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Firstly I be obliged to thank the Almighty GOD who gave me good mind &
efficiency to work on this dissertation. This work could not have been
accomplished without the moral hold up extended towards me by my parents.
Finally I thank to all those who spent their vital moments working with me & for
encouraging me to make this project blossom.
ABSTRACT
It is the ever-increasing demand of the hour to preserve and store water in the
rapidly expanding world. So water has to be stored and made available as and
when needed. And so is an extreme need for large, efficient and together with it
economic storage and distribution facilities.
A water tank can be defined as a structure that is used for storing water. The
importance of this structure came into being since the civilization shifted away
from rivers, thereby contributing to the same motive of retaining of water for
various streams as drinking, fire suppression, irrigation, agricultural farming, both
for plants and livestock, food preparation, chemical manufacturing, as well as
many other applications. These structures should have good strength and they
should be leak proof. And it is to be strictly inspected that the concrete in these
structures should not crack on the water face and should have high tensile strength
and low porosity.
Regarding the construction of reinforced concrete water storage tanks, there are
innumerable variables that impact the selection and the final cost of system
improvements. The high variance in rainfall and runoff, availability of alternative
water supply with different reliabilities, demand pattern variability, operational
complexity of the system, maintenance requirements, running cost (especially
power cost), affordability and willingness to pay for services, will influence the
decision on whether a specific type of water storage tank should be implemented,
refurbished, replaced, discarded or expanded.
This, demands for various techniques to assist in finding the optimal solution. In
this report, genetic algorithm, a non-traditional method, have been used for the
structural optimization of reinforced concrete intze type water tank and further
parametric study has been carried out.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
ALL THE WATER THAT WILL EVER BE, IS RIGHT NOW. So it is an
alarming predicament for retaining water in the present scenario when it is getting
a deficient commodity.
Water retaining structures or rather water storage tanks are an important element
of any distribution system. Water is pumped into the storage tank during the
intervals of low demand and pumped out of the storage tank into the distribution
system during intervals of peak demand.
When specifically contemplating about structures that hold liquids, the most
cardinal ingredient to be taken into discussion is the imperviousness of concrete.
This concrete should precisely be prolific in cement, very well graded and
minutely compacted, so as to attain high tensile strength and low porosity.
Generally, the minimum grade of concrete that is used in the construction of these
structures is M25 and the quantity of cement sweeps between 330 to 530 kg/m.
In the typical structures, main facet of design is structural stability and resistance
against loads. But, the structures designed to hold liquids should be resistant to
perforation and dripping in addition to structural stability, resistance and
sufficient strength against deformation and cracking. Cracking is caused due to
lack of quality control, leading to the leakage and deterioration of concrete. The
main reason therefore for failure of these structures are due to illegitimate
selection of material, mix, placement, compaction, leaking, formwork,
temperature control, curing leading to honeycombed and permeable concrete. The
reinforcement may also undergo corrosion due to honeycombing of concrete and
improper cover of concrete to reinforcement, because of the environmental strikes
that can be due to carbonation, chlorides and sulfate attack. Concrete undergoes
expansion and disruption due to the sulfate attack because of the formation of
calcium sulfo-aluminate. Also a substantial damage may come about if
crystallization of sulfate salts takes place in the pores of concrete. Therefore,
concrete cover for bars becomes a very essential consideration in these structures.
So, designing the liquid retaining structures is more sentient than conventional
structures.
Focusing on cracking of these structures, this may happen due to the reasons
narrated below:
The risk of cracking due to shrinkage and temperature variation can be minimized
by keeping the concrete moist and filling the tank as soon as possible.
For evaluating the design of any structure, the foremost target should be that its
end-of-life should not be encountered. This may transpire from one of these two
situations, firstly, from the loss of load-bearing capacity or from the second one,
increase in permeability of the concrete so that an unacceptable flow of water can
occur through the structure. The former condition may arise due to concrete
getting deteriorated and the reinforcement losing its strength or undergoing
corrosion. Corrosion damage can be perceived as reduction in cross-sectional area
of the reinforcing bars or in loss of bar anchorage due to surface spalling. Loss of
anchorage in the reinforcing bar means that they are not capable of developing
their useable strength. Increased permeability is suspected to prevail because of
degradation mechanisms due to which the overall integrity of the concrete may
get affected, such as sulfate attack or alkali-aggregate reactivity, or it can also
crop up due to the formation of discrete structural cracks. To be able to predict the
effects of structural cracks on permeability, it is mandatory to understand the
origin and procedure of discrete crack formation in reinforced concrete structures.
1.2 Objective
The objective of this report is Parametric Studies on Design of water tanks using
Genetic Algorithm, for tackling a large number of design variables and constraints
efficaciously at profuse levels by using genetic algorithm. This procedure will be
useful in assessing the analysis and design of reinforced concrete intze type water
tank, thereby achieving cost saving, consequently, minimizing the dependency on
the manual procedures.
