5/19/2017 ProblemsolvingWikipedia

Problemsolving
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Problemsolvingconsistsofusinggenericoradhocmethods,inanorderlymanner,forfindingsolutionsto
problems.Someoftheproblemsolvingtechniquesdevelopedandusedinartificialintelligence,computer
science,engineering,mathematics,ormedicinearerelatedtomentalproblemsolvingtechniquesstudiedin
psychology.

Contents
1 Definition
1.1 Psychology
1.1.1 Clinicalpsychology
1.2 Cognitivesciences
1.3 Computerscienceandalgorithmics
1.4 Engineering
1.5 Militaryscience
1.6 Other
2 Problemsolvingstrategies
3 Problemsolvingmethods
4 Commonbarrierstoproblemsolving
4.1 Confirmationbias
4.2 Mentalset
4.3 Functionalfixedness
4.4 Unnecessaryconstraints
4.5 Irrelevantinformation
5 Cognitivesciences:twoschools
5.1 Europe
5.2 NorthAmerica
6 Characteristicsofcomplexproblems
7 Collectiveproblemsolving
8 Seealso
9 Notes
10 References

Definition
Thetermproblemsolvingisusedinmanydisciplines,sometimeswithdifferentperspectives,andoftenwith
differentterminologies.Forinstance,itisamentalprocessinpsychologyandacomputerizedprocessin
computerscience.Problemscanalsobeclassifiedintotwodifferenttypes(illdefinedandwelldefined)from
whichappropriatesolutionsaretobemade.Illdefinedproblemsarethosethatdonothavecleargoals,solution
paths,orexpectedsolution.Welldefinedproblemshavespecificgoals,clearlydefinedsolutionpaths,andclear
expectedsolutions.Theseproblemsalsoallowformoreinitialplanningthanilldefinedproblems.[1]Beingable
tosolveproblemssometimesinvolvesdealingwithpragmatics(logic)andsemantics(interpretationofthe
problem).Theabilitytounderstandwhatthegoaloftheproblemisandwhatrulescouldbeappliedrepresent
thekeytosolvingtheproblem.Sometimestheproblemrequiressomeabstractthinkingandcomingupwitha
creativesolution.

Psychology

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Inpsychology,problemsolvingreferstoastateofdesireforreachingadefinite'goal'fromapresentcondition
thateitherisnotdirectlymovingtowardthegoal,isfarfromit,orneedsmorecomplexlogicforfindinga
missingdescriptionofconditionsorstepstowardthegoal.[2]Itistheevolutionarydriveforlivingorganisms.
Thenatureofhumanproblemsolvingprocessesandmethodshasbeenstudiedbypsychologistsoverthepast
hundredyears.Methodsofstudyingproblemsolvingincludeintrospection,behaviorism,simulation,computer
modeling,andexperiment.Socialpsychologistsalsolookintotheindependentandinterdependentproblem
solvingmethods.[3]Inpsychology,problemsolvingistheconcludingpartofalargerprocessthatalsoincludes
problemfindingandproblemshaping.

Consideredthemostcomplexofallintellectualfunctions,problemsolvinghasbeendefinedasahigherorder
cognitiveprocessthatrequiresthemodulationandcontrolofmoreroutineorfundamentalskills.[4]Problem
solvinghastwomajordomains:mathematicalproblemsolvingandpersonalproblemsolvingwhere,inthe
second,somedifficultyorbarrierisencountered.[5]

Clinicalpsychology

Simplelaboratorybasedtaskscanbeusefulsolvinghowever,theyusuallyomitthecomplexityandemotional
valenceof"realworld"problems.Inclinicalpsychology,researchershavefocusedontheroleofemotionsin
problemsolving(D'Zurilla&Goldfried,1971D'Zurilla&Nezu,1982),demonstratingthatpooremotional
controlcandisruptfocusonthetargettaskandimpedeproblemresolution(Rath,Langenbahn,Simon,Sherr,&
Diller,2004).Inthisconceptualization,humanproblemsolvingconsistsoftworelatedprocesses:problem
orientation,themotivational/attitudinal/affectiveapproachtoproblematicsituationsandproblemsolvingskills.
Workingwithindividualswithfrontallobeinjuries,neuropsychologistshavediscoveredthatdeficitsin
emotionalcontrolandreasoningcanberemediated,improvingthecapacityofinjuredpersonstoresolve
everydayproblemssuccessfully(Rath,Simon,Langenbahn,Sherr,&Diller,2003).

