S 12 Tim 92

w'fmd'i ^Wiia fm<&
j oHdj
w'fmd'i ^Wiia fm<& .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh

12 iy 13 jk fYa%Ks
j oHdj
.=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh
^2012 jif isg ls%hd;aul hs&
12 iy 13 jk fYa%Ks
^2012 jif isg ls%hd;aul hs&
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
m%:u uqKh -
oHd fomd;fka;=j
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
oHd fomd;fka;=j
oHd yd ;dlaIK mSGh uqo%Kh -
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
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wOHCI ckrd,a;=udf.a mKsvh fmrjok
2009 oS w'fmd'i' Wiia fm< j oHdj Ih ksfoaYh mdi,a moaO;shg ykajd fok ,o fuu .=re Wmfoia ix.%yh 12 iy 13 fYa%Ksj, YsIHhkaf.a bf.kq b.eka
w;r" wk;=re j tu jif u 12 jk fYa%Ksh i|yd;a" 2010 jif 13 jk fYa%Ksh i|yd;a" ls%hdj,sh ixOdkh lr .ekSu i|yd m%fhdackj;a f' fok ,o ld, rduqj ;=< fuys
thg wkql+, .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y fol bm;a lr we;' oelafjk ksmqK;d ug yd wka;.;h wdjrKh lsu wksjdh f' mdi,a mdol
we.hq WmlrK ie,iq lsf ta ta ksmqK;d ugu hgf;a olajd we;s bf.kq M,
mdi,aj, iy Yaj oHd,j, b,a,Sj,g wkqj w'fmd'i Wiia fm< j oHdj Ih ie,ls,a,g .ekSu jeo.;a f' wod< Ih lreKq ms<sn| jer meye,s lr .ekS wjYH
ksfoaYh 2012 jif miq uiq lrka ixfYdaOkh lrk ,' bkamiq tu Ih ;kays" w;sfl fmd;m; yd fj wv myrKh lsu i|yd isiqka .ekau fuys ,d
ksfoaYhg wod< jk fia tu .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y fol o kej; ixfYdaOkhg ,lalr ksfoaY flf'
fuu kj .%ka:h ilid we;'
isiqka ;=< m%.=K l<hq;= ksmqK;dj,g yd ksmqK;d ugj,g wod< iia;rd;aul ksudKd;aul b.ekaul wjYH;dj ie,ls,,
a g .kakd l,ay's bf.kq b.eka lsh
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f;dr;=re fuu .%ka:h u.ska bm;a fldg ;sf' fuu f;dr;=re j oHdj Ihfha iqidOH lrk kk ,laIKh mka;s ldurfha Nd;hg .; hq;= h' fuys YsIHhd iska
bf.kq - b.eka wjia:d imdokfha .=rejrekag uy;a fia m%fhdackj;ajkq we;e hs myiqfjka .%yKh lr .; yels m bf.kq wjia:d ixOdkh lsu .=rejrhdf.ka
wmf.a Yajdihhs' wfmalaIs; f'
fuu .%ka:h Nd;hg .ekSf .=rejrhd iska i<ld ne,sh hq;= me;s ;=kla we;' ta fuu .=re Wmfoia ix.%yh ms<sfh, lsf ld,h jeh l< yd ;u fYaI{;d odhl;ajh
k .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh" Ih ksfoaYh yd ukd j .e<mS ;su" th Ihud,df iemhQ cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kfha Ih fYaI{hkag;a ndysr im;a odhlhkag;a uf.a
wfmalaIs; ksmqK;d mdol j Ihud,df oYkh yd oelau uq,afldg f.k f.dvk.d ia;=;sh ys f'
;su yd 12 - 13 fYa%Ksj, orejdf.ka wfmalaIs; idOk ugu ie,ls,a,g .kska th
ilid ;su hs' t fyhska fuh fydka mYS,kh lsu .=re Nj;d l< hq;= w;HjYH
ldhhla o" j.lSula o fjhs' isks chjOk
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh by; lS lreKq ;=k u Tnf.a wjOdkhg f.k tau i|yd iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a
w'fmd'i' Wiia fm< fYa%Ksj, b.eka lrk ish u .=rejrekag wjYH mqyqKq ,nd cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
ug o ls%hd;aul is' ksrka;r j meje;fjk fuu mqyqKq ieisj,g wod< .=reNj;=ka
iyNd.s u w;sYhska u wjYH lreKla jkafka fuys oelafjk bf.kq - b.eka uQ,Ou
yd ls%hdodu jgyd .ekSug mqyqKqj uy;a msjy,la jk neks' fYaIfhka u mdi,a mdol
we.hS ls%hd" isiq ksmqK;d jOkh i|yd bjy,a lr .ekSug wfmalaId flf' b.ekau"
Ih lreKqj,g muKla iSud u j<ld ,ka" isiqka f.a l=i,;d Tma kexf wNs,dIh
bgq lr ug f ish uey;a wjYH nj wOHdmk yd we.hS ldhfha kshef<k wm
ish u fokd jgyd .; hq;= f'
.=re udf.damfoaY ms<sfh< lsf w;sYh fjfyild ldhh bgq lr ,Sug uey;a jQ
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kfha Ydia;s%h wxYj, ks,Odka we;= iuia; ldh uKav,hg;a"
ndysr j ta i|yd odhl jQ oaj;a yeu fokdg;a" udf.a fYaI ia;=;sh ys f'
uydpdh v,s' t' wfr;ak nKavdr

wOHlaI ckrd,a
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
iii iv
im;a odhl;ajh kej; ixialrKh lrk ,o ixfYda; .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh - 2012
^12 fYa%Ksh .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh - 2009&
^13 fYa%Ksh .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh - 2010& WmfoaYkh ( uydpdh v' t' wfr;ak nKavdr
wOHlaI ckrd,a - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
WmfoaYkh ( wdpdh Wmd,s t' fiaor - wOHlaI ckrd,a
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh' wCIKh ( isks chjOk uy;d
u,a ishU,df.dv uy;d - iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a - oHd yd ;dlaIK mSGh
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh' cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
wCIKh ( iS' t' wd' weka;ks uy;d - wOHlaI ôHd" fi!LH yd
Ydl wOHdmk & Ih inkalrKh(
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh' wd' tia' f'mS Wvqfmdarej uhd - m%Odk jHdmD;s ks,Od " cd;sl wOHdmk
Ih inkalrKh( t' t' udmd.=Kr;ak h - jHdmD;s lKavdh kdhl wdh;kh'
^j oHdj& t' t' udmd.=Kr;ak h - jHdmD;s ks,Od " cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
iyldr jHdmD;s ks,Od t' ;srekvrdcd h - jHdmD;s ks,Od " cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
' ;;amrka uy;d - jHdmD;s ks,Od Ihud,d WmfoaYl;ajh (
tia' t' iS' ' ffialr h- iyldr jHdmD;s ks,Od fcHIaG uydpdh v' ' r;akiQh - fld<U Yaj oHd,h
fcHIaG uydpdh ' tia' odkm;srK - le<Ksh Yaj oHd,h
fcHIaG uydpdh t' f' tia'fr;ak - le<Ksh Yaj oHd,h
Ih WmfoaYl;ajh (
fcHIaG uydpdh t' ' kkaoodi - Y%S chjOkmqr Yaj oHd,h im;a mqoa.,
fcHIaG uydpdh v' ' r;akiQh - fld<U Yaj oHd,h iS' ' Ysrdks fvfjdagd h - Oiair oHd,h" kd;a;kah'
fcHIaG uydpdh ' tia' odkm;srK - le<Ksh Yaj oHd,h tia' ' tka' wffldaka fukh- Yd' wkaf;daks nd,sld oHd,h" uykqjr'
fcHIaG uydpdh t' f' tia'fr;ak - le<Ksh Yaj oHd,h tia' ' mS' nKavdr h - Ourdc oHd,h" uykqjr'
t' wd' mS' wd' niakdhl h - Yd' wEkaia oHd,h" l=reKE.,'
im;a mqoa., ( f' ta' f' ydkS h - iysrd oHd,h" .fmd,'
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tia' ' tka' wffldaka fukh - Yd' wkaf;daks nd,sld oHd,h" uykqjr' ' .fkaIodia h - yska oHd,h" r;au,dk'
tia' ' mS' nKavdr h - Ourdc oHd,h" uykqjr' jKis' m;srK uhd - ; uOH uyd oHd,h" oslaje,a,'
t' wd' mS' wd' niakdhl h - Yd' wEkaia oHd,h" l=reKE.,' t' ta' tia' cS' fmfrd h - isudfjda nKavdrkdhl uyd oHd,h"
f' ta' f' ydkS h - iysrd oHd,h" .fmd,' fld<U'
mS' t' ksYdos l=,;s,l h - u,shfoaj nd,sld oHd,h" l=reKE., tia' f.damd,ls%IaKka h - fjia,s oHd,h" fld<U 09
jKis m;srK uhd - ; uOH uyd oHd,h" oslaje,a,' mS' ta' fla' fmfrd h - foa nd,sld oHd,h" fld<U'
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mS' ta' fla' fmfrd h - foa nd,sld oHd,h" fld<U' ljrh yd
m.Kl ieliSu - wd' wd' fla' m;srK - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
msgljrh yd m.Kl ieliSu - wd' wd' fla' m;srK h - cd'w' wd'
wd' ta' ' whs' oikdhl h fj wvh - www.nie.lk
fj wvh - www.nie.lk O iydh - ux., je,smsh uhd - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
O iydh - ux., je,smsh uhd moaud rjOk h - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
rx;a ohdjxY uhd - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
moaud rjOk h
rx;a ohdjxY uhd
v vi
w'fmd'i ^Wiia' fm<& cSj oHdj .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh
1 tallh - j oHdj yeòskau
ksmqK;dj 1'1'0 ( j oHd;aul mokulska .fIK fufyhjhs'

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iajNdjh" Ih m:h yd jeo.;alu ia;drKh lrhs'
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ld,fo ixLHdj ( 01 hs'
1'0 wOHCI ckrd,a;=udf.a mKsvh ii
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j oHdjg wod< j ksid uqyQK fok .eg iy wNsfhda. idlPd lrhs'
3.0 im;a odhl;ajh v
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,sh (
4'0 mgqk vii f;dr;=re /ia lsug wjYH uQ,dY% imhd fokak'
tu uQ,dY% Nd;fhka j oHdjg wod< .eg ms<sn| f;dr;=re tla /ia lsug
5'0 ls%hdldrl ika;;sh Wmfoia fokak'
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ksmqK;dj 3 ^tallh 3& 35 - 57 Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'
ksmqK;dj 4 ^tallh 4& 58 - 64
ksmqK;dj 5 ^tallh 5& 65 - 69 Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (
ksmqK;dj 6 ^tallh 6& 70 - 86 ffch O;ajh ms<sn| wjfndaO lr .ekSu (
ksmqK;dj 7 ^tallh 7& 87 - 110 mDh u; jh jir ,shk 3'5 la mqrd mej;sK' f,dalfha Ydl yd i;a;aj
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ksmqK;dj 9 ^tallh 9& 121 - 138
f,dal w;r .;sl inkaO;djla mj;S'
ksmqK;dj 10 ^tallh 10& 139 - 174
ksmqK;dj 11 ^tallh 11& 175 - 195
ksmqK;dj 12 ^tallh 12& 196 - 220 ksia isrer yd ls%hdld;ajh ms<sn| wjfndaO lr .ekSu(
ksmqK;dj 13 ^tallh 13& 221 -261 ksia isref ixOdkh" isrer ;=< moaO;sj, we;s wka; inkaO;dj iy
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mirh yd iajdNdl im;a l<ukdlrKh (

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6'0 mdi, mok lr.;a ;lafiarelrKh - ye|skau 276 - 278
im;a laIh hdf wjodkula we;'
7'0 we.hS ie,iq 279 - 291
Wod(- jdhqf.da,Sh CO2 idkaKh jeu;a iu. u f.da,Sh WKqiqu je
8'0 weuqKqu 292 - 322 u" fidaka ia:rh laIh u" w, jeis" .xd iy N+.; c,h
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w'fmd'i ^Wiia' fm<& cSj oHdj .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh w'fmd'i ^Wiia' fm<& cSj oHdj .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh
;sridr wdydr ksIamdokh ( ksmqK;dj 1'1'0 ( j oHd;aul mokulska .fIK fufyhjhs'

j;auka ck.yk jOk f.hg wkqj ;;amrhg mqoa.,hska ;s fokl= f,dalhg
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;sridr wdydr ksIamdokh wjYH f' je wiajekakla ,nd fok Ydl yd
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miq wiajkq ;dlaIK l%u Nd;h' wjOdrKh l< hq;=hs'
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iqj lsf l%u w;ayod n,hs' ka i;= ,dlaIKsl .=K ia;drKh lrhs'
iqiq WodyrK iys;j ixOdk ugj, wkql%udm;H f.dv k.hs'
f,dalh mqrd me;sfrka mj;sk AIDS frda.h b;d oreKq fi!LH .egjls' jfha uQ,sl jHqyuh yd lD;Huh tallh f,i ffi, wjOdrKh lrhs'
W!K ixj; rgj, jirlg ,shk 3 lg wl ck.yKhla uef,ahdfjka
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;ju;a imQK j wjfndaO lr f.k ke;' tfuka u l<ska l<g we;s jk kj kaf.a iajNdjh biau;= lr oelau i|yd mrs.Kl (Power Point) bm;a
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^4& WoamH;dj iy iudfhdackh

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iEu ugulu jHqy yd lD;H fjkia jk w;r b;d iQCIu f,i iudfhdackhla isiq wkdjrK bosm;a lsug lKavdh iQodk lrjkak'
mj;S' iqoqiq wkql%uhlg ia;drKhl fhfokak'
fuu ixOdk ug OQrdj,sfha oS kaf.a jHqyuh iy lD;Huh tallh
f,i ffi,h ie,fla'
4 5
Ih lreKq meye,s lr ug w;aje,la ( 2 tallh - jfha ridhksl iy ffi,Sh moku

oHd;aul l%uh
lsish isoahla fyda .egjla fyda ms<sn| wkafIKh lsu i|yd f,dj mqrd ksmqK;dj 2'1'0 ( jfha ridhksl moku ms<sn| ia;drKh lrhs'
oHd{hska fyda j oHd{hska wkq.ukh lrk l%udKql+, wkqms<sfj<la we;s
ksmqK;d ugu 2'1'1 ( foayfha uQ, jHuh ixhq;sh ms<sn| uid n,hs'
nj isiqkg wjOdrKh l< hq;= hs' fuh j oHd;aul .egjla fyda tfkod
; .egjla fyda h yels hs' fuu ixOdkd;aul wkafIK rgdj oHd;aul
l%uh hehs yekaf'
bf.kq M, (
oHd;aul l%uh my; i|yka mshjrj,ska iuka;hs' fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ;
l%udKql+, kslaIKh mok lrf.k .egjla ykd .ekSu foay ;=< wvx.= uQ,jH ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
m%Yak pdu iy th mok lrf.k l,ams; f.dv ke`.Su wud;% iy wxY+ud;% uQ,jH fjkafldg ykd .kshs'
wjYH wjia:dj, md,l mlaIK o fhdod .kska l,ams; mlaId lsug wud;% iy wxY+ud;% uQ,jHj, lD;H i|yka lrhs'
mlaIK fufyhu
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh
mqfrdal:k lsu iy ;j rg;a mlaIK lrka tajd mlaId lsu'
Ydl iy i;=ka ;=< wvx.= uq,jH ixhq;sh ms<sn| j im;a ^ uqs; fyda oHq;a&
kslaIK$ idlaIs wdOdrfhka l,ams; ;yjqre lsu
jH isiqkag imhd fokak'
kj oekqu wkqj wod< m fjkia h yels jdo f.dv ke`.Su
O uQ,jHj, idfmalaI nyq,;dj oelafjk pd" m%ia;dr iy j.= ms<sfh<
iqiq WodyrK Nd;fhka oHd;aul l%uh meye,s lrkak'
lsug Wmfoia fokak'
tla tla uQ,jHfha lD;H i|yka j.= iy pd ms<sfh< lrjkak'
isiqka ,jd tajd mka;shg bm;a lrjkak'
jfha ridhksl mokug wod< Ih ksfoaYfha we;s Ih ikaOdrh ia;drKh
lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSug w;aje,la

jfha uQ,jH ixhq;sh
iajdNdlj mj;sk uQ,jH 92 w;ka uQ,jH 20la muK foayj,
wvx.= f'
tajd w;=ka nyq, u jkafka ldnka" yhsv%cka" Tlaiscka" khsg%cka" fmdiamria
iy i,a* hk uQ,jH yhhs'
uQ,jH
ka ;=< wvx.= uQ,jH ixhq;sfha O fjkial we;' kuq;a we;e
uQ,jH w;HjYH uQ,jH f,i k lr ;sf' tajd foayj, ;sfnk
nyq,;dj wkqj wud;% yd wxY= ud;% uQ,jH f,i fjka flf
wud;% uQ,jH
hl=f.a h<s nfrka 0'01] la fyda Bg jvd je h' wud;% uQ,jHj,g
C,H,O,N,P, S, Ca, K, Mg wh;a f' we;e kaf.a ^ksoiqka( ksid& Na,
Fe yd CI o wud;% uQ,jH f,i we;'
wxY= ud;% uQ,jH
hl=f.a h<s nfrka 0'01] g jvd wvq h'
ksoiqka( B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, CI, Fe, Si, V, Cr, I, Co, Al
wud;% yd wxY= ud;% uQ,jHj, lD;H
6 7
ksmqK;dj 2'1'0 ( jfha ridhksl moku ms<sn| j uid n,hs' wfkl=;a lD;Hhka
ksmqK;d ugu 2'1'2 ( cSjh i|yd jeo.;a jk c,fha fN!;sl iy ridhksl .;s.K
= h ldhNdrh WodyrK
.=K ms<sn| uYkh lrhs'
ldur WIAK;ajfha jhls m%dla ma,diaufha c,h m%dla ma,diaufha m%Odk
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02 hs' udOHhls ix>glhls'
bf.kq M, ( O%eh;dj fyd| djlhls' fndfyda jH m%dlama,diaufha

fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ( ( iy ffi, hqIfha h f'
kag c,fha we;s jeo.;alu meye,s lrhs' ffi,fha mjD;a;Sh l%shd
jh i|yd jeo.;a jk c,fha fN!;sl yd ridhksl .=K ms<sn| j ia;r lrhs' isjkafka c,Sh udOHhl h
c,fha tu fN!;sl iy ridhksl .=K foay ;=< c,fhka bgqjk lD;Hhkag
wod< j uid n,hs' ridhksl .;s.=K iuyr ffcj ridhksl m%NdixYaf,aIKfha
m%;sl%shdj, m%;sl%shlhla 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6+ 6O2
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh ( f,i l%shd lrhs' c,fokfha

c,h u.ska moaO;sj, bgq lrk lD;Hhkag wod< j c,fha fN!;sl yd msIagh + H2O fuda,afgdaia
ridhksl .=K we;=<;a im;a ûqs; fyda oHq;a& jH isiqkag imhkak'
c,h jhg w;HjYH jHhla f hk ud;Dldj hgf;a rpkhla ,sug wl ixila;s iy wdila;s ffi, j, Y+k;dj ffi, Yd, f "
isiqkag Wmfoia fokak' n, mj;ajd .ekSu wldIah Ydlj,
rpkhg wvx.= h hq;= jeo.;a lreKq ms<sn| j idlPd lrkak' ikaOdrKfha " Y+k;d
isiqka ,jd bm;a lsula iQodk lrjkak' p,kj, " md,l ffi,j,
wod< Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m ia;drKhla lrkak' p,kh" mqIam msmSf '
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( by< mDIal wd;;shla oeu iuyr c, lDkag h,siaikakd
jh i|yd c,fha we;s jeo.;alu jdiia:dkhla imhhs'
jfha nyq,; u wldnksl ixfhda.h c,hhs'
ka ;=< c,fha m%Odk lD;H wl ixila;s iy wdila;s jH wjfYdaIKh iy *af,dahu mixl%uKh iy
m%dla ma,diaufha ix>glhla n, mjykh rfidaoa.ukh
djlhla mdxY= djkfhka c,h iy
m%;sl%shlhla Lksc ,jk wjfYdaIKh
Y+k;dj mj;ajd .kakla
c,fha wl YsIaG ;dm ie,elsh hq;= ;r ;dm p,;dmS i;=kaf.a foay
Od;dj m%udKhla wjfYdaIKh WIAK;ajh mgq mrdihla ;=<
fyda msgl, o WIAK;aj mj;ajd .ekSu
fjkia u wju u
8 9
ksmqK;dj 2'1'0 ( jfha ridhksl moku ms<sn| ia;drKh lrhs'

wl jdIamSlrKfha foay mDIaG isis,a lsu vyh oeu iy W;aiafokh
.=ma; ;dmhla ;su
ksmqK;d ugu 2'1'3 ( kaf.a m%Odk ldnksl ixfhda.j, ridhksl
iajNdjh iy lD;H uYkh lrhs'
wl ,hkfha .=ma; c,Sh moaO;s u i|yd ffi, ;=< yd c,Sh moaO;s
b;d Yd, ;dm m%udKhla ;=< c,h blauKska whsia njg ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08 hs'
;dmhla ;su jeh l< hq;=u m;a fkdu'
bf.kq M, (
c,h f isjk c,Sh moaO;s imQKfhkau YS; ld,fha O%ej m%foaYj, fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ;
ka ;=< yuqjk m%Odk ldnksl ixfhda. ldKav y;fryss uQ,sl ridhksl
wiudldr m%idrKh whsia njg m;a fkd c,c kag c,h ;=<
iajNdjh ia;r lrhs'
whsia c,h u; mdu ksrems;j jdih l< yels
tu ldnksl ixfhda. ldKav y;frys lD;H ia;r lrhs'
is f' j c,h m;=f,a u' Tlaisydrl iSks" ksTlaisydrl iSks" msIagh" fm%dak iy ,smsv ykd .ekSu
b;s f' i|yd oHd.dr mlaIK mj;ajhs'
mdroDYH u wdf,dalhg myiqfjka c,c Ydl iy w,af.aj,g fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh (
kso hdug bvu c,h ;=< ie,elsh Tlaisydrl iSks" ksTlaisydrl iSks" mssIagh" fm%dak yd ,smsv ykd .ekSu
hq;= ;r .eUqfrys jeug msKsi oHd.dr mlaIK wdoYkh lrkak'
k fkd lrk ,o djK ^msIg a h" iqlf
a rdai"a .afldai"a ;a;r iq uoh" fmd,af;,a
yelsu'
jeks & isiqkag imhkak'
tajd ykd .ekSug u`. fmkajka iy ta i|yd wkq.ukh l< l%shdms<sfj<
we;=<;a jd;djla ms<sfh< lsug Wmfoia fokak'
wod< im;a jH ^ uqs; fyda oHq;a& imhd fokak'
foay ;=< wvx.= ldfndyhsf%g" fm%dak" ,smsv iy kshqlaf,hsla w,
iy tajdfha lD;H ms<sn| jd;djla bm;a lsug isiqkag u`. fmkajkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos fhda.H wkqm< s f
s j<lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

foay ;=< yuqjk m%Odk ldnksl ixfhda. ldKav y;frys uQ,sl ridhksl
iajNdjh iy lD;H meye,s lrkak'
m%Odk ldnksl ixfhda. f,i
ldfndyhsfg
fm%dak
,smsv
kshqlaf,hsla w,
ldfndyhsfg" fm%dak" ,smsv iy kshqlaf,hsla w, jHj, wvx.= m%Odk
ffch wKq f,i i,lk nj meyeos,s lrkak'
fm%dak" kshqlaf,hsla w, iy iuyr ldfndyhsfg uyd wKq f,i i,lk
nj i|yka lrkak' ^tajdfha wKqlNdrh 104 - 1010 muK f &
10 11
ldfndyhsfg ldfndyhsfgj, lD;H

mDh u;=msg we;s jvd;a u iq,n ldnksl ixfhda. ldKavhhs' ffi,Sh l%shdld;ajfha oS fudfkdielrhsv" vhsielrhsv iy
tfkod ;fha Nd;hg .efkk ms" iSks wdh ldfndyhsfgj,g fmd,sielrhsvj, jeo.;alu iy lD;H meye,s lrkak'
WodyrK f' msIagh" Tlaisydrl iSks" ksTlaisydrl iSks" ykd .ekSug ir, oHd.dr
m%Odk uQ,jH ixhq;sh jkafka C, H, O mlaIK is lsu iy weuhsf,aia u.ska msIagh c,fok m%;sl%shd
fmd wKql iQ;%h Cx(H2O)y ' c,fha fuka u ldnkaj, yhsf%gj, H : O kslaIKh lsu'
,smsv
wkqmd;h 2 ( 1 f'
my; i|yka foa ms<sn| j flfhka meye,s lrkak'
fudfkdielrhsv" vhsielrhsv iy fmd,sielrhsv f,i m%Odk
Iucd;Sh" c,fha wdjH ldnksl ixfhda. ldKavhls'
ldfndyhsfg j. ;=kla f'
fudfkdielrhsv m%Odk uQ,jH ixhq;sh C, H, O iy iuyr g P iy$fyda N we;'
ldfndyhsfgj,g idfmalaI j Tlaiscka m%udKh fjdfha wvqh'
uQ,sl ridhksl iajNdjh iy ffch lD;H i|yka lrkak'
C mrudKq ixLHdj wkqj fudfkdielrhsv k lrkak' fo w,j, jHqyh - ika;Dma; iy wika;Dma; fo w, ksoiqka
iys;j
C mrudKqq ixLHdj fmd ku WodyrK f;,a iy fo fjka lr ykd .kak' f;,a iy foj, g%hs.a,sirhsv
jHqyh
3 g%fhdai .a,si/,ayhs
4 fgfg%dai t;afrdaia fjk;a ,smsv wdldr i|yd ksoiqka f,i b" fmdiafmd,smsv" iafgfrdhsv
iy gmsk
îq,n ke;&
5 fmkafgdai rhsfndaia ,smsvj, m%Odk lD;Hka meyeos,s lrkak'
hqf,daia f;,a iy fo ykd .ekSug oHd.dr mlaIK
6 fylafidai .afldaia" fm%dak
marelafgdaia fm%dak hkq weuhsfkda w,j, nyqwjhl nj;a" tajd Yd, wKql
.e,elafgdaia ialkaOhlska hqla; jk nj;a i|yka lrkak'
m%Odk uQ,jH ixhq;sh C, H, O, N iy iuyr g S we;'
ish u fudfkdielrhsv Tlaisydrl iSks f'
vhsielrhsv weuhsfkda w, taldjhjj,ska fm%dak iE we;' ffi, ;=< weuhsfkda
.a,hsfldisl nkaOk hkq fudkjd oehs meye,s lr fudfkdielrhsv w, j. /ila mej;sh;a bka 20la muK fm%dak iEug odhl f'
wKq folla tlafuka vhsielrhsv wKqjla we;s jk wdldrh meye,s fmmaghsv nkaOk yd tajd iEfok wdldrh meye,s lrkak'
lrkak' fmd,sfmmaghsvhl jHqyh
fm%dakj, ixlSK jHqyh wdldr y;rlska ia;r jk nj
2C6H12O6 C12H22O11 + H2O
m%d:l - fh weuhsfkda w, wkqms<sfj<
fuda,afgdaia iy ,elafgdaia hk vhsielrhsv Tlaisydrl .=K fmkajQj;a
iqfl%daia Tlaisydrl iSks j.hla fkdf' oa;Shsl - fy,slaiSh fyda ke wdldr
;D;shsl - fmd,sfmmaghsv odufha ke ksid we;s jQ f.da,Sh
fmd,sielrhsv yevh' fuu yevh ia:dhS j mj;ajd .ekSug O
nyqwjhl jHqy iEfok wdldrh meyeos,s lrkak' nkaOk odhl f'
fmd,sielrhsv jHqy we;s jk wdldrh meye,s lrkak' f ksid we;s jk pd;+: - fmd,sfmmaghsv odu folla fyda je ixLHdjla
nyqwjhl YdLkh fkdjQ fyda YdLkh jQ odu iys; jHqy ;khs' inkaO we;s jk ixlSK f.da,Sh jHqy
msIagh" .a,hsfldacka iy fi,shqf,daiaj, uQ,sl jHqyh iy lD;H fm%dak iaiajdNdlrKh iy th fm%dakj, l%shdld;ajhg olajk
msIagh u; weuhsf,aia j, l%shdld;ajh n,mEu
;j;a fmd,sielrhsvhla i|yd WodyrKhla f,i bkshq,ska ffi, yd ka ;=< fm%dakj, ldhNdrh
fyfi,shf q ,dai"a fmlaka iy lhska hkq jeo.;a fmd,sielrhsv jHq;m
a kak fm%dakj, O lD;H ^jHqyuh" mjykh" ix;" ixfldapl"
nj meye,s lrkak' wdrlaIl" fydfudak" I" W;afma%rl& meyeos,s lrkak'
fm%dak ykd .ekSug oHd.dr mlaId - nhshqr mlaIdj
12 13
kshqlaf,hsla w, ksmK
q ;dj 2'2'0 ( kaf.a l%shdld;ajh i|yd ffi, iy mglj,
my; i|yka lreKq ms<sn| fl meye,s lsula odhl;ajh uid n,hs'
wl idfmalaI wKql ialkaOhla iys; nyq wjhjhl f' C, H, O,
N iy P wvx.= f' ksmqK;d ugu 2'2'1 ( ffi, yd ffi,Sh ixOdk ms<n
s | oekqu mq`M,a lr .ekSu
i|yd wKalaIj, odhl;ajh ia;drKh lrhs'
wdldr folls' DNA iy RNA.
;ekq tall f,i kshqla,sfhdaghsv" kshqla,sfhdghsvhl ix>gl
khsg%ckSh Niau wdldr" mshqk iy msk Niau' DNA iy RNA j, we;s
iSks ldKav iy Niaauj, fjki bf.kq M, (
fmd,skhs l
q ,
a f
s hdghsvhl jHqyh' DNA wKqf oa;aj fya,l
s i
a h
S jHqyh ia;r fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ;
lrkak' wdf,dal wKalaIh ksjer f,i Nd; lrhs'
DNA wKqf iajhxm%;sj,s; u wdf,dal wKaalaIh iy bf,lafg%dak wKalaIh w;r we;s jeo.;a ,laIK
DNA iaiajdNdlrKh iy DNA iiajdNdlrKh ixikaokh lrhs'
ffi, jdoh ia;r lrhs'
DNA iy RNA w;r fjkial
m%d.a kHIal iy iQ kHIal ffi,Sh ixOdk ykd .ekSug bf,lafgdak
RNA j, j. ;=k ( m - RNA, t - RNA, r - RNA )
wKalaISh PdhdrEm Nd; lrhs'
DNA iy RNA j, lD;H
kshqlaf,hsla w,j, olakg ,efnk kshqla,sfhdghsvj,g wu;r j ffi, fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh (
;=< yuqjk fjk;a kshqla,sfhdghsv iy tajdfha lD;H' uqL l=yr wdia;rKfhka ,nd.;a ffi, iy `MEKq wmsph ffi, wKa a laIfhka
Wod- (ATP, NAD, NADP) kslaIKh lr tajdfha rEm igyka weug isiqkag wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
iqiq uQ,dY% ûqs; iy oHq;a& u.ska ,nd .;a bf,lafg%dak wKalaISh PdhdrEm
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK ( kslaIKh ;=<ska iQkHIal iy m%d.akHIal ffi, ixOdk ykd .ekSug
isiqka fhduq lrkak'
Tlaiy s drl yd ksTlaiy
s drl iSk"s msIg
a h" fm%d
a ka" fo yd f;,a ykd.ekSu
my; i|yka lreKq wdjrKh jk mos bm;a lsula i|yd isiqkag Wmfoia
i|yd ir, oHd.dr mlaId'
fokak'
ffi, jdoh" wdf,dal wKalaIfha iy bf,lafg%dak wKalaIfha idfmalaI
jdis iy wjdis" oHd.drfha wKalaIh Nd;h iy th ksje/ j myrKh
lsu" m%d.a kHIal iy iqkHIal ffi, ixOdk w;r ieiula
wod< Ih ikaOdrh imQK lsu i|yd ia;drKhl fhfokak'
my; lreKq ms<sn| j wjOdkh fhduq lrkak'
m%fYfuka hq;= j ksje/j wKaalaI Nd;h
wdf,dal wKalaIfha iy bf,lafg%dak wKalaIfha Yd,kh iy fNaok
n,h
wdf,dal wKalaIh iy bf,lafg%dak wKalaI ieiu
m%d.a kHIal iy iQkHIal ffi, ixOdk
wdf,dal wKalaIh
ir, iy ixhqla; wKaalaI fjka lr ykd .ekSu
ixhqla; wKalaIfha uQ,sl ,laIK iy ixrpl ia;r lsu - Wmfk; iy
wjfk;' tajdfha Yd,kh iy fNaok n,h ^,laIH folla tlsfklska
fjka lr ykd .ekSu i|yd tu ,laI fol w;r ;sh hq;= wju r &
14 15
bf,lafg%dak wKaalaIh nelahd iy wdlsnelahd" m%d.akHIal ffi, ixOdk orhs' wfkl=;a