1.3 Scope
In this work computer programs are developed to get the minimum cost design of
reinforced concrete intze type water tank. The design is coupled with GA and then
on the basis of design arrived, objective function is prepared and then on the
application of various constraints, a modified objective function arrives, thereby
calculating the modified cost of the materials required i.e., concrete and
reinforcement, and then parametric studies are carried out.
1.4 Significance
As per the growing need of water, there is an immense call for water supply to
fulfill the day-to-day needs. The electricity required for pumping water from low
levels to cities at higher plateau, and then taking it from ground level treatment
plants to large neighborhood water tanks calls for a good allotment of the city
electricity supply. To tame this issue, elevated tanks come into picture, which do
not require the continuous operation of pumps. Also short term pump shutdown
does not affect water pressure in the distribution system as the pressure is
maintained by gravity. And strategic location of the tank can equalize water
pressures in the distribution system.
The most popular type of elevated tank is the intze tank, consisting of two
spherical shells, one conical shell and one cylindrical shell. This dissertation
report mainly focuses on the optimum design of a reinforced concrete intze type
water tank. Basically optimization is finding out the best feasible ways to acquire
maximum benefit from the resources available. The existence of optimization
methods can be traced to the days of Newton, Lagrange and Cauchy. The modern
optimization methods, also sometimes called nontraditional optimization
methods, have emerged as robust and accepted methods for solving complex
engineering optimization problems in recent years. One of these methods is
genetic algorithms, which will be used to find the most optimal design of the intze
type water tank. Genetic algorithms are computerized search and optimization
algorithms based on the mechanics of natural genetics and natural selection. The
basic elements of natural genetics-reproduction, crossover, and mutation-are used
in the genetic search procedure.
Chapter 2
2.1 General
As we all know that a water tank can be defined as a container that is required to
store water. Here, the basic question that triggers the mind of every individual is
that, what is the need to store water. Now, here comes the answer to this query.
Storage of water becomes essential:
All these reasons quoted above are to be incontrovertibly considered for the
storage of water and then inspecting the design principles for framing the goal of
the project to be carried out.
There are numerous types of water tanks which are classified on divergent
grounds such as
Position
Shape
Material
According to position
Tanks resting on ground
Elevated tanks
Underground tanks
According to shape
Circular tank
Rectangular tank
Spherical tank
Intze tank
According to material
Reinforced cement concrete
Steel tank
Plastic tank
Fiber glass tank
Prestressed concrete tank
Among all these categories of water storage tanks, how to select the one which
will prove to be the most feasible design and most economical one.
Firstly, the most economical type of tank according to position comes out to be
the elevated tank. These tanks are supported on the staging that may be fabricated
of masonry walls, RCC tower or RCC columns that are braced together. They are
constructed for unmediated dispensation by gravity flow. These are generally
used as service reservoirs, as a balancing tank in water supply strategies and for
replenishing the tanks for variegated purposes. These tanks mainly have distinct
assets such as they are not overblown by climatic swaps, are impervious, provide
greater rigidity and are versatile for all shapes. The elevated water tower
generates a pressure of 1 psi per 2.31 feet of altitude at the ground-level outlet, so
it can be easily computed that a tank elevated to 70 feet generates around 30 psi of
discharge pressure, which is enough for most domestic and industrial demands.
Specifically these tanks have a tremendous number of uses, and some of them are
highlighted, i.e., they furnish gravity distribution during the lack of power, they
function as emergency fire water storage tank, they supply pressure head
corresponding to height in industry and ac plants, etc.
Secondly, the most economical type of water tank based on the shape of the
structural form is the circular one. This becomes logical on the following
arguments:
But, as every entity has its pros as well as cons associated with it; for an assigned
capacity of tank and overall length, these have the highest center of gravity. On
the basis of center of gravity, rectangular forms may also be preferred sometimes
as they have the lowest of all and therefore provide for a flat upper surface that
can be used for hose beds and equipment storage, and on the same hand, its
biggest disadvantage is that their shape does not offer any inherent side-to-side
damping.
No special treatment is required to their surfaces when they hold water and
petroleum as these do not react with concrete.
Specifically for reinforced concrete tanks, the grade of concrete can be
selected as per the requirement but for different materials, when one goes
for other grade, then this may happen to be uneconomical sometimes.
In these tanks, there is a great possibility of achieving flexibility in shapes.
These tanks do not undergo corrosion.
With the increase in grade of concrete, the imperviousness of the tank also
increases.
There is no requirement of skilled labor for the construction of these tanks.
These tanks can easily be constructed of larger capacities.
As said above that no entity is free of flaws, these tanks also have some
shortcomings associated with them, firstly, depending upon a particular grade of
the material of construction used for a tank, these may become much costlier,
secondly, while dealing with the construction of these tanks, a good workmanship
is required, and lastly, when going for the repair work for leakage in these tanks,
this task might prove to be very difficult.