Cognitivesciences

TheearlyexperimentalworkoftheGestaltistsinGermanyplacedthebeginningofproblemsolvingstudy(e.g.,
KarlDunckerin1935withhisbookThepsychologyofproductivethinking[6]).Laterthisexperimentalwork
continuedthroughthe1960sandearly1970swithresearchconductedonrelativelysimple(butnovelfor
participants)laboratorytasksofproblemsolving.[7][8]Choosingsimplenoveltaskswasbasedontheclearly
definedoptimalsolutionsandtheirshorttimeforsolving,whichmadeitpossiblefortheresearcherstotrace
participants'stepsinproblemsolvingprocess.Researchers'underlyingassumptionwasthatsimpletaskssuch
astheTowerofHanoicorrespondtothemainpropertiesof"realworld"problemsandthusthecharacteristic
cognitiveprocesseswithinparticipants'attemptstosolvesimpleproblemsarethesamefor"realworld"
problemstoosimpleproblemswereusedforreasonsofconvenienceandwiththeexpectationthatthought
generalizationstomorecomplexproblemswouldbecomepossible.Perhapsthebestknownandmost
impressiveexampleofthislineofresearchistheworkbyAllenNewellandHerbertA.Simon.[9]Otherexperts
haveshownthattheprincipleofdecompositionimprovestheabilityoftheproblemsolvertomakegood
judgment.[10]

Computerscienceandalgorithmics

Incomputerscienceandinthepartofartificialintelligencethatdealswithalgorithms("algorithmics"),
problemsolvingencompassesanumberoftechniquesknownasalgorithms,heuristics,rootcauseanalysis,etc.
Inthesedisciplines,problemsolvingispartofalargerprocessthatencompassesproblemdetermination,de
duplication,analysis,diagnosis,repair,etc.

Engineering

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Problemsolvingisusedinwhenproductsorprocessesfail,socorrectiveactioncanbetakentopreventfurther
failures.Itcanalsobeappliedtoaproductorprocesspriortoanactualfailevent,i.e.,whenapotential
problemcanbepredictedandanalyzed,andmitigationappliedsotheproblemneveractuallyoccurs.
TechniquessuchasFailureModeEffectsAnalysiscanbeusedtoproactivelyreducethelikelihoodofproblems
occurring.

Militaryscience

Inmilitaryscience,problemsolvingislinkedtotheconceptof"endstates",thedesiredconditionorsituation
thatstrategistswishtogenerate.[11]:xiii,E2Theabilitytosolveproblemsisimportantatanymilitaryrank,butis
highlycriticalatthecommandandcontrollevel,whereitisstrictlycorrelatedtothedeepunderstandingof
qualitativeandquantitativescenarios.Effectivenessofproblemsolvingis"acriterionusedtoassesschangesin
systembehavior,capability,oroperationalenvironmentthatistiedtomeasuringtheattainmentofanendstate,
achievementofanobjective,orcreationofaneffect".[11]:IV24Planningforproblemsolvingisa"processthat
determinesanddescribeshowtoemploy'means'inspecific'ways'toachieve'ends'(theproblem's
solution)."[11]:IV1

Other

Forensicengineeringisanimportanttechniqueoffailureanalysisthatinvolvestracingproductdefectsand
flaws.Correctiveactioncanthenbetakentopreventfurtherfailures.

Reverseengineeringattemptstodiscovertheoriginalproblemsolvinglogicusedindevelopingaproductby
takingitapart.

Otherproblemsolvingtoolsarelinearandnonlinearprogramming,queuingsystems,andsimulation.[12]

Problemsolvingstrategies
Problemsolvingstrategiesarethestepsthatonewouldusetofindtheproblem(s)thatareinthewaytogetting
toone'sowngoal.Firend'sproblemsolvingmodel(PSM)ispracticalinapplicationandincorporatesthe
conventional5WHapproach,withasystematicprocessofinvestigation,implementationandassessment
cycle.[13]Somewouldrefertothisasthe"problemsolvingcycle"(Bransford&Stein,1993).Inthiscycleone
willrecognizetheproblem,definetheproblem,developastrategytofixtheproblem,organizetheknowledge
oftheproblemcycle,figureouttheresourcesattheuser'sdisposal,monitorone'sprogress,andevaluatethe
solutionforaccuracy.Thereasonitiscalledacycleisthatonceoneiscompletedwithaproblemanother
usuallywillpopup.

BlanchardFields(2007)looksatproblemsolvingfromoneoftwofacets.Thefirstlookingatthoseproblems
thatonlyhaveonesolution(likemathematicalproblems,orfactbasedquestions)whicharegroundedin
psychometricintelligence.Theotherthatissocioemotionalinnatureandareunpredictablewithanswersthat
areconstantlychanging(likewhat'syourfavoritecolororwhatyoushouldgetsomeoneforChristmas).

Thefollowingtechniquesareusuallycalledproblemsolvingstrategies'[14]

Abstraction:solvingtheprobleminamodelofthesystembeforeapplyingittotherealsystem
Analogy:usingasolutionthatsolvesananalogousproblem
Brainstorming:(especiallyamonggroupsofpeople)suggestingalargenumberofsolutionsorideasand
combininganddevelopingthemuntilanoptimumsolutionisfound
Divideandconquer:breakingdownalarge,complexproblemintosmaller,solvableproblems
Hypothesistesting:assumingapossibleexplanationtotheproblemandtryingtoprove(or,insome
contexts,disprove)theassumption
Lateralthinking:approachingsolutionsindirectlyandcreatively
Meansendsanalysis:choosinganactionateachsteptomoveclosertothegoal
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Methodoffocalobjects:synthesizingseeminglynonmatchingcharacteristicsofdifferentobjectsinto
somethingnew
Morphologicalanalysis:assessingtheoutputandinteractionsofanentiresystem
Proof:trytoprovethattheproblemcannotbesolved.Thepointwheretheprooffailswillbethestarting
pointforsolvingit
Reduction:transformingtheproblemintoanotherproblemforwhichsolutionsexist
Research:employingexistingideasoradaptingexistingsolutionstosimilarproblems
Rootcauseanalysis:identifyingthecauseofaproblem
Trialanderror:testingpossiblesolutionsuntiltherightoneisfound