Yd,kh iy fNaok n,h ish ka iQkHIal ffi, ixOdk orhs'
ifm%aIK iy mf,dalk bf,lafg%dak wKalaI m%d.a kHIal ffi, iy iQkHIal ffi, ieif m%d.a kHIal
wdf,dal wKalaIh ksje/ j Nd; lrk wdldrh wdoYkh lrkak' ffi, ;rka l=vd u" ixOdkh jQ kHIahla fkdue;s u" mg,uh
ksoYl kslaIKh i|yd wdf,dal wKalaIh Nd; lrk wdldrh wdoYkh bkashsld fkdue;s Su" 70s rhsnfidau oeu" laIq kd,sldj,ska iuka;
lrkak'
fkd jQ ir, lIsld oeu iy tajd mg,hlska jg fkd ;su" wka;#ma,diah
ffi, jdoh
cd,sld iy ffi,Sh iels,a,la fkd ;su" nelahdj, ffi, ;a;sj,
ish ka ffi,j,ska iE we;' iuyre ;ks ffi,hlska iE we;s w;r
iuyre ffi, .Kkdjlska hqla;h' fmmaghsfvd.a,hslEka ^peptidoglycan& wvx.= u iy wdlsnelahdj,
jfha ixOdk ug kej; u;la lr.kak' fmd,sielrhsv iy fm%dak wvx.= u'
zZ f,i ie,lsh yels uQ,sl tallh ffi,h f' fuh tal ffi,sl rEm igyka" bf,lafg%dak wKalaISh PdhdrEm iy m.Kl udOH u`.ska
fhla ^Wod ( Chlamydomonas, Yeast& fyda nyqffi,sl i;a;ajfhla fyda oelafjk m O ffi, ixOdkj, ,laIK
Ydlhla fyda h yelsh'
ffi,h jfha uQ,sl jHqyuh iy lD;Huh tallhhs' m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
jHj," ffi,hla u.ska ksrEmkh jk ixOdk ugu" kaf.a ish
wdf,dal wKalaIfha fldgia" lD;H yd ksoYl kslaIKh i|yd
,dlaIKsl .=K fmkajhs' ffi,hg my, lsis ixOdk ugula
wKalaI Nd;h'
f,i fyda zfhlaZ f,i ie,lsh fkdyels h' talffi,sl fhla jQj;a"
nyqffi,sl Ydlhl fyda i;a;ajhl=f.a jQj;a uQ,sl jHqyuh iy lD;Huh ffi,Sh ix>glj, jHQyh wjfndaO lr .ekSu i|yd bf,lafg%dak
tallh ffi,h f' wKalaISh PdhdrEm Nd;h
frdn yqla ^1663& - >k jHhla jk j,alhg md ug yelshdjla we;af;a
flfiao@ hkak f;are .ekSug W;aidyhl fhf " j,al mglfha ;=kS
fohla wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lr th isrej,ska iE we;s nj oel tajd
ffi, f,i ykajk ,'
frdn yqla f.a iuld,skhl= jQ wekagka jeka ,Sfjkayqla (1650) uq,ska u
tal ffi,sl ka jk Euglena iy nelahd kslaIKh lr ia;r
iys;j jd;d lrk ,'
WoaNso oHd{ ue;shia Ya,hsvka (1831) Ydl mgl wOHhkh lr ish u
Ydl" ffi,j,ska iE we;s nj ks.ukh lf<ah'
i;a;aj oHd{ ;shfvda Yajdka iy Ya,hsvka (1839) ish i;a;ajhka
ffi,j,ska iE we;s nj ks.ukh lrk ,'
jfpd ^1855& iEu ffi,hlau bka fmr mej;=Kq ffi,hlska" ffi,
Ndckh u`.ska yg.kakd nj fmkajd fok ,'
Ya,hsvka" Yajdka iy jfpd iska my; lreKq we;=<;a lr ffi, jdoh
bm;a lrk ,'
1' ish ka tl ffi,hlska fyda ffi, lsysmhlska fyda iE we;'
2' ka f.a uQ,sl jHqyuh iy lD;Huh tallh ffi,h f'
3' ish ffi, we;sjkafka l,ska mej;s ffi,j,sks'
ffi, ixOdkh'
ffi, ixOdk wdldr folls'
m%d.a kHIal ^fm%dlefhdagd & iy iQkHIal ^hqlefhdagd&
m%d.a kHIal iy iQkHIal ffi, w;r fjkial
16 17
ksmK
q ;dj 2'2'0 ( ka f.a l%shdld;ajh i|yd ffi, iy mglj, ffi, ;a;sfha msysgk l+ k jQ isre yryd hdno ffi,j, ffi, ma,diau
odhl;ajh uid n,hs' inkaO lrk ma,diau nkaO ysoS we;'
ffi, ;a;sfha lD;H
ksmqK;d ugu 2'2'2
2'2'2( Wm ffi,Sh tallj, jHqyh iy lD;H .%y lrhs'
ma,diau mg,h
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 07 hs' m%dlama,diaufha ndysr iSudjhs'
rEm igyka Nd;fhka ma,diau mg,fha ;r, ;% wdlD;sh meye,s lrkak'
bf.kq M, ( ,smsv oa;aj ia;rhlska yd imQKfhka .s`MKq iy mhka; fm%dakj,ska iE
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ( we;' p,kh jk ,smsv wKq u.ska ;r,uh nj;a fm%dak wKq ms<sfh< we;s
Ydl iy i;a;aj ffi,j, jHqyuh fjkial ii|hs' wdldrh wkqj ;% nj;a ,nd foa'
ffi,Sh bkashsld iy ix>gl ykd .ekSug bf,lafg%dak wKaalaISh PdhdrEm ffi,fha we;s wfkl=;a mg,j, jHqyh o g iudk f'
Nd; lrhs' ma,diau mg,fha lD;H meye,s lrkak'
bkashsld iy Wm ffi,Sh ix>glj, jHqyh iy lD;H ia;r lrhs' ffi,fha .;sl wdjrKh
c,h" whk iy iuyr ldnksl wKq we;=,aug bvu
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh ( wmjH msg u hdukh lsu
Ydl yd i;a;aj ffi,j, rEm igyka folla mka;shg fmkajkak' ffi,h ;=< wdi%e;sl ;=,H;dj mj;ajd .ekSu
tajd w;r iudkl iy fjkial i|yka lrk f,i isiqkag mjikak' m%;s.%dyl u`.ska f;dr;=re ,nd f.k ffi, w;r l%shdldrl
my; i|yka lKavdh l%shdldrlfuys isiqka ksr; lrjkak' inkalrKh lsug ix{d ifm%aIKh$ffi, ykd .ekSu'
my; i|yka jk bkashsld iy ffi,Sh jHqy lg, ;=k w;ka Tng ,e kHIah
we;s bkashsld lg,h ms<sn|j wjOdkh fhduq lrkak' ffi,fha m%fKsl f;dr;=re .nvd lrhs'
uhsfgdfldkahu" y;,j" f.d,a.sfoay" laIq kd,sld" ,hsfidfidau fndfyda ffi,j, tla kHIahla we;' iuyr ffi,j, kHIa rdYshls' Wod(
ma,diau mg,h" laIq foay" la;l" ffi,Sh ika" ffi, iels,a, ,Sr
ffi, ;a;sh" r`M wka;#ma,diah cd,sld" isks wka;#ma,diah cd,sld" kHIafha jHqyh ia;r lrkak' oa;aj mg,uh wdjrKhlska hqla; nj'
kHIah" rhsfndfidau" lYsld" mlaIau fl%dueka" kHIal hqIh" kHIal iy kHIaldj
Tng imhd we;s wKaalaISh lod" bf,lafg%dak wKaalaISh PdhdrEm iy rEm kHIafha lD;H ia;r lrkak'
igyka Nd;fhka tu jHqy kslaIKh lr ykd.kak' ffi,Sh l%shdld;ajh md,kh lsu
wod< jHqyj, lD;H fidhd .ekSug ,nd we;s uQ,dY% Nd; lrkak' ffi, Ndckh i|yd kj kHIa ksmoug DNA ixYaf,aIKh lsu
Ydl ffi,j, iy i;a;aj ffi,j, we;s bkashsld iy Wm ffi,Sh ix>gl rhsfndfidau ksmou iy fm%dak ixYaf,aIKhg wjYH RNA ksmou
fjkalr ykd .kak' rhsfndfidau
lKavdh bm;a lsulg isiqka iQodk lrjkak' r- RNA iy fm%dak j,ska iEkq Yd, iy l=vd Wm tall follska iE we;'
wod< Ih ikaOdrh imQK lsu i|yd ia;drKhl fhfokak' t - RNAj, odhl;ajfhka m - RNA u.ska imhk fla;hg wkqj fm%dak
ixYaf,aIKh lsu'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( wka;#ma,diah cd,sldj
Ydl ffi, yd i;a;aj ffi,j, bf,lafg%dak wKaalaISh PdhdrEm Nd; ffi, ma,diah mQrlh wka;#ma,diah cd,sldf l=yrfhka fjka flfrk
lrkak' me;e,s fyda kd,dldr fyda uj,ska hqla; wNHka;r mg, moaO;s cd,hls' fuh
bkashsld iy Wm ffi,Sh ix>glj, jHqyh iy lD;H kHIafha ndysr mg,h iu. inkaO j mj;S'
ffi, ;a;sh wka;#ma,diah cd,sld wdldr folls' r`M wka;#ma,diah cd,sld iy isks
Ydl ffi,j, ndysr wdjrKhhs' i;a;aj ffi,j, ffi, ;a;s ke;' wka;#ma,diah cd,sld
fi,shqf,daia iy fmlakaj,ska iE we;' fyfi,shqf,daia" ,s.akska" r`M wka;#ma,diah cd,sld
iqfnka wdh o ;sh yelsh' me;e,s uj,ska hqla; jk fuys msg; mg,fha rhsfndfidau msysghs'
m%d:l fuka u oa;shsl ffi, ;a;s mej;sh yelsh' uOH iQia;rh" rhsfndfidau u.ska ixYaf,aIs; fm%dak wka;#ma,diah cd,sldf l=yr ;=<g
m%d:l ffi, ;a;sh iy oa;shsl ffi, ;a;sh hk tajdfha ridhksl hjhs'
ix>gl ykajd fokak'
18 19
ffi,mg,j, fmdiafmda,smsv iy .a,hsfld,smsv ixYaf,aIKh lsu uhsfgdfldka%hd

ffi,h ;=< tkaihsu iy wfkl=;a fm%dak mjykh lsu' mjykh i|yd mg, follska jg jQ bkashsldjls' we;=,a mg,fha hr we;'
ifm%aIK wdYhsld ksmou' rEm igyka Nd;fhka uhsfgdfldka%hf iQCIau jHqyh ia;r lrkak'
isks wka;#ma,diah cd,sld oa;aj mg,h" hr" rhsfndfidau iy DNA wvx.= mQrlh
rhsfndfidau rys; kd,dldr u cd,hls' uhsfgdfldka%hf lD;H ia;r lrkak
mg, yd neKq tkaihsu we;' fl%ia pl%fha m%;sl%shd i|yd wjYH tkaihsu mQrlh ;=< wka;.; u' hr
,smsv" iafgfrdhsv iy ldfndyhsfg ixYaf,aIKh u.ska bf,lafg%dka mjyk oduh is lsu iy Tlail s drl fmdiaf*dr,SlrKh
ffi, ;=, mjykh" mjykh i|yd ifm%aIK wdYhsld ksmou is lsu'
IyrKh TlaisyrKh jQ iy tkaihsu Tlaiscka u`.ska TlaislrKh lr ATP ksmou
Ca2+ whk ix; lsu
f.d,a.s ixlSKh y;,j
me;,s wdYhsld f.dkqjls' Ydl ffi,j, muKla yuqjk oa;aj mg,uh bkashsldjls'
msg; iy we;=<; mDIaG ykd.; yelsh' bf,lafg%dak wKalaISh PdhdrEm Nd;fhka y;,jfha o< jHqyh ia;r
rEm igyka u.ska f.d,a.s foayfha jHqyh meye,s lrkak' lrkak' msg; mg,h" we;=,a mg,h" ;hs,fldhsv" mxcr lKssld iy mxcrh"
f.d,a.s foayj, lD;H mxcrh ;=< rhsfndfidau" DNA iy msIag lKsld wvx.= nj
wka;#ma,diah cd,sldj, ksmofjk fm%dak yd ,smsv wka;#ma,diah ;hs,fldhsvj, m%NdixYaf,aIl jKl wvx.= f'
cd,sldj, we;s k, ud. ;=<ska fyda tajdhska ksmofjk wdYhsld u`.ska y;,jfha lD;Hh - m%NdixYaaf,aIKh
f.d,a.s ixlSKhg mjykh f'
f.d,a.s ixlSKfha mg,uh u f.dkq ;=< oS fmd,sielrhsv fm%dak yd ffi, iels,a,
,smsv iu`. tla ms<sfj<ska .a,hsfld fm%dak yd .a,hsfld ,smsv iEfoa' fm%dak iQ;%sld iy laIq kd,sldj,ska iEkq ffi, ma,diaufha we;s ikaOdrl
wjYH;dj wkqj .a,hsfld fm%dak yd .a,hsfld ,smsv iys; wdYhsld f.d,a.s jHqyhls' wjYH;dj wkqj le f.dia kej; ilia jk l%shdld jHqyhls'
u~,aj,ska wxl+r f,i fjka ffi,fha fjk;a ia:dkj,g .uka lrhs' my; ixrpl ;=fkys jHqyh ia;r lrkak'
,hsfidfidau ksmou laIqkd,sld" welaka iQ;%sld" w;rueos iQ;%sld
,hsfidfidau ffi, iels,af,a lD;H
rK l%shdld;ajhg odhl jk mg,uh wdYhsld f' ffi, ma,diauhg ikaOdrKh ,ndu
ldfndyhsfg" fm%dak" ,smsv iy kshqlaf,hsla w, | oeu W;afm%arKh bkashsld r|jd ;nd .ekSu
lrk c, fol tkaihsu wvx.= f' ffi, ma,diah p,k" ffi, ma,diah ixirKh" wjYH g bkashsld iy
NlaIffi,l;dj u`.ska ,nd .;a wdydr wxY= rKh lsu jKfoay p,kh lsu
f. .sh bkashsld rKh lsu
nys#iaffi,sl;dj u`.ska fYaI.; jH ffi,fhka msg;g mjykh lsu lYsld iy mlaIau
iajhxrKh u.ska ffi, hhdu laIqkd,sld j,ska ie we; ^ 9 + 2 & jHqyh orhs' ma,diau mg,fhka wdjrKh
laIq foay ^fmfrdlaisfidau iy .a,fhdlaisfidau & we;' mdoia: lKssldjg inkaOj we;'
Tlaisldrl tkaihsu wvx.= mg,uh wdYhsld bf,lafg%dak wKalaISh PdhdrEm u`.ska jHqyh ia;r lrkak' mlaIau iy
wdldr folls' lYsldj, lD;H( p,kh yd ffi, u;=msg jH mjykh
.a,fhdlaisfidau - Ydl ffi,j, we;' flakasldj
fmfrdlaisfidau - Ydl iy i;a;aj ffi, foflys u we;' laIqkd,sldj,ska iEkq is,skavrdldr jHqy folls' i;a;aj ffi,j, yuqf'
.a,fhdlaisfidauj, we;s tkaihsu u.ska fo ldfndyhsf%g njg m;a lrhs' ffi, Nckfha ;=rej iy ;l=j ms<sfh< lrhs'
fmfrdlaisfidauj, we;s tkaihsu u.ska H2O2 | fy,Su W;afm%arKh lrhs'
fmfrdlaisfidauj, lD;H
fmfrdlaihsvj, I yrKh
Ydlj, m%NdYaajikfha jeo.;a f'
20 21
la;l ksmqK;dj 2'2'0 ( ka f.a l%shdld;ajh i|yd ffi, iy mglj,

Ydl ffi,j, yuqjk ;r,hlska msreKq ;dkma,diagfhka jg jQ Yd, jHqyhls' odhl;ajh uid n,hs'
c,h" iSks" whk iy jKl jeks jH .nvd lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 2'2'3 ( Ydl mglj, jHqyh" tajdfha lD;H iu`. olajk
ffi,j, c, ;=,H;dj mj;ajd .kshs'
inkaO;d f.dv k`.hs'
ffi,j,g ikaOdrKh iy Y+k;dj ,ndfohs'
hqI jKl u.ska iuyr Ydlj,g jKh ,ndfoa ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05 hs'
ffi,Sh l%shdld;ajhka i|yd wjYH jk djH ix>gl .nvd lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
ffi, ika fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ;
hdno ffi, tlsfkl inkaO lrk ffi, ma,diaufha we;s jHqy f' mglh hk ixl,amh meye,s lrhs'
Ydl ffi,j, ma,diau nkaO m%Odk Ydl mgl j. ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
m%Odk Ydl mgl j.j, ,laIK ,ehsia;=jla /ia lrhs'
i;a;aj ffi,j, wdldr 3ls'
Ydl mglj, jHqyh" tajdfha lD;H iu`. olajk inkaO;d f.dvk`.hs'
;o ika - hdno ffi,j, ma,diau mg,h ;ka ne| ;nd .kS' Wod ( wdydr
wKalaIfhka Ydl mgl ykd .ekSu i|yd Ydl mglj, ,laIK Nd;
ud.fha wmsPo ffi, w;r we;s fuu ika ksid ffi, w;ka jH lrhs'
ldka j,lajhs' O Ydl mgl j. ixikaokh lrhs'
wdila;l ika fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh (

hdno ffi, j, we;s ffi, iels,a, hdka;%slj ;ka inkaO lsu Ydl foayfha olakg ,efnk m Ydl mglj, rEm igyka fmkaug pd
Wod ( if wmsPoh igyka" rEm igyka iy m.Kl wdY%s; bosm;a lsula (power point presenta
tion) Nd; lrkak'
ysoeia ika ^ ikaksfok ika & tu Ydl mgl ykdf.k tajd msysgk ia:dk" m%Odk ,laIK iy tla tla Ydl
mglfha lD;H ms<sn| j igyka ;eug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
hdno ffi, w;r ix{d iy jH yqjudre lr .ekSug we;s Rcq inkaO;d
Ydl mgl wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lsug isiqkag wjia:d i,ikak'
Wod ( yD;afmaYS Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn| j ksudKd;aul bm;a lsulg isiqka iQodk
lrjkak'
i,ld ne,sh hq;= jeo.;a lreKq biau;= jk fia ia;drKh lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSSug w;aje,la (

nyq ffi,sl kaf.a ffi, mgl" wjhj iy wjhj moaO;s f,i ixOdkh
we;' mglhla hkq fmd iNjhla we;s h fYaI;
s lD;Hhla fyda lD;Hhka
lsysmhlg fYaIKh jQ" fN!;sl jYfhka ne mj;sk ffi, iuQyhls'
Ydl mgl j." tajdfha jHqyh iy lD;H
Ydl mgl m%Odk ldKav follg fnfoa'
ir, mgl - tla ffi, j.hlska muKla iuka; f'
ixlSK mgl - ffi, j. lsysmhlska iuka; f'
ir, Ydl mgl wdldr ;=kls' uDia:r" ia:Q,fldaKdia;r yd oDVia:r
ir, Ydl mglj, jHqyh" lD;H iy msysu
fYaIKh jQ uDia:r ffi, tajdfha msysu iy lD;H
ixlSK Ydl mgl j. folls'
ffY,u
maf,dahu
ixlSK Ydl mgl j, jHqyh" lD;H iy msysu
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
O Ydl mgl wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lsu iy ykd .ekSu
22 23
ksmqK;dj 2'2'0 ( kaf.a l%shdld;ajh i|yd ffi, iy mglj, wmsPo mgl

odhl;ajh uid n,hs' wmsPo mglj, ,laIK ia;r lrkak '
wmsPo mgl j. folls'
1 ir, wmsPo
ksmqK;d ugu 2'2'4
2'2'4( i;a;j
a mglj, jHqyh" tajdfha lD;H iu`. olajk 2 ia;N+; wmsPo
inkaO;d f.dv k.hs' fuu wmsPo j. tajdfha olakg ,efnk ffi,j, yevh wkqj kej;;a
j. ;=klg fnfoa'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05 hs' 1 Y,aluh
2 >kdldr
3 ia:Nsl
bf.kq M, (
Y,aluh" >kdldr" ia:Nsl hk wmsPoj, jHqyh" lD;H iy msysu ms<sn|
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ; j ia;r lrkak'
m%Odk i;a;aj mgl ,ehsia;= .; lrhs' O ia;N+; wmsPo mglj, jHqyh lD;H iy msysu ia;r lrkak'
i;a;aj mglj, jHqyh" lD;H iu. olajk inkaO;d f.dvk.hs' inkaOl mgl
m%Odk i;a;aj mgl j.j, ,laIK ,ehsia;=jla /ia lrhs' inkaOl mglj, ,laIK ia;r lrkak'
m%Odk i;a;aj mgl wKalaIfhka ykd .ekSu i|yd tajdfha ,laIK Nd; m%Odk j. follg fnfoa
1 kshu inkaOl mgl
lrhs'
2 fYaI inkaOl mgl
O i;a;aj mgl j. ixikaokh lrhs' kshu inkaOl mgl j. folls'
1 ,sys,a inkaOl mgl
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh ( 2 >k inkaOl mgl
i;a;aj mglj, jHqyh fiug wod< o;a; wvx.= rEm igyka"ms<sfh, l< ,sys,a inkaOl mgl iy >k inkaOl mglj, jHqyh lD;H iy
lod 'mska;+r iy iQodk l< m.Kl bm;a lsula (Power Point msysu ia;r lrkak'
fYaI inkaOl mgl j. ;=klg fnfoa'
Presentation) Nd; lrkak'
ldf,ac
tajd ykd .ekSug isiqkag bv i,ikak' wia
tajdfha jHqyh" lD;Hhg olajk inkaO;dj f.dv ke.Sug wjYH f;dr;=re rerh
tla/ia lsug isiqkag mjrkak' ldf,ac" wia iy rerfha jHqyh" lD;H iy msysu ia;r lrkak'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn| j mka;shg bm;a lsu i|yd .kajkak' fmaYS mgl
fmaYs mglj, ,dlaIKsl .=K ia;r lrkak'
m%Odk lreKq biau;= jk fia ia;drKhla is lrkak'
fmaYs mgl j. ;=kls'
isks fmaYS
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSSug w;aje,la ( lxld, fmaYS
m%Odk i;a;aj mgl j. iy tajdfha ,laIK yD;a fmaYS
mglj, jHqy iy lD;H inkaO;dj isks fmaYS" lxld, fmaYS iy yD;a fmaYSj, jHqyh" lD;H iy msysgk ia:dk
mgl ykd .ekSug wKalaISh kslaIK is lsu ia;r lrkak'
iakdhq mgl
i;a;aj mgl j." tajdfha jHqyh iy lD;H
iakdhq mglfha ,dlaIKsl .=K ia;r lrkak'
i;a;aj mgl uQ,sl j. y;rlg fnod oelaf' kshqfrdak wdldr ;=kls'
wmsPo mgl 1' ixfol kshqfrdak
inkaOl mgl 2' pd,l kshqfrdak
fmaYs mgl 3' wka;udOH kshqfrdak
iakdhq mgl pd,l kshqfrdakh weiqfrka kshqfrdakhl jHqyh yd lD;H meyeos,s lsrSu
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
O i;a;aj mgl wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lsu iy ykd .ekSu
24 25
ksmqK;dj 2'3'0 ( ffi, Ndckfha jeo.;alu uid n,hs i;a;aj ffi,j, wkQkk Ndckfha flakafoay u.ska ;l=j fukau
;=rej o idohs'
ksmqK;d ugu 2'3'1 ( ffi, Ndck l%shdj,sh Yaf,aIKh lrhs' Ydl ffi,j, flakafoay ke;' tfy;a ;l=jla iEfoa'
O%ej foig we hdug fmr fikafg%dhrh fomi we;s lhsfkfgdfldarj,g
ld,
(Kinetochores) ;l= ;ka;= ne|S mj;S'
bf.kq M, ( ffi, ma,diau Ndckfha i;a;aj ffi, j, fNaok we,shla iEfok
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ; w;r Ydl ffi,j, ffi, ;,hla iEfoa'
ffi, pl%fha wj y;r ms<sn| ia;drKhl fhfohs' wkQkkfha jeo.;a lu ia;r lrkak'
tla tla wjfha is jk m%Odk is idlPd lrhs'
jK foayj, yeisug wod< j wkQkkfha wj y;r ia;r lrhs' W!kkh
wkQkkfha iy W!kkfha jeo.;alu i|yka lrhs' W!kkh tl <`. is jk kHIa Ndck follska is jk nj meye,s
wkQkkfha iy W!kkfha O wj wKalaIfhka ykd .ekSug ms<sfh<
lrkak' m<uq Ndckfha jKfoay ixLHdj y wvla jk w;r fo jk
l< lod Nd; lrhs'
Ndckh" wkQkkhg iEu w;ska u iudk f'
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh ( W!kkh wj wglg fnfoa' W!kkh I iy W!kkh II Ndck wj
ffi, pl%fha wj fmkaug im;a jH ûqs; fyda m.Kl& Nd; lrkak' foflysu m%dla l,dj" fhda. l,dj" fhda. l,dj iy wka; l,dj f,i
`MEKq uQ,d.% iy m%frdayd.% iys; lod kslaIKh lr wkQkkfha O wj wj y;rla ;sf' m%dla l,dj I .u wjh jk w;r is .Kkdjlska
ykd .ekSug isiqkag bv i,iajkak' hqla; f'
wkQkkfha yd W!kkfha jKfoayj, yeisu wOHhkh lsug wod< ish,q u wj wfgys isjk is ia;r lrkak'
m.Kl wdY%s; bf.kq im;a fyda lsh jH imhd fokak' ium%Nj jKfoay hkq fudkjd oe hs meye,s lr m%dla l,dj I ys tajd
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn| bm;a lsulg .kajkak
hq.,a jk wdldrh meye,s lrkak'
m%Odk lreKq biau;=jk fia ia;drKhl fhfokak'
Wmd.u ixlSKh iEfok wdldrh iy tys jKfoaydxY fldgia yqjudre
e,laa (
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSSug w;aje,l u ia;r lrkak'
my; lreKq ms<sn| wjOdkh fhduq lrkak W!kkfha jeo.;a lu ia;r lrkak'
ffi, pl%h
tla ffi, Ndckhl wdrNfha isg B <`. ffi, Ndckfha wdrNh m%dfhda.sl mlaIKh (-
f;la ffi,hl isjk is wKalaIsh lod u.ska wkQkkfha iy W!kkfha O wjia:d ykd .ekSu'
m%;sM,h ;ks ffi,hlska ffi, folla ,nd oSuhs'
iQ kHIal ffi, pl%h
wj ia;r lsu - G1 S, G2, M ^wkqkkh & iy C ^ ffi, ma,diau
Ndckh& tla tla wjfha isjk m%Odk is ia;r lsu
G1 +S +G2 tla j wka;l,dj iEfoa'
wkQkkh
ffi, pl%fha S wjfha DNA ixYaf,aIKh f' jKfoay" jKfoaydxY
follg fn fikafg%dhrh k ia:dkfhka ne|S mj;S'
wkQkkh wj y;rlska hqla;h' m%dla l,dj" fhda. l,dj" fhda. l,dj"
wka; l,dj
wkQkfha by; tla tla wjj, jKfoayj, yeisu ia;r lrkak'
26 27
ksmqK;dj 2'4'0 ( mjD;a;Sh l%shdj, Yla;s inkO;d uYkh lrhs' ksmqK;dj 2'4'0 ( mjD;a;Sh l%shdj, Yla;s inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 2'4'1 ( mjD;a;h

S l%h
s dj,sj, Yla;s inkaO;d Yaf,aYkh lrhs' ksmqK;d ugu 2'4'2 ( mjD;a;h
S l%h
s dj,s hdukh i|yd tkaihsuj, ldhNdrh
uYkh lrhs'
bf.kq M, ( ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06 hs'
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ;
moaO;s i|yd Yla;s wjYH;dj u;=lr fmkajhs' bf.kq M, (
ksoiqka iys;j ixjD;a;Sh iy wmjD;a;Sh m%;sl%shd meye,s lrhs' fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ;
Yla;s ksuh tallh f,i ATP wKqf jHqyh iy tys jeo.;alu idlPd lrhs' tkaihsuj, idudkH ,laIK iy tajdfha ldhNdrh meye,s lrhs'
Yla;sh iyNd.S jk ffi,Sh l%shdj,Ska ,ehsia;= .; lrhs' tkaihsuj, m%Odk ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
tkaihsu m%;sl%shdj, iy-idOlj, jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh ( iqiq rEm igyka u.ska tkaihsu m%;sl%shd hka;%Kh ia;r lrhs'
ffi,j, Yla;s inkaO;dj,g wod< jk uQ,sl uqs; fyda m.Kl uQ,dY% isiqkag tkaihsu m%;l
s h
s% dj, iS>;
% djh flfrys pH w.h" WIaK;ajh" Wmia;r idkaKh"
imhkak' tkaihsu idkaKh iy ksfYaOlj, n,mEu meye,s lrhs'
tajdhska jeo.;a lreKq Wmqgdf.k idrdxYhla f.dv ke.Sug myiql i,ikak msIag-weuhsf,aia moaO;sh u.ska tkaihsu m%;sl%shdjl f.h flfrys WIAK;ajh
isiqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn| bm;a lsulg .kajkak n,mdkafka flfia oehs fmkaug oHd.dr mlaIK is lrhs'
m%Odk lreKq biau;=jk fia ia;drKhl fhfokak'
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh (
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( tkaihsuj, ldhNdrh wdoYkh lsug ir, mlaIK fufyhjkak'
moaO;s i|yd Yla;s wjYH;dj meye,s lrkak' tkaihsu l%shdld;ajhg n,mdk idOl ksKh lsug wjYH WmlrK iy
O wdldrfha ish`Mu jl%shd mj;ajd .ekSug ksrka;r Yla;s iemhqula wjYH f' jH iu`. wod< uqs; uQ,dY% iy m.Kl uQ,dY% isiqka fj; imhkak'
^hdka;%sl" ridhksl" mjykh" ikama;sh & Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn|j bm;a lsula i|yd Wmfoia fokak'
mjD;a;Sh - ffi,hl isjk ridhksl m%;sl%shd iduqyslj .;a l, mjD;a;Sh l%shd Ih fldgi wdjrKh lsug wod< lreKq biau;= jk fia ia;drKhl
k f' ksoiqka iys; j ixjD;a;Sh iy wmjD;a;Sh m%;sl%shd meye,s lrkak' fhfokak'
moaO;s i|yd Yla;sfha wjYH;djh wjOdrKh lrkak' Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh jk Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSug w;aje,la
m%;sl%shd iy Yla;sh fudapkh jk m%;sl%shd' ixjD;a;Sh m%;sl%shd is lsu i|yd my; lreKq wjOdrKh lrkak'
wmjD;a;Sh m%;sl%shdj, Yla;sh ffi, m%fhdackhg .kS' tkaihsuj, idudkH .=K" fm%dakuh jHqyh iy YsIaG;djh meye,s
m%;sl%shd w;r Yla;s jdylfhla f,i ATP l%shd lrhs' lrkak'
ATP j, jHqyh ia;r lrkak' th Yla;s jdylhla f,i l%shdlrk whqre ksoiqka h ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl il%shk Yla;sh wvq lsug tkaihsuj,g
iys; j idlPd lrkak' yelshdjla we;s nj ia;r lrkak'
ATP" ADP njg c,fokfha 30'6 kJ mol-1 Yla;s m%udKhla ksoyia lrhs' rEm igyka Wmfhda.S lrf.k tkaihsu m%;sl%shdjl hdka;%Kh meye,s
ATP ip, wKqjla jk w;r" myiqfjka Yla;sh ksoyia lrk w;r kej; ilia ug lrkak'
o yelsh' 1' w.=`M - h;=re hdka;%Kh
2' fm%a; - iSyq hdka;%Kh
iuyr tkaihsuj, l%shdld;ajh i|yd iy-idOl k jQ fm%dak fkdjk
fldgia w;HjYH jk nj meye,s lrkak'
28 29
iy-idOl j. ;=kls' ksmqK;dj 2'4'0 ( mjD;a;Sh l%shdj, Yla;s inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'
1' iy-tkaihsu
2' ix,.ak ldKav ksmqK;d ugu 2'4'3 ( Yla;sh ;sr lsf l%h
s dj,shla jYfhka m%NdixYaf,aIKh
3' wldnksl whk uid n,hs'
by; tajdfha lD;H
iqiq ksoYl iys;j iy-idOl j. ;=k ms<sn|j ia;r lrkak' ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08 hs'
il%shl iy ksfYaOl tkaihsu m%;sl%shd flfrys n,mdkafka flfiaoehs ia;r
bf.kq M, (
lrkak' Wod (- ner f,day Ag+, Hg+, Cd+.
tkaihsu m%;sl%shdj, YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl ia;r lrkak'
m%NdixYaf,aIK l%shdj,sfha jeo.;alu idlPd lrhs'
pH, WIaK;ajh" Wmia;r idkaKh" tkaihsu idkaKh" ksfYaOl
m%NdixYaf,aIKfha wdf,dal m%;sl%shdj ia;r lrhs'
m%NdixYaf,aIKfha wre m%;sl%shdj ia;r lrhs'
m%NdixYaf,aIKfha C4 ud.h ia;r lrhs'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
m%NdixYaf,aIKhg n,mdk idOl ksKh lsug mlaIK fufyhjhs'
tkaihsu ls%hdld;ajh wdoYkh lsu iy tkaihsh m%;sls%hdj, YS>%;dj
iSudld idOl ms<sn| uQ, Ouh ia;r lrhs'
ksKh lsu i|yd oHd.dr mlaIK ^msIagh - weuhsf,aia&
msg jk Tlaiscka mrsudj wkqj m%NdixYaf,aIK f.h ksKh lsug mlaIK
fufyhjhs'

m%NdixYaf,aIKhg wod< wod< uqs; fyda m.Kl uQ,dY% isiqkag imhd fokak'
jeo.;a lreKq Wmqgdf.k idrdxYhla ilia lsug myiql imhkak'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn|j bm;a lsulg isiqka fmd<Ujkak'
jeo.;a lreKq biau;= lsug ia;drKhl fhfokak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSSug w;aje,la (

my; lreKq wjOdrKh lrkak'
m%NdixYaf,aIKfha ffch iy f.da,Sh jeo.;alu
ldnka iy Yla;sh ;sr lsf hka;%Khlaa f,i wod< m%;sl%shd iy wka;M,
wdY%fhka m%NdixYaf,aIK l%shdj,sh w: olajkak'
m%NdixYaf,aIK uOHia:dkh f,i y;,jh" tys ishq jHqyh" ;hs,fldhsv
mxcr lKsld iy mxcrh
wdf,dal Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh yd inkaO jKl" laf,darms,a jKlj,
wjfYdaIK jKdj,sh" m%NdixYaf,aIKfha l%h s d jKdj,sh yd tajd ieiu'
my; lreKq wjOdrKh lrka m%Ndixiaf,aIK hdka;%Kh
1 wdf,dal m%;sl%shdj
2 wre m%;sl%shdj
wdf,dal m%;sl%shdj
fuh ;hs,fldhsv mg, j, isjk nj my; ia;r iys;j meye,s lrkak'
30 31
m%Nd moaO;s I iy II, antenna complex, laf,darms,a jKl wKqj, Woamkh ksmqK;dj 2'4'0 ( mjD;a;Sh l%shdj, Yla;s inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'
u' jKl wKq w;r Yla;s ixl%duKh" m%;l s h
s% d uOHia:dk wKq" bf,lafg%dk
a
mjykh" c,fha m%Ndfokh" pl%Sh iy wpl%Sh fmdiaf*dr,SlrKh" ksmqK;d ugu 2'4'4 ( Yla;sh ,nd .ekSf l%shdj,shla jYfhka ffi,Sh Yajikh
NADPH iy ATP ixYaf,aIKh ms<sn| uYkh lrhs'
wre m%;sl%shdj ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08 hs'