Looking to the above stated points it is clear that the best type of tanks are the
circular R.C.C. tanks. They may be elevated or underground. As most of the tanks
in water supply scheme are elevated tanks so their importance is justified.
Intze tank can be defined as a type of circular elevated tank, consisting of two
spherical shells, one cylindrical shell and one conical shell. All these four shells
are considered as surfaces of revolution. As the loads and forces on each shell are
symmetrical about the axis of revolution, the loads are supported by the
development of membrane stresses only, that means, only direct stresses will be
induced in each shell if its edge displacements are not restrained by its supports.
As a result, bending and shear stresses are absent. And the direct stresses are the
meridional and hoop stresses.
Top dome
Top ring beam
Tank wall
Middle ring beam
Conical dome
Bottom ring beam
Bottom dome
2.2.3 Analysis of Intze tank
Membrane analysis
Continuity analysis
Designing an intze tank is not an easy process, its cumbersome and time
consuming. Some of the very important conceptual points that are to be strictly
followed in the procedure are mentioned below:
In the process, it may happen that the load on the bottom dome becomes
heavy, and as the diameter is large, this results into large amount of
reinforcement for the ring beam. An economical alternative for this comes
out to be the reduction of diameter thereby introducing a conical dome,
resulting in lighter reinforcement for the ring beam, due to the thrust
generated from the conical dome opposing that generated from the bottom
dome, and the outcome of this is that the design proves to be economical
for deeper tanks.
When talking about achieving economy in the cost of container of the
intze tank alone, the height of the ring beam to the top of roof dome
should approximately be equal to the diameter.
The bottom dome should have a diameter of about 70% of that of the
diameter of the container.
The inclination of the conical dome with the horizontal should be less than
40 for avoiding the necessity of formwork for its top surface. But this
again results in a heavier ring beam at its top and simultaneously a larger
thickness of the dome itself. Therefore, to achieve an economical design
the inclination should be between 50 and 55.
The domes should be provided with rise of about 1/5 to 1/8 of the
diameter.
Membrane analysis:
While carrying out the membrane analysis of the intze tank, the members should
be assumed to act independent of each other. And as a result, these are only
subjected to direct stresses and no bending moment is introduced in any of the
members.
Top dome:
The top dome only supports its own load in addition to any live load on its
surface, which is considered as vertical with a uniform intensity per unit area
of the surface. As the dome is shallow, the meridional and hoop stresses are
both of a compressive nature throughout and the meridional stress is
maximum at the edges.
The only reaction from the top dome is the meridional thrust, whose
components impose a vertical load and an outward radial force on the beam.
The vertical load is bared by the walls and the resulting hoop tension resulting
from the radial force is resisted by the ring beam. And as a consequence, the
section of the ring beam should preferably be such that the tensile stresses in
concrete, calculated on the composite section, should be less than the cracking
stress.
Tank wall:
The tank wall is assumed to freely deform at both edges in the membrane
analysis. Because of this reason, the tank walls will be subjected only to the
hoop tension without any bending moment. The hoop tension occurring at the
base will be maximum. Horizontal rings are provided at both faces of the tank
wall to reinforce them adequately. In addition to this, vertical bars are
provided on both faces in the form of distribution reinforcement.
Middle ring beam:
The vertical load at the junction of wall with conical dome is transferred to the
middle ring beam by meridional thrust in the conical dome. Hoop tension is
caused by the horizontal component of this thrust at the junction and this hoop
tension is taken by the ring beam.
Conical dome:
The conical dome supports a uniform vertical load from walls at its top edge.
A hoop tension is created at the top of this dome. This hoop tension exerts a
radial inward force at the bottom ring beam. The magnitude of the radial force
created at top edge is so much that on combining with the vertical load, the
resultant lies along the meridian of the conical dome. Thus the vertical load at
top edge of the conical dome is supported by it with the creation of meridional
thrust and a hoop tension. The water pressure on the conical dome and its own
weight acting at any point give rise to hoop tensions at each plane, whose
inward reaction, together with the water pressure and weight of dome, cause a
resultant force which is meridional. There are no moments or shears in the
dome.
Bottom dome:
Only compressive stresses both meridionally and along hoops are developed
in the bottom dome. The maximum compressive stress occurs at edges
meridionally.
The reaction of the bottom dome on the beam is the inclined outward thrust.
This beam also receives an inward inclined thrust from the conical dome.