Problemsolvingmethods
EightDisciplinesProblemSolving
GROWmodel
HowtoSolveIt
OODAloop(observe,orient,decide,andact)
PDCA(plandocheckact)
Rootcauseanalysis
RPRproblemdiagnosis(rapidproblemresolution)
TRIZ(inRussian:TeoriyaResheniyaIzobretatelskikhZadatch,"theoryofsolvinginventor'sproblems")
A3problemsolving
Systemdynamics

Commonbarrierstoproblemsolving
Commonbarrierstoproblemsolvingarementalconstructsthatimpedeourabilitytocorrectlysolveproblems.
Thesebarrierspreventpeoplefromsolvingproblemsinthemostefficientmannerpossible.Fiveofthemost
commonprocessesandfactorsthatresearchershaveidentifiedasbarrierstoproblemsolvingareconfirmation
bias,mentalset,functionalfixedness,unnecessaryconstraints,andirrelevantinformation.

Confirmationbias

Withinthefieldofsciencethereexistsasetoffundamentalstandards,thescientificmethod,whichoutlinesthe
processofdiscoveringfactsortruthsabouttheworldthroughunbiasedconsiderationofallpertinent
informationandthroughimpartialobservationofand/orexperimentationwiththatinformation.Accordingto
thismethod,oneisabletomostaccuratelyfindasolutiontoaperceivedproblembyperformingthe
aforementionedsteps.Thescientificmethoddoesnotprescribeaprocessthatislimitedtoscientists,butrather
onethatallpeoplecanpracticeintheirrespectivefieldsofworkaswellasintheirpersonallives.Confirmation
biascanbedescribedasone'sunconsciousorunintentionalcorruptionofthescientificmethod.Thuswhenone
demonstratesconfirmationbias,oneisformallyorinformallycollectingdataandthensubsequentlyobserving
andexperimentingwiththatdatainsuchawaythatfavorsapreconceivednotionthatmayormaynothave
motivation.[15]Researchhasfoundthatprofessionalswithinscientificfieldsofstudyalsoexperience
confirmationbias.AndreasHergovich,ReinhardSchott,andChristophBurger'sexperimentconductedonline,
forinstance,suggestedthatprofessionalswithinthefieldofpsychologicalresearcharelikelytoviewscientific
studiesthatarecongruentwiththeirpreconceivedunderstandingsmorefavorablythanstudiesthatare
incongruentwiththeirestablishedbeliefs.[16]

Motivationreferstoone'sdesiretodefendorfindsubstantiationforbeliefs(e.g.,religiousbeliefs)thatare
importanttoone.[17]AccordingtoRaymondNickerson,onecanseetheconsequencesofconfirmationbiasin
reallifesituations,whichrangeinseverityfrominefficientgovernmentpoliciestogenocide.Withrespectto
thelatterandmostsevereramificationofthiscognitivebarrier,Nickersonarguedthatthoseinvolvedin
committinggenocideofpersonsaccusedofwitchcraft,anatrocitythatoccurredfromthe15thto17thcenturies,
demonstratedconfirmationbiaswithmotivation.ResearcherMichaelAllenfoundevidenceforconfirmation
biaswithmotivationinschoolchildrenwhoworkedtomanipulatetheirscienceexperimentsinsuchawaythat
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wouldproducetheirhopedforresults.[18]However,confirmationbiasdoesnotnecessarilyrequiremotivation.
In1960,PeterCathcartWasonconductedanexperimentinwhichparticipantsfirstviewedthreenumbersand
thencreatedahypothesisthatproposedarulethatcouldhavebeenusedtocreatethattripletofnumbers.When
testingtheirhypotheses,participantstendedtoonlycreateadditionaltripletsofnumbersthatwouldconfirm
theirhypotheses,andtendednottocreatetripletsthatwouldnegateordisprovetheirhypotheses.Thusresearch
alsoshowsthatpeoplecananddoworktoconfirmtheoriesorideasthatdonotsupportorengagepersonally
significantbeliefs.[19]

