMENTUM TRANSFER IN ROTATING
WASHING MACHINES Rearranging Eqn 1 and differentiating gives Eqn 3.

Process Description
dv d2P K
The rotating washing machine consists of a perforated (3)
beam around which up to several thousand metres of fabric dr
are wound (Figure 1). By rotating the batch and forcing
wash liquor through the beam, impurities present in the Combining Eqns 2 and 3 gives Eqn 4.
fabric are removed.

The introduction of dimensionless variables:

leads to Eqn 5.

P r
7j-= - and x = -
?ipw R, R,

d2rr 1 drr
- -+ - - =4 (5a)
dX2 X dX
Figure 1 - Representation of a rotating washing machine or

Transport phenomena in a rotating batch of fabric exhibit

a very complex character; the momentum transfer equa-
tion contains terms for pressure as well as centrifugal force
g (.2) =4x

and has to be solved in tw o (radial and axial) dimensions.

Moreover mass transfer and momentum transfer are cou-
pled by the velocity vector, and mass transfer has to be
considered as a non-stationary process. Therefore a com-
plete analytical solution of the relevant transfer equations
is out of the question, and hence simplifying assumptions
have to b e made. One way of simplifying the process
description is to consider momentum transport first in
combination with statements of simple boundary condi-
tions, such as constant volume flow through the fabric or
Eqn 5b has the general solution shown in Eqn 6.
7j-=X2+C,InX+C, (6)
i n which the constants C, and C, correspond with the boun-
dary conditions applied. Irrespective of the operational
conditions, the outlet pressure of the wash liquor is atmos-
pheric, so that when X=R,/R,, rr will be zero.

JSDC Volume 101 July/August 1985 213

 The second boundary value depends on the inlet condi- p i n (R21R,)
tions defined in Eqns 7 and 8. m =
2 nLKa

X=l n = r 0(constant inlet pressure) (7) and an intercept

)(=I
drr
- =2--
dX
2Pvo (constant inlet velocity) (8)
Kpw'R,
n =- [(?)' -11 . ~ / J W ' R (Figure
? 2).

A washing machine and pump connected in series, in

For constant inlet pressure, the pressure and velocity pro-
which the flow may be adjusted by a control valve, is illus-
files are represented by Eqn 9 (a and b).
trated in Figure 3. The hydrodynamic behaviour of the
components of the system (pump, valve and washing
machine) may be represented by individual head flow
2) : ( [ +=o - I]
curves as shown i n Figure4. Arranging components in
lr=?T" +x2-1 - . In X (9a)
series is 'pressure additive', so that the system operation is
MRJR,)
indicated by point S on the pump characteristic (Figure 4)
such that various pressure drops are related by Eqn 13.

AP (washing machine) + AP (valve) =AP (pump) (13)

For constant inlet velocity, the profiles follow from Eqn 10

(a and b). r-----l
1
v = -
X

Operational Characteristics Figure 3 -Pump and washing machine arranged in series

It is clear that the relation between pressure drop AP and
flow rate 4, of a rotating washing machine is independent
of the boundary conditions applied. From Eqn 9 (a and b)
and Eqn 10 (a and b), Eqn 1 1 may be derived.

which in dimensional form may be written in the form of

Eqn 12.

From Eqn 12 it can be seen that the relationship between AP

and #jo is represented by a straight line with a slope - $0

Figure 4 -Head flow characteristics of Figure 3

Figure 2 - Head flow characteristic of a rotating washing

machine Figure 5 -Pump and washing machine arranged in parallel

214 JSDC Volume 101 JulyIAugust 1985

The volume flow corresponding to the position of S is minimum pressure to be just at the outlet of the batch of
readily read-off on the abscissa in Figure 4. fabric, so that:
When pump, valve and washing unit are arranged in
parallel (Figure 5) a flow 4Jr recirculates through the valve drr
whilst a flow 4,is forced through the washing machine. If -=O and X =R2/R,
dX
the suction pressure is atmospheric, the pressure drops
across the components of the system are identical (Eqn 14). Differentiating Eqn 9a gives Eqn 16.