fuh y;,jfha mxcrh ;=< is jk nj my; ia;r iys; j meye,s
lrkak' bf.kq M, (
le,aka pl%fha m%;sl%shd mshjr ;=kls' fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd;
ldfndlais,alrKh - CO2 ;sr lsu" CO2 m%;s.%dylh f,i RuBP" RuBP ish ffi,Sh l%shd i|yd Yla;sh imhk l%shdj,sh f,i ffi,Sh Yajikh
lfndlaisf,aia tkaihsu" PGA iEu' biau;= lr olajhs'
PGA TlaisyrKh - wdf,dal m%;sl%shdf ixYaf,aIs; ATP iy NADPH ijdhq Yajikh isjk ia:dkh" m%Odk is yd wka;M, ia;r lrhs'
Nd;fhka PGA Tlaiy s rKh" PGAL ksmou" PGALj,ska fldgila ldnksl ksjdhq Yajikh isjk ia:dkh m%Odk is yd wka;M, ia;r lrhs'
wdydr ixYaf,aIKh i|yd fhfof' ffi,Sh Yajikfha jeo.;alu ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
RuBP m%;sckkh - PGAL j,ska fldgila iy ATP u`.ska RuBP ksmou
i|yd Nd; f' fuh RuMP yryd isf' fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (
m%NdYajikh - RuBP" Tlaiscka iu`. inkaO PGA ^C3& tla wKqjla iy Yajikhg wod< uqs; fyda m.Kl uQ,dY% isiqkag imhkak'
fmdiafmd.a,hsflda,sla w, ^C2 & wKqqjla iEu' f ksid m%NdixYaf,aIK jeo.;a lreKq Wmqgd .kska idrdxY .; lsug isiqkag myiql imhkak'
ldhlaIu;dj wvqu' Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn|j bosm;a lsulg isiqka fmdf<dUjkak'
CO2 ;srlsf C4 hka;%Kh ia;r lrkak' th ffi, j. folla ;=< Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos fhda.H wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'
mshjr follska is f' tk m;% uOH ffi, iy l,dm fldmq ffi, h'
jvd;a ldhlaIu CO2 m%;s.%dylhla f,i PEP" Tlaief,d weisf ksmou" Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (
th uef,a njg m;a u' uef,a ma,diau nkaO yryd l,dm fldmq ffi,Sh Yajikfha jeo.;a lu
ffi,j,g mjykh u' ijdhq Yajikh yd ksjdhq Yajikh
l,dm fldmq ffi, ;=< CO2 ksoyia lr mhsref ksmou' mhsref .afldaia ijdhq Yajikfha mshjr
kej; m;% uOH ffi, ;=<g mjykh u' l,dm fldmqq ffi, ;=< .a,hsfld,sish - .afldaia" mhsref wKq follg | fy<Su ffi,
wl CO2 idkaKhla hgf;a le,aka pl%h is u' ma,diaufha isf' Wmia;r fmdiaf*drhs,slrKh is jk wdldrh;a" NADH
C4 m%NdixYaaf,aIKfha jeo.;a lu ia;r lrkak' yd ATP iEfok wdldrh;a" ia;r lrkak'
C3 m%NdixYaf,aIKh iy C4 m%NdixYaf,aIKh w;r fjkial uhsfgdfldak a h% d mQrlfha oS mhsref"weisghs,a iy tkaihsu-A njg m;au
m%NdixYaf,aIK f.h flfrys n,mdk idOl iy iSudld idOl ms<sn| yd CO2 uqod yeu
uQ,Ouh fl%ia pl%h - uhsfgdfldka%hd mQrlh ;=< isjk m%;sl%shd pl%hlska
m%NdixYaf,aIK f.h flfrys CO2 idkaKh" wdf,dalh" c,h iy weisghs,a iy tkaihsu A, CO2 njg TlaislrKh'
WIAK;ajfha n,mEu' .a,hsfld,sisfha oS TlaisyrKh jQ iy-tkaihsu ^NADH, FADH&2 yd ATP
iEoSu ia;r lrkak' fl%ia pl%fha oS mhsref TlaislrKh is u
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK ( ia;r lrkak'
ksoyia lrk O2 m%udKh wkqj m%NdixYaf,aIK YS>%;dj ksKh uhsfgdfldkah % we;=<; mg,fha oS bf,lafg%dk a mjyk oduh" Tlails drl
lsru
S ' fmdiafmdrhs,SlrKh iy TlaisyrKh jQ iy-tkaihsu TlaislrKh u
Ydl m;%hl yrialvl wkalaISh ksrSlaIKh ^m%NdixYaf,aIKh .afldaia ijdhq Yajikfha Yla;s mj;k ldhlaIu;dj .Kkh lrkak'
i|yd we;s fYaI wkqj;k iys;j&
32 33
ksjdhq Yajikh 3 tallh - kaf.a O;ajh

uOHidr meiSu iy ,elala w, meiSu" tajdfha jeo.;a lu ia;r
lrkak ksmqK;dj 3'1'0 ( ka f.a O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'
ksjdhq Yajikfha Yla;s mj;k ldhlaIu;dj
.afldaiaj,g wu;rj Nd; jk fjk;a Yajik Wmia:r - ,smsv iy fm%dak ksmqK;d ugu 3'1'1 ( oHd;aul mokula u; ;lafidak OQrdj,sh f.dv k`.hs'
weuhsfkda w, ksmou i|yd mjD;a;Sh w;r ue M, ksmojk uOHia:dkh
f,i fl% pl%fha jeo.;alu ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08 hs'
Yajik ,h - Yajik ,h hkq l=ula oehs meye,s lr th .Kkh
lrkafka flfia oehs meye,s lrkak' bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd;
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK ( ka j.SlrKh lsf jeo.;a lu meyeos,s lrhs'
m%frdayKh jk c Nd;fhka Yajik f.h ksKh lsu' j.SlrKh yd kdulrKh ;=<ska ka ykd .kshs'
oamo kdulrKhg wkqj ka k lrhs'
iajdNdl yd lD;s%u j.SlrK l%u meyeos,s lrhs'
j.SlrK moaO;s meyeos,s lrhs'
ka j.SlrKh i|yd fhdod .kakd j.SlrK ug ykd .kshs'
ffjri i|yd fYaI jQ .;s-,laIK meyeos,s lrhs'
ka wrdcOdks ;=kg yd rdcOdks lSmhlg fnod fjka lsug fYaIs; .;s
,laIK Nd; lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

ka wOHhkh lsu i|yd l%udKql, + j.SlrKhl we;s jdis u;= jk wdldrhg
nqoa l,nk ieishla mj;ajkak'
O mSka ms<sn| f;dr;=re we;=<;a uQ,dY% ûqs;$oHq;a udOH& imhd Tjqka
j.SlrKh lsu i|yd ksKdhl ms<sfh< lsug Wmfoia fokak'
ka j.SlrKh lsu i|yd w;S;fha .kakd ,o W;aidyhka iy j.SlrKfha
j;udk ;;a;ajh inkaOfhka idlPdjla fufyjkak'
kQ;k cSj oHd;aul j.SlrKh oyd oelafjk pd yd j.= ms<sfh< lsug
isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos fhda.H wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'

ka ykd .ekSu" j.SlrKh iy kdulrKh
j.SlrKfha yd kdulrKfha wjYH;dj
udkj YsIaGdpdrfha wdrNfha isg u" ksiqka Ydl yd i;=ka ykd .ekSu yd
k lsu mgka .ekSug fya;= h yelafla Tjqkaf.a meje;au Ydl yd i;=ka
u; r|d meje;s neks'
fYaIs; jQ .;s-,laIK Nd;fhka fYaI ykd f.k we;'
Ydl yd i;=kaf.a m%Odk ldKav ^;DK j." u;aiHhska" imhska" mlaIska&
fjka lr ykd .eksk'
35
34
flfia jqjo Tjqka i|yd Nd; l< kdu" NdIdj iy ia:dk wkqj fjkia oHd;aul ldhj, oS kduh ykajd ka oHd{hdf.a ku bx.%Sis lemsg,a
h' wl=rlska fyda fl lr oelaulska fyda imQK ku f,iska fyda kduh
kaf.a j oHd;aul wOHhkh i|yd talSh j.SlrK yd kdulrK w.ska olajhs' th ,;skSlD; jpkhla fkdf'
moaO;shla wjYH h' ksoiqka ( Cocos nucifera L., (L hkq Linnaeus hkakhs')
ka l%uj;a j j.SlrKh l< m<uq ;eke;a;d weiafgdag,a h' Wm fYaI fyda m%fNao ye|skau i|yd f;jeks mohla fhdod .; yels h'
ksoiqka ( Panthera pardus kotiya ^Y%S ,xld oshd&
oamo kdulrKh iajdNdsl yd lD;%su j.SlrK l%u
oHdf yd j oHdf oshqKqj yd oekqu mq`M,a u;a iu`. O oHd{hska" fmd .;s ,laIKj,g wkqj ka ldKavj,g ieliSu j.SlrKh k'
WoaNso oHd{hska yd i;a;aj oHd{hska kdulrK yd j.SlrK i|yd fjkia j.SlrKh ms<sn| j oHd;aul yeoEu j.SlrK oHdj f' fuys oS
jQ l%u Nd; l<y' 18 jk Y; jIh olajd fndfydarg nyqmo kdulrKhla ka" OQrdj,S ms<sfj,lg ielfia' uQ,sl j.SlrK wdldr folls'
Nd; h' 1 lD;%su j.SlrKh - fuys ldKav lsu f;dard .;a iudk ,laIK
f,dj mqrd ms<s.;a oamo kdulrK moaO;sh lefrd,iaa ,Skshia ^1707 - 1778& lSmhla u; mok f'
iska fhdackd lrk ,oaols' fuu ,laIK f;dard .efkkqfha myiqj u; jk w;r f;dard .;a
hl=f.a kduh fldgia follska hqla; f' f;dard.;a ksKdhl mok lrf.k ka ldKav lrkq ,ef'
m%:u fldgi .K kduh jk w;r fojk fldgi iq`M kduh f' fuys iajNdl nkaOq;d fkd ie<fla'
.K kduh fndfydag kdumohla jk w;r iq`M kduh h ,laIKhla ia;r 18 jk Y;jIhg m%:u Nd; lr we;s tl u j.SlrK moaO;sh
lrk fYaIK mohla f' f'
ksoiqka (- Homo sapiens - Homo hkqfjka ykajkafka ksid jk w;r sapiens Nd; lsu myiq w;r yd ;j;a ldKav tl;= lr mq`M,a lsug
hkq nqoa u;a njhs' yels h'
tlsfklg nkaOq;d olajk kag tlu .K kduh iu`. fjkia jQ iq`M kdu ksoiqka ( OdkH j." is;=re me," T!IO" i iys; Ydl
fhfoa' f,i Ydl j. l< yelsh'
ksoiqka (- Dipterocarpus zeylanicus yd Dipterocarpus grandiflorus - mdo hq.,la" mdo hq.,a folla" mdo yhla" mdo
Dipterocarpus zeylanicus- hkq mshdm;a folla iys; wgla we;s wd jYfhka i;=ka j. l< yelsh'
M, yd Y%S ,xldf yuq jQ hkakhs' ,Skshia fKq ixLHdj wkqj Ydl j. lf<a h'
Dipterocarpus grandiflorus- hkq mshdm;a folla iys; 2 iajNdl j.SlrKh - mKdl nkaOq;d biau;= jk f,i ldKav lsuhs'
M, yd Yd, mqIam iys; jQ hkakhs' fuys oS jxY m%fKsh u; mok jQ i;H îajNdl& nkaOq;d oyd
oamo kdulrKh inkaOj cd;Hka;r ixfla; oelaf'
j oHd{hska kdulrKh i|yd ms<s.;a kS;s fyda kdulrK jHjia:d we;' mKduh ms<sn| wOHhkfhka miqj ilia jQ j.SlrK wdldr hs'
fuu jHjia:d Ydl" i;=ka" nelahd iy ffjria wkqj iq`M jYfhka fjkia ,laIK .Kkdjla u; mok f'
f' nelahd" Ydl" os,Sr yd i;=ka kdulrKfha oS Nd; jk jeo.;a kS;s Nd; lrk ,laIK kaf.a rEm oHd;aul" ldhsl oHd;aul" ffi,
lSmhla my; oelaf' oHd;aul fyda wKql j oHd;aul ,laIK h yels hs'
- fYaI follg tl u kduh ;sh fkd yelsh' b;d u uE;l oS DNA yd RNA NIau wkqms<sfj< ^wKql& fhdod f.k
- iEu fYaIhlg u .K kduhla yd iq`M kduhla we;s w;r fuu kdu we;'
folu tl;=j fYaIfha kduh fyda oHd;aul kduh idohs' ksoiqka ( Ydl n%fhdmSgd" ,hsfldmSgd" fgfrdamSgd" iSlfvdmSgd"
- kduh ,;ska yqrejla we;s jpk jk w;r th frdauka wl=re Nd;fhka fldksf*frdmSgd iy wekaf;dmSgd f,i j.SlrKh lr we;'
,sh hq;= h' wdf;%dfmdavdjka lariafishd" bkafilagd " lhsf,dfmdvd"
- w;a wl=ka ,shk g hka b we|sh hq;= w;r uqKh lrk g we, wl=re maf,dfmdvd iy wrlaksvd f,i j. l< yel'
Îtalics& ,sh hq;= h' j.SlrK l%u fol inkaOj we;s jdis wjdis idlPd lrkak'
- .K kdufha uq,a wl=r bx.%Sis lemsg,a wl=rla h hq;= w;r iq`M kduh
bx.%Sis ism,a wl=frka ,sh hq;= h'
36 37
iq Nd;h bf,lafg%dak wkalaIfha fidhd .ekSu;a iu`. j oHd{hska iska

ka ykd .ekSu yd ldKav lsu i|yd Nd; f' m%d.akHIal yd iqkkHIal ffi,Sh ixOdk" ykd .kakd ,oS' frdn t
fo fn iqh nyq,j Nd; jk iqh f' fgl^1969&" rdcOdks mfya j.SlrKh ykajd kafkah' tu rdcOdks my
fuys mKdl nkaOq;d oyd fkd olajhs' fudfkrd" fm%daiagd" os,Sr" ma,dkaf yd weksud,shd h' Tyqf.a j.SlrKh
Nd;h i|yd isiqka fj; iq ,nd fokak' ffi,Sh ixOdkh" tal ffi,sl nyqffi,sl nj" fmdaIK u; mok h'
iNjh iy mKduh ms<sn| vdka jdoh ms<s.ekSfuka miq" j.SlrK
ksoiqk 1 - iuk,hd" f.ueiaid" l=reKsshd" ldjd' oHd{fhdaa iajdNdl j.SlrK moaO;s Nd; lsu wdrN l<y' wKql j
1' mshdm;a iys;''''''''''''''''''' ^2& oHdf kQ;k oshqKqj iu`. yd mKdl nkaOq;d wOHhkh lsug wKql j
mshdm;a rys;'''''''''''''''''''' ldjd oHd;aul l%u Nd;h ksid mKdufha uq, wjfha ka ldKav ;=klg
2' mshdm;a hq., folla we;' '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''^3& fjkajQ nj mye<s h' fuu ldKav oeka wrdcOdkS f,i yekaf' wrdcOdKs
mshdm;a hq.,a folla ke;' '''''''''''''''''''''''''' f.ueiaid' hkq rdcOdksj,g jvd by<ska we;s uguls'
3' Y=Kva djla we;'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' iuk<hd wdlshd" nelahd yd bhqlehd f,i yekafjk wrdcOdkS ;=klg jqia ^Carl
Y=Kv a djla ke; ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' l=reKshd
Woese-1977& iska ka j.SlrKh lrk ,oS'
wrdcOdks isg fYaI olajd ;lafidakj, OQrdj,sh
ksoiqk 2 - khd" .ev,d" f.nd" iuk,hd" uqyq weksuks
ka j.SlrKfha ;lafidak OQrdj,sfha tla tla ldKavh ;lafidakhla
1' wh iu;sh iys; ''''''''''''''''''' uqyq weksuks
wh iu;sh rys;'''''''''''''''''''' ^2& f,i ye|skaf' tla tla ;lafidakhg kula yd ugula we;'
2' mdo iys; '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' ^3& Wod (- j.h - Reptilia ^frma,shd&
mdo rys; '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' ^4& OQrdj,s moaO;s hgf;a ;lafidak ug we;' tla tla wrdcOdks^Domain&"
3' mshdm;a iys; ''''''''''''''''''' iuk,hd rdcOdksj,g fnod we;'
mshdm;a rys; ''''''''''''''''''' f.nd rdcOdksh jxYj,g fnod we;' tla tla jxYh j.j,g fnod we;' fuu
4' Yrh fldrfmd;=j,ska wdjrKh ;su''''''' khd ldKav kej; fnh yel'
Yrh fldrfmd;=j,ska wdjrKh fkd ;su'''''''' .ev,d Wod (- Wml=,h" Wm j.h ''' wdos f,i'
wrdcOdksh ^Domain&
j.SlrK moaO;s rdcOdksh
uq,a ld,Sk j.SlrK moaO;s ish,a, lD;%sSu j.SlrK moaO;s f' nyq, j jxYh
fjd ksia Nd; wkqj ieliqks' ka oHd;aul j j.SlrKh l< m<uq fmd ,laIK j.h ka
;eke;a;d jkafka weiafgdag,a h' Tyq ka Ydl yd i;=ka f,i j.SlrKh ixLHdj f.da;%h ixLHdj
lf<ah' i;=ka ;jrg;a O ksKdhl tk" ixprK " m%ckk " r;= je f ' l=,h je f'
rer ffi, we;s ke;s nj wdoshg wkqj j. lrk ,oS' t f,i u weiafgdag,af.a .Kh
YsIHhl= jk ;sfhdm%eiagia iska ,dih wkqj Ydl j.lrk ,oS' ksoiqka ( fYaIh
.ia" mre yd me,E f,i iy jk ld,h wkqj ksoiqka ( jdIsl yd oajdIsl
yd nyqjdIsl' ,sfkahia f.a ld,h f;la oHd{hska O l%u Nd; l<y' wrdcOdksfha isg fYaIh olajd hEf ;lafidakj, idudlhka w;r we;s
iavka cd;sl WoaNoS oHd{hl= jk lefrd,ia ,sfkahia ^1753& oamo kdulrKh fmd ,laIK ixLHdj je f' fYaIfha isg wrdcOdksh olajd hEf
ykajd ka w;r Tyq Ydl 6000la muK ;lafidak OQrdj,shlg wkqj j. ;lafidakhl isk ka ixLHdj jef'
lrk ,oS' tk fYaIh" .Kh" f.da;%h yd j.h f,ih' imqIam Ydl
j.SlrKfha oS Tyq mqIamhl wvx.= fKq yd lS, .Kk mok lr .;af;a h' j;udk j.SlrK moaO;sh yd tys moku
Tyq Ydl yd i;aj hk rdcOdks folla ykd .;af;a h' j;udk j.SlrK moaO;sfha moku f,i ie,flkafka wKql j oHdj
CIqka fidhd .ekSu;a iu`.u Tjqka Ydl fyda i;=ka f,i j.SlrKh l< ms<sn| f;dr;=re h'
fkd yels nj oHd{fhda f;are .;ay' fuu .eg`Mj i|d .ekSu i|yd jeo.;a cdkj, DNA NIau wkqms<sfj<" uhsfgdfldka%h DNA" r-RNA j,
wkia fyal,a Êrnest Haeckel-1866& ;=ka jk rdcOdkshla ykajd kafka h' NIau wkqms<sfj<" nyq, fm%dakj, weuhsfkda w, wkqms<sfj<" ffi,Sh
t k fm%daiagd rdcOdksh hs' ;j o Tyq jxYh hk ;lafidakh ykajd oS ix>glj, wKql jHqyh hk ksKdhl u; kQ;k j.SlrK oHdj mok
fndfyda ka j.SlrKh lf<ah' we;' tys m%;sM,hla f,i j.SlrK moaO;s iS>%fhka fjkia we;'
38 39
fuys oS jQia iska bosm;a lrk ,o wrdcOdks ;=fka j.SlrKh myiqj i|yd wrdcOdksh - bhqlershd
wm iska fhdod .kq ,ef' fm%daiagd rdcOdksh iajdNdl ldKavhla fkdjk ffi,Sh ixOdkh iqkHIal f'
nj meyeos<sh' ffi, ;a;sfha ix>glhla f,i fmmafvd.a,hsleka ke;' tys
th O mkdl iNhla iys; ka f.ka iuka; lD;%su ldKavhla f' fmd,sielrhsv we;'
ffi,Sh ixOdkhla fkd ue;s ksid ffjri lsisu rdcOdkshlg wh;a fkdf' ffi, mg,fha ,smsv YdLkh ke;'
th o lD;%su ldKavhla f' th fjku u i<ld nef,a' m%;sjlj,g ixfoS ke;'
fm%daka ixYaf,aIKh fu;sfhdkskaj,ska wdrN f'
wrdcOdksh ^Domain) RNA fmd,sufia tkaihsu j. lsysmhls'
1' nelahd wrdcOdksh O mir ;;a;ajj, j;a f'
2' wdlshd wrdcOdksh ksoiqka ( fm%daiagd" os,Sr" Ydl yd i;=ka
3' bhqlehd wrdcOdksh
- fm%diagd rdcOdksh ffjri - idudkH ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
- os,Sr rdcOdksh
- ma,dkaf rdcOdksh
- weksud,shd rdcOdksh
wrdcOdks
wrdcOdksh - nelahd fuu tallfha oS we;s j.= ish,a, .=re Nj;=kaf.a m%fhdackh i|yd muKs'
ffi,Sh ixOdkh m%d.akHIal f'
ffi, ;a;sfha ix>glh - fmmaafvd.a,hsleka f' bhqlehd wrdcOdkshg wh;a rdcOdks
ffi, mg,fha ,smsv YdLkh ke;' tla tla rdcOdksj, m%Odk ,laIK
m%;sjlj,g ixfoS h'
rdcOdksh - fm%daiagd rdcOdksh - os,Sr rdcOdksh - ma,dkaf rdcOdksh - weksud,shd
fm%daka ixYaf,aIKh f*dauhs,a fu;sfhdkskaj,ska wdrN f'
RNA fmd,sufia tkaihsu tla j.hla muKla we;'
jdiia:dk fndfyduhl j;a f' tal ffi,sl fyda tal ffi,sl f' nyq ffi,sl nyq ffi,sl
ksoiqka ( ihfkdnelahd" y;-i,a* nelahd" o-i,a* nelahd nyq ffi,sl fyda iuyr os,Sr i;H
.Kdjdi wdldr nyqffi,sl ke;
tajd os,Sr iQ;%sld
wrdcOdksh - wdlshd idohs'
ffi,Sh ixOdkh m%d.akHIal f'
ffi, ;a;sfha ix>glhla f,i fmmasfvd.a,hsleka ke;' tys fm%dak yd m%NdiajhxfmdaIS IufmdaIS m%Nd iajhxfmdaIS IufmdaIS
fmd,sielrhsv we;' fyda
ffi, mg,fha ,smsvj, YdLkh jQ odu jHqyhla we;' IufmdaIS
iafg%mafgduhsiska iy laf,da/f*ksflda,a jeks m%;sjlj,g ixfoS ke;' ffi, ;a;s we;s ffi, ;a;sh ffi, ;a;sfha m%Odk ffi, ;a;shla ke;'
îqkHIalhka fuks& g tajd lhskaj,ska iEoS jYfhka we;af;a
fm%daka ixYaf,aIKh fu;sfhdkskaj,ska wdrN f'îqkHIalhka fuks'& fi,shqf,daiaj,ska we;' fi,shqf,daia h'
iEoS we;'
RNA fmd,sufia tkaihsu j. lsysmhls' îqkHIalhka fuks&
.skslj," WKqosh W,am;a ,jk ye,a" .eUqre uqyq m;a, jeks b;d wdka;sl ix; wdydr O ix; wdydrh m%Odk ix; wdydrh m%Odk ix; wdydrh
mir ;;a;aj hgf;a j;af' f' .a,hsfldcka msIagh f' .a,hsfldcka f'
ksoiqka ( Methanococcus, Thermococcus lIsld" mlaIau fyda iuyrg lIsld ixprK wjhj ke; lIsld" mlaIau"
Methanobacterium, Halobacterium jHdcmdo ;sh ;sh yelsh' kuq;a ixfldapl fl|s;s jeks
yelsh' ckaudKqj, lIsld fyda fYaI ixprK jHqy
mlaIau fyda we;' we;'
40 41
ksmqK;dj 3'1'0 ( ka f.a O;ajh .fIKh lrhs' ksmqK;dj 3'1'0 ( ka f.a O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'2 ( nelahd wrdcOdksfha kaf.a O;ajh .fIKh
lrhs' ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'3 ( fm%diagd rdcOdksfha jxYj,g wh;a kaf.a O;ajh
.fIKh lrhs'
ld,fo ( 02 hs' ld,fo ( 04 hs'
bf.kq M, (
bf.kq M, ( fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd;
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd; fm%daiagd rdcOdksfha ,dlaIKsl ,laIK ia;drKh lrhs'
nelahd wrdcOdksfh ys wdfKsl ,laIK ia;drKh lrhs' ,dlaIKsl ,laIK Nd; lr fm%daiagd rdcOdksfha ka jxYj,g j. lrhs'
nelahd yd ihfkdnelahd fjkalr ykd .kshs' fm%diagd rdcOdkshg wh;a ka ykd .kshs'
nelahd yd ihfkdnelahd wKalaIh u`.ska kslaIKh lr ykd .kshs'
fm%daiagd rdcOdksh ms<sn| uQ,dY% ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkag imhkak'
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( wdfKsl ,laIK Wmqgd .ekSug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
nelarshd yd ihfkdnelahd inkaO uQ,dY% ûq;
s fyda bf,lafg%dksl& isik
q g
a ,laIK ykd .ekSu i|yd wdf,dal wKalaIh " ksoYl fyda ixrlaIs;
,nd fokak' ksoYl u`.ska fyda fm%diagdjka kslaIKh lsug isiqkag bv i,id fokak'
wdfKsl ,laIK Wmqgd f.k is;a we|.kakd iq`M bosm;a lsula lsug isiq wkdjrK bosm;a lsug Tjqka iQodk lrjkak'
isiqkag Wmfoia fokak' Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'
wdf,dal wKalaIh ;=<ska nelahd yd ihfkdnelahd kslaIKh lsug Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (
isiqkag bv i,id fokak' fm%daiagd rdcOdksfha jxY
Ih lreKq we;=<;a bosm;a lsulg isiqka iQodk lrjkak' tla tla jxYfha m%Odk ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( is,sfhdfmdard rhsfidfmdavd ls%fidamSgd *sfhdamSgd frdfvdmSgd laf,dafrdamSgd
wrdcOdksh - nelahd
nelahdjkaf.a wdfKsl ,laIK tal ffi,slhs tal ffi,slhs tal ffi,slhs nyq ffi,slhs nyq ffi,slhs tal ffi,sl fyda
m%d.akHIAl ka h' nyq ffi,slhs
m%NdiajhxfmdaIS" ridhksl iajhxfmdaIS fyda IufmdaIS f'
IufmdaIh
S IufmdaIh
S m%NdiajhxfmdaIhs m%NdiajhxfmdaIs' m%NdiajhxfmdaIs' m%NdiajhxfmdaIs'
p, fyda wp, ka h'
laf,dafrdms,a -a, c, laf,dafrdms,a -a, c laf,dafrdms,a - laf,dafrdms,a -
talffi,sl fyda .Kdjdi idohs' lefrdka a, d a, b
lefrdka
ffi, Ndckh ;Shla oaLkavkh u`.sks' *shf
q ldaieka;k
s a *shf
q ldaieka;k
s a *hsfldihkska lefrdka"
ma,diau mg,h ;r, ;% jHqyhls' m%Ndixiaf,aIl we;' *hsfldat;%k
s a iekaf;dam,
s a
ffi, ;a;s fmmaghsfvd.a,hslekaj,ska iuka; hs' jKl f,i we;' lefrdka we;' we;'
rhsfndfidah fm%d
a k yd RNA fmd,sufia bhqlefhdagdjka f.a tu fm%d
a k
ixprK jHqy jHdc mdo we;' m%ckl ffi,j, m%ckl ffi,j, lIsld ke;' jOl ffi, yd
yd RNA fmd,sufia j,g jvd fjkia h' f,i mlaIau m%ckl ffi,j,
;ks lIsldjla we;' lIsld we;'
ksoiqka ( fldl=i" neis,i we;' lIsld we;'
ihfkdanelahdjkaf.a wdfKsl ,laIK
m%d.akHIal ka h' ffi, ;a;s ffi, ;a;s fi,shqf,daia" fi,shqf,daia" fi,shqf,daia" fi,shqf,daia"
m%NdiajhxfmdaISh ke;' ke;' s l
fmlaka yd m%Odk we,ack s a w,h ta.d fmlaka
fndfydauhla tal ffi,slhs' kuq;a iuyre tlg inkaO kdkq fldmqjlska jYfhka is,sld
jg jQ iQ;%sld idohs' msIg
a h
ix; wdydr ,ekka" *af,dhka
m%NdixYaf,aIl jKl f,i laf,dafrdms,a a iy *hsfldihkska we;'^ks,a" ueksfgd,a msIg
a h
l%f
s id,ekka
fld< jKhla .kS'&
iuyr whg jdhqf.da,Sh khsg%cka ;srlsf yelshdj we;' Wod(
kso (- Anabaena, Nostoc, Lyngbya Paramecium Amoeba Diatoms Sargassum Gelidium Chlamydomonas
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
oYSh nelahd yd ihfkdanelahdj, wdfKsl ,laIK m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
kslaIKh lsu' by; jxYj, oYSh kaf.a wdfKsl ,laIK kslaIKh lsu'
42 43
ksmqK;dj 3'1'0 ( ka f.a O;ajh .fIKh lrhs' ksmqK;dj 3'1'0 ( ka f.a O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'4 ( *ka.hs rdcOdksfha jxYj,g wh;a kaf.a O;ajh ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'5 ( ma,dkaf rdcOdksfha kaf.a O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'
.fIKh lrhs'
ld,fo ( 04 hs'
ld,fo ( 06 hs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ; bf.kq M, (
O jdiia:dkj, yg.kakd os,Sr ykd .kshs' fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd;
os,Srj, jOl jHQy yd ,sx.sl m%ckl jHqy kslaIKh lr ykd .kshs' wdfKsl ,laIK Wmfhda.S lr f.k ma,dkaf rdcOdkshg wh;a ka j.
jOl yd ,sx.sl m%ckl jHqy mok lr f.k os,Sr rdcOdkshg wh;a ka lrhs'
j. lrhs' ma,dkaf rdcOdkshg wh;a tla tla jxY id:l fN!l ;hlg olajk
wkqj;k ia;r lr ixikaokh lrhs'
wdfKsl ,laIK Nd; lr imqIam Ydl tal cm;%S yd oa cm;%S f,i j.
*ka.hs rdcOdksh ms<sn| uQ,dY% ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkag imhkak'
wdfKsl ,laIK Wmqgd .ekSug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak' lrhs'
wKalaIh
S kslaIK ;=<ks a fyda $;srlrk ,o ksoYl u`.ks a os,r
S j, ,dlaIKsl
,laIK ykd .ekSug Wmfoia fokak' fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (
isiq wkdjrK bosm;a lsug Tjqka iQodk lrjkak' ma,dkaf rdcOdksh inkaO uQ,dY% ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl& isiqka fj;
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak' imhkak'
wKalaIh
S kslaIK yd $ixrlaI;
s ksoYl Nd;fhka ,laIK ykd .ekSug
isiqkag bv i,ikak'
*ka.hs rdcOdksfha m%Odk jxYj, m%Odk ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
isiq wkdjrK bosm;a lsug Tjqka iQodk lrjkak'
jxYh - jxYh - jxYh - jxYh -
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'
ls
% fhduhsfldagd ihsf.duhsfldagd weiaflduhsfldagd neiSfhduhsfldagd Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (
c,cjdiS h' lIsldOr YdLkh jQ ixffi,sl" YdLkh jQ nyqkHIal YdLkh jQ talkHIal ma,dkaf rdcOdkshg wh;a jxYj, m%Odk ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
os,Sr f' fo fn ksrdjdr os,Sr cd,hls' idjdr os,Sr cd,hls' fyda oa kHIal" idjdr
f,i YdLkh jQ os,Sr os,Sr cd,hls'
iQ;l%s d
n%fhd*hsgd ,hsfld*hsgd fgfrd*hsgd ihslefvd*hsgd fldak*
s frd*hsgd wekaf;d*hsgd
w,sx.sl m%ckkh
w,sx.sl m%ckkh p, cdKqOdks u`.ska is f' w,sx.sl m%ckkh fldkS w,sx.sl m%ckkfha f;;a fN!l f;;a fN!l
cdKq u`.ska is f' u`.ska is f' O cdKq ksmojhs' ia:dkj, ia:dkj, fN!l ;hg wkqj;k oelsh yels h'
fYaIfhka idudkHfhka
nyq, h' yuqf'
,sx.sl m%ckkh p, mqx ,sx.sl m%ckkfha oS ,sx.sl m%ckkh
yd cdhd ckaudKq u`.ska ixfhda.dKq iEfoa' wialcdKq u`.ska is f' ,sx.sl m%ckkh neiS ikd, mgl
isf' ^ckaudKq cdKq u`.ska is f' ikd, mgl we;'
ke;'
foj.hu pd,l h&
ckaudKq Ydl cdKqYdl cdKq Ydlh m%uqLhs
cdKqYdl m%uqLhs'
Wod ( Allomyces Wod (Mucor Wod ( Aspergillus Wod ( Agaricus m%uqL jk w;r m%uL q hs' ckaudKq cdKqYdlh yd cdKq Ydlh m%NdixYaf,aIlhs'
m%NdixYaf,aIlhs' Ydl" cdKq ckaudKqYdlh hk ckaudKq Ydl cdkq Ydl u; hefma'
Ydlh u; wO fol u
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK ( f,i hefma' m%NdixYaf,aIlhs'
by; jxYj, oYSh kaf.a wdfKsl ,laIK kslaIKh lsu'
iucdKqlhs iucdKql fyda iucdKqlhs'
IucdKqlhs' Iu cdKqlhs'
44 45
ksmqK;dj 3'1'0 ( ka f.a O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'
n%fhd*hsgd ,hsfld*hsgd fgfrd*hsgd ihslefvd*hsgd fldaks*frd*hsgd wekaf;d*hsgd ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'6 ( weksud,shd rdcOdksfha kaf.a O;ajh .fIKh
lrhs'
ixfiapkhg ndysr c,h wjYHhhs' ixfiapkhg ndysr c,h w;HjYH ke;'
ld,fo ( 05 hs'
c rys; Ydl f' c ork Ydl f'
bf.kq M, (
jD; ^k.ak& c Ydlf' wdjD; c Ydl fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd;
^M, ;=< c weksud,shd rdcOdksfha wdfKsl ,laIK ia;drKh lrhs'
we;sf& weksud,shd rdcOdksfha ka j.SlrKh lsu i|yd jxYj, wdfKsl ,laIK
,sx.sl m%ckk Nd; lrhs'
mqIam fkd orhs' tall f,i
weksud,shd rdcOdksfha jxYj,g wh;a oYSh ka ykd .kshs'
mqIam orhs'
Marchantia, Selaginella Nephrolepis Cycas Pinus imqIam Ydl fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (
Mosses- ^.odmdis& ^jk& weks u d,s h d rdcOdks f ha wmDIa G jxYS jxY inka O uQ , dY% ûq s ; fyda
Pogonatum Lycopodium
bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkag imhkak'
fyda ixrlaIs; ksoYl kslaIKh lr ,laIK ykd .ekSug isiqkag bv
wekaf;d*hsgd jxYfha j.j, m%Odk ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
i,ikak'
wdfKsl ,laIK ykd .ekSug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
j.h - fudfkdfld,sfvdfka j.h - vhsfld,sfvdfka
jeo.;a lreKq oyd oelafjk mos iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'
l,,hg cm;% tlla muKla we;' l,,hg cm;% 2la we;'
;ka;=uh uQ, moaO;shla we;' uqka uQ, moaO;shla we;' weksud,shd rdcOdksfha wmDIaGjxYS jxYj, m%Odk ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
m;%fha kdr kHdih iudka;rhs' kdr kHdih cd,dNhs' iS,kagfgd ma,fy,a- fkufgdavd wek,Svd fudiald wdf;%dfmdvd tlhsfkdvfgd
^ksvdhd& kaf;aia
ksoe,s jdiSka" mfia yd lrosh $osh fndfyda g fN!l lrosfha muKla
mqIam fldgia ;%s wxlhs' mqIam fldgia p;= wxl fyda mxpdxlhs' lrosh fyda c,fha fyda c,fha fyda fyda mi lrosh fyda fyda c,c yuqf'
osh f' f;;a mfiys mrfmdaI;s hka u;$;=< osh"
mqIamj, mmqIamh we;' mqIamfha uKsh yd uql=gh meyeos,sj we;' j;a f' f,i yuqf' iuyrla
ûKsh yd uql=gh meyeos,s j fjkalr mrfmdaI;s hska fN!l
Odrl foay
ykd.; fkdyel'&
;=<
iqyqUq,d - mxpwh
lf|a ikd, l,dmj, lehu ke;' ikd, l,dmj, lehu we;' iu;shla yd
ikd, l,dm is we;' ikd, l,dm j,hdldrj ilia we;' wh iu;sh oa mdYal iu;sh lSghd oamdYal
fmkajhs' iu;shla olajhs'
Wod (- ;DK" fmd,a" frdai" jo îm;a;= u,a& '
oam%i;
a rhs' ;%m
S i
% ;
a rhs'
ckl ia;r foay l=yrhla jHdc fyd|ska jevqkq Yd, iSf,dauhla