Mentalset

MentalsetwasfirstarticulatedbyAbrahamLuchinsinthe1940sanddemonstratedinhiswellknownwater
jugexperiments.[20]Intheseexperiments,participantswereaskedtofillonejugwithaspecificamountof
waterusingonlyotherjugs(typicallythree)withdifferentmaximumcapacitiesastools.AfterLuchinsgavehis
participantsasetofwaterjugproblemsthatcouldallbesolvedbyemployingasingletechnique,hewouldthen
givethemaproblemthatcouldeitherbesolvedusingthatsametechniqueoranovelandsimplermethod.
Luchinsdiscoveredthathisparticipantstendedtousethesametechniquethattheyhadbecomeaccustomedto
despitethepossibilityofusingasimpleralternative.[21]Thusmentalsetdescribesone'sinclinationtoattemptto
solveproblemsinsuchawaythathasprovedsuccessfulinpreviousexperiences.However,asLuchins'work
revealed,suchmethodsforfindingasolutionthathaveworkedinthepastmaynotbeadequateoroptimalfor
certainnewbutsimilarproblems.Therefore,itisoftennecessaryforpeopletomovebeyondtheirmentalsets
inordertofindsolutions.ThiswasagaindemonstratedinNormanMaier's1931experiment,whichchallenged
participantstosolveaproblembyusingahouseholdobject(pliers)inanunconventionalmanner.Maier
observedthatparticipantswereoftenunabletoviewtheobjectinawaythatstrayedfromitstypicaluse,a
phenomenonregardedasaparticularformofmentalset(morespecificallyknownasfunctionalfixedness,
whichisthetopicofthefollowingsection).Whenpeopleclingrigidlytotheirmentalsets,theyaresaidtobe
experiencingfixation,aseemingobsessionorpreoccupationwithattemptedstrategiesthatarerepeatedly
unsuccessful.[22]Inthelate1990s,researcherJenniferWileyworkedtorevealthatexpertisecanworktocreate
amentalsetinpersonsconsideredtobeexpertsincertainfields,andshefurthermoregainedevidencethatthe
mentalsetcreatedbyexpertisecouldleadtothedevelopmentoffixation.[23]

Functionalfixedness

Functionalfixednessisaspecificformofmentalsetandfixation,whichwasalludedtoearlierintheMaier
experiment,andfurthermoreitisanotherwayinwhichcognitivebiascanbeseenthroughoutdailylife.Tim
GermanandClarkBarrettdescribethisbarrierasthefixeddesignofanobjecthinderingtheindividual'sability
toseeitservingotherfunctions.Inmoretechnicalterms,theseresearchersexplainedthat"[s]ubjectsbecome
"fixed"onthedesignfunctionoftheobjects,andproblemsolvingsuffersrelativetocontrolconditionsin
whichtheobject'sfunctionisnotdemonstrated."[24]Functionalfixednessisdefinedasonlyhavingthatprimary
functionoftheobjectitselfhindertheabilityofitservinganotherpurposeotherthanitsoriginalfunction.In
researchthathighlightedtheprimaryreasonsthatyoungchildrenareimmunetofunctionalfixedness,itwas
statedthat"functionalfixedness...[iswhen]subjectsarehinderedinreachingthesolutiontoaproblembytheir
knowledgeofanobject'sconventionalfunction."[25]Furthermore,itisimportanttonotethatfunctional
fixednesscanbeeasilyexpressedincommonplacesituations.Forinstance,imaginethefollowingsituation:a
manseesabugonthefloorthathewantstokill,buttheonlythinginhishandatthemomentisacanofair
freshener.Ifthemanstartslookingaroundforsomethinginthehousetokillthebugwithinsteadofrealizing
thatthecanofairfreshenercouldinfactbeusednotonlyashavingitsmainfunctionastofreshentheair,heis
saidtobeexperiencingfunctionalfixedness.Theman'sknowledgeofthecanbeingservedaspurelyanair
freshenerhinderedhisabilitytorealizethatittoocouldhavebeenusedtoserveanotherpurpose,whichinthis
instancewasasaninstrumenttokillthebug.Functionalfixednesscanhappenonmultipleoccasionsandcan
causeustohavecertaincognitivebiases.Ifweonlyseeanobjectasservingoneprimaryfocusthanwefailto
realizethattheobjectcanbeusedinvariouswaysotherthanitsintendedpurpose.Thiscaninturncausemany
issueswithregardstoproblemsolving.Commonsenseseemstobeaplausibleanswertofunctionalfixedness.
Onecouldmakethisargumentbecauseitseemsrathersimpletoconsiderpossiblealternativeusesforan
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object.Perhapsusingcommonsensetosolvethisissuecouldbethemostaccurateanswerwithinthiscontext.
Withthepreviousstatedexample,itseemsasifitwouldmakeperfectsensetousethecanofairfreshenerto
killthebugratherthantosearchforsomethingelsetoservethatfunctionbut,asresearchshows,thisisoften
notthecase.

Functionalfixednesslimitstheabilityforpeopletosolveproblemsaccuratelybycausingonetohaveavery
narrowwayofthinking.Functionalfixednesscanbeseeninothertypesoflearningbehaviorsaswell.For
instance,researchhasdiscoveredthepresenceoffunctionalfixednessinmanyeducationalinstances.
ResearchersFurio,Calatayud,Baracenas,andPadillastatedthat"...functionalfixednessmaybefoundin
learningconceptsaswellasinsolvingchemistryproblems."[26]Therewasmoreemphasisonthisfunction
beingseeninthistypeofsubjectandothers.