AP (pump)=AP (valve)=AP (washing machine) (14)

, Pump
Washing (RJR, ) 2 +rro-l
From which X2=
\ machine

Valve
thus Eqn 17 is obtained.

In industrial applications the following values of R, and R,

are thought to be typical: R,=0.10 m, R,/R,=3, so that
rro311.8.

P
NOW no=-
f po2R:
Figure 6 -Head flow characteristics of Figure 5
from which follows that
In Figure 6 the operating point S of the system is situated on Po= n o .;pow:
the pump head curve, and flow rate is represented by
Eqn 15. For example, with a rotation speed of 260 rev./min or
0=27.2 rad/s, and p=965 kg/m3 (water at 9O"C), then the
gauge inlet pressure is:

Po& 11 . 8 1x965
~ x (27.2)' x (0.10)'=4.2 X I O5 N/m2
Industrial Application
At constant inlet pressure, rr can be written as a function of From Eqn 11 the corresponding flow can be calculated as:
X as shown in Eqn 9a. The form o f rr=rr(X) depends on the
values of the parameters noand R,/R,; selecting the arbit-
rary values rr,=5 and R,/R, =3, Eqn 9a is represented bythe
curve shown in Figure 7.

which may be simplified to Eqn 18.

making L =1.50m
a =Oslo
K =10-12 m2
p =0.3~ kg/(m s)

and 4J0=2.0x 10-4 m3/s, a condition commonly in industrial

1 2 3
practice.
X

Figure 7 -Dimensionless pressure n as a function of loca-
tion X
At a given value of X the pressure rr becomes negative,
causing penetration of air by suction from the environ-
ment; this results in unstable flow and staining of the fabric
by air oxidation.
The condition under which negative pressures do not
develop may be defined by requiring the location of the
DESIGN: MASS TRANSFER IN A N OPEN-WIDTH WASH-
ING MACHINE
Process Description
Extraction of impurities from textiles is frequently carried
out in an open-width washing machine, which consists of N
washing units each provided with z compartments. Wash
water and fabric fiow countercurrently through the
machine. Entrained liquid is removed by mangling after
each unit and is returned to the wash water flow (Figure 8).

JSDC Volume 101 JulyIAugust 1985 215

Figure 8 - Representation of an open-width washing machine

For a mathematical description of the mass transfer in a giving Eqn 2 3

compartment the following assumptions are made:
(a) Liquid flows (in wash water and in the fabric stream) RN, 1-2
(23)
leaving each Compartment are i n thermodynamic RN, 2 a
equilibrium
(b) Short-circuiting between successive compartments
due to entrainment of liquid by the moving fabric is c+a-l
where S = -
considered a
( c ) Liquid removed by mangling after each unit is returned
to the final compartment of the corresponding unit. If the calculation u p t o the second compartment of unit N
is continued then Eqn 24 is obtained.
The material balance for compartment z o f unit N is
described by Eqn 19. t S L I-1
(24)
a a S-1

FdlIriC stream Entrained liquor Wash water in For compartment 1 of unit N the material balance reads as:
in in

Fabric strean Entrained liquor Wash water out

out out

t / I
The equilibrium relation is represented by Eqn 20. and RN,i = I +
- 5 ( I + S + . . .sL7 = 1 t ( S -1)
RN, I a -I

from which Eqn 25 can be deduced.