Effect of continuity:
As long as each shell is simply supported at its edges, that is, it undergoes edge
displacements without any restraint with the supports supplying the necessary
reaction to balance the meridional forces, there exists a pure membrane state of
stresses. But, in actual, there is a restraint on the edge displacements giving rise to
secondary stresses in the form of edge moments and hoop stresses. The result of
all this is the discontinuity occurring at junctions of different shells. Sagging
moments occur at the top and middle ring beams as a result of closing of the
angles at their corners, while hogging moments are developed at the bottom ring
beam as its angle tends to increase. At the top ring beam junction, the edges of the
top dome and vertical wall are pulled outwards resulting in tensile hoop stresses,
while the top ring beam is pushed inward and its hoop tension is reduced.
Similarly at the middle ring beam junction, the middle ring beam and edges of
conical dome are pushed inwards causing a reduction of hoop tension, while the
vertical wall is pulled outwards with increased hoop tension. At bottom ring beam
joint, the conical dome is pushed inwards, the bottom dome and bottom ring beam
are pulled outwards. This causes a hoop compression in conical dome and
reduction of hoop compression in bottom ring beam and bottom dome.
Many research papers have been published on the seismic behavior of elevated
tanks.
Jabar, A. M., Patel, H. S., (2012), in their paper, talked about the fluid-structure
interactions and the seismic behavior of elevated tanks. The main direct of their
study was to decipher the conduct of supporting system that will be effective
under disparate earthquake time history records using SAP 2000 software. Here
two distinct supporting systems like radial bracing and cross bracing were
collated to the basic supporting system for varied fluid level conditions. The
responses of tank encompassing base shear, roof displacement and overturning
moment had been observed, and after that the results were contrasted and
compared. The outcome evinced that the responses from the structure were
exceedingly impacted by the existence of water and the characteristics of
earthquake.
Gaikwad, M. V., Mangulkar, M. N., (2013), a paper regarding the performance of
Elevated Water Tank having framed staging in lateral earthquake loading using
IITK-GSDMA Guidelines by appraising two theoretical theories stated by Sudhir
Jain & Sameer U. S. [1990] and Rapid Assessment of Seismic Safety of Elevated
Water Tank having framed staging & Software STAAD Pro.-2007, for the
calculation of the lateral stiffness. After detailed study it was detected that the
lateral stiffness Ks which was obtained by using the Rapid Assessment of Seismic
Safety of Elevated Water Tank gave the optimum value of Base Shear and
Moment and hence it comes out to be economical.
The seismic behavior of elevated tanks not only depends upon the earthquake
forces but also on the subsoil conditions.
Livaoglu, R., Dogangun, A., (2007), in their paper talked about the seismic
responses of an elevated tank with a frame supporting system on various sub soils.
For modeling the elevated tank and subsoil system, they used the finite element
method. Subsoil was assumed to have fixed-base and elastic media. The model of
tank fluid was considered as lumped mass that identical to impulsive mass and the
convective masses as proposed by Housner. They used response spectrum
analysis with mode superposition for the estimation of seismic response of the
elevated tanks. Then the upshots acquired from the modeling of elevated tanks on
fixed base and elastic medium were contrasted. They came out with some
interesting conclusions:
It was noticed that the elevated tanks which were supported on elastic
medium having relatively low value of Youngs modulus may have
displacements larger than the allowable limits. In some instances, the
displacements were so large that the elevated tanks could have lost
stability even when the internal forces were small.
The base shear and the bending moment at the base of the supporting
structure increased as the Youngs modulus increased and Poissons ratio
decreased.
The phases for convective modes were classically long and were less
prejudiced by the foundation displacement.
The interludes for impulsive modes were pointedly influenced by rigidity
of the soil. But the effect got smaller as Youngs modulus increased. The
intervals of impulsive modes were not affected by the Youngs modulus if
it happened to be higher than 2000 MPa. Moreover, another mode that
could be termed as torsional mode was not substantially exaggerated by
the properties of the subsoil in almost all the cases.
Slight change in Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio of the soil not only
affected the values of the intervals but also the mode orders. This
indicated that considering the first few modes only might cause important
deficits in the design. In fact, vertical modes inclined to be comprised
within the first ten modes if the value of Youngs modulus was low.
The seismic conduct of elevated tanks supported on the soft soil,
specifically if the Youngs modulus was less than 50MPa, stood sensitive
to the envelopment of modal masses and the mode order of the systems.
When the vertical modes were evaluated, it was true that the modes at
perpendicular directions did not took place at the same time.
It has been stated in the literature about the soil-structure interaction that it does
not extensively affect the sloshing responses of the ground level cylindrical tanks,
as a concern of this study performed by Livaoglu, R., Dogangun, A., (2008), it
was established that the sloshing responses of the elevated tanks were affected by
the soil-structure interaction. They concluded that the sloshing response was
affected from the embedment much more in the case of soft soil than the stiff soil,
i.e., as the soil gets softer, the effects of the embedment on sloshing responses
became more visible.