Thereareseveralhypothesesinregardstohowfunctionalfixednessrelatestoproblemsolving.[27]Thereare
alsomanywaysinwhichapersoncanrunintoproblemswhilethinkingofaparticularobjectwithhavingthis
function.Ifthereisonewayinwhichapersonusuallythinksofsomethingratherthanmultiplewaysthenthis
canleadtoaconstraintinhowthepersonthinksofthatparticularobject.Thiscanbeseenasnarrowminded
thinking,whichisdefinedasawayinwhichoneisnotabletoseeoracceptcertainideasinaparticular
context.Functionalfixednessisverycloselyrelatedtothisaspreviouslymentioned.Thiscanbedone
intentionallyandorunintentionally,butforthemostpartitseemsasifthisprocesstoproblemsolvingisdone
inanunintentionalway.

Functionalfixednesscanaffectproblemsolversinatleasttwoparticularways.Thefirstiswithregardstotime,
asfunctionalfixednesscausespeopletousemoretimethannecessarytosolveanygivenproblem.Secondly,
functionalfixednessoftencausessolverstomakemoreattemptstosolveaproblemthantheywouldhavemade
iftheywerenotexperiencingthiscognitivebarrier.Intheworstcase,functionalfixednesscancompletely
preventapersonfromrealizingasolutiontoaproblem.Functionalfixednessisacommonplaceoccurrence,
whichaffectsthelivesofmanypeople.

Unnecessaryconstraints

Unnecessaryconstraintsareanotherverycommonbarrierthatpeoplefacewhileattemptingtoproblemsolve.
Thisparticularphenomenonoccurswhenthesubject,tryingtosolvetheproblemsubconsciously,places
boundariesonthetaskathand,whichinturnforceshimorhertostraintobemoreinnovativeintheirthinking.
Thesolverhitsabarrierwhentheybecomefixatedononlyonewaytosolvetheirproblem,anditbecomes
increasinglydifficulttoseeanythingbutthemethodtheyhavechosen.Typically,thesolverexperiencesthis
whenattemptingtouseamethodtheyhavealreadyexperiencedsuccessfrom,andtheycannothelpbuttryto
makeitworkinthepresentcircumstancesaswell,eveniftheyseethatitiscounterproductive.[28]

Groupthink,ortakingonthemindsetoftherestofthegroupmembers,canalsoactasanunnecessary
constraintwhiletryingtosolveproblems.[29]Thisisduetothefactthatwitheverybodythinkingthesame
thing,stoppingonthesameconclusions,andinhibitingthemselvestothinkbeyondthis.Thisisverycommon,
butthemostwellknownexampleofthisbarriermakingitselfpresentisinthefamousexampleofthedot
problem.Inthisexample,thereareninedotslyinginasquarethreedotsacross,andthreedotsrunningupand
down.Thesolveristhenaskedtodrawnomorethanfourlines,withoutliftingtheirpenorpencilfromthe
paper.Thisseriesoflinesshouldconnectallofthedotsonthepaper.Then,whattypicallyhappensisthe
subjectcreatesanassumptionintheirmindthattheymustconnectthedotswithoutlettinghisorherpenor
pencilgooutsideofthesquareofdots.Standardizedprocedureslikethiscanoftenbringmentallyinvented
constraintsofthiskind,[30]andresearchershavefounda0%correctsolutionrateinthetimeallottedforthe
tasktobecompleted.[31]Theimposedconstraintinhibitsthesolvertothinkbeyondtheboundsofthedots.Itis
fromthisphenomenonthattheexpression"thinkoutsidethebox"isderived.[32]

Thisproblemcanbequicklysolvedwithadawningofrealization,orinsight.Afewminutesofstrugglingover
aproblemcanbringthesesuddeninsights,wherethesolverquicklyseesthesolutionclearly.Problemssuchas
thisaremosttypicallysolvedviainsightandcanbeverydifficultforthesubjectdependingoneitherhowthey
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havestructuredtheproblemintheirminds,howtheydrawontheirpastexperiences,andhowmuchtheyjuggle
thisinformationintheirworkingmemories[32]Inthecaseoftheninedotexample,thesolverhasalreadybeen
structuredincorrectlyintheirmindsbecauseoftheconstraintthattheyhaveplaceduponthesolution.In
additiontothis,peopleexperiencestruggleswhentheytrytocomparetheproblemtotheirpriorknowledge,
andtheythinktheymustkeeptheirlineswithinthedotsandnotgobeyond.Theydothisbecausetryingto
envisionthedotsconnectedoutsideofthebasicsquareputsastrainontheirworkingmemory.[32]

Luckily,thesolutiontotheproblembecomesobviousasinsightoccursfollowingincrementalmovementsmade
towardthesolution.Thesetinymovementshappenwithoutthesolverknowing.Thenwhentheinsightis
realizedfully,the"aha"momenthappensforthesubject.[33]Thesemomentsofinsightcantakealongwhileto
manifestornotsolongatothertimes,butthewaythatthesolutionisarrivedataftertoilingoverthesebarriers
staysthesame.