Introduction of dimensionless variables

CN, I cbb cbf

RN,z= - ;t=k - ;a=l +(I-A) - .k
C" 4d 4d Proceeding t o Compartment z of unit N-I the material
balance is shown in Eqn 26.
where =overall extraction factor
a =entrainment factor
# d C ~ - ~ , ~ - ~ + ( l - A ) c b. fY N - , , ~ - I + ~ P ~ Y N - I + ( ~.YN
- ~ ) 1.1
~ ~=~

results in Eqn 21. Fabric stream Entrained liquor Wash water Reflux from
in in in rnanglein

RN.1-2
~- =I+ 5 (21) cbdCN-i f (l-A)cbf .YN-i,r +[d)t~+(1-~)4flYN
-1, z (26)
RN,z a a
Fabric stream Entrained liquor Wash watei
out out out
For compartment z-1 of unit N the following balance is
valid: or in dimensionless variables:

Putting R N - l , z = R N , .and calculating R , from Eqn 24, Eqn ,

27 can be obtained.
or in dimensionless form as Eqn 22.

From this: ~
RN,z-2 -
-
(t+2a-1)
. ~+ a- _ k+a-l)
_ _ _ Similarly, the material balance for compartmentz-I of unit
RN,z a a a N-l is:

RN-i.z-2 t If1

:)
RN, 2-2
thus: = I + --+- + I - - = I + - ( S .-I)
RN,I a a
( a RN, z -I

216 JSDC Volume 101 July/August 1985

Continuing the procedure just described, the expression for For ~ = Eqn
l 30 simplifies t o
the first compartment o f the first unit may be written as:
1
Ri,o
I= -
E N N (1-11 Nz+l
=1+ - [ .S -11
RN, 1 -1
~

For a required product quality I=O.OI (1% impurities left

so that the non-extracted fraction is calculated as shown in in the fabric) corresponds to nearly 100 compartments.
Eqn 28. The total number of compartments as calculated from
Eqn 30 appears to be very sensitive to values of E in the
interval 1<&2, and rather insensitive t o values of ~ > 2 .
3. In practice some entrainment of liquid by the moving
fabric is always present, so that Eqn 28 is valid. Inserting
some values into this equation reveals that, for a given
The separation factor S=(E+a-l)/a may be represented by product quality I and a given entrainment a, the total
a series of straight lines through the point S = l , = I , as i n number of compartments depends on the value of N ;
Figure 9. This shows that for practical applications and increase of N results in a slight decrease of Nz.
(Eqn 29:
In view of the considerations given above, it is economi-
S+ if (29) cally attractive to reduce the number of washing vessels,
and increase the number of compartments per vessel. The
investment costs of a washing machine are proportional t o
the number of washing vessels (includingsqueezer rollers),
v) whilst the costs per vessel only slightly increase with the

T number of compartments per vessel. Therefore it may be

good design to construct washing vessels containing a
large number (e.g. 10-20) of compartments.

Industrial Applications
I As already pointed out, investigation of Eqn 28 reveals the
1t- most favourable extraction performance to be obtained at a
value of E-2. For design purposes o n a commercial scale a
0 few calculations should be carried out under the following
conditions:
(a) Product quality required: 1=0.01
(b) Extraction factor: ~ = k ( & / $ ~ ) = 2
(c) Entrainment factor: a = l +(l-A)k($f/1&,)=2, which
means with a reflux ratio h=0.5 (at the upper roller of
each compartment half of the liquid entrained is
figure 9 - Separation factor S as a function of extraction returned to the corresponding compartment) that,
factor c assuming thedistribution coefficientkof about one, the
volume of flow of entrained liquid c$fis about twice that
Design Strategy of the liquid stream in the fabric &.
Eqn 28 is the starting point from which some design rules (d) For successive values o f the number of washing ves-
may be derived. sels N = l , 2, 3, etc., the total number of compartments
1. If the non-extracted fraction I is fixed by the require- Nz is calculated from Eqn 28.
ment for a given product quality, four design variables
The results of the calculations are given in Table 2.
are left: the extraction factor E , the separation including
entrainment factor S, the number o f units N and the
number of Compartments per unit z. TABLE 2
2. The best extraction results will be obtained if the separa-
tion factor S approaches the value of the extraction Design Calculations of an Open-width Washing Machine
factor t, i.e. S = E . This may be realised by preventing [ I =0.01)
liquid from becoming entrained by putting rollers on top
Extraction Separation Number of Number of
of the upper guide rollers of the washing units; in that
factor factor, S washing vessels, N compartments. Nz
case I is defined by Eqn 30.
2 1.5 1 9.00
- 1 2 1.5 2 8.25
___ (30) 2 1.5 3 7.50
Nzi i .- __ __
E -1 ~