rer fyn
fol w;r ke;' iSf,dauhla iSf,dauhls' we;' kd, mdo
we;'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK ( uOHYaf,aIh we;' iys; c, jdyskS
by; jxY yd j.j, oYSh kaf.a wdfKsl ,laIK kslaIKh we;' moaO;shla f,i
iSf,dauh iSf,dauh
lsu' fldgila
laISKh' w;sYhska likh we;'
laISKh'
46 47
iS,kagfgd ma,efy,a- fkufgdavd wek,svd fudiald wdf;%dfmdvd tlshf

s kdvfgd
iS,kagfgd ma,fy,a- fkufgdavd wek,svd fudiald wdf;%dfmdvd tlhsfkdvfugd
kaf;aia kaf;aia
uQ,ls mDIafGdaohj isyk
s a is,k
s v
a rdldr Odldr ndysr ;drld yeve;s"
nysii
a d% is`M ffi, wkajdhdu jDlalsld we;' jDlalsld ue,am.
s h
S nysii
a d%
foaydldr me;,sh' is,k s va rdldr mKq wdldr foay ,di LKavkh is,k
s v
a rdldr
moaO;shla iy nysiai%d kd, iys; we;' kd,sld" y; moaO;shla ke;'
folls' LKavkhla foayhls' fo foayh' ndysrj we;' we;' iEu fyda mqIam
ke;' kd, iys; ir, .%k
a
kd,dldr- ke;' fl,jrg hk yd wNHka;rj LKavkh b;d LKavhlgu yeve;s h'
nysiia d% nysiia d%
nqyn
q djd" g l%ufhka LKavkh iq`M h' ikajQ Wmdx. LKavkh ke;'
moaO;shls' moaO
a ;shls'
l=vhl wdldr isyks fa ' olajhs' hq.,la we;'
fuhqid' LKavkhla mQj
iakdhq .ex.a,hs d iakdhq j,hla uia;Is la .ex.a,hs d mDIah" iakdhq moaO;sh
LKavkh ke;'
cd,hla we;' hq.,la fyda yd wkajdhdu .ex.a,hs d hq.,a iys; hq.,uh iakdhq j,hla yd
ke;'
iakdhq j,hla iakdhqq rcq hq.,hls' iakdhq uia;Is l
a wh iakdhq iys;
h wdldrhl h wdldrhl YSIKhla meye,s meyeos,s YSIKh ke;'
yd we;' oa;aj >k j,hls' .ex.a,h s d iy h'
YSIKh YSIKhla YSIKhla we;' YSIKhla we;' YSIKhla foayh fu!L
ke;' we;' wkajdhdu ufOHdaoh iakdhq rcq oa;aj Woh
we;' foayh ysi" we;' foayh wmfu!L
iakdhq rcq iakdhq hq., folls' >k iakdhq
fmaYsuh mdoh ysi" Wri" wlaIh Tiafia
we;'^1-3& rcqjla we;' rcqjls'
yd wka;rx. Worh f,i ilia we;'
fndfyda i;=kga
f.dkqj f,i fndfyda g
ixfoS wjhj ksoe,sjdiSkg
a m%Odk ir, weia iuyrekag ir, fyda ixfoS wjhj
fldgia ;=klg fnoS we;'
f,i wlaIs,m wlaI, s m jYfhka we;' .%dysld weia" .%dysld" ixhqla; weia" ke;' iuyrekag
fnoS we;'
yd$ fyda ridhk msld we;' yd uDY wlaIs,m" iamYl" ;=,d iamY ixf
ffi, uD mlaIauOr oe Wpuhla foaydjrKh wmspufhka foay wdjrKh
ia;r fha wmspuhla fyda Wpuhla ;=,dfldaIaG" m%;.
s d% yl iuyrekag ;=,d fldaIaG" fldaIaG" kd,mdo" wlaIs,m
we;' uD h' th i%djh jk uD wmspuhls'
Wpuhla wdosh iuyr we;' we;' we;' ixf frdau yd ixf
oxYl fldaIaG we;' ndysr we;' lhsksuh m%djrKhla lhska iys; fndfydag
we;'Wpuhla i;=kg a we;' we;' .%dysld we;'
pqIlr fyda $ oe fl|s ;khs' msgiels,a,ls' lKaGl we;'
ke;' yd wxl=Y we;' we;'
jHdc fndfydag ndysr we;=`M m%ckl m%cfkaJsh" m%Kd, iys; m%ckfkaka h
s m%Kd, iys; m%Kd, iys; m%cfkaJsh
fldr,aj,g iels,a,la isf,dal iSf,dal ndysr iels,a,la iels,a,ls' moaO;sh m%Kd," m%cfkaJsh yd m%Kd, m%cfkaJsh m%cfkaJsh Yd,hs'
muKla ke;' ;r,h iys; ;r,h iys; iels,a,la we;' - ir, w;sfl we;' we;' we;' we;' m%Kd, we;'
msgiels,a,la jia;sl jia;sl we;' m%cfkaJsh wjhj we;'
we;' iels,a,la iels,a,la iuyrekag we;' m%Kd,
^pQKsN;
+ we;' we;' wka;# ke;'
fyda iels,a,la we;e
fldfrdia& we;' w,sx.sl lv lv u w,sx.sl we;e we;e wdldrj,
m%ckkh u`.k
s a w,sx.sl m%ckkh fyda wdldrj, wdldrj, mqkjOkh
mlaIau ke;' mlaIau ke;' wxl=rKh m%ckkh mqkjOkh mqkjOkh mqkjOkh isf'
u`.k
s a fyda iuyre fyda ke; fyda isf'
wimQK imQK imQK wdydr imQK imQK mqkjOkh olajhs' wxl=rKh
wdydr we;e wdldrj,
wdudY jdyskS wdydr ud. ud.hla we;' wdydr ud.hla wdydr imQK wdydr we;'
moaO;shls' ud.hla we;'
l=yrhls' uqLh yd .=oh we;' uqLh yd ud.hla we;' ud.hla we;'
uqLh yd .=oh
uqLh muKS' we;' .=oh we;' uqLh yd .=oh we;e wdldrj, oa,sx.sl fyda idudkHfhka tal,sx.slhs' tal,sx.sl idudkHfhka tal,sx.slhs'
we;' lDka
.=oh ke;' iuyrekag we;' uqL .=oh ke;' tal,sx.sl oa,sx.slhs' fyda tal,sx.slhs' we;e
Wmdx. we;' yd
f;s%ldj we;' oa,sx.slhs l%if a Ishdjka tal,sx.slhs'
ixjD; f.aa fl!udfrda
jD; jD; oaNjh olajhs
ixirK moaO;shla ke;' ixirK
ixirK ixirK ixirK
moaO;shla
moaO;shls' moaO;shls' moaO;sh laIsK ixfiapkh wNHka;r wNHka;r ixfiapkh fndfydag
we;' mdYal wNHka;r
mDIah mDIah we;' - ndysrhs' ixfiapkh' ixfiapkh' ndysr fyda wNHka;r
yDo we;' fyda ndysr ndysr ixfiapkh
yDohla we;' yDohla we;' wNHka;r ixfiapkh'
ixfiapkh'
iuyr i;=kga
c,laf,dau" c,laf,dau" ma,kQ,d mrfmdaI;s hkag iuyrekag
ndysr fg%dfldf*d lSg wjia:d maf,re,d fyda
lxl;" m%djrK Yajdikd," c,laf,dau" lSghd lSg wjia:d lSg wjia:d
Yajik wjhj ke;' c,laf,dau fg%dfldf*d fyda fj,sc tlla fyda mskdhd lSghd
l=yrfha we; m;a fmkye,s" msld" kd,mdo fndfyduhls' we;' lSghd lSmhls'
we;' lSghd
fN!l wdldr we;' fyda cnd,sl ksoe,s jdiSkag
m%djrKh u.ska Yajik rela lSg wjia:d
Yajikh lrhs' we;' ke;'
48 49
fldafgd jxYfha ,laIK idlPd lrkak' ksmqK;dj 3'1'0 ( ka f.a O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'
iqyqUq,a wjfha fyda we;e jOl wjj, oKavdldr mDIah mDIaGrcqj
;su' ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'7 ( ka wh;a j. ykd .ekSug ndysr ,laIK Nd; lrhs'
;ks" mDIah kd,dldr iakdhq rcqj
iqyqUq,a wjfha fyda iuyr jOl wjj, .%iksl c,laf,dau me ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06 hs'
mej;Su
iqyqUq,a wjfha fyda l,, lik wjfha fyda wmr .=o j,s.h mej;Su bf.kq M, (
Woh yDoh iys; ixjD; rer ixirK moaO;sh fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd;
fyd|ska jOkh jQ iSf,dauh
ndysr ,laIK Wmfhda.S lr f.k iS,kagfgd" ma,fy,akaf;aia" wek,svd"
iels,s we;sg th uOH pufhka iEkq wNHka;r iels,a,la f'
fudiald" wdf;%dfmdavd yd tlhsfkdvfugd jxYj, ka m%Odk j.j,g
,sx. fjka we;' wKavc" wKavc,dnqc fyda c,dnqc h yel'
j. lrhs'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (- iS , ka g fgd" ma , fy,a ka f ;a i a " wek,s v d " fudia l d" wdf;% d fmda v d yd
tlhsfkdvfugd hk jxYj, m%Odk j.j,g wh;a ka ykd .kshs'
by; jxYj, oYSh kaf.a wdfKsl ,laIK kslaIKh lsu' wmDIaGjxYS jxYj, j. w;r O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'

weksud,shd rdcOdksfha f;dard.;a wmDIaGjxYS j. ms<n
s | f;dr;=re wvx.= uQ,dY%
ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkag ,nd fokak'
,laIK ykd .ekSu i|yd i$ixrlaIs; ksoYl kslaIKh lsug isiqkag
bv i,id fokak'
wdfKsl ,laIK Wmqgd .ekSug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
iS,kagfgd ^ksvdhd& jxYfha j.
yhsfv%dfidjd ialhsfmdfidjd wekaf;dfidjd
- m%uqL nqyqnd - m%uqL wjia:dj fuvqid - nqyqnd wjia:dj

wdldrhhs' Tjqka ;ks wdldrhhs ' Tjq k a l= v muKhs' ;ks fyda
fyda .Kdjdi f' yeve;sh' ksoyfia msyk
s hs' .Kdjdi wdldr f'
fuvqid wdldrh l=vd nqyqnd wjia:dj l=vd fyda fuvQid ke;'
yd ksoyiaj msyskk nqyqnd wjia:dj
ka f' ke;'
- uqLh jgd - uq L h jgd fu!L ndyq - uqLh jgd .%dysld j<

.%dysld j<hls' y;rls' foayfha odrfha lSmhls'
Wod ( Hydra .%dysld /ils' Wod ( uqyq u,
Obelia Wod ( Aurelia fldr,a
^f,dhd&
50 51
ma,fy,akaf;aia jxYfha j.
fudiald jxYfha j.
gqfn,dhd fg%ufgdavd fiiafgdavd

nhsje,ahd .eiafg%dfmdavd fi*f,dfmdavd fmd,sma,efldf*drd
ksoe,s jdiSka h' ndysr mrfmdaIs;hka fyda wka;#mrfmdaIs;hka h'
mdYa l lmdg 2la ljpfha lmdg 1hs' ndysr$wNHka;r w;smsys; jk M,l
wka;#mrfmdaIs;hka h' ljph idudkHfhka ljphla we;'
iys; ljphls' wgls k a hq ; a mDIa h
' ims,dldrh ke;fyd;a ljph ljphls'
q ,
m;%dldr foayhls' wlaIs,m m;%dldr foayhls' iqyU q kag isyska" os.= me;,s foayhls' iuyrkaf.a ljp CISk we;'
we;' wlaIs ,m ke;' uQOdj yd ckk LKav la I s K hs ' $ iuyreka g
we;' wlaIs,m ke;' ljp ke;'
Woh me;af;a uqLh Woh me;af;a Woh uQOdf pQIlr yd f;%sldj ke;' f;%sldj we;' f;%sldj we;' f;%sldj we;'
msysghs' fkh yels pQIlrh$pQIlr yd uqLh jgd wxl=Y we;' uqLh ke;
.%iksldjls' pQIlr ke;' fu!L pQIlrhla we;' mdoh fmdrjla Yd,j jevqkq mdoh .%dysld" kskd,h me;,s Yd, mdohls'
yeve;sh' fmaYsuh mdohls' yd ndyqj,g lrKh
we;'
Yaf,aIau, .%ka /ila LkaGl iys; laIqwx.=,sld iys;
iys; mlaIauOr Wpuhls' Wpuhls' ysi" weia yd .%dysld ysfiys meye,s
ysi" weia" .%dysld ysila we;' weia
wmsPohls' Wod ( Fasciola Wod ( Taenia iys ; h' tla .% d ys l d weia we;'' ndyq 8-10 ls' fyda .%dysld ke;'
ke;'
Wod ( Planaria ^wlaud me;e,a,d& ^m mkqjd& hq . ,hl weia ms y s g d iuyreka g wla I s , m
Bipalium we;' Wod ( oe,a,d we;'
nQj,a,d Wod ( wgmsh,a,d
Wod ( uhka Wod ( f.d`Mfn,A,d Chiton
ldjdhka yfn,a,d
wek,Svd jxYfha j.
T,sf.dlSgd fmd,slSgd ysrefkhd
meyeos,s ysila ke;' weia iy .%dysld ykd .; yels meye,s wdf;%dfmdavd jxYfha j.
iys; meyeos,s ysila we;' ysila ke;' mQj" wmr
pQIlr we;' lariafishd bkafilagd lhsf,dfmdvd maf,dfmdavd werlaksvd
foayh foayh ysi" ysi we;' LKav ysi" fl YSfI!rih
wxYmdosld ke;' wxYmdosld we;' wxYmdosld ke;' YSfI!rih Wri" Worh rdYshla iys; Wri yd Worh ^mqr(ldh& yd
yd Worh f,i f,i fnfoa' foayhls' Worh ^wmrldh&
oe fl|s iq ixLHdjls' oe fl|s /ils' oe fl|s ke;' fnoS we;' we;' ^lsk;s ,
= ,
a ka
f.a yer&
tla tla Wrfia mdo tla tla tla tla
fujq, we;' fujq, ke;' LKavhg hq.,a 3ls' YSfI!rifha
LKavhg mdo LKavhg mdo
Wod ( .ev,d Wod ( Nereis fujq, ke;' Wmdx. mshdm;a tla hq., ne.ska hq.,a fol mdo hq.,a y;rls'
Wod ( l+ve,a,d hq., ne.ska hq.,la fyda we;' I o< ne.ska we;'
we;' hq.,a folls' we;'
iuyrekag
mshdm;a ke;'
iamYl .= iamYl fl iamYl iamYl ke;'

iamYl hq.,a hq.,ls' hq.,ls' hq.,ls' Wod ( ul=`Mjd
folls' Wod (lerfmd;a;d Wod ( m;a;Ehd Wod ( yel/,a,d f.dakqiaid
^kEu uhsgdjka
Wod ( biaid lDfhl=& lsKs;=,a,d
ll=`Mjd
52 53
ksmqK;dj 3'1'0 ( ka f.a O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'

tlhsfkdvfugd jxYfha j.
ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'8 ( fldafgd jxYhg wh;a ka wOHhkh i|yd wdfKsl
weiafgfrdhshd T*shqfrdhshd tlsfkdhshd fydf,d;=frdhshd ls%sfkdhshd ,laIK Nd; lrhs'
uOH uvf,ka l=vd f.da,dldr f.da,dldr fyda os. foayh l=vd
fjka we;s' uv,ska meyeos,j
s uv,dldr foay we;' is,k
s v
a rdldr fldamamdldr
l%ufhka isyks a fjkajQ ndyq ndyq ke;' foayhls' uKshls' pQKuh
ld,fo ( 05 hs'
hk ndyq myls' myls' ndyq uDh' M,lj,ska iEoS
iEu ndyqjlu os." lefvk we;' thg iqkuH bf.kq M, (
wkajdhdu uOH iq`M" ika ndyq myla
iys; tajdh' prkdr
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd"
we,shls' ^prkdr inkaO h'
we,sh&' we,s ixjD;h' tajdfha prkdr wdfKsl ,laIK Nd; lr fldafgd jxYfha ka j.j,g fjka lrhs'
we,sh ne.ska we;' fldafgd jxYfha j.j,g wod< ka ykd .kshs'
iuyrekag jDka;
we;'
Wv mDIaGfha fmif,ahd p,kh l< lkaGl fyda lkaGl ke;' fldafgd jxYfha f;dard .;a j. inkaO uQ,dY% ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl&
pQKuh fudg ke;' ndyqj, yels lkaGl fmif,ahd mdYal" isyska isiqkag ,nd fokak'
lkaGl yd mdYalj yd fmif,ahd ke;' wkqmlaIl /ila ,laIK ykd .ekSu i|yd i fyda ixrlaIs; ksoYl kslaIKh lsug
fmif,ahd LkaGl we;' we;' uqLh jgd we;'
c,laf,dau oyhls'
isiqkag wjia:dj i,ikak'
we;' c,laf,dau
/ils'
wdfKsl ,laIK Wmqgd .ekSug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
isiq wkdjrK bosm;a lsug bv i,ikak'
uqLh - hg ^fu!L& uqLh uOHj uqLh - hg ^fu!L& uqLh - mQj;a uqLh yd .=oh Wv iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'
mDIaGfha;a .=oh - we;' .=ohla mDIaGfha;a .=oh - .=oh - wmrj;a we;' ^fu!L& mDIaGfha
Wv ^wmfu!L& ke;' Wv ^wmfu!L& we;'
mDIaGfh;a we;' mDIaGfh;a we;' Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (
kd, mdo we;' tajd .%dysld wdldr fldafgd jxYfha j.
hg fu!L mDIaGfha kd, mdo fma,s pQIlr iys; pQIlr iys;hs' kd, mdo we;'
kd, mdo we;' folla we;' isyska kd, mdo
tajdfha tajdfha we;' fldkal
% ;
a f a f
s haia Tiafghsl; s haia wemshd frma,shd wdfia uef,shd
pQIlr we;' pQIlr ke;'
;l=rEmS foayh ;l=rEmS foayh foayh ysi yd l| foayh ysi" wkdl+, yeve;s foayh ysi" f.,"
Wod ( Nx.=r Wod ( uqyq bls Wod ( uqyq lels Wod ( uqyq ,s,S ysi" l| yd ysi" l| yd f,i fnoS we;' f.," l| yd foayh ysi" f.," l| yd j,s.h
Wod ( mie.s,a,d ;drldjd Sand dollar j,s.h f,i j,s.h f,i iuyrekag j,s.h f,i l| yd j,s.h f,i fnoS we;'
fnoS we;' fnoS we;' j,s.hla we;' fnoS we;' f,i fnoS we;' O wdldr we;'
fldfrdia msydgq iys; iu" iu frdau iy

r`M fldr< pl%dldr fyda fldr< iy fldr, iys; .%ka iys; h'
iys; iu lxl;dN .%ka iys; isks fldfrdia M,l mdo
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK ( fldr, iys; iu iys; h<s iu'
iu iu .%ka
by; jxYj, j.j,g wh;a oYSh kaf.a wdfKsl ,laIK ^ndysr& kslaIKh
rys;h'
lsu'
hq.,kh jQ hq.,kh jQ
hq.,kh jQ ,h hq.,kh jQ ,h hq.,kh jQ hq.,kh jQ mxpd.=,sl .d;%" mxpd.=,sl .d;%
yd fY%daKs jr,a yd fY%daKs jr,a mxpd.=,sl .d;% mxpd.=,ls mQj .d;% hq.< we;'
we;' we;' we;' .d;% we;' mshdm;a njg
lrKh we;'
IudxYmqP iudxYmqP iuyr iqyU

q ,q kag fl j,s.fha j,s. O
fm!P jr,la fm!P jr,la j,s.h we;" ish wmr .=o j,s.h .= msydgq we;' wdldr j,ska
we;' we;' u lSg wjia:dj, fldrfmd;= msyg
s hs' iuyrekag
j,s.h we;' j,ska jeiS j,s. we;af;a
we;' l,, wjfha
muKhs'
54 55
fldkal
% ;
a f a f
s haia Tiafghsl; s haia wemshd frma,shd wdfia uef,shd fldkal
% ;
a f a f
s haia Tiafghsl; s haia wemshd frma,shd wdfia uef,shd
Woh uqLh" uqLh Woh uqLh" o;a m<,a uqLhls' uqLh fydgla Woh uqLh" l=yr wNHka;r ndysr ixfiapkh wNHka;r fyda wNHka;r wNHka;r wNHka;r
tkeu,h iys; idudkHfhka we;ak wiaj, uqLh odrfha o;a f,i ieliS ;=< msys o;a we;' ixfiapkh ndysr ixfiapkh ixfiapkh ixfiapkh
o;a we;' w.%ia: h' u;=msgg i we;' we;" o;a ke;' ixfiapkh
wiauh o;a we;' we;' iuyrekaf.a o;a
l=yr ;=< msysgd kso( .,aud kso( uehd kso( lgqiaid" kso( .srjd kso( hd" ksid"
we;' kso( fudard n,hd f.nd kd.hd" lsUq,d lmqgd" ;,auid" uqyq
uvqjd mr ie,ukaord leianEjd" bnd meianrd isxyhd"
we;=`M lk we;=`M lk muKs' we;=`M lk iy we;=`M lk" we;=`M lk" ueo we;=`M lk" ueo ;s,dmshd Ichthyophis ^ kEu ma,emia" jjq,d"
muKs' ndysr ndysr lk fyda ueo lk muKs' ueo lk iy lk iy ndysr lk yd ndysr lk ^ls jefvk
mlaIsfhla&
lk fyda ueo ueo lk rys; h' ndysr lk ndysr lk we;' lk we;' we;' ndysr lka kEu if;la'&
lk rys; h' rys; h' fm;a; we;'
oe" ieye,a fndfydarg
iels,a, wiauh fndfydarg fydka imQKfhka u wiauh
ldf,ah f' iels,a,ls' wiauh jQ wiaNjkh jQ wiaNjkh jq iels,a,ls'
iels,a,ls' iels,a,ls' iels,a, jd; ikaj, ikaOdk
l=yr iys; h' mDIaGj, m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
ldf,ac we;' by; j.j, oYSh kaf.a ,dlaIKsl ,laIK ^ndysr& kslaIKh lsu'
weismh
s rys; weismh
s rys; p,kh l< yels Yd, mdYal Yd, mdYal p,kh l< yels
fyd|ska jOkh fyd|ska jOkh weismhs iys; weia weismh
s weia weismh
s weismsh iys; weia"
jQ weia" wxY jQ weia wxY weia" ks,k iys;h' ks,k iys;h'ks,k iuyrekag ks,k
fLdj we;' fLdj we;' mg,hla we;' mg,hla we;' mg,hla we;' mg,hla we;'
lSghkag wxY iuyrekaf.a th
fLdjla we;' wjYsIag we;'
oal=ruh oal=ruh l=r ;=kla l=r ;=kla l=r y;rla l=r y;rla
yDoh yDoh iys; yDoh iys; yDoh iys; yDoh iys; yDoh
Yajikh Yajikh Yajikh Yajikh Yajikh Yajikh
c,laf,dau c,laf,dau u`.sks' c,laf,dau" fmkye,s fmkye,s u`.sk's fmkye,s u`.k
s 's
u`.k
s 's c,laf,dau me`M fmkye,s" iu u`.k
s 's
c,laf,dau hq.,ls' fyda uqL l=yr
me`M lSmhls' msOdkhla we;' wdia;rh u`.ks 's
msOdkh ke;'
nysii
a d% jh nysiai%djh jDlal nysiai%djh jDlal nysiia d% jh nysiia d% jh nysiai%djh jDlal
jDlal u`.sks' u`.ks 's uqyq u`.ks 's jDlal u`.sks' jDlal u`.sks' u`.k
s 's m%Odk
m%Odk nysiai%d kaf.a m%Odk iqyU
q ,q kaf.a m%Odk m%Odk khsgc % kSh khsgc% kSh
M,h hQhd h' nysi ai%d M,h m%Odk khsgc % kSh khsgc % kSh nysiai%d M,h nysiai%d M,h
hQhd" h nysiai%dh M,h nysiai%d M,h hqla w,h hQhd
jdiSkaf.a NH3 hQhd h' lSg hqla w,h
wjia:dj, NH3
p,;dmS f p,;dmS f p,;dmS f p,;dmS f wp,;dmS f wp,;dmS f

lmd, iakdhq lmd, iakdhq lmd, iakdhq lmd, iakdhq lmd, iakdhq lmd, iakdhq
hq.,a oyhls hq.,a oyhls hq.,a oyhls hq.,a fod<yls hq.,a fod<yls hq.,a fod<yls
lSg wjhla lSg wj ;sh idudkHfhka lSg idudkHfhka lSg wj ke;' lSg wj ke;'
ke;' wKavc yels h' wj we;' lSg wj ke;' cdkak iys; l,, uj ;=<
fyda idudkHfhka wKavc f' wKavc fyda ;a;r pQKuh jOkh f'
wKavc,dnqc wKavc f' wKavc,dnqc ljp ;=< we;' c,dnqc" iuyre
f' f' cdkak wKavch wKavch' megjqka
iys; ljpj;a ujf.a CISr
;a;r ouhs' .%k
a j,ska Y%djh
jk ls j,ska
fmdaIKh f'
56 57
tallh 4 - fmdaIKh 3' iakdhq wdf.j, oHq;a ifm%aIKh