Performance of elevated tanks is also affected by wind forces. This study was
carried out by Hirde, S. K. et al., (2011). They observed that in the Gujarat
cyclone, the storage tanks were displaced by a few meters and some were
overturned because of wind. They were swept away. Flying debris caused dents
on the surfaces of the tanks when they were hit. On further experimentation, they
concluded that wind force is a very important parameter for elevated water tank
which is most susceptible to horizontal forces because of large mass concentrated
at considerable height.
Kumar, A., et al, (2013), studied the wind effects on overhead tank under different
soil parameters and came to a conclusion that for a given soil bearing capacity, as
the wind speed increases, the volume of concrete and quantity of steel required
also increases. Also, they found that, for a given value of wind speed, as the soil
bearing capacity increases so does the volume of concrete and quantity of steel
required decreases.
Chapter 3
OPTIMIZATION
When we refer this quote to engineering, it simply means that optimal projects are
considered beautiful and rational, and the ones that are considered far-from-
optimal ones are regarded as ugly and meaningless. From this, it is very much
obvious that, every engineer tries to build the best project and for achieving this
goal, he/she relies on optimization methods.
Optimization can be elucidated as a goal directed search for procuring the best
solution to a problem that is under deliberation. In the design, construction and
maintenance of engineering system that is under consideration, it is required to
take many technological and managerial decisions at various stages, ultimately
leading to minimization of the effort required or to maximization of the benefit
desired.
It has been notified that the challenges in the water industry are increasing
tremendously around the globe, together with the implementation of capital
constraints and operational cost escalation; necessitate the evaluation of technical,
economical and environmental parameters to reach an optimal solution.
Coming back to the relation of optimization with this dissertation report, the main
wants for an efficient reinforced concrete water tank design is that the response of
the structure should be acceptable as per various specifications, i.e., it should be a
feasible one. There may exist a large number of feasible designs, but it is
desirable to choose the best one. The best design could be in terms of minimum
cost, minimum weight, maximum durability or maximum performance or a
combination of these.
gj(X) 0, j=1,2,3,,m
lj(X) = 0, j=1,2,3,,p
Generally, the design variables are not chosen arbitrarily, they have to satisfy
certain specified functional and other requirements, and these restrictions imposed
on them are collectively known as design constraints.
Now the figure below shows, a hypothetical two-dimensional design space where
the infeasible region is indicated by hatched lines.A bound point is a design point
lying on one or more constraint surface, and the associated constraint is called an
active constraint. Free point is a design point that does not lie on any of the
constraint surfaces. Also whether a design point lies in acceptable or unacceptable
region; can be identified as:
The criterion with respect to which the design is optimized, when expressed as a
function of the design variables, is known as the objective function.
Data description is required for both the methods, and is indicated by block 1.
Estimating the initial design is required for both the methods, and is indicated by
block 2.
Difference comes in the block 4; conventional design method ensures that the
performance criteria are correctly met, while the optimum design method checks
for the satisfaction of all the constraints for the problem that is formulated in
block 0.
Block 5 indicates that the stopping criteria for both the methods are checked and
also the iteration is stopped if the criteria mentioned are met.
In block 6, the design based on the experience and intuition of designer and some
other information gathered from one or more trials is updated in the conventional
design method; and in the optimum design method, the current design is updated
by using optimization concepts and procedures.
From the above discussed distinctions between the two methods, it can be
concluded that the conventional method of design is less formal. This can be
explained as that an objective function that measures the merits of a design is not
identified. Calculation of trend information is not carried out, nor is it used in
block 6 for making design decisions for the improvement of system. On the other
hand, the optimum design method is more formal as it uses trend information for
making the changes in the design.
Guerra, A., Kiousis, P. D., (2006), presented a novel approach for optimal sizing
and reinforcing multi-bay and multi-story RC structures incorporating optimal
stiffness correlation among structural members. This study incorporated realistic
materials, forming, and labor costs that were based on member dimensions, and
implemented a structural model with distinct design variables for each member.
Comparison between the optimal costs and the typical design method costs
demonstrated instances where typical design assumptions resulted in efficient
structures and where they did not.
Kadim J. A., Jasim N. A., (2012), studied the effect of the design capacity of the
tank, bearing capacity of the soil, unit price of steel and concrete, and finally unit
cost of formwork. They concluded that the optimum tank is the one with walls of
small height, but then the formwork costs are high. Also, total cost also increases,
that too linearly, with the increase of the design capacity of tank, and in addition
diameter of tank is also increased on reduction of the bearing capacity of soil.
Individually, high concrete cost high steel cost results to an increase in the tank
height but resulting in an increase and decrease of steel content respectively.
Patel C. N., Patel H. S., (2012), compared the behavior of elevated water tank
with frame and shaft type tapered staging in lateral earthquake loading using
GSDMA guide line and software SAP2000. The study assessed the optimum
diameter of staging with reference to the diameter of container, and observed
effect of staging better. The study reveals that value of axial tension decreases
with increase in tapering of staging as well as increase in diameter of staging.