The number of design variables is thus reduced from The differences in number of equilibrium compartments
four t o two, namely the extraction factor E and the total Nz for different values of N are marginal, hence the calcula-
number of Compartments Nz. tions confirm the previously stated need to maximise the
On the basis of Eqn 30, for a given quality l, the total number of compartments in one vessel.
number of compartments required can be defined in the In Table 2 the number of compartments calculated rep-
form of Eqn 31. resent equilibrium stages, the conception of which may not
apply to real compartments in industrial practice. Therefore
log
-I
~
+ 1- it is very important to investigate the mixing conditions in
I compartments, which are to a large extent dependent o n
Nz = -1 (31 1
log E the ratio of residence time of the fabric to the mixing time

JSDC Volume 101 July/August 1985 217

(due to moving fabric and rotating roller) within a com-
partment. It may well be that the real compartments have
an extraction efficiency (as compared with a theoretical
stage) lower than loo%, and accordingly more compart-
ments would have t o be installed.
INNOVATION: HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN POROUS
ROLLERS [S]
Equipment Development
In conventional textile finishing equipment the transfer
between fabric and agent is normally carried out either co-
or counter-currently in parallel flow.
The overall rate of transfer is greatly dependent on diffu-
sion taking place within the fibres and in the yarns, as well
as on transfer of heat and mass between liquid yarn and in
the bulk liquid by convection. In Figure 10 these processes
are iIlust rated.
T I-
I+
Figure 70 - Mass transfer steps in parallel flow
In parallel flow steps 1 and 2 may be intensified by con-
vectional means such as mixing and flow rate but the diffu-
sional steps 3, 4 and 5 are not affected. Therefore new
equipment has been devised in which cross flow is applied
between fabric and process agent o n a scale o f distribution
comparable with the size of the fibres. It may be expected
that by convectional action the rate of diffusion in voids,
yarns and fibres will be greatly enhanced. The equipment
proposed is a so-called porous roller consisting of bronze,
steel, ceramics or plastics as a material of construction and
produced by a specific sintering process (Figure 11).
Figure 7 1 - Pre-drying and drying of fabric on a porous
roller
Tentative Process Descriptions
As an alternative to mechanical removal of liquid in fabrics,
e.g. by squeezers, porous rollers may be applied using air
or preferably steam as the 'blowing' agent. During this
pre-drying operation the following steps may be disting-
uished.
218 JSDC Volume 101 JulylAugust 1985
Flow of liquid through the pores of the fabric, forced by
the effect of the 'blowing' agent. The fluid velocity fol-
lows from the Darcy equation (Eqn 33).
(33)
from which the residence time required for one pas-.
sage through the fabric may be calculated as shown in
Eqn 34.
(34)
Removal of the liquid film at the interface between
fabric and atmosphere. The available pressure drop Ap
must meet the requirement shown in Eqn 35.
2u
Ap> - (35)
r
e.g. with m=0.07 N i m and r-10-5m, then Ap>0.14 bar.
Heating of the fabric by the blowing agent. The non-
stationary heat transfer between steam and fabric may
be described by the approximate expression given in
Eqn 36.
TD-7F
=C, exp (-Fo.Bi) (36)
TD-T,"
in which Fo=atld2 (Fourier number) and Bi=twdlA (Biot
number). The time t required for heating the fabric u p to
the steam temperature is of the order of 50 ms!
Evaporation of excess liquid i n the pores by expansion
of the blowing agent. A t the heated fabric surface the
expansion of steam causes a rapid evaporation of
liquid present in the fabric. Consequently, after leaving
the porous roller, depending on steam temperature,
fabric velocity and air humidy, the liquid content of the
fabric may be decreased by 5-1 5%.
Porous rollers prove to be very appropriate for the drying
of textile materials and nonwovens. The mathematics of
drying can be described by a combination of a material
balance and a rate equation according t o Eqns 37 and 38
respectively.
Accumulation Convection Accumulation
in fabric in air
Accumularion Transfer to air
in fabric
The accumulation term i n air cop, a y l a t is small compared
with that in fabricp, (I-,,) dR/at, so that as a first approxi-
mation Eqn 39 can be written.
actual drying rate
where f(R)=
rate of evaporation
 In view of the experimental relation between drying rate
-8Rli)t and humidity R o fth e fabric, the drying region may
be divided into a constant, transitional and falling rate
periods respectively (Figure 12).
t i
Figure 12 -Different regions in the drying rate curve