4' fmaYsj, hdka;%sl ixfldapkh
ksmqK;dj 4'1'0 ( ffcj f,dalfha fmdaIK l%shdj,sj, O;ajh 5' lYsld yd mlaIAuj, p,kh'
.fIKh lrhs'
j f,dalfha O fmdaIK wdldrj, rgd
ksmqK;d ugu 4'1'1 ( kaf.a fmdaIK uid n,hs' ka Tjqkaf.a Yla;s m%Njh yd ldnka m%Njh u; ldKav l< yel'
wldnksl ldnka m%Njh f,i ldnkavfhdlaihs Wmfhda.s lr .kakd ka
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06 hs' iajhxfmdaISka f,i ia;r l< yel'
ldnksl ldnka Wmfhda.S lr .kakd ka IufmdaISka f,i ia;r l<
bf.kq M, ( yel'
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ; iQhdf,dal Yla;sh Wmfhda.S lr .kakd ka m%NdixYaf,aaISka f,i ia;r
fmdaIKh w;HjYH ffcj l%shdj,shla f,i ia;r lrhs' l< yel'
m%NdiajhxfmdaIS yd ridhk iajhxfmdaIS fmdaIKh fjka fldg ykd .kshs' ridhksl Yla;sh Wmfhda.S lr .kakd ka ridhk ixYaf,aIlhska f,i
IufmdaIS fmdaIK l%shdj,sh meye,s lrhs' ia;r l< yel'
IufmdaIS fmdaIK wdldr meye,s lrhs' iajhxfmdaISka ;u ldnksl wjYH;djka" ir, wldnksl jHj,ska
fYaI fmdaIK wdldrhla f,i lDNlaIl Ydlj, fmdaIKh ia;r lrhs' ixYaf,aIKh lr .ks;s'
iajhxfmdaIS fmdaIKh wdldr folls'
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh ( 1' m%ldY iajhxfmdaIS ^m%Nd iajhxfmdaIS&
lD NlaIl Ydl ms<sn| fhda mghla$mska;+rhla isiqkag fmkajd" ta i|yd 2' ridhksl iajhxfmdaIS
ksoiqka lSmhla isiqka ,jd k lsug i,iajkak' m%ldY iajhxfmdaIS - Yla;s m%Njh-iQhhd iy ldnka m%Njh
- ldnkavfhdlaihs
fmdaIKh ms<sn| uQ,dY% ûqs; yd bf,lafg%dksl & imhkak'
kso ( ihfkdanelahd
lDNlaIl Ydl fYaI fmdaIK wdldrhla nj wjfndaO lrjkak'
y; Ydl
im;a jH mYs,kfhka fmdaIK wdldr ms<sn|j my; lreKq tla /ia lsug
isiqkag wjia:dj ,nd fokak' ridhk iajhxfmdaIS - Yla;s m%Njh ridhksl jH iy ldnka
ixl,amh m%Njh ldnka vfhdlaihs f'
wjYH;dj kso ( khs%ldrl nelahd
l%shdj,sh Nitrobactor, Nitrosomonas
jdis IufmdaIS ka - ldnksl m%Njj, ldnka u; fmdaIKh f'
ish i;=ka" ,Sr yd nelahd je fofkla
ksoiqka
IufmdaISka f'
isiqka fidhd.;a lreKq bm;a lsug Wmfoia ,nd fokak'
IufmdaIS fmdaIK l%u
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m fhda.H wkqm< s f
s j<lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak' wdldr ;=kls'
1 uDf;dam fmdaIKh
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( 2 i;a;aj ioDY fmdaIKh
fmdaIKh iy tys wjYH;d 3 iyjkh
fmdaIKh" Yla;sh yd ldnka ,nd .kakd l%shdj,shls' uDf;dam fmdaIKh
jOkh yd w`M;ajehdj i|yd jH ixYaaf,aIKhg kag Yla;sh u< fyda fhdackh jk ldnksl jH u; fmdaIKh jk ka uDf;damkah'
wjYH f' Wod ( fndfyda ,Sr yd nelahd
kso ( 1' fm%daka ixYaf,aIKh uDf;damka u< ldnksl jH u;g tkaihsu Y%jh lr rKh lrhs'
2' idkaK wkql%uKhg tfrysj" jH ffi, ;=<g;a" msg;g;a il%shj uDf;damka fuu nys#ffi,Sh rKfhka we;s jk wka;M, wjfYdaIKh lr"
mjykh ^ fidah" fmdgEish fmdmh & ialrKh lrhs'
58 59
i;a;aj ioDY fmdaIKh ksmqK;dj 4'1'0 ( ffcj f,dalfha fmdaIK l%shdj,sj, O;ajh
fndfyda i;=ka i;a;aj ioDYh' Tjqka wdydr ud.h ;=,g wdydr w.%yKh .fIKh lrhs'
lr;s'
ksmqK;d ugu 4'1'2 ( Ydlj, m%Yia; jOkh i|yd we;s fmdaIK
fuu fmdaIK l%uh mshjr mylska iuka;h'
wjYH;d Yaf,aIKh lrhs'
1' w.%yKh
2' rKh ld,fo ixLHdj ( 01 hs'
3' wjfYdaIKh
4' ialrKh bf.kq M, (
5' my lsu fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ;
Ydlj,g wjYH w ud;% yd wxY=ud;% uQ, jH m%ldY lrhs'
iyjkh wjfYdaIK wdldr ia;r lrhs'
fjkia fYaI folla w;r inkaO;djhls' lD;H yd W!k;d ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
ldKav ;=klg fnod we;'
1' wfkHdkHdOdrh fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh
2' mrfmdaIS;dj m%fYhla f,i ksmqK;d ugu 2'1'1 ys W.;a lreKq ^ foayfha uQ,jHuh
3' iyfNda;ajh ixhq;sh uid n,hs'& isiqka yg kej; isysm;a lrjkak'
my; oelafjk uQ,jH ldKav isiqkag ,nd fokak'
wfkHdkHdOdrh
C, N, Mg, Cl, Zn, Mo
fjkia fYaI foll ka fofokl= w;r lsgq inkaO;djhls'
O, K, P, Fe, B
idudlhska fofokdgu jdis ,ef'
kso ( rks, uQ, .e;s iy rhsfidah H, Ca, S, Mn, Cu
my; oelafjk ud;Dld Tiafia O uQ,dY%j,ska f;dr;=re /ialr mka;shg bm;a
mrfmdaIS;dj lrk f,i isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
tla hl=g ^mrfmdaIs;hd & jdis ie,fik yd wfkldg Ôdrlhd& ydks jk uQ,jH wud;% yd wxY=ud;% uQ,jH" wjfYdaIK wdldr" lD;H yd W!k;d ,laIK
fjkia fYaIj,g wh;a ka fofokl= w;r lsgq inkaO;djhls' f,i ldKav lrkak'
kso ( Plasmodium, Loranthus Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m fhda.H wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'
Necator americanus , Cuscuta
Ih lreKq meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,la (
iyfNdacS;ajh
Ydlj,g wjYH wud;% yd wxY=ud;% uQ, jH
tla cShl=g jdis ie,fik iy wfkldg n,mEula fkdlrk fjkia
Ydlj,g wldnksl fmdaIl iuQyhla wjYH f'
fYaI folla w;r lsgq inkaO;djhls'
iuyr uQ,jH wdjYHl uQ,jH f,i i,lSug fya;=
kso ( wms Ydl - ls
1' Ydlj, jHqyuh jHj, ix>gl u
uqyq weksuks iy ;dmi ll=jd
2' fuu fmdaIl rys;j jk pl%h imQK l, fkdyels u'
fjd w;=frka iuyrla" Ydlj,g Yd, m%udKj,ska wjYH wud;%
lDNlaIl Ydl
fmdaIl f'
fuh fYaI fmdaIK wdldrhlss' fuu Ydl wl%shj fyda il%shj lDka
kso ( C, H, O, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S
.%yKh lr" rKh lr fYaIfhkau Tjqkaf.a khsg%cka wjYH;dj imqrd
wxY=ud;% fmdaIl" wvq m%udKhla wjYH f'
.ksh's
kso ( Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo.
kso ( Nepenthes, Drosera, Utricularia
lD;H yd W!k;d ,laIK ^weuqKqu n,kak'&
wjfYdaIKh lrk wdldrh ^weuqKqu n,kak'&
60 61
ksmqK;dj 4'1'0 ( ffcj f,dalfha fmdaIK l%shdj,sj, O;ajh ksia wdydr ud.fha ;a;sfha uQ,sl ie,eiau
.fIKh lrhs' Yaf,aIau,lh
ksmqK;d ugu 4'1'3 ( ksia wdydr ud. moaO;sfha jHqyh tys lD;Hj,g wO( Yaf,aIau,lh
inkaO lrhs' fmaYs fpda,h
uia;= mg,h
ksia wdydr ud.fha mgl ie,eiau uQ,sl ie,eiaulg wkqj msysgd we;s
bf.kq M, ( wdldrh ia;r lrkak'
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ; fmd ie,eiaf fjkial m%Odk jYfhka msysgd we;af;a
ksia rK moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;H ia;r lrhs' Yaf,aIau,lfhysh'
wdydrj, ix>gl yd tajdfha lD;H ia;r lrhs' wdudYfha" laIqdka;%fha yd uydka;%fha we;s fjkialj,g inkaO
m%Nj yd W!k;d ,laIK m%ldY lrhs' ksYa; lD;Hhka ia;r l< hq;=h'
wdydr inkaO wdydr ud.fha wdndO ia;r lrhs' l%udl=xpkh
wdY%s; .%ka
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh ( - fg .%ka -jHqyh yd lD;H
isiqkag wdlD;s" rEm igyka yd wfkl=;a im;a wOHhkh lsu i|yd - w.akHdYh - jHqyh yd lD;H
wjia:dj i,id fokak' - wlaudj-jHqyh yd lD;H
ksidf.a wdydr ud.fha uQ,sl mgl ie,eiau yd tu moaO;sfhys O m%foaY my; i|yka fydfudakj, wka;rdi. lD;Hh
j,g wod<j m%Odk fjkial wOHhkh lsug wjia:dj i,id fokak' - .eia%ka
^ m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlula yd iu`. is l< yel'& - fld,sisiafgdlhskska - m%ekals%fhdihska
my; i|yka f;dr;=re fidhd .ekSu i|yd isiqkag Wmfoia fokak' - isl%ka
ksidf.a wdydr ud. moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;Hh - tkafgfrda.eiafgfrdka
wdY%s; .%ka wdydrfha ix>gl yd tajdfha lD;Hhka
ldfndyhsf
wdydrfha ix>gl" tajdfha lD;H" m%Nj yd W!k;d ,laIK ms<sn| fiug fm%dak
isiqkaj fhduq lrkak' ,smsv
ksidf.a wdydr ud.h yd inkaO iq,N widudkH;d ms<sn| f;dr;=re gka
fiug isiqka fhduq lrkak' Lksc uQ,jH
fidhd .;a lreKq bm;a lsu i|yd isiqka fhduq lrjkak' c,h
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m fhda.H wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj ia;drKh ;ka;=
lrkak' m%Nj yd W!k;d frda. ,laIK
gka W!k;d yd frda. ,laIK
Ih lreKq meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,la ( Fe, Ca yd I W!k;d yd frda. ,laIK
ksia wdydr ud. moaO;sh my; fldgia j,ska iuka;h' wdydr wdY%s;" wdydr ud.fha widudkH;d
uqLh " uqL l=yrh " .%iksldj " wkakfi%da;h " wdudYh" laIqdka;h" - .eiag%hsia
uydka;%h " .=o ud.h" .=oh - u, noaOh
by; fldgiaj, msysu" o< jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s l< hq;=h' .eiag%hsia
oka; iQ;%h wdudY ;a;sh W;af;ackhfuka jemqr HCl i%djh Yaf,aIau,
o;aj, jHqyh yd lD;Hh ia;rh ydks f'
oka; fi!LHh /l .ekSug .; hq;= mshjr wdudYfha Yaaf,aIau, ia;r ydks fuka ,s yg.kS'
jemqr HCl i%djh ug odhljk fya;= (
62 63
.= ld,hla l=i.skafka isu tallh 5 - Yaajikh

uOHidr .ekSu
laIh frda.h yd is*s,sia jeks frda.j,ska fm,Su ksmqK;dj 5'1'0 ( i;=kaf.a jdhq yqjudre l%shdj,s wkafIKh lrhs'
udkisl wd;;sh
md,kh ksmqK;d ugu 5'1'1 ( i;a;j
a rdcOdksfha Yajik jHqy O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'
frda. md,kh i|yd isq l< hq;= phd;aul fjkial i|yka
lrkak' ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04 hs'
u, noaOh bf.kq M, (
u,my lsf m%;Sl l%shdj hgm;a lsu u, noaOh we;sug fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ;
fya;=f' Yajik mDIaGj, ,dlaIKsl .=K i|yka lrhs'
.=o ud.fha fokdj irKh yd th mDIaG mud wkqmd;hg olajk inkaO;dj meye,s
u,my lsf wmyiq;djh lrhs'
md,kh i;=kaf.a oelsh yels Yajik jHqy ia;r lrhs'
m%udKj;a ;ka;= iys; wdydr .ekSu yd ksis m u, my
lsug fhda.H f,i phd;aul yeis we;s lr .ekSu fhdacs; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh (
my; lreKq u;=lrka i;=ka jdhq yqjudre lr .kakd wdldrh ms<sn| nqoa
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
l,nk idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
ksia wdydr ud.fha uQ,sl mgl oHd;aul jHQyh wOHhkh iy tys tla
Yajikh Yla;sh ,nd .ekSf l%shdj,shla nj
tla m%foaYj, we;s m%Odk fjkial tajdfha lD;Hhg inkaO lsu'
i;=ka Tjqka j;ajk mirj,g wkqj O Yajik jHqy ord isk nj
my; we;s Wmfoia isiqka i|yd f'
Tnf.a lKavdhug mjrd we;s Yajik jHqy my; we;s jHqy ldKavh
w;ka f;dard .kak'
foaydjrKh" Yajdikd,
ndysr c,laf,dau" wNHka;r c,laf,dau
m;a fmkye,s" fmkye,s
we;s im;a Nd;d lrka wod< Yajik jHqy j. wh;a i;=ka wOHhkh
lrkak'
iqiq rEm igyka Nd;fhka Yajik jHqy ia;r lrkak
Yajik mDIaGj, ,dlaIKsl ,laIK ia;r lrkak'
Tnf.a fidhd .ekSu mka;shg bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
iqiq wkql%uhlg Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr ug w;aje,la (

Yaajik mDIaG i;= ,laIK
Yajik mDIaGhla hkq mirh iu`. jdhq yqjudre jk m%foaYh f,i myod
fokak'
fN!;sl l%shdj,shla jk irKh u.ska ishu i;=kaf.a jdhq yqjudrej isjk
nj i|yka lrkak'
64 65
ldhlaIu Yajik mDIaGhla i;=j my; i|yka ,laIK oelsh yel' ksmqK;dj 5'1'0 ( i;=kaf.a oelsh yels jdhq yqjudre l%shdj,sh wkafIKh
jdhq yqjudre u i|yd th f;;a yd mdr.uH h hq;= h' lrhs'
ldhlaIu irKh i|yd ;=kS mDIaGhla h hq;=h'
i;=kaf.a wjYH;d wkqj Yd, jdhq mudjla yqjudreug ;r tu mDIaGh ksmqK;d ugu 5'1'2 ( ksidf.a Yajik moaO;sfha jHqyh tys lD;Hj,g olajk
i;=j Yd, j. M,hla ;sh hq;= h' inkaO;d wkdjrKh lrhs'
fyd| rer iemhqula ;sh hq;=h'
irKh iy mDIaG mud wkqmd;h (
Yajik jdhq yqjudrej irKh u.ska is f' l=vd i;=kaf.a Yla;s wjYH;dj
bf.kq M, (
b;d wvq ksid;a" Tjqka b;d ir, ka ksid;a" foay wdjrKh yryd isjk
udkj Yajik moaO;sfha o< jHqyh meye,s lrhs'
irKh m%udKj;a f'
Yd, i;=kf a .a ixlSK;dj fukau Yla;s wjYH;dj o b;d wlh' tu wjYH;d fmkye,s jd;k hdka;%Kh ia;r lrhs'
fmkye,s mudj iy Yajik pl%h meye,s lrhs'
iemhSu i|yd fuh m%udKj;a fkdf'
rerh yd jd;h w;r;a" rerh yd mgl w;r;a jdhq yqjudrej meye,s lrhs'
mDIaG - mud wkqmd;h wvq f jdhq yqjudrej i|yd mDIah j. M,h
ksidf.a Yajik hdukh ia;r lrhs'
m%udKj;a h hq;=h' tu ksid Yd, mDIah j. M,hla iys;j Yajik jHqy
udkj Yajik moaO;sh wdY%s; wdndO i|yka lrhs'
jOkh h'
i;=kaf.a Yajik jHQy
foaydjrKh kso ( .ev,d" me;,s mKqjd
fhda; bf.kq - b.eka l%shdj,sh (
ndysr c,laf,dau kso ( fmd,slSgd mkqjka (Arenecola), biaf.hka" we;s wdlD;s" ixrlaIs; ksoYk" rEm igyka" icSlrKh fyda oHq;a udOH
Nd;d lr udkj Yajik moaO;sfha jHqyh yd l%h
s dld;ajh w;r we;s inkaO;dj
i,ukaordjka
u;= lrka idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
wNHka;r c,laf,dau kso ( wial uiqka" fmdlsiaika
Yajdikd, kso ( lDka" yel/,a,ka" m;a;Ehka ^m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlula f,i lsug &
my; i|yka udkj Yajik moaO;sfha wdndO ms<sn| lreKq tl;= lsug isiqka
m;a fmkye,s kso ( ul=`Mjka" f.dakqiaika
fmkye,s kso ( laIsrmdhska ^ksid&" Wr.hka" mlaISska Wkka lrjkak'
mdkfha n,mE
,s wxY=j, n,mE
is,sfldaisia iy weianeiafgdaisia
Yajik iS>%;dj yd kd iS>%;dj u; jHdhduj, n,mEu kslaIKh lr jd;d
lsug isiqkag bv i,iajkak'
isiq wkdjrK bm;a lsug Tjqka iQodk lrjkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m iqiq wkqms<sfj,lg ia;drKh lrkak'

udkj Yajik moaO;sfha o< jHqyh
o< jHqyh yd msysu
th kdia jr" kdia l=rh" .%iksldj" iajrd,h" Yajdi kd,h" Yajdi kd,sld"
wkq Yajdikd,sld" .; l=r ^fmkye,s& j,ska iuka;h'
by; jHqyhkaf.a jHqyhg wod< j l%shdld;ajh o meye,s l< hq;=h'
Yajik ud.fha ;a;s jHdc mlaIauOr ia:Nsl wmsPo ffi, iy i%dh
l,ia ffi,j,ska wdia;rKh we;' ^ldf,ac iajrd,h" Yajdikd,h yd
Yajdi kd,sldj, wvx.= nj&
66 67
fmkye,s jd;kfha hka;%Kh .= ld,hla ;siafia is,sld yd weianeiafgdaia wxY=j,g ksrdjrKhfuka we;sjk
rEm igyka Nd;fhka fmkye,s jd;kh lsf hka;%Kh meye,s l< hq;=h' jD;a;Suh wdndO'
wdYajdifha yd m%dYajdifha wka; mY+l fmaYsj, yd uyd m%drfha l%shdj
,s yd I iys; we;s lrk /lshdj, fmr mfriaiu i|yd wjYH;dj
meye,s l< hq;=h'
Yajik pl%h yd Yajik jdhq mud
rerh iy jd;h w;r jdhq yqjudrej - Tlaiscka Yaf,aIau,fha h .;j, is,fs ldiSia
;=kS wmsPoh yd rer flaYkd,sld wka;YaPoh yryd irKh f' th m%:ufhka is,sld ixfhda. wvx.= ,sj,g .= l,la ;siafia ksrdjrKh fuka fuu
rer ma,diauh ;=,g f.dia ysfud.af,dka iu`. inkaO Tlaiy
s fs ud.af,dka ;;a;ajh we;s h yel' by< wjodkula iys; ludka; f,i"
idohs'
1' .%ekhs" l`M.,a je,s.,a m;,a
rerh iy mgl w;r jdhq yqjudrej meye,s lrkak'
ksidf.a Yajik hdukh - th ridhksl m%;s.%dyl iy fud<fha iqIqkd 2' .,a w`.=re" rka" ka" ;U wdlr iy m;,a
YSIlfha msys YAjik md,l uOHia:dkh u.ska hdukh jk nj meye,s l< 3' je,s iy fmofre ludka; ^stone masonry and sand blasting&
hq;= h' 4' re iy ue ludka; oelah yel'
udkj Yajik moaO;sh yd inkaO wdndO is,sld wxY= wdYajdi l< g .; ;=< tl;= f' fuu wxY= uyd NlaIdKq u`.ska
fuka Yajik moaO;sfhys ukd l%shdld;ajhg we;sjk n,mE NlaIKh lrhs' ka iuyrla .; ;=<k s a msg wkqYj
a dikd,sld wdY%;
s inkaOl
u fya;=fjka fmkye,s ms<sld" fn%dkalhsia wd frda. je<f|k w;r
mgl yd mardjg wdikak rer flaYkd,sldj,g mefKa' l%u l%ufhka
t u`.ska" fkdfhla frda. yd wdndO iEf m%jK;d wdh o wjidkfha
urKh o we;s h yel' ta wkqj my; i|yka lreKq biau;= l< hq;= h' ;ka;=uh jOkhla we;s" wjidkfha oS rer flaYkd,sld yd Yajik
wkqYajdikd,sld kdY lrhs' fmky`M mgl l%ufhka kdYu ksid mqmaMqiSh
i' is.r u fya;=fjka l,ia ffi, u.ska Yaf,aIau, Y%djh W;af;ackh f' wOHd;;sh yd yDo l%shdld;ajh wvd,u is h yel'
Yajik ud.fha mlaIau l%shdj,sh weKysfuka Yaf,aIau, tl;= u
t u`.ska Yajdikd, bosu jeks ixl+,;d fyda fn%dkalhsia wdh we;s h
weianeiafgdia u`.ska we;sjk frda. - weianeiafgdaisia
yel' tu ksid Yajikfha oS wmyiq;d we;s h yel'
weianeiafgdaia ksIamdok wdYs%; /lshd lrkakka yd tajd Nd; lrkakka yg
ii' mlaIauj, l%shdj weKysu fya;=fjka fmkye,sj, ,s wxY= tl;= f' tu fuu frda.h iEf wjodkula we;'
ksid fmkye,s mglj, NlaIl ffi, m%udKh wl f' tu NlaIl
ffi,j,ska wl m%udKhla cdrl tkaihsu Y%djh u ksid .; mgl weianeiafgdia wxY+ fl;s iys; ,s wdYajdi lsfuka fuu wdndO we;s h
ydks jk w;r jdhq yqjudrej i|yd we;s m%foaYh wvq hhs'
yel' fuu wxY= Yd,;ajfhka je jqjo" wkqYajdikd,sld iy .; ugu
iii' is.r fuys CO jdhqj wvx.= jk w;r th rerhg Wrd .kS' th wm%;j s ;H olajd kso hd yel' .; ;=, tla/ia jk uyd NlaIdKq ffi, u.ska l=vd
f,i ysfud.af,dka iu`. nef|kîa:dhS& w;r tu`.ska Tlaisysfud.af,dka fl;s NlaIKh lrkq ,nhs' kuq;a ;rula Yd, fl;s" uyd NlaIdKq ffi,"
m%udKh wvq hhs' tu ksid rerh u.ska Tlaiscka mjykh wvqf' fm%dakuh jH yd hlv ix;j,ska jg lrkq ,nhs' Yd, fl;s NlaIKh
lr .kq ,enQ uyd NlaIdKq ffi, .;j,ska msg wkqYajdikd,sld iy
iv' is.r fuys wvx.= jk ksfldka" yDo iamkaok f.h ;djld,slj je
rerkd, jgd tla /ia fuka ;ka;=uh mgl jOkh W;af;ackh h yel'
lrk w;r mhka; rer flaYkd,sld ixl+pkhg o fya;= f' t u`.ska
rer mSvkh ;djld,slj je f' fuu fya;= ksid" fmkye,s mgl iS>%fhka ydhkh u" yd mqmaMqiSh wOHd;;sh
we;s lrhs'
v' .= l,la ;siafia is.r ug wkdjrKh fuka Yajdikd,j, wmsPo
ffi,j, wl .=Kkh ula oelsh yel' tu.ska widudkH ffi, f.dkq m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
we;s jk w;r bka ms<sld ;;a;ajhkag u. mEfoa' tu m%foaYj,ska ffi,
wdlD;s iy rEmigyka Nd;fhka ksia Yajik moaO;sh wOHhkh lsu
.e, .shfyd;a" fmkye,s yd wfkl=;a wjhjj,g o ms<sld ;ck we;s
h yel' fkdfndkakka yg o is.r u wd>%dKfhka fuu ;;a;ajj, yd jHdhdu u.ska Yajik f.h yd kd f.hg we;s n,mEu kslaIKh
n,mE we;sh yel' lsu'
68 69
tallh 6 - mjykh djK folla wdka;r mdr.uH mg,hlska (Differentially Permeable Membrane)
fjka we;s g ta yryd djHh wKqj,g muKla .uka lsug bv fkd
ksmqK;dj 6'1'0 ( ka ;=< isjk jH mjykh yd inkaO l%shdj,s
foka c, wKqj,g muKla .uka lsug bv fok irKfha fYaI wdldrhla
uid n,hs'
f,i wdi%e;sh
fm%dak" ta.d" jeks c,ld jHj,g c,h wfYdaKh u f,i
ksmqK;d ugu 6'1'1 ( Ydl ;=< c,h yd LKsc mjykh i|yd wod< ixl,am yd
l%shdj,s ms<sn| uYkh lrhs' ksmdkh
.=re;ajh fyda mSvk wkql%uKh Tiafia c,h yd djHh iuQy jYfhka ^;ks
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08 hs' wKq wdldrfhka fkdf& mjykh u ialkaO m%jdyh f,i
c, Nj ixl,amh
bf.kq M, ( c,h iys; kEu moaO;shlg c, Njhla we;' c, Njh mSvkh" he
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd; we;s djHh" c,ld jHh wd idOl u; n,mdk c, wKqj, pd,l
Ydlj, jH mjykfha wjYH;dj meye,s lrhs'
Yla;sh yd inkaO jQjls'
Ydl foayfha ffi, ;=<ska yd w;ka c,h yd Lksc mjykh jk ud. ia;r
c, Njh u.ska wxlkh flfrk mSvk tallj,ska-jdhqf.da, âtm&
lrhs'
meial,a (Pa)" fu.d meial,a (MPa) ukskq ,nkakls'
Ydlj, c,h yd Lksc mjykh mok we;s ixl,am yd uQ,Ou ia;drKh
lrhs' ixY=oaO c,fha Wmu c, Njhla mj;S'
Ydlj, c,h yd Lksc Wvql=re ikakhkh meye,s lrhs' wNsu; m jdhqf.da, mSvkh hgf;a ixY=oaO c,fha c, Njh Y=kH hehs
ffi,j, djHh Njh yd c, Njh ksKh lsug mlaIK fufyhjhs' ie,fla'
c,fha djHh he jQ g c, Njh wvq RK w.hla .kS'
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,sh ( tneka iajdNdl j mj;sk fndfyda c,Sh moaO;sj, c, Njh RK
Ydlj, jH mjykh ms<sn| fmr oekqu uikak' w.hla .kS'
O im;a ûq;
s yd bf,lafg%dksl& weiqfrka Ydlj, c,h yd Lksc mjykh
djHh idkaKh l%ufhka je jk g c, Njh Bg wkqrEm j wvq f'
ms<sn| f;dr;=re tl;= lsug isiqka .kajkak'
t uksid moaO;shl c, Njh tys djHh idkaKhg m%;f
s ,dau j iudkqmd;sl
.e,S igyka iy rEm igyka wdOdrfhka isiq wkdjrK bm;a lsug iQodk
f'
lrjkak'
iqiq wkql%uhlg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak' djHh idkaKh u.ska we;sjk c, Nj ixrplh" djHh
Njh f,i yekafjk w;r th f,i wxlkh flf'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( mSvkh je lrk g c, wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh o je flfrka ta wkqj
mjykfha wjYH;dj moaO;sfha c, Njh o je flf'
c,h yd Lksc ffY,u ;=<ska by<g mjykh flf' tneka moaO;sfha c, Njh mSvkhg wkqf,dau j iudkqmd;sl f'
djHh iSks iy fydafudak maf,dahu ;=<ska mjykh flf' mSvkh u.ska we;sjk c, Nj ixrplh mSvk Njh f,i
c,h yd djHh mjykh jk l%u
k flfrk w;r f,i wxlkh flf'
mg, yryd c,h mjykhg mok jk uQ,sl uQ,Ou" irKh" ksmdkh"
iEu g u c,h .uka lrkafka c, Njh je moaO;shl isg c, Njh
wdi%e;sh" ialkaO m%jdyh hk ixisoa yd c, Nj ixl,amh
wvq moaO;shlg hs'
my; oelafjk c,h mjykh jk l%u ia;r lrkak'
jdIamSNjkh WodyrK jYfhka .kska irKh
70 71
ffi,hl c, Njh Ydl uq,l jHqyh

ffi,hla c,h iys; moaO;shla jk neka Bg c, Njhla we;' talcm;S% iy oacm;S% Ydl uq,aj, m%d:l jHqyh ia;r lsu'
m%dlama,diagh ^ffi, mg,h" m%dlama,diauh yd la;lh hk ish,a,& Ydl uq,a ;=<ska c,h mjykh
djHh yd c,ld jH wvx.= c,Sh moaO;shls' tu ksid Bg djHh Njhla
mdxY= djKfha c, Njh uqf,a ffi,j, c, Njhg jvd je jQ g
we;' th iDK w.hla .kakd w;r hkqfjka wxlkh flf'
uq,g c,h Wrd.kq ,nhs' uqf,a fi,shqf,daia ffi, ;a;s iy ffi,dka;r
ffi,h Y+k ;;a;ajfha mj;S k" m%dlama,diagfhka ffi, ;a;sh fj;
wjldY c,hg yd djHhj,g mQK mdr.uH f' iqfnN=; yd ,s.akSN+;
Y+k;d mSvkh (Turgor Pressure) (TP) k jQ mSvkhla we;s flf' tg
ffi, ;a;s c,hg mdr.uH fkdf' ndyslfha isg ffY,u olajd c,h yd
ffi, ;a;sfhka m%dlama,diagh fj; Bg iudk yd m%;sreoaO j ;= mSvkh
(Wall Pressure) (WP) ls%hd lrhs' tneka ffi,h ;=< we;s moaO;sh je djHh u;= oelafjk ud. Tiafia .uka lrhs'
mSvkhla hgf;a mj;S' fu u.ska c, Njh je lsug fya;= f' fuu c, wefmdma,diag
Nj ixrplh mSvk Njh k jk w;r f,i wxlkh flf' isma,diag
f ksid ffi,fha c, Njh my; we;s ilrKfhka ksrEmKh la;l ud.h
flf'
Ydlh ;=< c, mjykh
la;lhla iys; ffi,hlg c,h we;= u" Y+k;dj iy Y+k;dj
c,h yd djHh .uka lrk wefmdma,diag" isma,diag iy la;l ud. ms<sn|
c, Njh wdYs%;j iudNsidrl" Wm wNsidrl" WmdNsidrl djK ia;r
ixl,amh my; oelafjk m myod h yels h'
lrkak'
1 wefmdma,diagh hkq" c,h yd djHhj,g ksoyfia .uka l< yels ffi,
c,h ;=< iy WmdNsidrl" Wmrs wNsidrl djKhla ;=< ffi,hl
;a;s iy ffi,dka;r wjldYj,ska ie ,;a moaO;shhs' ffY,ufha h.sh
djHh Njh" mSvk Njh yd c, Njh fjkia jk wdldrh idlPd
lrkak' ffi,j, l=yr o wh;a f' wka;#Yapufha iqfn N+; leiamd m c,hg
c, Nj wkql%uKh Tiafia c,h ffi,h ;=<g yd bka msg;g .uka lrhs' wmdr.uH jk w;r tu.ska uqf,ys ndyslfha wefmdma,diagh yd ikd,
mgl djK ;=< .s,a jQ g fuh is f' is,skavrfha wefmdma,diagh fjka lrkq ,nhs'
Y+k;dj yd Y+k;dj is jk wdldrh;a" wdrNl Y+k;d ixl,amh;a" 2 isma,diagh hkq" uq Ydlh mqrdu wka; inkaO we;s ffi, ma,diah
meye,s lrkak' cd,hhs' ffi, ;a;sfha isre yryd hdno ffi,j, ffi, ma,diau hd
Y+k;dj fyda ffi,hla Y+k u Bg c,h wjfYdaIKh u fya;= fldg lrk ma,diau nkaO u.ska fuh ks;h' tla ffi,hl ma,diau mg,h
f.k Ok mSvk Njhla we;su u.ska is f' la;l ;=< we;s mSvkh
yryd ffi, ma,diaghg we;= jk c,h c, Nj wkql%uKh Tiafia
u.ska ffi, ma,diauh ffi, ;a;sh fj; mSvkhla we;s lrhs' h ;rulg
ism,diagfha wfkla ffi,j,g .uka l< yels h'
m%;Hdia: jQ ffi, ;a;sh wefoka ffi,fha mudj je f'
3 Ydl ffi,j, la;l c,h Yd, f,i .nvd lr ;nk tajd f' tneka
Y+k;dj hkq" ffi,fhka c,h msgu fya;= fldg f.k ffi, ma,diauh
hdno ffi,j, la;lfhka la;lhg c, Nj wkql%uKh Tiafia
ffi, ;a;sfhka bj; we;=<g ixfldapkh uhs'
Ydl ffi,hl m%Odk c, ix;h la;lhhs' ism,diajfha c,h .uka lrhs' la;lfhka la;lhg c,h .uka lrk
Rhoeo h wmsph is wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lrka Y+k;dj wdoYkh g tla ffi,hl ;dkma,diagh" ffi, ma,diauh" ma,diau mg,h yd ffi,
lsu' ;a;sh miq lrka fojk ffi,fha ffi, ;a;sh" ma,diau mg,h" ffi,
ffi, Y+k fyda Y+k fyda fkdjk wjia:djla f,i wdrNl Y+k;dj ma,diauh yd ;dkma,diagh miqlr hd hq;= f' f ksid la;l ud.fha
f,i yekaf' fuh Y=ku wdrN jk wjia:dj hs' uqyqK h hq;= m%;sfrdaOh je h'
mglj, yd djKj, ffi, ;=<g yd msg;g c,h .uka lsu meye,s
lsu
72 73
wka;Yapufha leiamd m u.ska wefmdma,diag ud.h wjysr lrhs' ta ksid ksmqK;dj 6'1'0 ( ka ;=< isjk jH mjykh yd inkaO l%shdj,s
uid n,hs'
wka;Yapuh yryd .uka l< hq;= jkafka isma,diag ud.fhks' tys Lksc
jrK wjfYdaIKhg Ndck f' Ydlj,g wjYH Lksc muKla wjfYdaIKh ksmqK;d ugu 6'1'2 ( Ydlj, jdhq yqjudrej isjk wdldrh uid n,hs'
lr .kq ,nhs'
Ydlh ;=< c,h yd Lksc Wvql=re ikakhkh
bf.kq M, (
ffY,u ;=<ska c,h yd Lksc mjykh i|yd mok jQ uQ,Ou jYfhka fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd (
mdxY= djKfha isg Ydlh ;=<ska jdhqf.da,h olajd c, Nj wkql%uKh" m;%j, jHqyh ia;r lrhs'
c,fha wl ixila;s iy wdila;s n, yd W;aiafok pQIKh .; yels h' mQldj, jHqyh tys lD;Hhg olajk inkaO;d olajhs'
mQld yd jd isre yryd jdhq yqjudrej is jk wdldrh ia;r lrhs'
ixila;s - wdila;s - wd;;sjdoh
mQld iy jd isrej, jHqyh wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lrhs'
ffY,u ;=<ska c,h yd djHh ialkaO m%jdyh

m%dfhda.sl mlaIK ( isiqkg mQldj, iy jd isrej, jHqyh wKalaIh ;=<ska iy$fyda fjk;a
ynr, m;% jDka;j,$ w;dm,a wdlkaO ;Srej, c, Njh ksKh lsu' wod< im;a ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl& weiqfrka kslaIKh lsug wjia:dj
Wodlr fokak'
Rhoeo wmsph isj, djH Njh ksKh lsu' wod< im;a ûq;
s fyda bf,lafg%dksl& Nd;fhka mQldj, jHqyh iy lD;Hh
ms<sn| f;dr;=re /ia lsug Wmfoia fokak'
isiq wkdjrK bm;a lsug Tjqka iQodk lrjkak'
wod< wkql%uh Tiafia Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

m%Odk jdhq yqjudre mDIaGh f,i Ydlm;%
Ydl m;%j, jHQyh
mQldj, jHqyh yd lD;Hh
oacm;S% yd ;DK Ydlj, ûOH Ydl& m;%j, yrialv wkafIKh lsu
yevh" fYaI jHqy" ffi, ;a;sj, >k rgd yd md,l ffi,j, y;,j
mej;Su
jDlaldldr yd vfn,a yeve;s md,l ffi,j, jHqyh oyd oelau
mQld yd jd isre u.ska flfrk jdhq yqjudrej
ojfia O ld,j, mQld jr u yd jeiSu md,l ffi,j, Y+k;d
fjkia u ksid is u
md,l ffi,j, c, Njfha is jk laIKsl fjkia fya;=fjka hdno
wmsph ffi,j,ska c,h Wrd .ekSu fyda hdno ffi,j,g c,h msg lsu
wdf,dalh we;sg md,l ffi,j, djHh Njh wvqu" m%NdixYaf,aIKh"
msIag-iSks mj;kh yd K+ whk iHkaoh hkd hka;%K lsysmhlska meye,s
l< yels u
74 75
ksmqK;dj 6'1'0 ( ka ;=< isjk jH mjykh yd inkaO l%shdj,s W;aiafok YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl
uid n,hs' wd;dj" iq<" WIaK;ajh" wdf,dalh" mfia we;s m%fhdacH c,h m%udKh iy
s " m;% wNHka;r
CO2 idkaKh jeks ndysr idOl;a" mQld ixLHdj yd jHdma;h
ksmqK;d ugu 6'1'3 ( Ydl ;=<ska c,h bj;af l%shdj,sh uid n,hs'
jHqyh iy Ydlfha wvx.= c,h m%udKh jeks wNHka;r idOl;a" W;aiafok
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03 hs' YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk wdldrh meye,s lrkak'

W;aiafokh wju lr .ekSug Ydl olajk lrK'
bf.kq M, ( uQ, mSvkh yd xoh
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd; xoh yd uQ, mSvkh meye,s lrkak' iuyr wldIah Ydlj, uQ, mSvkh
W;aiafokh isjk ud.h ia;r lrhs'
ls%hd;aul jk wjia:dj, c, j,ska j c,h jEiafia' c, yd uQ,
W;aiafokh flfrys n,mdk idOl ,ehsia;=.; lrhs'
mSvkh kslaIKh lsug fhduq lrkak'
W;aiafokh wju lsug Ydl olajk wkqj;k ia;r lrhs'
uQ, mSvkh yg.kakd wdldrh;a" th xohg olajk n,mEu;a" ms<n
s | ia;drKh
lrhs' m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
W;aiafokfha yd xofha idfmalaI jdis wjdis ii|hs' Ydl m;% yd m%frdayj, W;aiafok YS>%;dj ksKh lsu'
O mdil ;;a;aj hgf;a m;% yd m%frday uska W;aiafok YS>%;d ksKh
lsug mlaIK ie,eiq lr fufyhjhs'
fhdacs; bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,sh (