Optimum dimension of staging to fulfill the requirement of 'No Tension in
column is with 70% and 80% diameter of staging in comparison with the
container diameter for frame and shaft type staging respectively, in accordance
with inclination of 6.
GENETIC ALGORITHMS
4.1 Basics
An algorithm may be defined as any procedure that uses data and modifies it
according to a set of instructions. Every structured calculation procedure is an
example of an algorithm. Genetic algorithms are basically programs simulating
the logic of Darwinian selection. In simple words, GA means understanding the
simple, iterative process underpinning evolutionary change. The simple concept
behind a GA is that populations accumulate differences over time, because of the
environmental conditions acting as a selective mechanism for breeding. And the
issue, of course, is how best to get that selection process translated into a program
procedure and applied to problem under consideration. GAs are basically capable
of finding good solutions in equitable amounts of time, and as we apply these for
solving harder and large problems, then the computational time increases. But,
nowadays many efforts are made for making working of GAs faster.
Individual:
Population:
Search Space :
Chromosome:
Trait:
Allele:
Locus:
Gene:
Genome:
Genotype:
Phenotype:
4.2 History
Developed: USA in the 1970s
Early names: J. Holland, K. DeJong, D. Goldberg
Typically applied to:
Discrete optimization
Attributed features:
It is not too fast
It is a good heuristic for combinatorial problems
Special Features:
It emphasizes traditionally on combining the information from good
parents (crossover) many variants, e.g., reproduction models, operators
4.3 Applications
Artificial Creativity.
Genetic programming and the bond graphs are used for the automated
design for the mechatronic systems.
Code-breaking, for one correct decryption, GAs are used for searching a
large solution space of ciphers.
Designing of the water distribution systems.
Distributed computer network topologies.
Electronic circuit design, known as Evolvable hardware.
Allocation of file for a distributed system.
JGAP: Java Genetic Algorithms Package, including support for Genetic
Programming also.
Representation of the rational agents in economic models such as the
cobweb model.
Software engineering.
Traveling Salesman Problem.
Mobile communications infrastructure optimization.
4.4 Working of a GA
Now, the question arises as to how does a genetic algorithm basically work?
When a function under consideration is to be optimized, firstly, possible solutions
are encoded into chromosome-like strings, so that genetic operators could be
easily applied to them. Genetic algorithms start with a population of randomly
generated solutions containing the parameter characteristic variability of the
population. A fitness function is used according to which the relative fitness of
each individual in the population is assessed by dividing the individuals fitness
with the total fitness of the entire population. Then a cumulative fitness is
calculated for each individual as the sum of the relative fitness for all members up
to the one being calculated. The cumulative fitness is thereby normalized over the
entire population to a maximum of 1.0 for the last individual. A fitness function
value quantifies the optimality of a solution, and is used to rank a particular
solution against all the other solutions. In this process of selection it determines as
to which solutions are to be preserved and allowed to reproduce and which ones
deserve to die out. Generally, selection of the parents is stochastically biased
towards solutions with better objective function values, i.e., solutions with a
higher fitness, as GAs are based on the Darwins theory, Survival of the fittest.
Actually, the probability of each individual to survive is proportional to its fitness.
Its main objective is to emphasize the good solutions and eliminate the bad
solutions in a population while keeping the population size constant. Once the
new population of individuals is selected, recombination begins. The genetic
algorithm moves through the population by pairs and randomly determines if each
individual pair will be recombined. This is known as crossover, that usually takes
two solutions, known as the parents, and recombines them to generate one or
more new solutions, known as the children. Parents are chosen from all the
solutions of the current population. In this process, the parent pairs exchange their
gene bits creating new gene strings that contain the characteristics of the parent
strings. The methodology behind this is that a random point along the pair of
chromosomes is selected and the remainder of each chromosome to the right of
the selection point is swapped between the two chromosomes. Now comes,
another genetic operator, mutation, which takes a solution and modifies it slightly
to form a new solution. In other words, mutation protects against loss of useful
genetic material and forces the search for the optimal solution to a different place
in the solution space. After certain cycles of crossovers and mutations, some of
the solutions in the old population are replaced by new ones and this concludes
one generation of the algorithm, replacing the unfit solutions by the fit ones
thereby keeping the size of population constant. This procedure repeats until a
stopping criterion is met. Sometimes in the process of crossover and mutation,
some of the best solutions are discarded unfortunately. Elitism, a genetic operator,
that automatically preserves x% best solutions, throughout generations. As we are
dealing with a real world problem that has some constraints also, a penalty
function is the way to constrain the behavior of the fitness function to the feasible
region by applying a penalty for violating a problem constraint. A penalty
function generally reduces the value of the fitness function when a constraint is
violated.