The drying rate curve may be suitable for mathematical
treatment by a linearising procedure as indicated in Figure
12. In that case the empirical function f(R) satisfies the
following conditions:
f ( R ) = l (constant rate period)
(40)
f(R)=R (falling rate period)
In both cases Eqn 39 may be solved analytically. It appears
that depending on process conditions a substantial
decrease in water content may be achieved within a time of
exposure of the order of 1 s. Moreover the agreement bet-
ween theoretical and experimental time o f drying is very
encouraging [S].
Industrial Applications
The porous roller seems to be very effective in processes in
which a flowing agent has to be distributed on a small scale
prior to intensive participation in transport phenomena and
chemical reaction within the fabric. Therefore application
of porous rollers seems to be appropriate in the following
cases:
1. Rapid heating or cooling of a fabric may easily be carried
out on one single porous roller (Figure 13(a))
2. Drying followed by thermofixation are processes readily
adapted t o a series arrangement of porous rollers (Fig-
ure 13(b))
3. Porous rollers may be suitable for the low-add-on tech-
niques encountered in dyeing, coating and printing
(Figure 13(c and d)).
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
It has been shown that a gap existing between materials
science and constructional skill is characteristic of the tex-
tile industry, and needs filling by process engineering prin-
ciples. Transport phenomena (momentum, heat and mass
transfer), which are commonly studied in chemical
engineering problems, appear t o be very promising for
application to textile finishing processes.
The theory of transport phenomena not only seems to be
appropriate to the proper understanding of operation and
design of conventional equipment, but also is suitable for
application t o the development of new equipment. This
I
t
I
I
t
I
t lm
-@
I \I
Figure 13 -Applications of porous roffers
sound theory combined w i th clear engineering objectives
(operation, design, innovation) is a good starting point for
engineering research.
Three combinations of transport phenomena with
engineering objectives have been given and elaborated.
The example of momentum transfer in the operation of a
rotating washing machine showed the intimate relation
between hydrodynamic behaviour and operational limits
of a given piece of equipment. The second problem dealt
with the coupling between mass transfer and design of an
open-width washing machine. It was demonstrated that a
thorough knowledge of mass transfer is of prime impor-
tance for improving the design and operation of conven-
tional equipment. In the third example presented it was
shown how a logical application of the theory of transport
phenomena results in the innovation of new equipment
(Mach nozzles and porous rollers), in which diffusional pro-
cesses are accelerated by convectional flow on a scale
comparable w i th the size of the fibres.
REFERENCES
1. C A Meier-Windhorst, Melliand Textilber., 50 (1969) 832.
2. G J Parish, J.S.D.C.,78 (1962) 709.
3. H J L J van der Linden and J Groot Wassink. IFATCC Congresses, Bar-
celona 1975, Venice 1978, Budapest 1981.
4. H J L J van der Linden, J Groot Wassink and C A Theusink, Melliand
Textilber., 57 (1976) 53.
5. J Groot Wassink, Melliand Textilber., 58 (1977) 570.
6. H J L J van der Linden, J Groot Wassink and R Faken, Textiltechnik, 32
(1982) 643.
7. J Groot Wassink et al., Textiltechnik, 33 (1983) 245.
8. H J L J van der Linden and J Groot Wassink, Amer. Dyestuff Rep., 72 (5)
(1983) 16.
9. J Groot Wassink and H J L J van der Linden, Text. Research J., 53 (1983)
751.
JSDC Volume 101 JulyIAugust 1985 219
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Symbol Description Dimension Symbol Description Dimension
a Hole fraction P Density kg m-3
Surface/volume ratio m-' P C Fabric weight kg m - z
Entrainment factor S Separation factor
Bi Biot number m S u rface tension N m..'
c, Y Concentration kg m-3 T Temperature K, "C
I. Fraction non-extracted V Velocity m s-'
C Concentration ratio V Velocity ratio
d Fabric thickness m X Distance m
E Extraction factor X Distance ratio
0 Porosity Y Relative humidity of air
(I Volume flow rate m3s-' z Distance m
Fo Fourier number Number of compartments
k Mass transfer coefficient m s-'
Distribution coefficient
K Permeability m-2
L Fabric width m Indices
A Reflux from upper roller 1,2 Inner, outer position
w Dynamic viscosity kg m-' s-' b Bath or wash liquid
N Number of washing vessels d Fabric
w Rotation speed S-' f Film entrained
AP, P Gauge pressure N m-2 I Air
rr Pressure ratio 0 Initial or overall
r Radial distance m r Recirculating
R Beam radius m S Saturated
Humid ity D Steam
Fraction non-extracted F Fibre