W;aiafokh yd xoh ms<sn| wod< im;a ûqs; yd bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkag
imhd fokak'
W;aif
a okh yd xoh ms<n
s | j oHd.drfha yd lafIa;f
% ha isl< yels mlaIK
yd kslaIK lsug yd jd;d ;eug myiql i,iajkak'
f;dr;=re tl;= lr bm;a lsulg iQodk jk f,i isiqkg Wmfoia fokak'
isiq wkdjrK bm;a lsug isiqka fufyhjkak'
wod< m Ih wkql%uhlg wkqj ia;drKhl fhfokak'

W;aiafokh
W;aiafok ud.h
W;aiafokh hkq m%Odk jYfhka u mQld ;=<ska yd h muKlg jd isre
yd Wpufhka o Ydlfhka c,h jdIam f,i msguhs' mQld W;aiafokh
ms<sn| my; lreKq u;= lr olajkak' f;;a ffi, ;a;sj,ska c,h
jdIamSNjkh jk g ta wjg c,jdIam >k;ajh je f' iEu mQldjl u
c, jdIam ljp we;s w;r" f ;=<ska c, jdIam irKh is f' ksi,
jd;fha fuu c,jdIam ljp w;smsys; fuka m;%h wjg ;=kS c, jdIam
ia:rhla we;s f' fuu c,jdIam ia;rfha >Klu m;% mDIaGfha iajNdjh
u; r\ mj;S'
.,d hk jd;fha fuu c, jdIam ia;rh ialkaO m%jdyh uska bj;a
flf'
76 77
ksmqK;dj 6'1'0 ( ka ;=< isjk jH mjykh yd inkaO l%shdj,s O ffi, ykd .ekSu - fmfkar k, tall" iypr ffi," maf,dhh uD
uid n,hs' ia:r yd maf,dahh ;ka;= - tajdfha lD;H meye,s lrkak'
ksmqK;d ugu 6'1'4 ( Ydl ;=< wdydr mixl%uKh flfrys odhl jk lsh
% dj,s
maf,dah mglh
uid n,hs'
maf,dah mglfha jHqyh
fmfkar k, tallhl iy iypr ffi,hl iQlI
a u
a jHqyh oelaug bf,lafg%dk
a
wKalaISh PdhdrEmhl wk ,o rEmhla'
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd; maf,dahu ;=<ska ldnksl wdydr mixl%uKh f hka;%Kh
maf,dah mglfha jHqyh ia;r lrhs' my; lreKq we;=<;a jk m maf,dah mixl%uKfha jeo.;a wxY meye,s
maf,dah mglfha jHqyh t uska bgq flfrk lD;Hhg olajk inkaOh lrkak'
olajhs' O wjia:dj, fo Ydjg u mjykh h yels u
Ydl foayh ;=< wdydr mixl%uKhg odhl jk ls%hdj,s ms<sn| ia;drKh mixl%uKh jk jH m%udKh iy mjyk f.h b;d wl u
lrhs' iuyr Ydlj, mjykh jk r o wl u
rd ,nd .ekSu i|yd fmd,a u,a ;e,Su jeks wjia:d WodyrK jYfhka
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,sh ( .kska mjykh jia;sl mSvkhla hgf;a is u
mixl%uKh yd inkaO wod< im;a ûq;
s yd bf,lafg%dksl& isik
q g imhkak' my; oelafjk lreKq biau;= lrka maf,dah mjykh meye,s lrkak'
mixl%uKh yd inkaO j is lrk ,o fmd;= j< bj;a lsf mlaIK yd mixl%uKh wdrN flfrk mglh m%Njh f,i o" wjidk flfrk
l=;a;ka fhdod f.k is lrk ,o mlaIK ms<n
s | idys;H uYkhla weiqfrka mglh wmdhkh f,i o yekafjk nj
f;dr;=re tl;= lsug isiqka fhdojkak'
iqlafrdaia fyda wfkl=;a jH mj;l ffi, k jQ lrKh jQ iypr
lf|a lalv yd yrialv kslaIKfhka maf,dah mglfha jHqyh wOHhkh
ffi, uska fmfkar k< fj; il%h s f,i mjD;a;h s Yla;h
s jeh lrka
lsug i,iajkak'
idkaK wkql%uKhg reoaO Ydjg Y%djh lsu - maf,dah ner lsu
isiq wkdjrK bm;a lsug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
(Phloem loading).
wod< wkql%uhlg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'
maf,dah ner lsf m%;sM, jYfhka fmfkar k<fha djHh Njh jeu
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( iy ta uska fmfkar k<fha c, Njh wvq u' f iu hdno ffY,ufhka
maf,dahu mixl%uKh c,h fmfkar k<h fj; we;=`M fjka th ;=< wl jia;sl mSvkhla
maf,dah mixl%uKfha jeo.;a lreKq yg .ekSu
ldnksl wdydr Ydl wjhj w;r mjykh lsug uey;a jkafka maf,dahu mSvk Nj wkqlu
% Khla Tiafia m%Njfha isg wmdhkh olajd ialkaO m%jdyhla
mglh nj myokak' m%Odk jYfhka mjykh jk ldnksl jHh ls%hd;aul f'
m%NdixYaf,aIK M, mj;kfhka iEKq iqlafrdaia jk w;r ix; wjhj wmdhkfha maf,dah yr lsu (Phloem unloading) k jQ ilSh
% lsh
% dj,shlska
yd jOk uOHia:dk fj; mjykh flf' fjk;a ldfndyhsf%g yd jH mgl fj;g bj;a flfrk w;r" t uska fmfkar k<fha djH
ii|k g iqlafrdaia jvd;a djH yd ksIalS%h ixfhda.hla jk neka th Njh wvq " c, Njh je " fmfkar k<fha isg ffY,u fj; c,h
mjykh i|yd jvd;a iqiq h' flfia jqj o maf,dahu uska fjk;a ldnksl .uka lsu
wdydr jk weuhsfkda w," gk" jOl jH" Ydlj,g fhdok ,o
ridhk jH o K+, fmdiafma jeks wldnksl whk wdh o mjykh
flf'
Ydl lf|a yria lvl oelafjk m maf,dahufha jHqyh yd inkaO
wKalaISh kslaIKh
78 79
ksmqK;dj 6'1'0 ( ka ;=< isjk jH mjykh yd inkaO l%shdj,s ksmqK;dj 6'1'0 ( ka ;=< isjk jH mjykh yd inkaO l%shdj,s
uid n,hs' uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 6'1'5 ( i;=ka f.a ixirK moaO;sj, ixOdkh uid n,hs' ksmqK;dj ugu 6'1'6 ( ksidf.a ixirK moaO;sfha jHqyh tys lD;Hj,g olajk
inkaO;d wkdjrKh lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02hs'
ld,fo ( 10 hs'
bf.kq M, ( bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ( fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd (
jD; yd ixjD; ixirK moaO;s ms<sn| ia;drKh lrhs' rer ixirK moaO;sh iy jid moaO;sh ia;r lrhs'
tal iy oa;aj ixirKh ms<s| ia;r lrhs' yDofha jHqyh iy lD;Hh meye,s lrhs'
oa;aj ixirKfha jeo.;a ,laIK ia;drKh lrhs' yD;a pl%fha ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
oahq;a lka;= fLd igyka .%y lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,sh ( ia;dr mSvkh (diastolic pressure) iy wdl=xp mSvkh (systolic pressure)
tal iy oa;aj ixirKh meye,s lsug iqiq rEm igyka iy pd igyka meye,s lrhs'
Nd; lrkak' wOHd;;sh (hypertension) iy ukaod;;sh (hypotension) yD;a ikd, (cardiovascular)
ixirK moaO;s wdldr iy l%u ms<sn| f;dr;=re idys;H .fIKhla uska frda.j,g ;=vq fok ;;a;aj jYfhka ia;r lrhs'
/ia lsug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak' lsgl ixirKh iy lsgl Ouks wjysr fuka we;sjk wdnd; ;;a;aj
tal iy oa;aj ixirKh ms,sn| wod< im;a ûqs; iy bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkg myohs'
imhkak' m: Y,H lu" jD; yD;a Y,H lu iy yoj;a noaO ls ia;r lrhs'
isiq wkdjrK bm;a lsug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
Ih wka;.;h wdjrKh jk m iqiq wkql%uhla wkqj ia;drKhl fhda; bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,sh (
fhfokak' ksia rer ixirK moaO;sh ms<sn| im;a ûqs; iy bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkg
imhkak'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( ksia rer ixirK moaO;sh inkaO idrdxYhla f.dv keSug isiqka fhduq
i;=ka f.a mjyKfha wjYH;dj

lrkak'
Ih ikaOdrh we;=<;a bm;a lsula i|yd isiqka iQodk lrjkak'
Tlaiscka yd fmdaIH jH wjfYdaIKh flfrk uOHia:dkfha isg Nd;
Ih wka;.;h wdjrKh jk m iqiq wkql%uhla Tiafia ia;drKhl
flfrk uOHia:dkh olajd mjykh l< hq;= f' wmjH" neyer flfrk
fhfokak'
uOHia:dk lrd mjykh l< hq;= f' fjk;a jHo m%Njfha isg isref
O ia:dkj,g mjykh l< hq;= h' i;a;j a foayfha ish fldgia fj;g;a"
bka bj;g;a" jH mjykh l< hq;= nj wjOdrKh l< hq;= f'
ksia mjyk moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;H
tal ffi,sl kaf.a Yla;s wjYH;dj yd jH .uka l< hq;= r wvq ksid
ksia rer ixirK moaO;sh mDIaGjxYsl ixirK moaO;sfha uQ,sl ie,eiafuka
jH mjykh is flfrkafka irKh usks'
mKduh jQjls' th yDoh" rer jdyskS yd rerfhka iuka; h'
ixirK moaO;s uq,ska u oerE i;=ka jYfhka wefk,Svdjka .; yels u'
mDIaGjxYsl ixirK moaO;sfha uQ,sl ie,eiau ^Woh fmaYsuh yDoh" Woh uyd
i;=kaf.a m%Odk ixirK moaO;s
Ouksfhka mek ksk mdYal Ouks jl% hq.,a yh inkaO iEfok uOH"
WodyrK iys; j jD; iy ixjD; ixirK moaO;s meye,s lrkak'
;ks mDIah Ouksh' isrer mqrd O m%foaY yd wjhjj,g rerh fnodyefrkqfha
WodyrK iys; j tal iy oa;aj ixirK moaO;s meye,s lrkak'
fuu mDIah Ouksfhka yg.kakd Ouks u.sks&
m%Odk ixirK moaO;s w;r we;s fjkial i|yka l< hq;= f'
80 81
udkj rer ixirK moaO;sh yd jid moaO;sh ECG igykl we;s f;dr;=re" tk ;rx. rgd iy pl% w;r ld,dka;r o"
rer ixirK moaO;sh pl%j, fldgia o mlaId lsfuka yD;a fmaYsj, ;;a;ajh ms<sn| f;dr;=re ,nd
uQ,sl ie,eiafuka mDIaGjxYsl rer ixirK moaO;sj, is we;s fjkial
.; yels h'
mDIaGjxYsl rer ixirK moaO;sfhys uQ,sl ie,eiau rEm igykla uska
wdl=xp yd ia;dr mSvkh (systolic and diastalic pressure) meye,s lrkak'
ksrEmKh l< hq;= w;r" th ixjD;" oa;aj ixirK moaO;shla nj wjOdrKh
rer jdyskSj, ;a;s u; rerfhka we;s flfrk mSvkh f,i rer mSvkh
l< hq;= h'
fldaIsld ixfldapkh fuka rerh uska uyd Ouksfha ;a;s u; we;s
rer ixirK moaO;shl uQ,sl ,dlaIKsl .;s.=K
ixirKh jk ;r,h - rerh flfrk mSvkh - wdl=xp mSvkh
fmdmh - yDoh fldaIsld bys,afuka rerh uska uyd Ouksfha ;a;s u; we;s flfrk
rer jdyskS mSvkh - ia;dr mSvkh
rer ixirK moaO;sh ;=< fuu ix>gl ixOdkh we;af;a rerh iy mgl idudkH jeyshl=f.a rer mSvkh 120/80 mm Hg f'
;r,h w;r jH yqjudrej ldhlaIu f,i is lr .ekSug hs' fuh ia;S% mqreI Ndjh" jhi" ojfia ld,h" ls%hdld;ajh" udkisl wd;;sh iy
jid moaO;sh
bhj wkqj fjkia jk nj'
jid moaO;sh iuka; we;af;a mfhda,i kd,sld" jid flaYkd,sld iy
rer mSvkh idudkH iSud ;=< mj;ajd .ekSug odhljk idOl - yD;a
jid .e;sj,sks'
m%;sodkh" rer kd, ;=< we;s rer mudj" Ouks ia;drKh yd
wdikakfha mj;sk foayfha udxY fmaYs ixfldapkh uska fuu jdyskS
f;/mSfuka jid ;r,h fifuka .,d hhs' ixl+pkh" Ouks ;a;sj, m%;Hdia:;dj" Ysrd Tiafia yDohg kej; .,d tk
foayh mqrd ys we;s jid jdyskS Yd, m%Kd, folla idohs' t k ol=Kq rer mudj'
jid m%Kd,h iy Wria m%Kd,h hs' w;Hd;;sh yd ukaod;;sh
YsIag iy YsIag fkd jk m%;sYla;s m%;spdr oelaug jid moaO;sh Wo f' w;Hd;;sh yd ukaod;;sh we;sug ;=vq h yels fya;= iy tajdfha M,mdl
yDofha jHqyh iy lD;Hh ms<sn|j yq~ska meye,s l< hq;= h'
rEm igyka weiqka yDofha msysu" jHqyh iy lD;Hh meye,s l< hq;= h' lsgl ixirKh yd lsgl Ouks wjysr f M,mdl'
yD;a fmaYs
uy Ouksfhka mek ksk ol=Kq iy j lsgl Ouks uska Ouks rerh
yD;a pl%h
yDohg imhhs' Ysrd rerh lsgl fldagrh fj; kej; f.k tkq ,nk
tla yDo iaMkaokhla imQK jk ld,h ;=< wkql%l is ud,djla
w;r" th ol=Kq lKsldjg jD; f' Ysrd rerh fldgila fl,ska u l=vd
f,i yD;a pl%h meye,s l< hq;= h'
lKsl wdl=xph
ud. Tiafia yDofha l=r ;=<g we;= f'
fldaIsl wdl=xph lsgl Ouks wjysr jQ g tajdg rer iemhqu wvqjk w;r" ta uska yDofha
mQK yD;a ia;drh iuyr yD;a fmaYS fldgiaj,g rer iemhqu u| fuka tajd ls%hd rys;
yD;a lka;= fLd igyk fuka Wria indOh (angina) kka yekafjk mmqf fokdjla we;s f'
fmaYsckH W;af;ackh uska yD;a ixfldapkh ksis l,g fuu ;;a;ajhg m%;sldr fkd l<fyd;a wjysr jQ jdysksfhka
ihsfkdyD;a lKsl .egh" lKsl - fldaIsl .egh iy ysia f.a l<U rerh iemfhk yD;a fmaYS Tlaiscka m%udKj;a f,i fkd ,eu ksid
(bundle of His) " mlskaf ;ka;= ia;r lsu
urKhg m;a h yels h' fujeks ;;a;ajhla yDohdndOhla f,i yekaf'
oHq;a lka;= fLd igykla ,nd .kafka foda,fkalaIhlsks' yD;a fmaYs mg,
fuys m%;sM, jYfhka yDofha iaMkaok oauh widudkH fjka M,odhS
yryd is jk oHq;a Nj fjki foay mDIaGhg i l< bf,lafg%dav uska
fmdmhla f,i ls%hd lsfuka j<lS'
,nd .; yels h' foay ;r, iy mgl fyd| oHq;a ikakdhl jk neka tu
oHq;a Nj fjki uska we;s lrk rgd foda,fkalaI ;srhl oel .;
yels h'
82 83
fud<h jeks wfkl=;a jeo.;a wjhjj,g m%udKj;a Tlaiscka iemhqula ksmqK;dj 6'1'0 ( ka ;=< isjk jH mjykh yd inkaO l%shdj,s
fkd ,e hdfuka yDohdndO udrdka;sl h yels h' uid n,hs'
yDoh wdY%s; Y,Hlu
ksmqK;d ugu 6'1'7 ( rerfha ldh Ndrh uid n,hs'
m: Y,H lu" jD; yoj;a ie;al yd yDoh noaO lsu'
ld,fo ( 06 hs'
yDoh yd inkaO Y,Hlu .Kkdjla is flf'
lsgl Ouks wjysr jQ g tu m%foaYh u yer rerh ixirKh lru i|yd bf.kq M, (
mdofhka ,nd.;a Ysrdjla Nd; lsu m: Y,Hluhla hkqfjka yekaf' fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd (
rerfha ixhq;sh meye,s lrhs'
yDofha lmdgj, fodaI we;s jQ wjia:dj, jD; yDo ie;alulska wod< fodaIh
ksid f.a Yajik jKl i|yka lrhs'
ksje/ l< yels h'
wfkl=;a i;=ka f.a Yajik jKl i|yka lrhs'
yDofha ls%hdj ksis f,i bgq lr .; fkdyels ugug j, we;ak" fud<h Yajik jdhQka yd wfkl=;a jH mjykh ia;r lrhs'
kdY u ksid h .sh mqoa.,hl= f.ka laIKsl j ,nd.;a kSfrda.S yDohla noaO rerfha wfkl=;a lD;H i|yka lrhs'
lrkq ,ef' rer .sKSu meye,s lrhs'
rer .K meye,s lrhs'

ksid ;=< rerfha ldhNdrh ms<sn| im;a ûqs; yd bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkg
imhkak'
wod< Ih ikaOdrh wdjrKh jk m lreKq fm< .eiaug isik
q a .kajkak'
bm;a lsula i|yd isiqka iQodk lrjkak'
wod< Ih ikaOdrh wdjrKh jk m ia;drKhl fhfokak'

rerfha ixhq;sh - rer ffi, wdldr" tajdfha jHqyh iy m%Odk lD;Hh
ksid f.a Yajik jKl'
mDIaGjxYSkaf.a rer jKlh - ysfud.af,daka
wfkl=;a ka f.a rer jKl
ysfud.af,daka" ysfudihkska" laf,dfrdalarefjdka iy ysfudt;%ska
Yajik jdhq iy wfkl=;a jH mjykh iy rerfha wfkl=;a lD;H
frda. ksYaph i|yd fuj,ula jYfhka rer mlaId
^l%u yd WmlrK wod< fkdf'&
84 85
rer .sKSu tallh 7 - iudfhdackh yd iuia;sh

ESR (Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate)
ksmqK;dj 7'1'0 ( kaf.a iudfhdackh yd iuia;shg wod< jHqy yd
rerfha ridhksl ixhq;sh
lD;H uYkh lrhs'
g%hs.a,sirhsv
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'1 ( iudfhdack ls%hdj,sh yd Bg odhl jk moaO;s ms<sn|
ms;a; jKl uYkh lrhs'
.afldaia ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02 hs'
ysfuda.af,dka m%udKh bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd (
m%;sfoay - fvx.=" HIV" nrjd
iudfhdackfha wjYH;dj idlPd lrhs'
rer ffi,j, iajNdjh - ;e,iShd" oEle;s yeve;s r;= rerdKq
iudfhdackhg odhl jk moaO;s ia;r lrhs'
rer .K iudfhdackh i|yd rer ixirK moaO;sfha odhl;ajh idlPd lrhs'
A, B, AB iy O rer .K' Rh idOlh iy rer mdr,hkj, tys jeo.;alu' iakdhq moaO;sfha iy wka;rdi. moaO;sfhys iudk;d yd wiudk;d i|yka
lrhs' îudfhdackhg wod< j&
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
ksoYl $ wdlD;s$ rEmigyka Nd;fhka ksia ixirK moaO;sh wOHhkh fhda; bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,sh (
lsu' W;af;acj,g m%;spdr oelau ms<sn| j isiq w;aoelS isysm;a lrjkak'
.%ka: yd wka;cd,h (Web resources) Nd;fhka my; f;dr;=re tla/ia
lsug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
iudfhdackh i|yd wjYH;djh
iudfhdackh i|yd rer ixirKh moaO;sfha odhl;ajh
iakdhq moaO;sfha yd wka;rdi. moaO;sfha iudk;d yd fjkial
fidhd.;a Ih lreKq bm;a lsug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh lrka iqiq wkqms<sj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'

iudfhdackfha wjYH;djh
iudfhdackhg odhl jk moaO;s
Ydl fuka fkdj i;=kag iudfhdackh i|yd tlsfklg inkaO kuq;a
fjkia moaO;s folla we;'
1 iakdhq moaO;sh
2 wka;rdi. moaO;sh
iudfhdackh i|yd rer ixirK moaO;sfha odhl;ajh
wka;rdi. moaO;sh m%Kd, rys; jk w;r tys Y%djhka rer m%jdyhg
ksoyia lrhs'
iakdhq moaO;sfha iy wka;rdi. moaO;sfhys fjkial yd iudkl
îudfhdackhg wod< j&
86 87
ksmqK;dj 7'1'0 ( kaf.a iudfhdackh yd iuia;shg wod< jHqy yd tal ffi,sl - iakdhquh ixOdkhla ke;' W;af;acj,g m%;spdr oelaf
lD;H uYkh lrhs' yelshdj we;' ffi,h m%;s.%dylhla yd ldrlhla f,i ls%hd lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'2 ( i;=kaf.a iakdhql ixOdk ie,eiau ms<sn| ia;drKh nyq ffi,sl
lrhs' ksvdhd - iakdhq ffi, likh' nyqO%eh kshqfrdak yd Wmd.u iys;
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02 hs' iakdhq cd,hla we;' uqyq u,aj, ikakhk m: we;' m%;s.%dyl likh'
bf.kq M, ( ma,fy,akaf;ia - >k wkajdhdu iakdhq rcq" foayfha mQj fl<jr
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd ( uia;sIal .ex.a,shd hq.,hla fyda iakdhqj,hla ixOdkh fuka -
i;=kaf.a iakdhq ixOdk j. rgd ia;r lrhs' YSIKh" m%;s.%dyl likh - wlaIs ,m" ixfol ffi,
wdlD;s" rEm igyka yd wfkl=;a wod< im;a Nd; lr i;=kaf.a iakdhql wek,svd - uia;I
s l
a .ex.a,h
s d" oa;aj Woh iakdhq rcqj" Woh .ex.a,h
s d"
ixOdkj, ,laIK j.= .; lrhs' iuyr i;=kaf.a fhdaO iakdhq ;ka;=" m%;s.%dyl Wod( weia yd ixfol
ffi,
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,sh ( wdf;%dfmdvd - wfk,svdjkag jvd likh jQ iakdhq moaO;shla we;'
isiqkayg tal ffi,sl" nyq ffi,sl" wmDIaGjxYS yd mDIaGjxYS kaf.a rEm uia;sIal .ex.a,shu we;' fydka likh jQ O j.fha m%;s.%dyl
igyka yd mska;+r fmkajkak' we;' Wod( weia" iamYl" uDY
ndysr ,laIK lSmhla ykd.ekSug isiqkayg mjid" ndysr ,laIKj, fudiald - fydka likh jQ iakdhq moaO;shla we;' .ex.a,shd iy
O;ajh yd ta wkqj wNHka;r ,laIKj, wfmalaId l<yels fjkial yd iakdhq ;ka;= we;' m%;s.%dyl wjhj we;' Wod( fydka likh jQ weia
moaO;sj, ixOdkh ms<sn| j idlPdjla fufyhjkak' tlhsfkdvfgd- wh iakdhq rcq yd iakdhq cd,h
my; Wmfoia isiqka i|yd h' fldafgd - ;ks" mDIah" kd,dldr iakdhq rcqj mQj m%foaYh fud<h
Tng ,e we;s ka i<ld n,kak' iEug Yd, we;' l%ufhka ixlSK;dj je we;' laISrmdhSkaf.a
wend" f,dhd by<;u ixlSK;dj we;'
wlaud m;e,a,d" .ev,d
f.dfn,a,d" lerfmd;a;d m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
mies,a,d" ydjd wdlD;s$ rEm igyka Nd;fhka i;=kaf.a iakdhq moaO;sj, rgd wOHhkh
fuu kaf.a iakdhq ixOdkfha uQ,sl ,laIK i<ld n,kak' lsru
S '
we;s kaf.a iakdhql ixOdk rgd ikaikaokh lrkak'
Ih ikaOdrh bm;a lsulg isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh lrka" iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'

i;=kaf.a iakdhql ixOdk j.
iamkaka yer ish nyqffi,sl i;=ka iakdhq ffi, iys; iakdhq cd,hla
Wmfhda.s lrf.k ndysr mirfha yd foayfha ;;a;ajh ms<sn| f;dr;=re tla
/ia lrhs' tu f;dr;=re ilia lr" ifudaOdk lr foayfha fmaYS yd .%kaj,g
ix{d ksl=;a lrhs'
88 89
ksmqK;dj 7'1'0 ( kaf.a iudfhdackh yd iuia;shg wod< jHqy yd iqIqkdj hkq" fud<fha isg lfYarej ;=<ska ysfok iakdhq /yekls'
lD;H uYkh lrhs' th mg, ;=klska jg we;'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'3 ( ksidf.a iakdhq moaO;sfha o< jHqyh yd lD;H uid iqIqkdj m%Odk l,dm follska hqla; jk nj meye,s l< hq;= hs'
n,hs' iqIqkdj " foayh yd fud<h w;r by<g iy my<g mKsjqv ifma%IKh
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04 hs' jk m%Odk ud.hhs'
bf.kq M, ( g wu;r j iqIqkdj m%;Sl ls%hd" fmaYSj, laIKsl wksPdkq. ls%hd
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd ( md,kh lrhs'
ksidf.a iakdhq moaO;sfha ixOdkh yd m%Odk fldgia meye,s lrhs'
uOH iakdhq moaO;sh ia;r lrhs' mhka; iakdhq moaO;sh
mhka; iakdhq moaO;sh ia;r lrhs'
iajhxidOl iakdhq moaO;sh yd tys lD;H ia;r lrhs'
iakdhq moaO;sfha iuia; ldhh i|yka lrhs' lmd, iakdhq iqIqkd iakdhq
lsh jH" wka;cd, im;a (Web Resources) yd rEm igyka Nd;fhka mhka; iakdhq moaO;sh iuka; jkafka iakdhq yd .ex.a,shj,sks'
my; f;dr;=re fiug isiqka fhduq lrjkak' iakdhq hkq" ^fndfydag pd,l yd ixfol kshqfrdak foj.fhkau hq;=&
udkj iakdhq moaO;sfha m%Odk fldgiaj, jHqyh yd lD;H /yeka wdldr wlaik iuQyhls'
udkj iakdhq moaO;sfha m%Odk fldgiaj, jHqyh yd lD;H bm;a lsulg .ex.a,shd hkq" kshqfrdakj, ffi, foayj, tl;=jls'
isiqka iQodk lrjkak' lmd, iakdhq yd iqIqkd iakdhq ms<sn|j flfhka ia;r lsu'
iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak' iajhx idOl iakdhq moaO;sh
wksPdkq. ls%hd md,kh lrk mhka; iakdhq moaO;sfha fldgila
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( f,i iajhxidOl iakdhq moaO;sh ms<sn| j meye,s l< hq;= h'
ksidf.a iakdhq moaO;sfha ixOdkh yd m%Odk fldgia rEm igykla wdOdrfhka iajhxidOl iakdhq moaO;sfha m%Odk fldgia
fol jk wkqf.S yd m%;Hdkqf.S moaO;sj, idudkH ixOdkh
uOH iaakdhq moaO;sh meye,s l< hq;= h'
wkqf.S yd m%;Hdkqf.S iakdhq moaO;sj, m%;spdr ,ehsia;= .; lrkak'
idudkHfhka tla moaO;shlska we;sjk n,mEj,g m%;sreoaO n,mE
fud<h iqIqkdj wksla moaO;sh u.ska we;sjk nj fmkajd h hq;= hs' tfuka u wkqf.S
iakdhq moaO;sh u.ska foayh yis wjia:djlg iQodk lrk nj
fmkajd h hq;= hs'
ksidf.a fud<h kshqfrdak ,shk .Kkdjlska hqla; jk w;r tys iajhx idOl iakdhq moaO;sfha iuia; ldhh ^wkqf.S yd m%;Hdkqf.S&
lD;Huh jYfhka ixOdkh jQ m%foaY we;' iudfhdackh yd iuia;sh i|yd j. lshkq ,nkafka iakdhq moaO;shhs'
90 91
ksmqK;dj 7'1'0 ( kaf.a iudfhdackh yd iuia;shg wod< jHqy yd kshqfrd.a,shd u.ska kshqfrdakj,g jHqyuh yd lD;Huh f,i iydh f'
lD;H uYkh lrhs' kshqfrdak ixLHdjg jvd kshqfrd.a,shd ixLHdj oi .=Khla muK
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'4 ( iakdhq wdf. ckkhu yd ifma%IKh isjk jeh'
wdldrh .fIKh lrhs' Yajdka ffi,
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06 hs' uh,skSN+; wlaik
bf.kq M, ( kshqfrdakj, ldhsl oHdj
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd ( Na+, K+ j, wlS%h irKh yd ilS%h mjykh wdY%fhka wlS%h Njh
ksidf.a iakdhq moaO;sfha ixOdkh ia;r lrhs' mj;ajd .kakd wldrh meye,s lrkak'
kshqfrdakj, jHqyh meye,s lrhs' wlS%h Njh
wdYs%; ffi, meye,s lrhs' ffi,fha ma,diaud mg,h ^wlaik mg,h& fomi ckkh jk Nj
kshqfrdakj, ldhsl oHdj meye,s lrhs' fjkihs' nysiaffi,Sh ;r,hg idfmalaIj ffi,fha we;=<; oHq;a
Wmd.uhla ia;r lrhs' RK f,i wdfrdamKh we;' ma,diau mg,h oHq;a f,i O%ejkh
iakdhq ifma%Ilj, ldhNdrh ia;r lrhs'
we;' mg,h fomi we;sjk fuu Nj fjki wlS%h Njh f,i ukskq
m%;Sl pdmh meye,s lrhs'
,nhs' ^wdf.hla ifma%IKh fkdjk g&
kshqfrdakhl wlS%h Njh - 70mV muK f'
wlS%h Njh idOl ;=kla u; r|d mj;S'
isiqka kshqfrdak .ek okakd foa uika mdvfuys kshqla; lrjkak'
1 nys#affi,Sh ;r,hg idfmalaIj ffi,h ;=< we;s fYaIs; whkj,
O uQ,dY% .fIKh lr" my; f;dr;=re fidhd bm;a lsug isiqkaj
idkak fjkial
fhduq lrjkak'
2 Na+, K+ i|yd ma,diau mg,h olajk jrKSh mdr.uH;dj
kshqfrdakj, jHqyh
3 Na+, K+ fmdmh
wdYs%; ffi,
ls%hd Njh
kshqfrdakj, ldhluh
ls%hd Njh isjk wdldrh ia;r lrkak'
m%;Sl pdmh
ls%hd Njhl ld, iSudj ,s ;;amr folls
Wmd.u
wj ;=kls - O%ejKh" m%;sO%ejKh" WmO%ejKh
iqiq wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'
wlaikfha ma,diau mg,fha we;s Na+, K+ kd, (Channels) wdY%fhka
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( O%ejKh ia;r lrkak'

ksidf.a iakdhq moaO;sfha ixOdkh foay,sh w.h f,i ykajk tla;rd wj w.hlg Njh <d jQ g
kshqfrdakj, jHqyh ls%hd Njhla ckkh f'

kshqfrdakh iakdhq moaO;sfha uQ,sl jHqyuh tallh f,i i,lkq ,nhs' ls%hd Njh m%pdrKh
mDIaGjxYS pd,l kshqfrdakhl uQ,sl jHqyh" ffi, foayh" wlaik yd jrla wdrN jQ g" wlaikh f.a .uka lrk iajhx m%pdrK O%ejK
wkqYdld ia;r lsu ;rx.hla f,i ls%hd Njh .uka lrhs'
wdYs%; ffi, m%;sO%ejK l,dj
kshqfrd.a,shd WmO%ejK l,dj
wdf.hla hkq" .uka lrk ls%hd Njhls'
92 93
wlaikh ;=<g Na+ we;= fuka we;sjk n,mEu u.ska ls%hd Njh 4' mYap Wmd.u mg,hg weisghs,a flda,Ska irKh u
wlaikh Tiafia m%pdrKh f' 5' weisghs,a flda,Ska tys we;s m%;s.%dyl wKqj,g neu
fuh Ok wdfrdamKhla we;s lrk w;r" Odrdj .e,Su i|yd ia:dkSh
6' mYap Wmd.u mg,h whkj,g we;s mdr.uH;dj fjkia f' mYap
mm:hla we;sjkafka fuu ls%hd m%foaYh yd jydu bfhka we;s RK
Wmd.u mg,fha ls%hd Njh we;s f'
f,i wdfrdams; jQ wlS%h m%foaYhla w;rh'
7' m%;s.%dyl - weisghs,a flda,Ska ixlSKh |jeu
ia:dkSh mm:j, Odrdj .e,Su u.ska wlS%h m%foaYj, mg, Njh wvq
lrhs' fuu O%ejKh u.ska Na+ j,g olajk mdr.uH;dj jelr ls%hd 8' weisghs,a flda,Ska + m%;s.%dylh weisghs,a flda,Ska - m%;s.%dyl
Njhla ksmojkq ,nhs' ixlSKh
ls%hd Njhla we;s jQ jydu kej; ls%hd Njhla ckkh fkdf' fuu
ld, iSudj wkiaij ld,h f,i yekaf' weisghs,a flda,Ska tiagfia
fuu.ska wdf. ikakhkh m%;Hdj; u j<lajkq ,nhs'