Irrelevantinformation

Irrelevantinformationisinformationpresentedwithinaproblemthatisunrelatedorunimportanttothespecific
problem.[28]Withinthespecificcontextoftheproblem,irrelevantinformationwouldservenopurposein
helpingsolvethatparticularproblem.Oftenirrelevantinformationisdetrimentaltotheproblemsolving
process.Itisacommonbarrierthatmanypeoplehavetroublegettingthrough,especiallyiftheyarenotaware
ofit.Irrelevantinformationmakessolvingotherwiserelativelysimpleproblemsmuchharder.[34]

Forexample:"FifteenpercentofthepeopleinTopekahaveunlistedtelephonenumbers.Youselect200names
atrandomfromtheTopekaphonebook.Howmanyofthesepeoplehaveunlistedphonenumbers?"[35]

Thepeoplethatarenotlistedinthephonebookwouldnotbeamongthe200namesyouselected.The
individualslookingatthistaskwouldhavenaturallywantedtousethe15%giventothemintheproblem.They
seethatthereisinformationpresentandtheyimmediatelythinkthatitneedstobeused.Thisofcourseisnot
true.Thesekindsofquestionsareoftenusedtoteststudentstakingaptitudetestsorcognitiveevaluations.[36]
Theyaren'tmeanttobedifficultbuttheyaremeanttorequirethinkingthatisnotnecessarilycommon.
IrrelevantInformationiscommonlyrepresentedinmathproblems,wordproblemsspecifically,where
numericalinformationisputforthepurposeofchallengingtheindividual.

Onereasonirrelevantinformationissoeffectiveatkeepingapersonofftopicandawayfromtherelevant
information,isinhowitisrepresented.[36]Thewayinformationisrepresentedcanmakeavastdifferencein
howdifficulttheproblemistobeovercome.Whetheraproblemisrepresentedvisually,verbally,spatially,or
mathematically,irrelevantinformationcanhaveaprofoundeffectonhowlongaproblemtakestobesolvedor
ifit'sevenpossible.TheBuddhistmonkproblemisaclassicexampleofirrelevantinformationandhowitcan
berepresentedindifferentways:

ABuddhistmonkbeginsatdawnonedaywalkingupamountain,reachesthetopatsunset,
meditatesatthetopforseveraldaysuntilonedawnwhenhebeginstowalkbacktothefootofthe
mountain,whichhereachesatsunset.Makingnoassumptionsabouthisstartingorstoppingor
abouthispaceduringthetrips,provethatthereisaplaceonthepathwhichheoccupiesatthe
samehourofthedayonthetwoseparatejourneys.

Thisproblemisnearimpossibletosolvebecauseofhowtheinformationisrepresented.Becauseitiswritten
outinawaythatrepresentstheinformationverbally,itcausesustotryandcreateamentalimageofthe
paragraph.Thisisoftenverydifficulttodoespeciallywithalltheirrelevantinformationinvolvedinthe
question.Thisexampleismademucheasiertounderstandwhentheparagraphisrepresentedvisually.Nowif
thesameproblemwasasked,butitwasalsoaccompaniedbyacorrespondinggraph,itwouldbefareasierto
answerthisquestionirrelevantinformationnolongerservesasaroadblock.Byrepresentingtheproblem
visually,therearenodifficultwordstounderstandorscenariostoimagine.Thevisualrepresentationofthis
problemhasremovedthedifficultyofsolvingit.

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Thesetypesofrepresentationsareoftenusedtomakedifficultproblemseasier.[37]Theycanbeusedontestsas
astrategytoremoveIrrelevantInformation,whichisoneofthemostcommonformsofbarrierswhen
discussingtheissuesofproblemsolving.[28]Identifyingcrucialinformationpresentedinaproblemandthen
beingabletocorrectlyidentifyitsusefulnessisessential.Beingawareofirrelevantinformationisthefirststep
inovercomingthiscommonbarrier.

Cognitivesciences:twoschools
Incognitivesciences,researchers'realizationthatproblemsolvingprocessesdifferacrossknowledgedomains
andacrosslevelsofexpertise(e.g.Sternberg,1995)andthat,consequently,findingsobtainedinthelaboratory
cannotnecessarilygeneralizetoproblemsolvingsituationsoutsidethelaboratory,hasledtoanemphasison
realworldproblemsolvingsincethe1990s.ThisemphasishasbeenexpressedquitedifferentlyinNorth
AmericaandEurope,however.WhereasNorthAmericanresearchhastypicallyconcentratedonstudying
problemsolvinginseparate,naturalknowledgedomains,muchoftheEuropeanresearchhasfocusedonnovel,
complexproblems,andhasbeenperformedwithcomputerizedscenarios(seeFunke,1991,foranoverview).