These days GAs are becoming extremely popular, because of the cited attractions:
Generality:
GAs are very general in nature, only the encoding and the fitness function
need to be changed from one problem to another.
Non-linearity:
Robustness:
Ease of modification:
Parallel nature:
GAs work with coding the values of the decision variables in a string
known as chromosome. The design engineer devises the encoding and
interpretation of the string and is interpreted simply as a string of binary
digits by the computer and each bit can be thought of as a gene in the
chromosome.
GAs evaluate a population of points to perform the search. As each
individual represents one possible solution to the proposed problem, its
chromosome encodes one set of decision variables and this results in a
single point in the solution space.
GAs use objective function information, not derivatives or other auxiliary
knowledge, to determine the fitness of the solution. As derivatives are not
used so the expense of derivative calculation is not incurred and also then
this method is definitely not affected by discontinuous functions.
GAs use probabilistic transition rules not deterministic rules in the
generation of the new populations i.e. this technique is not a random
search method, but uses random processes to transition from one search
state to another. A good balance is maintained between wide exploration
of the search space and exploitation of fitness landscape features by using
the random processes.
4.5 GA Requirements
4.6 Advantages
Every optimization problem that can be described with the chromosome
encoding can be solved.
Problems with multiple solutions can also be solved.
As the execution technique of genetic algorithm does not depend on the
error surface, sonon-differential, multi-dimensional, non-continuous, and
even non-parametrical problems can be solved.
The solution structure and solution parameter problems can be solved at
the same time by the aid of structural genetic algorithm.
Genetic algorithm is very easy to understand and does not demand any
knowledge of mathematics.
Genetic algorithms can be transferred to existing models and simulations
easily.
A vast solution set can be quickly scanned.
The end solutions are not affected by bad proposals because they get
simply discarded.
GA is inductive in nature that means it works on its own internal rules,
andthere is no need to know the rules of the problem.
GA is very much useful for complex or loosely defined problems.
Lute, V. et al., (2011), in their paper, worked out the optimum design of cable
stayed bridges by using genetic algorithm as a lot many parameters are involved
in the design, and they considered an enormous number of design variables along
with practical constraints, and herein the total material cost for the bridge was
considered as the objective function. They took into account maximum possible
design variables and practical constraints while the problem formulation. They
presented some parametric studies by using the genetic algorithm. The parametric
studies included effect from the grouping of cables, effect from geometric non
linearity, effect on height of tower and side span from the practical site
constraints, effect from cable layout, effect from bridge material, effect on
optimum relative cost from extra-dosed bridges. They also prepared the data base
for the new designers for the estimation of relative cost of bridge. Their main
conclusion was that GA is a robust tool used for optimization. They came out
with the outcome that GA was able to handle any number of variables very easily
and the program developed by them was very much general for accommodating
variables, discrete and continuous.
Upadhyay, A., Kalyanaraman, V., (2010), in their paper, derived a procedure for
having a generalized optimum design of FRP box-girder bridges, by the use of
genetic algorithm. They presented the formulation for the design problem in terms
of the objective function and constraints. Optimization for configuration, size and
topology is also done simultaneously. They also carried out some optimum design
studies in order to check the behavior of the procedure developed and for
obtaining patterns in optimum design that will prove to be helpful for new
designers. They discussed the need for using genetic algorithms for solving the
specified problem, and came out with some interesting outcomes:
Chau K.W., Albermani F., (2002), applied genetic algorithm (GA) to the optimum
design of reinforced concrete liquid retaining structures, which comprise three
discrete design variables, including slab thickness, reinforcement diameter and
reinforcement spacing. A GA has been successfully implemented for the optimum
design of reinforced concrete liquid retaining structures involving discrete design
variables.
Chapter 5
OPTIMUM DESIGN
FORMULATION
5.1 Introduction
The structural optimization problem can be formulated either using mathematical
programming approach or the optimality criteria approach. The present problem
of optimizing the design for minimum cost of a reinforced concrete intze type
water tank is formulated as a mathematical programming problem. The design
vectors, constraints and the formulation of the objective functions of each
problem are explained in this section.
The one-shot formulation of the optimum design of entire water tank structure
becomes a complex problem due to the following facts:
Since the water tank structure consists of numerous variables, the problem
becomes a large non-linear programming problem which requires an efficient
solution technique, sufficient computer memory and more computer time for
seeking the solution.
Therefore, in the present work optimum design of the water tank is obtained only
for the container part.