weisghs,a + flda,Ska <
Wmd.u
9' weisghs,a flda,Ska fjka u ksid" weisghs,a flda,Ska m%;s.%dyl ixlSKh
iakdhqjla yd fmaYshla jeks WoamH ffi, folla w;r we;sjk lD;Huh
wdmiq m%;sls%hdj is lrhs'
ikahla f,i Wmd.uh ia;r lrkak'
iakdhq wdf. ifma%IK f.h my; i|yka idOl u; r|d mj;S'
Wmd.u j.(
wlaikfha IalNh - IalNh jejk g whk .e,Sug we;s
kshqfrdak - kshqfrdak wNHka;r m%;sfrdaOh wvq f' tg ls%hd
kshqfrdak - lxld, fmaYS Njfha m%f.h je f'
kshqfrdak - ixfo m%;s.%dyl wlaikh uh,skSN+; u - uh,skSN+; wlaikj, ls%hd Njh ckkh
fndfyda Wmd.uj, mQj yd mYap Wmd.u ffi, w;r Wmd.u ysoei k jkafka /kah .egj, muKla neka ls%hd Njh m%pdrKh f
mgq ysoeila we;' Wmd.u ysoei yryd irKh jk ridhksl ifma%Il f.h jeh'
m%;Sl pdmh
u.ska mQj Wmd.u mg,fha isg mYap Wmd.u mg,hg ix{d ksl=;a lrhs'
mDIaGjxYS iakdhq moaO;sfha lD;Huh tallh jkafka m%;Sl pdmhhs' m%;Sl
iakdhq ifma%Il wdldr ;=k i|yka lrkak'
lsh
% djla ir, W;af;achlg we;sjk idfmalIa j laIKsl wksPdkq. m%;p
s dr
we%k,ska$ tmsfk*aka" fkdwerask,ska$ fkdtmsfk*aka iy weisghs,a
rgdjls' fuu m%;spdrh laIKsl" wfmalaIs; p,khls' fud<fha bPdkq.
flda,Ska uey;aula ke;' wdYajdih" m%dYajdih jeks Yrfha isjk fndfyda
weisghs,a flda,Skaj, ldhNdrh muKla i|yka lrkak' ls%hd hdukh jkafka m%;Sl pdm u.sks'
pd,l kshqfrdakj,ska ksoyia jk ridhksl ifma%Ilh jkafka weisghs,a m%;Sl pdmhla wju f,i kshqfrdak ;=klska iuka;hs'
flda,Skah' (Ach) wNsjdyS$ ixfol kshqfrdakh
tajd Y%djh fuka miq bj;a h hq;= h' fuh is lrkq ,nkafka Wmd.u wmjdyS$ pd,l kshqfrdakh
ysoeig Y%djh jk weisghs,a flda,Ska tiagfia k tkaihsufhkah' wka; kshqfrdakh

ixfol kshqfrdak u.ska m%;s.%dyl wjhj isg uOH iakdhq moaO;shg wdf.
Wmd.uhla yryd wf. ifma%IKh
ifma%IKh lr" Wmd.uh yryd wka; udOH kshqfrdakhg inkaO f'
1' mQj Wmd.u mg,hg ls%hd Njh ifma%IKh u
pd,l kshqfrdak u.ska uOH iakdhq moaO;sfha isg fmaYS yd .%ka ^ldrl&
2' Ca2+ ilS%h j we;=<g .e,Su ^Wmd.u n,anhg&
fj;g iakdhq wdf. ifma%IKh lrhs'
3' weisghs,a flda,Ska uqod yeu
94 95
ksmqK;dj 7'1'0 ( kaf.a iudfhdackh yd iuia;shg wod< jHqy yd >k kshqfrdak ialkaOhla yd ;ka;=j,ska iuka; fuh wkquia;sIalfha
lD;H uYkh lrhs' wOf.da, inkaO lrk md,ula idohs'
lD;H (-
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'5 ( ksia fud<fha jHqyh yd lD;H .fIKh lrhs' by<g yd my,g .uka lrk f;dr;=re ifudaOdkh lrhs'
fmkye,s jd;kh hdukh lsu
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06 hs' iqIqkd YSIlh
fud<fha b;du jeo.;au fldgils' tys Yajik uOHia:dkh yd yD;ajdyskS
bf.kq M, ( md,k uOHia:dkh msysghs'
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd ( lD;H (-
ksia fud<fha m%Odk fldgia ia;r lrhs' yD;a iamkaok f.h yd iamkaok n,h hdukh lrhs'
ksia fud<fha m%Odk fldgia tajdfha lD;H yd inkaO lrhs' rer mSvkh md,kh lrhs'
yD;a iamkaokh yd Yajik f.h flfrys n,mEula we;s lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,sh ( lsiq hdu" leiai" .s,Su yd jukh wd wksPdkq. m%;Sl md,kh
isiqka ksia fud<h .ek okakd lreKq uika mdvfuys kshqla; lrjkak' lrhs'
udkj fud<fha m%Odk fldgia yd lD;H ms<sn| O uQ,dY%j,ska f;dr;=re ueo fud<h
fidhd" iqiq rEm igyka iys;j bm;a lsug isiqka fhduq lrjkak' by<skA msys uia;sIalh;a my<ska msys jefrda,s fia;=j;a w;r msysghs'
iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak' iakdhq ffi, ldKav yd iakdhq ;ka;=j,ska iuka;hs' uia;sIalh" fud<fha
my< fldgia yd iqIqkdj tu.ska inkaO lrhs'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( lD;H (-
ksia fud<h kshqfrdak ,shk .Kklska iuka; jk w;r" lD;Huh wlaIs fmaYsj, m%;Sl ls%hd md,kh lrhs'
jYfhka fldgiaj,g ixOdkh we;' oDYH yd Y%jK W;af;acj,g m%;p s dr jYfhka ysi" f., yd lf|ys we;sjk
uia;sIalh" ;e,ui yd yhsfmd;e,ui l<, mQj fud<fhka likh m%;Sl
we;' lKsksldf m%udKh" wlaIs ldpfha m%udKh yd yevh fjkia lsu
is foayh yd r;= kHIah l<, uOH fud<fhka likh we;' wkquia;sIalh
wkquia;sIalh" jefrda,s fia;=j yd iqIqkd YSIlh l<, wmr fud<fhka jefrda,s fia;=jg msgqmiska uia;sIalfha wmr fldgig jydu my<ska
likh we;' msysghs'
fukskamg, wO f.da, follska iuka;hs'
uOH iakdhq moaO;sh fukska mg, k mg, ;=klska wdjrKh we;' w;sYhska ixj,s;hs'
ndysr mg,h - ysia ln,g nekq oe jrdYsldj u;=msg OQir jH yd .eUqka Yaf; jH we;'
we;= mg,h - iakdhq mglhg wdikakj we;s ;=kS kdxY=ldj lD;H (-
cd,dldr mg,h - by; ia:r fol w;r mj;S' bPdkq. fmaYSj, iudfhdackh" bhj yd ;=,H;dj
Wm cd,dldr wjldYh - uia;sIal iqIqkd ;r,fhka ms we;s w;r rer uia;sIalh
jdyskS yd inkaOl mgl /yekaj,ska fjka we;' m%Odk fldgia folls - ndyslh yd ucdj
uia;sIal fldaIsld iy uia;sIal iqIqkd ;r,h uia;sIalfha o< jHqyh
fud<h ;=< uia;I s l
a fldaIl
s d kka yekafjk m%idrKh jQ l=yr y;rls' LKald y;rlska iuka;hs - ,,dg" mdYaj" YxLl" wmr lmd,
fuu l=yr ms we;s ;r,h uia;sIal iqIqkd ;r,hhs' u;=mg s iakdhq ffi, foay jk OQir jH o .eUqka iakdhq ffi, ;ka;j
= ,ska
fuu ;r,fhaa je m%udKhla iqIqkd uOH kd,h yd uia;sIal fldaIsld iuka; Yaf; jH o we;'
;=< we;' uia;sIal ndyslh ixj,s; yd mLdj,ska hq;= h' ^mDIaGh je lsug&
uia;sIal jDka;h uia;sIal ndyslh m%foaY ;=klska iuka;hs'
jefrda,s fia;=j ixfol" pd,l yd ix.d m%foaY
wkquia;I s l
a hg bfhka" uOH fud<hg my<ska iqIq kd YSIlhg by<ska
msysghs'
96 97
lD;H (- ksmqK;dj 7'1'0 ( kaf.a iudfhdackh yd iuia;shg wod< jHqy yd

udkisl ls%hd jk u;lh" nqoah" j.lSu" fya;= oelau" is;Su" iodpdr lD;H uYkh lrhs'
ye`.u
S " bf.kSu wdh md,kh lrhs'
ixfol m%;s.%yKh - fokdj" iamYh" WIaK;ajh" oDIah" Y%jKh" ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'6 ( kaf.a O ixfoS jHqyj, ls%hdld;ajh .fIKh
ri" .kaOh lrhs'
bPdkq. fmaYS p,k wdrNh iy md,kh
ix.d m%foaY u.ska ixfol f;dr;=re ykdf.k .%y lrhs' ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05 hs'
;e,ui bf.kq M, (
iakdhq ffi, yd ;ka;= ialkaO follska iuka;hs' uia;sIal wO f.da, fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd (
;=< lef,dai foayhg(Corpus Callosum) jydu my<ska ;=kajk fldaIsldf udkj ixf jHqy meye,s lrhs'
fomi msysghs' udkj ixfoS jHqyj, uQ,sl ,dlaIKsl m%ldY lrhs'
ixfol f;dr;=re ifudaOdkh lr fud<fha Wiia uOHia:dk fj; ixfoS wjhj j. ia;r lrhs'
hjhs' i;=ka f.a f;dard.;a ixfoS jHqy ms<sn| ia;drKh lrhs'
yhsfmd;e,ui
iakdhq ffi, ldKav lSmhlska hq;= h' ;e,uig my<ska yd bosfhka fhda; bf.kq - b.eka ls%hdj,sh (
mshqghg jydu by<ska we;' udkj ixf jHqy$ i;a;ajhskaf.a m%;s.%dyl ms<sn| mska;+r yd fhda
fydafudak Y%djh" iajhx idOl iakdhq moaO;sfha md,kh ^l=i.skak" oYk fmkajd tajdfha jeo.;alu biau;= lrkak'
msmdih" WIaK;aj hdukh" yDoh yd rerjdyskS" wdrlaIK hka;%K& YsIHhka my; i|yka wdldrhg fyda fjk;a W; wdldrhlg lKavdhj,g
fnokak'
ridhksl m%;s.%dyl
WIaK;aj m%;s.%dyl
wdf,dal m%;s.%dyl
ialkaO m%;s.%dyl
mSvk m%;s.%dyl
lmk m%;s.%dyl
fokd m%;s.%dyl
wlaIs ,m" ir, wlaIs" ixhqla; wlaIs
rEm igyka" wdlD;s fyda wod< m%Nj ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl& Nd; lr
i;=kaf.a f;dard.;a ixfol jHqyhka wOHhkhg i,ikak'
my; i|yka lreKq biau;= jk fia Tjqka bm;a lsj,g fhduq lrkak'
lD;H
msysu
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m W; wkqms<sfj<lg wkqj ia;drKh
lrkak'

ksidf.a ixfol jHqy ^m%;s.%dyl&
wNHka;r fyda ndysr mirj,ska ,efnk f;dr;=re u; kaf.a lsh
% dld;ajh
r|d mj;sk nj meye,s lrkak' fhl=f.a ls%hdld Ndjfha fyda yeisf
fjkiaula i|yd fya;=jk tjeks f;dr;=rla W;af;achla k fjhs'
98 99
W;af;achla m%;s.%ykh lr .ekSug fya;=jk Yrfha we;s fYaIs; ialkaO m%;s.%dyl

wjhjhla m%;s.%dylhla k fjhs' iuyr g ffi, fyda iakdhq w.% foayfha isjk ia:dmkhka" Yo" wd;;s yd iamYhka ys mSvkj,g
m%;s.%dyl f,i ls%hd lrhs' ixfh'
m%;s.%dylj, my; i|yka ,laIK we;s nj oelah hq;= h' ksidf.a iq mSvkj,g" ixf iamY m%;s.%dyl ffi," yf mDIaGhg
1' fYaIs; W;af;achla m%;s.%yKh lsu i|yd tajdfha jHqyhka ksudKh b;d wdikakj msysgk w;r" tys l=vd" ksoyia iakdhq w.% o we;'
we;' fjd wmspufha fyda frdauj,g inkaO j mj;shs'
Wod( wd>%dK" wdf,dal" WIaK;aj Wod( uhsiak foaydKq ( iamYhg ixfh' ul,a u~,
2' tajd tla wdldrhl Yla;s m%fNaohla iakdhq wdf.hla njg mKdukh mSvk yd m%idr m%;s.%dyl
lrk jHqyhka fjhs' meisks foaydKq pufha msysghs' ika" Lkavrd" fmaYs yd w;=kqnykaj,
3' fYaI wdldrj, ffi,j,ska hqla; fjhs' o we;'
Wod( wd>%dK$ri lmk m%;s.%dyl
4' ieug u iakdhq moaO;sh iu. inkaOh iamY m%;s.%dyl fndfydauhla lmk m%;s.%dyl f,i o ls%hd lrhs'
5' ixf m%;s.%dyl ffi,j,ska hq;= h' W;af;achl wju foay,sh w.hl fokd m%;s.%dyl
m%;spdr olajhs' iu u;=msgg wdikakj we;s fYaI iakdhq w.% j.hls'
6' wkqj;kh laISrmdhskaf.a lKYxLh ms<sn| j flfhka idlPd lrkak'
O wdldrj, W;af;ac m%;s.%yKh i|yd O wdldrj, m%;s.%dyl we;' fjk;a i;=kaf.a yuqjk m%;s.%dyl j.
ridhksl m%;s.%dyl tal ffi,Sh i;=ka o wdf,dalhg ixf kuq;a m%ldY m%;s.%dyl uq,skau
ridhksl jH ksid we;sjk W;af;ac m%;s.%yKh lrhs' likh jQ i;a;ajhka is,kagfgdjka nj oelah hq;= h'
Wod( wd>%dKh yd ri ^ksoiqka( f,dhkaf.a wlaIs,m&
ieugu jH c,fha djKh ixfol ffi, W;af;ackh lrhs' my; i|yka lreKq idlPdf wjOdrKh h hq;= h' "wlaIs ,m" hkqfjka
ri m%;s.%dyl ykajk wdf,dal ixf ffi, ksoe,sjdiS me;,s mKqjkaf.a we;'
rEm igykl wdOdrfhka ri wxl=rhl jHqyh ia;r lrkak' y;r fjd m%;sn fkdidohs'
j.hl ri m%;s.%yKh lsug fya;=jk jHqyhka fjys jHdma; we;s wfk,svdjkag yd fudialdjkag ir, weia we;'
wdldrh fmkajd fokak' ri we;s lsu i|yd fya;=jk jH ixfol wdf;%dfmdvdjkag ixhqla; weia we;' tajd Tuehd ^wCIsld& hk kka
ffi,j, laIq wx.=,sld wjg mj;sk Yaf,aIau,fha h ixfol ffi, ykajk tall lSmhlska iE we;' ^ksoiqka( lareiagdfihd" bkafilagd&
lrd irKh fjhs' maf,dfmdvdjka" lsf,dfmdvdjka yd wrlaksvdjka ir, weia iys; h'
wd>%%dK m%;s.%dyl
wd>%dK ixfokh we;s jkafka jd;h u.ska jHdma; lrk jHhka u.ska m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
jk w;r tajd wd>%dK wmsfofha we;s Yaf,aIu
a ,fha h wd>%dK ixfol rEmigyka $ wdlD;s $ pd igyka Nd;fhka i;=kaf.a f;dard.;a ixf
ffi, W;af;ackh lrhs' jHQy wOHhkh lsu'
;dm m%;s.%dyl
WIaK;ajh u.ska W;af;ackh fjhs'
ksidf.a r*sks foaydKq by< WIaK;aj u.ska W;af;ackh fjhs'
l%jqia wka; n,an my;a WIaK;ajj,g ixf h'
f foj.hu pufhaa msysgd we;'
yf msysgd we;s ksoyia iakdhq wka; o WIaK;aj fjkiaj,g ixfh'
m%ldY m%;s.%dyl
wdf,daalh u.ska W;af;ackh fjhs'
wefiys m%ldY m%;s.%dyl ffi, oDIa;dkfha idkakh we;'
wefia we;s m%ldY m%;s.%dyl ffi, jkafka hIa yd fla;= ffi, h'
fla;=
hIa
100 101
ksmqK;dj 7'1'0 ( kaf.a iudfhdackh yd iuia;shg wod< jHqy yd ksmqK;dj 7'1'0 ( kaf.a iudfhdackh yd iuia;shg wod< jHqy yd
lD;H uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'7 ( ksia wefiys yd lfkys jHqy tajdfha lD;Hj,g olajk lD;H uYkh lrhs'
inkaO;d wkdjrKh lrhs' ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'8 ( ksidf.a wka;rdi. moaO;sfha ldhNdrh Yaf,aIKh
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06 hs' lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd ( ld,fo ixLHdj ( 07 hs'
ksia wefia uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s lrhs' bf.kq M, (
ksia lfka uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s lrhs'
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd ;
fhda; bf.kq - b.eka ls%hdj,sh ( ksidf.a wka;rdi. moaO;sfha msysu yd lD;H meye,s lrhs'
ksia wei yd lk ms<sn| j oekqu w;a lru i|yd m%Yak lSmhla wikak' m%;sfmdaIs hka;%K yd wka;rdi. moaO;shg tajdfha we;s wod<Ndjh meye,s
mj;sk im;a Wmfhda.S lrf.k my; i|yka lreKq fiug fhduq lrkak'
lrhs'
ksia wefia uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;Hh
ksia lfka uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;Hh
ksia wefia$ lfka rEm igyka yd wdlD;s Nd; lrka tajdfha jHqy
fhda; bf.kq - b.eka ls%hdj,sh (
wOHhkhg bv i,ikak' ^m%dfhda.sl ls%hdldrlula f,i is l< yel'&
Tjqka fidhd.;a lreKq mka;sh bfha bm;a lsu i|yd Wmfoia fokak' uqs; %jH yd bf,lafg%dksl m%Nj Nd; lr YsIHhskayg my; i|yka
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m W; wkqms<sfj,lg wkql+, j ia;drKh wka;rdi. jHqy ms<sn| f;dr;=re fiug Wmfoia ,nd fokak' ^lKavdh
lrkak'
ls%hdldrlula W; h'&
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( yhsfmd;e,ui

rEm igyka Wmfhda.S lrf.k ksia wefia o< jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s mshqg .%kah
lrkak'
;hsfrdhs .%kah
ksia lfka o< jHqyh yd lD;H rEm igyka Wmfhda.S lrf.k meye,s
lrkak' merd ;hsfrdhs .%kah
;hsuia .%kah
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
pd igyka" rEmigyka yd wdlD;s Nd;fhka ksia wefiys yd lfkys wjDlal .%kah
jHQy wOHhkh lsu' ,eka.yeka msld
m%ckfkakashka
wka;rdi. moaO;shg wod< j RK m%;sfmdaIS yd Ok m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kj,

f;dr;=re fiug bv i,id fokak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m W; wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh
lrkak'
102 103
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( ksmqK;dj 7'1'0 ( kaf.a iudfhdackh yd iuia;shg wod< jHqy yd
udkj wka;rdi. moaO;sh lD;H uYkh lrhs'
iqfYaIS j wka;rdi. f,i muKla ls%hd;aul jk ishu wjhjhka ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'9 ( foay wNHka;r mirh ksh;j mj;ajd .kakd wdldrh
wka;rdi. moaO;shg we;=<;a h' uid n,hs'
my; i|yka .%kaj, jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s lrkak' ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05 hs'
yhsfmd;e,ui" mshqgh" ;hsfrdhsvh" merd;hsfrdhsvh" ;hsuia .%kah" bf.kq M, (
wjDlal .%kah" ,eka.yeka msld yd m%ckfkakashka ^jDIK yd n
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ;
fldaI&
wNHka;r yd ndysr mirj,g wod< j iuia;sh meye,s lrhs'
;j rg;a jeu foay WIaK;aj hdukh" rer .afldaia ugu hdukh yd wdi%e;s Odkh
Ok m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kh u.ska ksidf.a iuia;sh hdukh lrk wdldrh meye,s lrhs'
iuia;sh i|yd wlaudf ldhNdrh meye,s lrhs'
idOlh jeu ksjer lsf hka;%Kh
fhda; bf.kq - b.eka ls%hdj,sh (

RK m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kh
iqiq WodyrK f.kyer mdka iuia;sfha m%fhdack biau;= lrkak'
iqiq im;a Nd; lr my; lreKq ms<sn| f;dr;=re fidhd bm;a lsug
ksh; ugu ksh; ugu
bv i,ikak'
RK m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kh iuia;sh
wNHka;r yd ndysr mir

idOlh wvqu ksjer lsf hka;%Kh
ksidf.a iuia;sh
Ok m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kh foay WIaK;aj hdukh
rer .afldaia ugu hdukh

;j rg;a wvqu
wdi%e;s Odkh
iuia;sfhys ,d wlaudf ldhNdrh
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m W; wkqms<sfj<lg wkqj ia;drKh
lrkak'
104 105
Ih lreKq meye,s lr ug w;aje,la ( wNHka;r mirfha mj;sk md,kh h hq;= m%Odk idOl jkafka;
iuia;sh ridhksl idOlj, idkaKh
foayh ;=< ksh; wNHka;r mirhla mj;ajd .ekSu f,i iuia;sh w: Wod( .afldaia" whk
c,h yd djHhka ys mej;sh hq;= idfmalaI m%udK
oelah yel'
WIaK;ajh
iuia;sh ;h mj;ajd .ekSu i|yd w;HdjYH fjhs' iuia;sh mj;ajd
foay WIaK;ajh hdukh
.ekSu iu. mDIaGjxYS foayh ;=< ls%hd;aul jk fndfyda hduk ls%hdj,s ne
idudkH foay WIaK;ajh 36.90 C (98.4 F0)
mj;S' foay WIaK;ajh hdukh lsfuys ,d RK m%;f
s mdaIS hka;K
% hla lsh
% d;aul
wNHka;r yd ndysr mir f'
ffi,j,g meje;au i|yd udOHh imhkakd jQ ffi,j, WIaK;ajh wvqjk g we;sjk m%;spdr
ksoyia iakdhq wka; yd l%jqia n,an u.ska m%;s.%yKh lrhs'
wdikak;u mirh tajdfha wNHka;r mirh jkafka h'
Shunt Vessels
i;a;aj yd Ydl foay wjg mirh tajdfha ndysr mirh f'
yf mhka; rer jdyskS ixfldapkh lrhs' w;sfl ;dmh ksmou"
ksidf.a iuia;sh
mjD;a;sh ls%hdj, f.h je fjhs'
wNHka;r mirh ksh;j mj;ajd .ekSu i|yd mDIaGjxYSka f.a foay ;=< ^;hsfrdlaik
s "a we%k,ska Y%djh jeu yd wlaudf ,sm
s v
s Tlail
s rKh
ls%hd;aul jk md,l moaO;shla RK m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kh kka yeka f' je fjhs'&
md,kh h hq;= idOl u.skau iuia;sfha ksjer lsf hka;%Kh frdau Woa.dul fmaYs ixfldapkh fjhs" fj,Su isfjhs'
wdrN fjhs' WIaK;ajh jejk g we;sjk m%;spdr

ksoyia iakdhq wka; yd r*sks foaydKq u.ska m%;s.%yKh lrhs'
frdau yu u; je;sr isu" yf mhka; rerjdyskS ia;drKh"
idOlfha ksh; RK m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kh
ugu by< hdu oyh oeu" mjD;a;sh ls%hdj, f.h wvq lsu ^;hsfrdlaiska"
we%k,ska Y%djh wvqjk w;r wlaudf ,smsv TlaislrK f.h wvq
fjhs'&
iuia;sl mrdih foayfha WIaK;aj p,k yhsfmd;e,ui u.ska ykd .ksh's u;=mg
s we;sjk
^foayfha ksh; ugu& WIaK;aj fjkia if we;s m%;s.%dyl u.ska m%;s.%yKh lrhs'
ksidf.a foay WIaK;aj hdukfha bPdkq. odhl;ajhla o mj;shs'
Wod( WKqiqu oefkk g mjka ie,Su" iS;, oefkk g jl=gq u yd
idOlfha ksh; WKqiq wej,ska foayh wdjrKh lr .ekSu'
ugu my< hdu
rer .afldaia ugu hdukh
RK m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kh ksia rerfha idudkH .afldaia ugu 80-120 mg per 100 cm3 fjhs'
106 107
fuu w.hg jvd rer .afldaia ugu je jQ g; ksmqK;dj 7'1'0 ( kaf.a iudfhdackh yd iuia;shg wod< jHqy yd
1' CO2 yd H2O njg | jeu ^ffi,Sh iajikh& lD;H uYkh lrhs'
2' .a,hsfldcka njg m;a isref ix; u
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'10 ( ksia if uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;H wkafIKh lrhs'
3' fo njg mj;kh foayfhaa fo ix;fha .nvd lsu
.afldaia hdukh i|yd laISrmdhS isref we;s iuia;sl ls%hdj,sh
wdi%e;s Odkh
ksidf.a rer ma,diaudf mudj;a" ma,diaudf yd mgl ;r,fha;a bf.kq M, (
djKh we;s jHj, idkaKh;a" mgl ;r,h;a ksh;j ;nd .ekSu fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd (
wdi%e;s Odkh u.ska is fjhs' ksia yf uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s lrhs'
fuh uQ,sl l%u follska is fjhs' ksia yf uQ,sl ia;r ia;r lrhs'
1' c, m%udKh md,kh
2' foayhg ,nd .kakd jQ yd neyer lrkakd jQ ,jK m%udKh md,kh fhda; bf.kq - b.eka ls%hdj,sh (
fj wv u.ska ,nd .kakd jQ f;dr;=re" m.Kl wdOdrfhka is lrk
klg mqoa.,hl= ,nd .kakd jQ yd msg lrkakd jQ ,jK yd c,h
bm;a ls (Powerpoint Presentations) u.ska fyd fjk;a m%Njj,ska ,nd
m%udKh Yaf,aIKfha uQ;% ksIamdokh jeo.;a jk nj fy<s we;'
.kakd jQ W; f;dr;=re Nd; lrka my; oelafjk lreKq biau;= lrkak'
wdi%e;s Odkhg fya;= jk hka;%K jDlal ;=< ls%hd;aul ug ADH
ksia yf uQ,sl ia;r
fydafudakh Wmld f' frdau
iuia;sh mj;ajd .ekSf ,d wlaudf ldhNdrh .%ka
wlaudf ldhNdrh iudf,dapkh lsf wNHka;r mirfha fN!;sl m%;.
s d% yl
iajNdjh yd ridhksl ixhq;sh hdukhg Yd, odhl;ajhla wlaudfjka is yf lD;H
jk nj fmkajd h hq;= h' my; i|yka lreKq fuys biau;= h hq;= fjhs' Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m W; wkqms<sfj<lg wkqj ia;drKh
1' .afldaia ugu hdukh lrkak'
2' ,smsv wka;.;h hdukh

3' w;HjYH fkdjk weuhsfkda w, ixYaf,aIKh
my; i|yka lreKq we;=<;a jk m ksia yf jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s
4' I yrKh
l< hq;= h'
5' foay WIaK;aj hdukh i|yd ;dmh ksIamdokh udkj if uQ,sl ia:r
6' ,sx.sl fydafudak | jeu yd bj;a lsu wmspuh yd puh k jQ fldgia follg fnh yels nj
7' ysfud.af,dka | jeu yd bj;a lsu ue,ams.Sh ia;rh we;= ia;r lSmhlska wmspuh iE we;s nj
8' rerh ix; lsu pufha iS;, m%;.

s d% yl" WIaK;aj m%;.
s d% yl" iafkay Y%d .%k
a " frdau Woa.dul
fmaYS" wOYaph foh" iafo .%ka" rer jdyskS yd iakdhq w.% msysgk nj
9' gka A, D, E, K ix; lsu
10' rer fm%daka ixYaf,aIKh
11' fldf,iafgfrd,a ixYaf,aIKh lsu
12 hQhd ksmou
108 109
yf lD;H tallh 8 - nysiai%djh

1' ixfol wjhjhla f,i
2' foay WIaK;ajh mj;ajd .ekSu ksmqK;dj 8'1'0 ( ksfrda.S os meje;aula Wfoid nysiai%d moaO;sfha odhl;ajh
3' iafkayY%d .%k
a Y%dj u.ska yu u;=mg
s yd frdau c, frdaOlj yd iqkuHhj Yaf,aIKh lrhs'
mj;ajd .kshs' nelahdj,ska wdrlaId lrhs'
4' iafo .%ka WIaK;aj hdukhg yd nysiai%djhg Wmld f' ksmqK;d ugu 8'1'1 ( kaf.a mjD;a;Sh yd nysiai%d jH w;r inkaO;d
5' c,kfhka yd UV lsrKj,ska wdrlaId lsu f.dv k.hs'
6' nysiai%djh
oyh f,i iafo .%kaj,ska yu u;g Y%djh jk ;r,h w;sfl c,h yd ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04 hs'
,jK orhs'
oyh oeu u.ska foayhg wkjYH jH bj;a jk ksid yu nysiai%dh bf.kq M, (
jHqyhla f,i ls%hd lrhs' fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd (
nysiai%djh iy tys jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs'
nysiai%d jH yd mjD;a;Sh w;r inkaO;djh ia;r lrhs'
khsg%ckSh nysiai%djfha wka;M, meye,s lrhs'
by; wka;M, nysiai%djh lsf jdis iy wjdis ixikaokh lrhs'
wka;M, iy j;ajk mirh w;r inkaO;djh ia;r lrhs'
nysiai%djfha fjk;a wka;M, i|yka lrhs'
CO 2
ms;a jKl

my; oelafjk nysiai%d M, ms<sn| j f;dr;=re /ia lsug isiq lKavdh
fhduq lrjkak'
NH3 " hqhd
hQla w," l%shkhska
CO2" ms;a jKl
my; lreKq wjOdrKh lrka bm;a lsula i|yd isik q a fhduq lrjkak'
by; wka;M, nysiai%djh lsf jdis yd wjdis
wka;M, yd j;ajk mirh w;r in|;dj
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m fhda.H wkqms<sfj<lg wkqj ia;drKh
lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lrug w;aje,la (

isrefrka mjD;a;Sh wmjH bj;a lsf l%shdj,sh nysiai%djhhs' CO2, H2O, NH3
isref ksmofjk nysiai%d jH jk w;r rKh fkdjQ wdydr" wdydr
ud.fhka bj;a lsf l%shdj,sh jk u, my lsu nysiai%djh f,i fkdie,fla'
111
110
fuu wka;M, bj;a fkdl<fyd;a tajd isrerg I iys; f' hQhd

fm%daka yd kHIa w, mjD;a;sh u`.ska n, Niauhla jk wefudakshd yd .afldaia wefudakshdj,g idfmalaIj c,fha djH;djh wvqh'
u.ska n, w,hla jk CO2 o wka;M, f,i ,ef' tuksid w, Niau wkqmd;h Inka wvqhs
fjkia f' jdis
w, Niau wkqmd;h fjkia u ksid fm%daka wiajdNdlrKh isf' wefudakshdj,g idfmalaIj I iys; Ndjh wvq ksid ;ekam;a
nysiai%d M, bj;a lsu Yrfha iuia;sh mj;ajd .ekSug odhl f' lr ;nd .; yelsh'
ish i;=kaf.a khsg%ckSh nysiai%djfha m%:u M,h NH3 f' nysiai%djh i|yd wvq c, m%udKhla iEfyk neka c,
nysiai%d jH iy mjD;a;Sh w;r we;s inkaO;djh ixrlaIKh is f'
ldfndyhsf%g wjdis
iajdhq Yajikfha CO2 iy H2O ksmof' ldnka je m%udKhla ydks f' ^jHqyh Nd;fhka meye,s lrkak'&
ksjdhq Yajikfha ,elala w,h ksmof' hqhd wlaudfjys ixYaf,aIKh l< hq;= neka Yla;sh wjYH f'
foh Wod ( iqyqUq,a we*shdjka yd laIsrmdhska
iajdhq Yajikfha CO2 iy H2O ksmof'
fm%daka
hQla w,h
w;sla; weuhsfkda w, weuhskayrKfha NH3 ksmof'
djH;dfjka wvqh
wlaudf ks;hska pl%h yryd hQhd ksmof'
jdis
kshqlaf,hsla w,
wefudakshd yd hqhdj,g idfmalaIj I nka wvqhs'
kshqlaf,hsla w, mjD;a;sfha NH3 ksmof'
foayh ;=, .nvd lr ;nd .; yel'
nysiai%djh i|yd c,h wjYH ke;' tneka c, ixrlaIKh by<h'
khsg%ckSh nysiai%djfha wka;M,
wjdis
NH3
ldnka ydksh by<h
hQla w,h
Wod ( lDka" mlaISka" Wr.hska
hQhd
l%shkhska
by; wka;M,j, jHqy Nd;fhka my; lreKq wjOdrKh lrkak' l%shkhska
by; wka;M, nysiai%djh lsf jdis iy wjdis l%shka | fy,Sfuka iEfok M,hls' l%shka fmaYsj, jeo.;a fldgils'
wefudakshd ls%hkhska Yrfhka neyer lsu imQKfhkau jl=.vqj,ska isf'
iakdhq moaO;shg w;sYhska Iodhlhs'
irKh u.ska foay mDIaGfhka bj;a l< yel nysiai%djfha fjk;a wka;M,
jdis CO 2 - Yajik wjhj fyda fmkye,s u.ska neyer lrhs'
Yrfhka ldnka ydksula is fkdf' ^jHqyh Nd;fhka ms;a jKl - wlaudf ixYaf,aIKh jDlal yd wdydr ud.fhka
meye,s lrkak& neyer lrhs'
kHIa w, yd wefudakshd w,j, m%:u w;=re M,h wefudakshd ksid
ixYaaf,aIKh i|yd Yla;sh wjYH fkdf
wjdis
c,fha w;sYhska djHhhs tneka NH3 nysiai%djh i|yd jemqr c,h wjYH
f'
Wod ( c,c wmDIaGjxYSka" mDIaGjxYSkaf.a c,c lSg wj" h u;aiHhka
112 113
ksmqK;dj 8'1'0 ( ksfrda.S meje;aula Wfoid nysiai%d moaO;sfha nysiai%d jHQy îQlaIau jHQyh wjYH ke;'&
odhl;ajh Yaf,aIKh lrhs'
foay mDIaGh
ksmqK;d ugu 8'1'2 ( kaf.a nysiai%d jHqyj, O;ajh uid n,hs' idfmalaIj ir, jHqyhla ork kaf.a foayj, we;s ffi," mirh iu`.
iDcq inkaO;djhla mj;S' f ksid Tjqkaf.a nysiai%d jH irKh u.ska
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02 hs' jydu foayfhka bj;a f'
ixfldapl la;l
bf.kq M, (
Amoeba, Paramecium iy fjk;a tal ffi,sl fm%daiagdjkag ixfldapl
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd;
la;l k jQ l=vd mg,uh u ffi, ma,diaufha we; fuh bkashsldjls'
i;=kaf.a O nysiai%d jHqy ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
rEm igyka wdOdrfhka i;=kaf.a O nysiai%d jHqy ia;r lrhs'
is`M ffi,
tal ffi,Sh nysiai%d jHqyhls' me;,s mkqjkaf.a we;'^ Platyhelminthes &
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh (
wka;cd,h" .%ka: jeks O im;a wdY%fhka my; oelafjk nysiai%d jHqy jDlalsld
inkaOj f;dr;=re /ia lsug isiqka fhduq lrjkak' .evkag foayfhka msg;g iy foayh ;=,g jD; jk jDlalsld k jQ
fidhd .;a f;dr;=re wkqj nysiai%d jHqyj, O;ajh wOHhkh i|yd isiqka kd,sld moaO;shla we;' fuh nyq ffi,Sh kd,dldr jHqyhls' rer ixirK
fhduq lrjkak' moaO;sh yd inkaO we;' kso( wefk,svdjka - .ev,a mkqjka
foaydjrKh
ixfldapl la;l ue,amS.Sh kd,sld
is`M ffi, lDkaf.a ^ Wod ( lerfmd;a;d & nysiai%d wjhj jkafka ue,amS.Sh kd,sldh'
jDlalsld
ue,ams.Sh kd,sld y; .%ka $ iamYl .%ka
y; .%ka
biaika ^ Crustacea jka& f.a yuq f' wkakfi%da;hg bfhka" ysig Wohj
Yd, y; .%ka hq.,la msysghs' foay ;r, iy foayfhka wmjH bj;a lsug
iafo .%ka
odhl f'
,jK .%ka
iafo .%ka
isiqka bm;a lsula i|yd iQodk lrjkak'
ksidf.a iu mqrdu yuqf' pufha msysgk weUreKq kd,dldr .%ka iuQyhla
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m fhda.H wkqm<
s f
s j,lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'
jk fjd iafo kd,hlg inkaO isrlska foay mDIaGhg jD; f'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( ,jK .%ka