Europe

InEurope,twomainapproacheshavesurfaced,oneinitiatedbyDonaldBroadbent(1977seeBerry&
Broadbent,1995)intheUnitedKingdomandtheotheronebyDietrichDrner(1975,1985seeDrner&
Wearing,1995)inGermany.Thetwoapproachesshareanemphasisonrelativelycomplex,semanticallyrich,
computerizedlaboratorytasks,constructedtoresemblereallifeproblems.Theapproachesdiffersomewhatin
theirtheoreticalgoalsandmethodology,however.ThetraditioninitiatedbyBroadbentemphasizesthe
distinctionbetweencognitiveproblemsolvingprocessesthatoperateunderawarenessversusoutsideof
awareness,andtypicallyemploysmathematicallywelldefinedcomputerizedsystems.Thetraditioninitiatedby
Drner,ontheotherhand,hasaninterestintheinterplayofthecognitive,motivational,andsocialcomponents
ofproblemsolving,andutilizesverycomplexcomputerizedscenariosthatcontainupto2,000highly
interconnectedvariables(e.g.,Drner,Kreuzig,Reither&Studel's1983LOHHAUSENprojectRingelband,
Misiak&Kluwe,1990).Buchner(1995)describesthetwotraditionsindetail.

NorthAmerica

InNorthAmerica,initiatedbytheworkofHerbertA.Simonon"learningbydoing"insemanticallyrich
domains(e.g.Anzai&Simon,1979Bhaskar&Simon,1977),researchersbegantoinvestigateproblem
solvingseparatelyindifferentnaturalknowledgedomainssuchasphysics,writing,orchessplayingthus
relinquishingtheirattemptstoextractaglobaltheoryofproblemsolving(e.g.Sternberg&Frensch,1991).
Instead,theseresearchershavefrequentlyfocusedonthedevelopmentofproblemsolvingwithinacertain
domain,thatisonthedevelopmentofexpertise(e.g.Anderson,Boyle&Reiser,1985Chase&Simon,1973
Chi,Feltovich&Glaser,1981).

AreasthathaveattractedratherintensiveattentioninNorthAmericainclude:

Reading(Stanovich&Cunningham,1991)
Writing(Bryson,Bereiter,Scardamalia&Joram,1991)
Calculation(Sokol&McCloskey,1991)
Politicaldecisionmaking(Voss,Wolfe,Lawrence&Engle,1991)
Managerialproblemsolving(Wagner,1991)
Lawyers'reasoning(Amsel,Langer&Loutzenhiser,1991)
Mechanicalproblemsolving(Hegarty,1991)
Problemsolvinginelectronics(Lesgold&Lajoie,1991)
Computerskills(Kay,1991)
Gameplaying(Frensch&Sternberg,1991)
Personalproblemsolving(Heppner&Krauskopf,1987)
Mathematicalproblemsolving(Plya,1945Schoenfeld,1985)

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Socialproblemsolving(D'Zurilla&Goldfreid,1971D'Zurilla&Nezu,1982)
Problemsolvingforinnovationsandinventions:TRIZ(Altshuller,1994)

Characteristicsofcomplexproblems
AselucidatedbyDietrichDrnerandlaterexpandeduponbyJoachimFunke,complexproblemshavesome
typicalcharacteristicsthatcanbesummarizedasfollows:

Complexity(largenumbersofitems,interrelationsanddecisions)
enumerability
heterogeneity
connectivity(hierarchyrelation,communicationrelation,allocationrelation)
Dynamics(timeconsiderations)
temporalconstraints
temporalsensitivity
phaseeffects
dynamicunpredictability
Intransparency(lackofclarityofthesituation)
commencementopacity
continuationopacity
Polytely(multiplegoals)
inexpressiveness
opposition
transience

Collectiveproblemsolving
Problemsolvingisappliedonmanydifferentlevelsfromtheindividualtothecivilizational.Collective
problemsolvingreferstoproblemsolvingperformedcollectively.

Socialissuesandglobalissuescantypicallyonlybesolvedcollectively.

Ithasbeennotedthatthecomplexityofcontemporaryproblemshasexceededthecognitivecapacityofany
individualandrequiresdifferentbutcomplementaryexpertiseandcollectiveproblemsolvingability.[38]

Collectiveintelligenceissharedorgroupintelligencethatemergesfromthecollaboration,collectiveefforts,
andcompetitionofmanyindividuals.

Ina1962researchreport,DouglasEngelbartlinkedcollectiveintelligencetoorganizationaleffectiveness,and
predictedthatproactively'augmentinghumanintellect'wouldyieldamultipliereffectingroupproblem
solving:"Threepeopleworkingtogetherinthisaugmentedmode[would]seemtobemorethanthreetimesas
effectiveinsolvingacomplexproblemasisoneaugmentedpersonworkingalone".[39]

HenryJenkins,akeytheoristofnewmediaandmediaconvergencedrawsonthetheorythatcollective
intelligencecanbeattributedtomediaconvergenceandparticipatoryculture.[40]Hecriticizescontemporary
educationforfailingtoincorporateonlinetrendsofcollectiveproblemsolvingintotheclassroom,stating
"whereasacollectiveintelligencecommunityencouragesownershipofworkasagroup,schoolsgrade
individuals".Jenkinsarguesthatinteractionwithinaknowledgecommunitybuildsvitalskillsforyoung
people,andteamworkthroughcollectiveintelligencecommunitiescontributetothedevelopmentofsuch
skills.[41]

Collectiveimpactisthecommitmentofagroupofactorsfromdifferentsectorstoacommonagendafor
solvingaspecificsocialproblem,usingastructuredformofcollaboration.