COMMUNICATIONS

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the Scottish Highlands
Su Grierson*, David G Dufftand Roy S Sinclairt
'Newmiln Farm
Tibbermore
Perth
Scotland
tDepartment of Chemistry
Paisley College of Technology
High Street
Paisley PA1 2BE
Scotland
From an extensive study of dyeings on woolusing natural
dye plants indigenous to the Highlands of Scotland, a
selection representing some of the brighter colours
obtained have been examined colorimetrically, and the
fastnesses to washing and light recorded. The original
colours and the colour changes during light fading have
been recorded in Munsell and ClElAB (1976)colour
coordinates. The fastnesses of these dyeings have been
compared with the corresponding results previously
reported for the more widely used natural dyes that
formerly were traded internationally. The colours and
colour changes are briefly discussed in terms of
biosyntheticpathways, andrelatedto thecoloursof yarns
used in Scottish tartans of the past and present.
INTRODUCTION
The Highlands of Scotland have a long tradition of textile
dyeing, but there are virtually no records of the source of
dyes or the dyeing methods used in Scotland prior to 1750.
However, the wearing of multicoloured clothing has been
recorded in the western areas of Britain since Roman times,
and the weaving of multicoloured checks or tartans has
been practised in Scotland for at least 500 years [ I ] . It has
been commonly assumed that locally grown plants pro-
vided the main source of colouring materials for the High-
land dyer, although shipping records indicate that dyes
were imported to the West of Scotland as early as the
beginning of the 15th century [21.
Historians and textile conservators have an interest in the
dyes and dyeing methods used in the past, and have used
modern analytical techniques as an aid t o identifying the
dyes used in old textiles [3,4].The present investigation
was prompted by questions raised about important early
collections of tartans held by the Museum of Tartans at
Comrie in Perthshire. In particular, one commonly held
view is that dyes extracted from native Scottish plants were
only capable of producing plain or dull colours, and that for
vividness of colour imported dyes had to be used. We have
shown elsewhere [5,61 that dyes from plants native t o Scot-
land can produce a range of quite bright colours. For a
selection ofthese native dyes the present paper records the

220 JSDC Volume 101 July/August 1985