HANS REICHENBACH

Elements
of SI^boIic
Logic

fHE FREE PRESS, New york

coLLIER-MAcMTLLAN LTMITED, London
38 II. The Calculusof Propositions
'c'must be analyzedfor each of the 23:8 possiblecombinations
of truth-values of 'a', 'b' ,' c' . We dassify the formulas with respect
to the number of propositional variables or to the kind of operations.
The first group referring to only one propositional variable contains
fordr,rlaspresentedin traditional logic as the laws of thought, such
as the law of identity or the law of contradiction; we see that we
are con@rned here only with some special fomrulas out of a long
list of other equally important laws of ttrought. The explicit fonnu-
lation of these other formulas, few of which were known in tradi-
tional logic, is due to the work of the first logisticians such as
de Morgan, Boole, Schrtider, Peirce, Russell, and Whitehead.
We add some remarks concerning the equivalence relation.
Though not all tautologies are equivalences, equivalences play an
important role because their function in logic corresponds to the
function of equations in mathematics. Most of our formulas are
therefore equivalences. Becauseof formula 7a we obtain from every
formula containing an equivalence another formula which states,
instead, an implication; thus from rb we get
ova)o G)
from 6c we get
(at b) t (6> a) (6)
We do not include such formulas in our list becausethey can easily
be obtainedl we rather follow the practice of writing an equivalence
sign instead of an implication wherever it is possible. In group 8
we collect ttrose formulas for which an equivalence sign would have
been false, calling them 'one-sidedimplications'. [Ex.]

TAUTOLOGIES IN THE CALCI'LUS OF PROPOSITIONS

oneproposition:
Concerning
n. o:o l
rb. ovo-ol rule of identity
tc. tL o=a I
rd. d=o nrle of double negation
te. ov ii tertium non datur
rf. aZ rule of contradiction
r.B , o )A=A reductio ad absurdum
Sum:
2a. ov b = bv a commutativityof 'or'
zb, ov (bv c) = (ovD) v c = ovbv c associativity
of 'or'
 $ 8. Surveyof PossibleOperations 39
Product:
3a. o.b = b.o commutativity of 'and'
3b. a.(D.c): (o.b).c= o,ba associativityof 'and'
Sum and product:
4a. a.(bv c) = a.bv o.c rst distributive rule
4b. ov b.c= (a v D).(ov c) znd distributive rule
4c, (o v b).(cy il) = s.c,v b,cv a.il v b.d I
twofold distribution
4d. o.rv c.il,: (av c).(bvc).(ov Q.(bv d) |
4e. a.(ov =
b) av a.b o = redundanceof a term
Negation,product, sum:
Sa . o tr = av 6\ hsaLing of negationline
5 b . ZvT : d. 6J
5c. o.(bvb) = a dropping of an always true factor
5 d . o vb. b= a dropping of an always false term
5 e . o v d. b= ov b redundanceof a negation
Implication, negation,product, sum:
6 a . a ) b = A v b)
6 b . o )b= o. - b J dissolutionof implication
6 c. o )b = bt a contraposition
6 d . o ) ( b) c ) = b) ( o) c) = a .b )c symmetry of premises
6 e . (a ) b) . ( a) c ) : a) b .c l
6 f. (a) c ) . ( b)c ) = ay [1 t I
6 9 . (ot b) v ( a) c ) : o > b v c I merging of implications
6 h . (ot c ) v ( b> c ) : o .b tc )
Equivalence,implication,negation,product,
sum:
?a.. (a : b) = (o: D).(6:a) \
dissolution of equivalence
lb. (a = b) = a.bv d.lb I
f. T i= ( o= 6) negationof equivalence
Zd . (a : b) = 1a = $' 1 negation of equivalent terms
One-sidedimplications:
8 a . a ) ov b addition of an arbitrary term
8 b . a .b>a implication from both to auy
8 c. o l (blo) l arbitrary addition of an implica,
8 d . d l ( at DJ tion
8e. a.(o>b) > b inferential implication
8f. (a addition of a term in the implicate
8g. (a > b) ) (a.c) b) addition of a factor in the impli-
cans
8 h . (a v c t b) t ( at b) dropping of a term in the impli-
CADS
8i. (o ) b.c): (a : D) droppiag of a factor in the impli-
cate
8j. (a> b).(c)d) t (o.c>b.d) \ derivation of a merged implica-
8 k. (o ) b) . ( c td) t ( av c ) b v A I tion
81. (ot b) . ( bt c ) > ( at c ) transitivity of implication
8m. (o = b).(b= c) t (o = c) transitivity of equivalence