When dealing with the formulation of optimization problem, the starting step is to
spot the design variables. In the current assignment, the nominated design
variables are:
As discussed above, design variables are the entities that can vary throughout the
optimization problem. Also, there exist some other kind of entities that do remain
constant throughout the problem, these are known as design parameters. In the
current assignment, the nominated design parameters are:
Some formulae
costctd=volctd*concrete
coststd=volstd*steel*densitys
ofxbtd=costctd+coststd
costctrb=volctrb*concrete
coststrb=volstrb*steel*densitys
ofxbtrb=costctrb+coststrb
costctw=volctw*concrete
coststw=volstw*steel*densitys
ofxbtw=costctw+coststw
costcmrb=volcmrb*concrete
costsmrb=volsmrb*steel*densitys
ofxbmrb=costcmrb+costsmrb
costccd=volccd*concrete
costscd=volscd*steel*densitys
ofxbcd=costccd+costscd
costcbd=volcbd*concrete
costsbd=volsbd*steel*densitys
ofxbbd=costcbd+costsbd
costcbrb=volcbrb*concrete
costsbrb=volsbrb*steel*densitys
ofxbbrb=costcbrb+costsbrb
ofxb=(ofxbtd+ofxbtrb+ofxbtw+ofxbmrb+ofxbcd+ofxbbd+ofxbbrb)/100000
5.2.5 Constraints
In pursuing the optimum design which is desired to have the minimum value for
the above formulated objective function, certain requirements need to be satisfied.
These requirements emerge to be equations and/or inequalities that are nothing
else but functions of design variables considered in the optimization problem.
These are termed as constraints. These are of two types:
Behavior constraint:
These constraints are based on the structural response and normally they
cannot be expressed explicitly and therefore their evaluation requires the
analysis of the structure at the present state.
Explanations:
From the graphs below, it can be easily interpreted that, on keeping the seed value
constant, when the grade of concrete is increased, then the objective function
approaches to the optimum faster. But at the same time, in the lesser grade of
concrete case, the convergence of optimum is attained faster. Also, at the same
time, if the seed value is increased, keeping the grade constant, then a much faster
convergence is attained, but the attainment of optimum does not follow any
special trend.
6.2 Effect of variation in seed value
For generating the individuals for the first iteration, it is required to have seed
values. From the tables, it can be deduced that for different seed values, the
objective functions optimum value comes out to be almost same. So it can be
easily concluded that GA based procedures for optimum design are reliable and
they ultimately converge to near global values of optima rather getting trapped
into the local minima. Also, numerous proximate optimum alternatives could be
acquired from the procedure; also these offer supplementary freedom for the
designer to elect a suitable adjoining optimum substitute solution, if so
anticipated.
Explanation:
For a particular type of grade chosen for concrete and steel reinforcement, and
when the seed value is increased, still the objective function does not vary much;
it converges to a single point itself. Also when the variable, diameter of tank is
taken under study, its value also does not vary much. Another conclusion from the
above graph is that, the value of objective function also does not vary much, as
the seed value increases, and at the same time, keeping the variable diameter of
tank as constant.
Also, when increasing the seed value, if the variable, diameter of tank is kept
constant or varied within a range, but if the grade of concrete is increased then the
value of objective function decreases that means it approaches optimum.
In the first table, the grade for concrete used is M30 and that for steel is Fe-415.
As the seed value is increased, the value of optimum objective function is coming
out to be almost the same with an extreme difference of 1.169442%, and also the
value of variable, tank diameter is almost the same.
In the second table, the grade for concrete used is M45 and that for steel is Fe-
415. As the seed value is increased, the value of optimum objective function is
coming out to be almost the same with an extreme difference of 2.32872%, and
also the value of variable, tank diameter is exactly the same.
In these two cases, the value of the variable was varied in a range but still all the
values were nearly the same.
In the third table, the grade for concrete used is M30 and that for steel is Fe-415.
As the seed value is increased, the value of optimum objective function is coming
out to be almost the same with an extreme difference of -1.35728%, and also the
value of variable, tank diameter is almost the same.
In the fourth table, the grade for concrete used is M45 and that for steel is Fe-415.
As the seed value is increased, the value of optimum objective function is coming
out to be almost the same with an extreme difference of -1.77195%, and also the
value of variable, tank diameter is almost the same.
Only the thing was that, that the value of variable tank diameter was kept
constant.
Chapter 7
Optimum design of water tanks is a complex task. Various search algorithms have
been proposed and attempted. Main concerns are to achieve the optimal solution
with the minimum design cost. It leads to value addition to the design so that it
becomes cost effective and helps in profit maximization.
Evolutionary algorithms have been around since the early sixties. They apply the
rules of nature: evolution through selection of the fittest individuals, the
individuals representing solutions to a mathematical problem. One of the potential
tools for optimization of water tanks is the genetic algorithm
The intricacy of the optimum design for reinforced concrete intze type water tank
and the requisite for using genetic algorithms for solving the specified problem
have been conversed. The mathematical formulation for the optimum design of
this problem and other minutiae of the solution route using GAs were presented.
Upshots of several parametric studies done upon the optimum design were
presented and contrasted.
The following individualities were observed:
The dependency of the optimum value of objective function on the initial seed
value was quite small.
REFERENCES