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AfterWorldWarIItheUN,theBrettonWoodsorganizationandtheWTOwerecreatedandcollectiveproblem
solvingontheinternationallevelcrystallizedsincethe1980saroundthese3typesoforganizations.Asthese
globalinstitutionsremainstatelikeorstatecentricithasbeencalledunsurprisingthatthesecontinuestatelike
orstatecentricapproachestocollectiveproblemsolvingratherthanalternativeones.[42]

Ithasbeenobservedthatmodelsofliberaldemocracyprovideneitheradequatedesignsforcollectiveproblem
solvingnorhandlingthesubstantivechallengesinsocietysuchascrime,war,economicdecline,illnessand
environmentaldegradationtoproducesatisfyingoutcomes.[43]

Crowdsourcingisaprocessofaccumulatingtheideas,thoughtsorinformationfrommanyindependent
participants,withaimtofindthebestsolutionforagivenchallenge.Moderninformationtechnologiesallow
formassivenumberofsubjectstobeinvolvedaswellassystemsofmanagingthesesuggestionsthatprovide
goodresults.[44]WiththeInternetanewcapacityforcollective,includingplanetaryscale,problemsolvingwas
created.[45]

Seealso
Analyticalskill Problemstructuringmethods
Creativeproblemsolving Psychedelicsinproblemsolvingexperiment
Collectiveintelligence Serendipity
Divergentthinking Structuralfix
Greyproblem Subgoallabeling
Innovation Troubleshooting
Instrumentalism Wickedproblem
Problemstatement
Problemstructuringmethods
Notes
1.Schacter,D.L.etal.(2009).Psychology,SecondEdition.NewYork:WorthPublishers.pp.376
2."Ineachcase"whereyouwanttobe"isanimagined(orwritten)stateinwhichyouwouldliketobe.Wemightuse
theterm'ProblemIdentification'oranalysisinordertofigureoutexactlywhattheproblemis.Afterwehavefounda
problemweneedtodefinewhattheproblemis.Inotherwords,adistinguishedfeatureofaproblemisthatthereisa
goaltobereachedandhowyougetthereisnotimmediatelyobvious.",Whatisaproblem?inS.IanRobertson,
Problemsolving,PsychologyPress,2001,p.2.
3.Rubin,M.Watt,S.E.Ramelli,M.(2012)."Immigrants'socialintegrationasafunctionofapproachavoidance
orientationandproblemsolvingstyle".InternationalJournalofInterculturalRelations.36:498505.
doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.12.009(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijintrel.2011.12.009).
4.GoldsteinF.C.,&LevinH.S.(1987).Disordersofreasoningandproblemsolvingability.InM.Meier,A.Benton,
&L.Diller(Eds.),Neuropsychologicalrehabilitation.London:Taylor&FrancisGroup.
5.BerndZimmermann,Onmathematicalproblemsolvingprocessesandhistoryofmathematics,UniversityofJena.
6.Duncker,K.(1935).ZurPsychologiedesproduktivenDenkens[Thepsychologyofproductivethinking].Berlin:
JuliusSpringer.
7.ForexampleDuncker's"Xray"problemEwert&Lambert's"disk"problemin1932,laterknownasTowerofHanoi.
8.Mayer,R.E.(1992).Thinking,problemsolving,cognition.Secondedition.NewYork:W.H.FreemanandCompany.
9.*Newell,A.,&Simon,H.A.(1972).Humanproblemsolving.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall.
10.J.ScottArmstrong,WilliamB.Denniston,Jr.andMattM.Gordon(1975)."TheUseoftheDecompositionPrinciple
inMakingJudgments"(http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/ideas/pdf/armstrong2/DecompositionPrinciple.pdf)(PDF).
OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanPerformance.14:257263.doi:10.1016/00305073(75)900288(https://doi.org/
10.1016%2F00305073%2875%29900288).
11."Commander'sHandbookforStrategicCommunicationandCommunicationStrategy"(http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/d
octrine/jwfc/sc_hbk10.pdf)(PDF).UnitedStatesJointForcesCommand,JointWarfightingCenter,Suffolk,VA.24
June2010.Retrieved10October2016.
12.Malakooti,Behnam(2013).OperationsandProductionSystemswithMultipleObjectives.JohnWiley&Sons.
ISBN9781118585375.
13.Firend,AlR.(2014)TheProblemSolvingModel"PSM",TheInternationalJournalofBusinessandManagement
Research.Vol.7,No.1

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14.Wang,Y.,&Chiew,V.(2010).Onthecognitiveprocessofhumanproblemsolving.CognitiveSystemsResearch,
11(1),8192.
15.Nickerson,R.S.(1998)."Confirmationbias:Aubiquitousphenomenoninmanyguises".ReviewofGeneral
Psychology.2(2):176.doi:10.1037/10892680.2.2.175(https://doi.org/10.1037%2F10892680.2.2.175).
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