foay ;=, isjk ridhksl m%;sl%shd ksid ksmofjk wmjH fndfyda g lrosh mlaISka uqyq c,h mdkh lr" ,jK .%ka u`.ska ,jK nysiai%djh lrhs'
foayhg I neka tajd foayfhka flfia fyda neyer l< hq;=h' mjD;a;Sh ,jK .%ka hq.,la lrh mlaISka yd lrh Wr.hkaf.a weia wdikakfhaa
wmjH foayfhka neyer lsu nysiai%djh kka yekaf' nysiai%djh isjk msysghs'
jHqy nysiai%d mDIaG k f'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
pd igyka yd rEm igyka Nd;fhka i;=kaf.a m%Odk nysiai%d jHQy
wOHhkh lsu'
114 115
ksmqK;dj 8'1'0 ( ksfrda.S meje;aula Wfoid nysiai%d moaO;sfha Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (
odhl;ajh Yaf,aIKh lrhs' ksia uQ;% moaO;sfha m%Odk fldgia
jDlal hq.,
ksmqK;d ugu 8'1'3 ( ksia nysii
a d% moaO;sfha o< jHqyh yd l%h
s dld;ajh ms<n
s | uQ;% jdyskS hq.,
uYkh lrhs' uQ;d% Yh
uQ;% ud.h
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 09 hs' jDlalj, ksmofjk uQ;%" neyer lsu i|yd uQ;% jdyskS Tiafia uQ;%dYhg hjkq
,nhs' uQ;%dYfha uQ;% ;djld,slj .nvd f' uQ;% ud.h" uQ;%dYfha isg msg;g
bf.kq M, ( ysfok kd,hls'
ksidf.a uQ;%jdyskS moaO;sfha jHqyh iy lD;Hh ia;r lrhs' jDlal
ksidf.a uQ;%jdyskS moaO;sfha fldgia ,ehsia;= .; lrhs' jDlalj, msysu
ksia jDlalj, msysu" jHqyh iy rer iemhqu i|yka lrhs' Wor l=yrh ;=<" uyd m%drhg my<ska" lfYarej fomi" Wria yd l
jDlalfha fldgia rEm igykl fmkajhs' lfYareld w;r ugf" m%;sWorPhj ^WorPohg msg;ska&" foayfha
jDlaldKqj jDlalfha jHqyuh yd lD;Huh tallh f,i meyeos,s lrhs' wmr ;a;shg wdikakj msysghs"
uQ;% iEf l%shdj,sh ia;r lrhs' j jDlalh" ol=Kq jDlalhg uola by<ska msysghs'
wdi%e;s Odkh" rer pH hdukh" tf;%dfmdhska yd kska Y%djh" rer
mudj yd rer mSvkh mj;ajd .ekSu idlPd lrhs' rer iemhqu
jDlalj, l%shdld;ajh flfrys fydfudakj, n,mEu ia;r lrhs' jDlalj,g rerh iemfhkqfha uyd Ouksfha isg jDlalSh Ouks yryd jk
ksia nysiai%d moaO;sh wdY%s; iq,n wdndO i|yka lrhs' w;r jDlalfha isg wOr uyd Ysrdjg jDlalSh Ysrd u.ska rerh f.k hhs'
wdndO je<elau i|yd .; hq;= l%shdud. ia;r lrhs'
frda. ykd .ekSf ^ksYapfha & uQ;%dj, ldhNdrh meye,s lrhs' jDlalfha o< jHqyh
jDlal fndax c yeve;s h'
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl( jDlal m%djrfhka wdjrKh we;'
ixrlaIs; ksoYk" ilrKh wdh Wmfhda.S lrf.k my; lreKq biau;= jDlalfha wNHka;rh m%Odk fldgia follska iuka; f'
lr fmkajkak' ndysrj jDlal ndyslh yd Bg we;=,;ska jDlal uPdjhs'
ksia nysiai%d moaO;sfha m%Odk fldgia .=ld wvx.= ksid jDlal ndyslh lkslduh iajrEmhla .kshs'
ksia nysiai%d moaO;sfha jHqy-lD;H inkaO;dj jDlal ucdj" jDlalSh msrvj,ska iuka; jk w;r f jDlalSh msrv
jDlaldKqj jHqyuh yd lD;Huh tallh f,i ,s; iajNdjhla .kshs'
uQ;% iEf l%shdj,sh jDlalSh msrvj, w.% fY%daKsh foig Ydk; we;' jDlal fY%daKsfhka uQ;%
fydfudak u.ska md,kh
jdyskS wdrN f'
m%Odk iuia;sl wjhjh jDlalh nj
jDlalSh msrv w;r ndysl mglj,ska iEkq jDlal ia:N msysghs'
jDlal fY%daKsh yryd jDlalSh Ouks iy Ysrd .uka lrhs'
my; lreKq inkaOfhka f;dr;=re /ia lsug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
jDlal wYauh ^.,a& yd uQ;%dY .,a
jHqyuh yd lD;Huh tallh f,i jDlaldKqj
wdndO je<elau i|yd .; hq;= l%shdud.
jDlaldKqjl jHqyh - wkalaISh jHqyh
uQ;% mlaId wdY%fhka f,v frda. ykd .ekSu
tla jDlalhla ;=< wkalaIsh jHqy jk jDlaldKq ,shkhla muK we;'
isiqka bm;a lsulg iQodk lrjkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m fhda.H wkqm<
s f
s j,lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'
116 117
jDlaldKqjl fldgia ; uQ;% iEu

fndauka m%djrh uQ;% iEf jDlaldKq ;=< l%shdj,s ;=kla isf'
wr ixj,s; kd,sldj 1' w;smY%djkh
fykaf,a mqvqf wjfrdayK ndyqj 2' jrKSh m%;sfYdaIKh
3' i%djh
fykaf,a mqvqf wdfrdayK ndyqj
r ixj,s; kd,sldj
w;smY%jkh
fndauka m%djrfha l=yrh ;=,g wl mSvkhla hgf;a rerh fmu isf'
jDlaldKq j. folls' fmu isjkafka .=l flaYkd,sld ;a;s iy fndauka m%djrfha we;=,; ;a;s
ndysl jDlaldKq yryd h'
claIaG ucd jDlaldKq fufia fm hk ;r,fha c,h" .afldaia" weuhsfkda w," hQhd" gk"
T!IO O whk yd fydafudk wdh wvx.= f'
ma,diau fm%dak yd rer ffi, fufia fmug ,la fkd f'
jDlalh ;=< fjd msysgk ia:dk fjkia f' ndysl jDlaldKq msysgkafka
jDlal ndyslfha mhka; m%foaYfha muKs' tajdfha fykaf,a mqvq flh'
jrKSSh m%;sfYdaIKh
.=l fmrKfha we;s iuyr jH jDlaldKqf kd,sld jgd we;s rer
claIaG ucd jDlaldKq we;af;a jDlal ucdj ^ndyslh yd ucdj fjka jk flaYkd,sld cd,hg m%;sfYdaIkh f'
ia:dkh& wdikakfha h' tajdfha fykaf,a mqvq b;d .= jk w;r ucdf wr ixj,s; kd,sldj
.eUqrg ys we;' c,h 80] muK wdi%e;sh u.ska wksjdhfhkau m%;sfYdaIKh f' f i|yd
Yrfha we;s c, m%udKfha lsis n,mEula ke;'
jDlaldKq .Kkdjla tla ix.%dyl m%kd,hlg jD; f' Na+ " .afldaia" weuhsfkda w, il%shj m%;sfYdaIKh f'
Cl-" HCO-3" hQhd iy K+ wl%shj m%;sfYdaIKh f'
.=ldj yd fndauka m%djrh tlaj ue,amS.Sh foaydKqj kka yekaf' fykaf,a mqvqf wjfrdayK ndyqj
c,h wl%shj wdi%e;sh u`.ska
jDlalj,g rerh iemfhkafka jDlalSh Ouksfhks' jDlaldKqjl .=ldjg Na+ il%shj
fykaf,a mqvqf wdfrdayK ndyqj
we;=ug fmr bka YdLd f,i yg.kakd Ouks o wNsjdyS Ouksld o Tiafia
Na+ il%shj
.=ldjg rerh we;= f' ^wNsjdys - foig" wmjdyS - bj;g&
Cl- wl%shj o m%;sfYdaIKh f'
r ixj,s; kd,sldj
fndauka m%djrh fldamm
a yeve;sh' .=ldj kka yekafjk rer flaYkd,sld
ADH we;s g c,h m%;sfYdaIKh f'
cd,hla fndauka m%djrh ;=< msysghs'
Na+ il%shj o
HCO3- iy Cl - - wls%hj
.=ldf fmug Ndckh jQ rerh wmjdyS Ouksldj Tiafia;a jDlaldkqf ix.%dyl m%kd,h
kd,sld wdY%;
s j we;s flaYkd,sld cd,hla Tiafia;a .uka .kS' fuu flaYkd,sld ADH we;s g c,h wl%shj (4.5%) m%;sfYdaIKh f'
cd,h mkd,dldr flaYkd,sld f,i yekaf' fuu flaYkd,sld" wr yd H+ whk i%djh
r ixj,s; kd,sld yd fykaf,a mqvqj jglr msysghs' ADH we;sg WmrswNsidrsl uQ;% idohs'
i%djh
mkd,dldr flaYkd,sldj, we;s flaYkd,sld " ucdf we;s ix.%dyl m%kd,h jDlaldkqf rer flaYkd,sldj, we;s iuyr jH jDlaldkqf kd,sld ;=<g
yd fykaf,a mqvqj,g iudka;rj .uka lrhs' fuu flaYkd,sld cd,h u.ska i%djh f' H+, K+, NH4+, l%shkSka" T!IO" gka B
rerh kej; idudkH ixirKhg hjkq ,nhs' fuys foayhg wjYH jH we;' jDlal l%shdld;ajh flfrys fydafudakj, n,mEu
ADH - jDlaldkqf r ixj,s; kd,sld iy ix.%dyl m%Kd, u;
n,mdhs' rerfha c, m%;sY;h wvq jQ g ADH i%djh je
rerhg c,h m%;sfYdaIKh by< hhs'
118 119
we,afvdiagfrdaka - fidah yd c,h m%;sfYdaIKh je lrhs' tallh 9 ikaOdrKh yd p,kh

rerfha ,jK idkaKh ^wdi%e;s mSvkh & wvq jQ g we,afvdiagfrdaka i%djh
u jef' ksmqK;dj 9'1'0 ( kaf.a ikaOdrKh i|yd ieleiS we;s moaO;s yd p,k
Na+ nysia ffi,Sh ;r,fha we;s jeo.;a jHhls' idudkH rer mudj iy l%u uid n,hs'
rer mSvkh mj;ajd .ekSug fjd wjYH f'
jDlal u.ska ,jK yd c,h wjfYdaIKh W;af;ackh lsu ksid"
ksmqK;d ugu 9'1'1 ( i;=kaf.a iels,s moaO;sj, jHqyh yd lD;H uid n,hs'
we,afvdiagfrdaka u.ska idudkH rer mudj iy rer mSvkh mj;ajd .kS'
jDlalfha fjk;a lD;H ^jDlal m%Odk iuia;sl wjhjh jYfhka &

bf.kq M, (
wdi%e;s Odkh
rerfha ksh; wdi%e;s mSvkhla mj;ajd .ekSu i;=kaf.a yuqjk m%Odk iels,s j. m%ldY lrhs'
' rer pH w.h hdukh jia;sl iels,af,a ixOdkh WodyrK iys;j ia;r lrhs'
fydfudak i%djh nys# iels,af,a ixOdkh WodyrK iys;j ia;r lrhs'
tf;%dfmdhska - r;= rer ffi, ksmou je lrhs' wNHka;r iels,af,a ixOdkh WodyrK iys;j ia;r lrhs'
rer mSvkh yd rer mudj mj;ajd .ekSu' ksidf.a wia yd ldf,acj, wkalaISh jHqyh meye,s lrhs'
iels,s moaO;sfha lD;H ia;r lrhs'
ksidf.a uQ;%jdyskS moaO;sh wdY%s; wdndO
uQ;%dY .,a iy jDlal .,a fhda; bf.kq - b.eka l%shdj,sh (
uQ;%j, we;s ,jK wjlafIam iEfoa' m%Odk jkafka le,aish Tlaif,a fok ,o iels,s j. yd wod< WodyrK wjOdrKh lrka idlPdjlg fhduq
iys; .,a jk w;r hqla w,h wjlafIam iEfok .,a o we;' lsu'
fya;= h yels idOl iels,s moaO;sh yd wod< my; i|yka lD;H ms<sn|j nqoa l,nk ieishlg
uQ;%.,a iys; f mjq,a b;sydih isiqka fhduq lsu'
ikaOdrKh
fm%daka wl wdydr .ekSu
wdrlaIdj
c,h m%udKj;a ;r mdkh fkdlsu
p,kh
jhi wjq 20 - 50 w;r by; ;;a;aj nyq, h'
le,aish .nvd lSu yd ksoyia lsu
j<lajd .ekSug .; yels l%shd ud.
fmdiafma .nvd lsu yd ksoyia lsu
jemqr c,h mdkh lsu rer ffi, ksIamdokh lsu
frda. ksYapfha uq;%j, ldh Ndrh YsIHhka bm;a lsulg iQodk lrkak' W; wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj Ih lreKq
UFR - Urine Full Report ia;drKh lrkak'
Urine Culture Report
i;a;aj rdcOdksfha m%Odk iels,s wdldr ;=kla we;' Wod ( jia;sl iels,s" nys#
iels,s" wNHka;r iels,s
jia;s iels,a, -tlsfklg reoaO f,i l%shd lrk fmaYS ia;r follska hq;a
^jD;a;dldr yd wkajdhdu& foay ;a;sfhka wdjrKh jQ wjldYhla ;=< wka;.;
foayfhka Y%djh jQ ;r,hla jia;sl iels,a,la f,i l%shdlrhs'
fmaYs ixfldapkh yd ;r,fhys we;sjk mSvkfha ixhqla; m%;sM,h" hdf.a
ixprKh yd yevh flf n,mdhs' Wod ( wfk,svdjkaf.a isf,dal ;r,h
120
121
nys#iels,a, - wdf;%dfmdavdjkaf.a th lhska j,ska iE we;s ksiaffi,Sh ksmqK;dj 9'1'0 ( kaf.a ikaOdrKh i|yd ieliS we;s moaO;s yd p,k
jHqyhls' fm%daka ^lDka& yd le,aish ldnfkaj,ska ^lariafishdjka & l%u uid n,hs'
oe we;s" p,kh i|yd ;=kS" wefok iq mg, ork" c,kh je,elaug b ksmqK;d ugu 9'1'2 ( ks i df.a wdla I l wegiels , a f ,a jHq y h yd lD;H
iys; ndysr ia;rhla iys;" jOkh i|yd yej yeu wjYH jk" fmaYS ksfYkhg wkafIKh lrhs'
m%ir ork" l=vd kag ikaOdrKh yd ixprKh i|yd ldhlaIu jQ ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08 hs'
Wml%uhla bka ie,fia'
ndysr iels,a,la ork ka ldKav Wod ( wdf;%dfmdvdjka bf.kq M, (
ndysr iels,a,la ork fjk;a ldKav i|yd WodyrK fokak' fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd;
ndysr iels,s wdldr yd tajdfha lD;H ia;r l< hq;= fjhs' udkj iels,af,a ixOdkh ia;r lrhs'
le,aish ldnfkaj,ska ie we;s ndysr iels,s Wod ( fudiald wdlaIl iels,af,a fldgia ,hsia;= .; lrhs'
wia ;, Wod ( Wr. ysialnf,a yd lfYaref O fldgiaj, o< jHqyh tys lD;Hhkag inkaOj
ffhdaf,ahdjka wOHhkh lrhs'
wNHka;r iels,a, - fndfyda i;=kaf.a ikaOdrl moaO;s wNHka;r iels,s fjhs'
Wod ( iuyr tal ffi,sl fm%diagd ^ffhdaf,ahd&" iamkaka" iuyr fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh (
fudiald yd mDIaGjxYSka fhda mg$ mska;+r fyda pd igyka fmkajd my; i|yka lreKq u;=jk m
wia fyda ldf,acj,ska ks;" fmaYs ksfIKh is lrk" mglj,ska idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
hq;"= Tjqka ;=< jOkh jk fjd oe jHqyhkah' wia w;r we;s O i;a;aj rdcOdksfha O iels,s moaO;s
ika nkaOks wdOdrfhka ksh; j ia:dk.; mj;shs' p,kfha iels,s moaO;sh Wmld u
Wod ( mDIaGjxYSka udkj iels,s moaO;sh wdlaIl iels,a, yd .d;% iels,a, hk fldgia
le,aish ldnfka ;, - tlhsfkdvfgd follg fnh yels h'
wia - fldafgd my; i|yka Wmfoia YsIHhka l%shdldrlj, ksr; lru i|yd h'
ldf,ac - fldaafvgd ksia iels,s moaO;sfha my; we;s fldgia ms<sn| wjOdkh fhduq lrkak'
ksidf.a wia yd ldf,ac mglj, wKalaISh jHqyh ia;drKh lrkak' ysialn,
iels,s moaO;sfha lD;Hka' lfYarej
ikaOdrKh - iEu iels,a,laau foayfha oe rduqj idok w;r wd;;s n, mY= yd Wr;,h
yd imSvk j,g m%;sfrda fjhs' tajd foayfha yevh mj;ajd .ekSug my; Wm YSI hgf;a iels,s moaO;sfha fldgia we;s im;a Wmfhda.S
Wmld fjhs' lr f.k .,md .ekSfuka miqj Tng we;s f;audj ia;drKh lrkak'
wdrlaIdj - tajd u.ska ishq wNHka;r bkashka wdrlaId fjhs' tla tla fldgfia wia ixOdkh we;s wdldrh
p,kh - foayfha fmaYS i ug W; oe nj ,nd fok jHj,ska lD;Hhg wod< j tajdfha jHqyh
iels,a, ksudKh we;' tla tla fldgfia we;s fYaI ,laIK
fmaYsj,ska fufyhh yels ,Sjr f,i iels,s fldgia l%shd;aul fjhs' my; we;s lD;Hhkg wod<j my; i|yka fldgiaj, odhl;ajh
fuh isjkg p,kh isfjhs' idlPd lrkak'
le,aish .nvd lsu yd ksoyia lsu ikaOdrKh
iuyr fydfudak u.ska le,aish whk iels,af,a .nvd lsu yd ksoyia wdrlaIdj
lsu hdukh lrhs' rer le,aish ugu m%Yia; w.hg jvd by< .sh p,kh
g wiaj,Ca ++ ,nd .ekSu fydfudak u.ska W;af;ackh fjhs' le,aish .nvd lsu yd ksoyia lsu
tf,iu rer Ca++ ugu m%Yia; w.hg jvd my< .sh g wiaj,ska bm;a lsulg isiqka iQodk lrkak'
Ca++ ksoyia lsu fydfudak u.ska W;af;ackh fjhs' W; wkqms<sfj<lg Ih ikaOdrh ia;drKh lrkak'
rer ffi, ksmou - weg j,
122 123
Ih lreKq meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,la ( lD;Hhka 1' lgy`v wkqkdo u

wdlaIl iels,a, 2' uqyqfKa yd lmd,fha wiaj, nr wvq lsug
ysialn, 3' lfYaref by< fl<jr u; ysialn, myiqfjka ;=,kh lsug
lfYarej
m%Odk m%ir
mY+ yd Wr;,h
h ykqj ^wfOda ykqj &
.d;% iels,a, a. ikaOdk w.% m%irh
fL,d YxLl - wfOdaykql ikah idoka YxLl wiah iu`. ikaOdkh
.d;%d fjhs'
ksidf.a wdlaIl iels,a, b. ;=Kavdldr m%irh
ysialn, - ysialn, fldgia follska hqla;h fmaYs yd nkaOks inkaO ug mDIaGh imhhs'
1' lmd,h
lmd,h
2' jla;%
a. wmr lmd, ikaOdk w.% ^ tla hq.,hla &
wia 22lska iuka;h
we,ia lfYarej iu`. wi ikahla idoka wmrlmd, wiafha "
lmd,h wia 08ka iE we;' lmd,hg wOhj msysghs'
,,dg wia 1

mdYaj lmd, wia 2 YxLl wiafha we;s m%ir
wmrlmd, wia 1 a. pQpqldldr m%irh
YxLl wia 2 ia;r wjYH ke; lkg msgqmiska we;s fmaYS ksfIKh i|yd
dia 1 b. lS,dN m%irh
fmaYs ksfIKhg ^fmaYs iug&
lS,dia 1
c. hq. m%irh
fmaYs ksfIKh i|yd hq.jl%h iEu msKsi YxLl wiafhka yg
lmd, Od;dj 1'5 l .ksh's
ysia lnf,a lD;Hhka
fud<h wdjrKh yd wdrlaIdj jlaa;% m%foaYh
weia" wd>%dK wjhj" ueo lk yd we;=,a lk wdrlaId lsu wia 14 ka hqla;" w;r lmd,hg my,ska msysghs'
iqIqkdj msgug ud.hla i,ika uyd h lmd,fha wOrj we;' Wv ykqj lmd,hg inkaOj we;'
uyd h fomi iqug f.da,dldr ^ wmr lmd, ikaOdkh & ikaOdk m%ir oe ;,a, wiauh yd uD ;,a, ldf,ah f' tu.ska kdid l=rh uqL
l=yrfhka fjka fjhs'
hq.,la we;' ysia ln, by, my, p,kj,g bv i,ika tajd we,ia
h ykqj p,kh l< yel'
lfYarej iu`. ikaOdkh fjhs'
wfOda ykqj lmd,h iu`. ikaOdkh fjhs' h ykqj p,kh i|yd fmaYS
rkaO% - m%i;
Q f
s ha ysil
a nf,ys ueo imSvkj,g bv i,ik uD mg,uh iu i|yd we;s mDIaGh imhkqfha hq. jl%hhs'
m%foaYhs' jhi wjq 1 - 2 oS fjd wia u.ska m%;sia:dmkh fjhs' lfYarej
m%Odk rkaO% ykajd tajdfha msysu olajkak' fhj ieliqKq lfYareld 33ka iuka;" Yla;su;a" iqkuH oKavls' foayh
fldagrl - ,,dg" lS,dN" dia yd W!Oj ykql wia ;=< msysgk jd;h yd ysig ikaOdrKh imhhs' fuh fjka fjka jYfhka msys wl%uj;a wia
ms wjldYhhs' tajd kdih iu`. inkaO w;r mlaIauOr 24ka hq;=h' bka myla noaOj ;%sldiah idohs" y;rla noaOj wkq;%sldiah
Yaf,aIau, mg,hlska wdia;rKh we;' idohs' lfYaref m%Odk lemS fmfkk m%foaY y;rla we;' ff.% ^7& Wria
^12& l ^5& ;%sldial ^5& g wu;rj wkq;%sldiah wu;rj msysgd we;'
124 125
lfYaref jl% y;rla we;' wka; lfYareld uv,

1' ff.% lmk wjfYdaIlhla f,i l%shd lsu" 'uv, ,siaid hdu' je,elau i|yd
2' Wria nr bis,Sf ksjer wdldrh fmkajd u
3' l mY= yd Wr ;,h
4' ;%sldial Wri ;=, we;s wjhjj,g wdrlaIdj iemhSu i|yd mY= hq.,a 12la yd
Wr;,hla we;s nj fmkajd h hq;=h' rla;dkq ksIamdokh i|yd Wr;,fha
fuu jl% wdldr folls
jeo.;alu i|yka l< hq;= h'
1' m%d:l
2' oa;shsl wdlD;s yd rEm igyka Nd; lrka ysia lnf,a yd lfYaref o< jHqyh tys
lD;Hhkag ork inkaO;djh meye,s l< hq;=h'
l,,fha we;af;a tla jl%hla muKla nj ia;r lrkak'
m%d:l jl% m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
oa;shsl jl% we;sf m%d:l jl% Wria yd ;%sldial m%foaYj,g iSud wdlD;s" rEmigyka yd ksoYl Nd;fhka ksia ysia ln, yd lfYaref
fjhs' o< jHQyh tys O fldgiaj, lD;Hj,g wod< j wOHhkh lsu'
mQj foig wj;,h
oa;shsl jl%
Wm;ska miqj we;sfjhs' Wm;ska udi ;=klg muK miqj m%:u ff.% jl%h
we;sfjhs' tg orejdg ysi iDcqj tih yelsfjhs'
fojk jl%h Wm;ska udi 7 - 8 w;r we;s f' <orejdg l| fl<ska ;nd
.ekSf yelshdj we;sfjhs'
oa;Shsl jl% mQj foig W;a;, fjhs'
rEm igyka Nd;fhka by; lreKq meye,s lrkak'
jl%j, m%Odk lD;Hh iDcq bhj mj;ajd .ekSuhs' lfYaref wfkl=;a

l%shdjka jkafka
1' iqIqkdj wdrlaId lsu
2' iqIqkd iakdhq" rer jdyskS yd jid jdyskS i|yd lfYarel u.ska
wjldY iemhSu
3' foayfha p,kj,g bv ie,iSu
4' ysia ln, ord isu
5' wka; lfYarel u`v,a u.ska lmk wjfYdaIKh yd iqIqkdj wdrlaId
lsu
6' mY= yd fL,dj,g ikaOdkh ug ie,iSu
lfYareld j.
rEm igyka Nd;d lrka oYSh lfYareldjl jHqyh meye,s lsu yd
wfkl=;a lfYareldj, O;ajhka tajdg fya;= iys;j meye,s lsu'
126 127
ksmqK;dj 9'1'0 ( kaf.a ikaOdrKh i|yd ieliS we;s moaO;s yd p,k Ih lreKq meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,la (
l%u uid n,hs' .d;% wegiels,a,
fL,d follska yd .d;% j,ska .d;% weg iels,a, iE we;s nj fmkajd h
hq;h
= '
ksmqK;d ugu 9'1'3 ( ksidf.a .d;% wegiels,af,a jHqyh yd lD;Hhka
Wr fL,df yd fY%daKs fL,df o< jHqyh tajdfha lD;Hhkag wod<j
wkafIKh lrhs'
meye,s l< hq;=h'
.eyeKq yd ms fY%daKs fL,dj, fjki meye,s l< hq;=h'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( ld,fo 06 hs' mQj .d;%fha jHqyh ia;r lsu yd .%yKh" nr tiu yd mq`M,a mrdihl
p,kh i|yd mQj .d;%fha jHqyh wkqj;kh we;s wdldrh fmkajd u'
bf.kq M, ( Yla;u s ;a Ndjh" iDcq foay bhj" weu" foayfha nr ord .ekSug inkaOj
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd; wmr .d;%fha jHqyh ieliS we;s wdldrh'
udkj iels,af,a ixOdkh ia;r lrhs' by; lD;Hhkag inkaOj mdofhys jl% meye,s l< hq;=h'
iqkuHNdjhg ^ flexibility & inkaO mQj .d;%fha jHqyh meye,s l< hq;=h'
.d;%d iels,af,a fldgia ,hsia;= .; lrhs'
.af,fkdhsv l=yrfha mj;sk wimQK f.da, l=yr ikah fkd.eUqrh' th
wdlD;s yd mska;+r Nd;fhka iels,af,a o< jHqyh tys O fldgiaj,
Yd, mrdihl p,kj,g bv i,ihs'
lD;Hkag inkaO lr" meye,s lrhs' mQj .d;%fha my, fldgi W;al=ck yd ksl=ck fmkajhs'
m%.kavdiafha r fl,jr ikaOdk mDIaG folla we;s w;r" bka tlla jk
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh ( YSIlh wrdiah i|yd jk w;r lmamsh wkajrdiah i|yd h'
YsIHhkag .d;% iels,af,a fldgia wdoYkh lrka my; i|yka lreKq YsIlh u; wrdiafha YsIhg N%uKh h yel' fuhg bv foka ueKsla
biau;= jk m idlPdjla fufyhjkak' lgqf yia: l+jdia ikaOdkh jkqfha wrdiah iu`. muKs'
.d;% iels,a, .d;% yd fL,d follska iE we;' ms<su,a udmg we`.s,a,
nr tiu" p,kh" .%yKh" ikaOdrKh yd weu jeks lD;Hhka i|yd udmg we`.s,a,g wfkl=;a we`.s,s iu`. ,nl ;,hl p,khg bv i,ik
.d;%j, jHqyfha we;s wia wkqj;kh we;' fYaI ikahla wod< y;a;l=p wiah yd m,jeks yia;l=fpdam wiah
W; lD;Hhkaj,g wod<j my; i|yka ud;Dld Tiafia bm;a lsulg w;r we;' fuh udmg we`.s,af,a ms<su,a Ndjhg fya;=fjhs' fuh ksidg
isiqka fhduq lrkak' iqfYaI jQQ ishq .%yK ^h:d;;H .%yK & j,g fya;= fjhs'
ud;Dld wdndO yd widudkH;d
mQj .d;%h wia ffjjjh
wmr .d;%h wia mglh laIh u wia ffjjjhhs'
Wr fL,dj ikaj, p,k yelshdj wvq lrhs' wia hdj,g o fya;=h yelsh'
fY%daKs fL,dj wia ffjjjhg fya;=jk idOl
lD;H fydfudak wiu;=,s;;dj ^ wd;j yrKfha &
ikaOdrKh wia mjodyh'
wdrlaIdj ikaj, we;s ikaOdk ldf,ac l%ufhka ;=kS wia laIh hhs'
p,kh fuys m%;sM,hla f,i fokdj we;s f'
.%yKh
Yla;su;a nj m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
bhj ksoYl" wdlD;s yd rEmigyka Nd;fhka ksidf.a Wr fL,dj" fY%daKs
weu fL,dj yd .d;%d wegiels,a, wOHhkh lsu'
rer ffi, ksIamdokh
Ca2+ yd PO43- ix; lsu
YsIHhka bm;a lsulg iQodk lrkak'
128 129
ksmqK;dj 9'1'0 ( kaf.a ikaOdrKh i|yd ieliS we;s moaO;s yd p,k ixprK wdldr
l%u uid n,hs' jHdcmdo îQlaIau jHQy wjYH ke;'&
wendldr ffi, jk wend yd NlaIl iq rerdKq
ksmqK;d ugu 9'1'4 ( i;=kaf.a ixprK jHqy .fIKh lrhs' ffi,j,g tajdfha yevh fjkia l< yels w;r ta u; Tjqkaf.a
p,kh mdol we;' ffi,h p,kfha ;r,uh wka;#ma,diauh
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02 hs' .,dhdu u`.ska oe nysIama,diaufha ;djld,sl fkre we;s lrhs'
fuh jHdc mdohls'
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ;
lYsld wdOdrfhka is lrk p,k îQlaIau jHQy wjYH ke;'&
ixprKfha p,k wdldr ia;r lrhs'
lYsld yd Y=l%dKq ffi,j, j,s. jeks lYsld wdldr jHqy tajdfha
jHdcmdo" mlaIau" lYsld yd fmaYsj, jHqy rEm igyka u`.ska meye,s
m%pd,kh ,nd .kafka lYsldf mdofha isg w.%h olajd we;s lrkq
lrhs'
,nk oal ;rx.dldr p,kj,sks' fuys hd reoaO Ydjg
p,kh f'
fhdacs; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh (
m.Klh wdOdrfhka lrk bm;a lsula wdOdrfhka my; i|yka lreKq mlaIau wdOdrfhka is lrk p,k îQlaIau jHQy wjYH ke;'&
biau;= l< hq;=h' merishf.a isf' iEu mlaIauhlau foayfhka iDcqj ysfoa'
p,kh hd" wjhj yd ffi,Sh hk ugj,ska isf' yn,aj,ska p,kh jk fndagqjla wdldr p,khla
imQK hdu tla ia:dkhl isg ;j;a ia:dkhlg p,kh u olajka hd bhg p,kh lsf iEu mlaIauhlau 1800lg
ixprKh k f' wdikak pdmhl p,khla olajhs' fuu p,khka imQK lsf
ixprKfha jeo.;a l mlaIauh uq,a msysugu m;afjhs' fuys mlaIauh iDcqNdjfhka f;dr
WodyrK iys;j ixprK wdldr ia;r lsu' ksid keug ,laf'
îlrKh - Animation & fmaYS wdOdrfhka is lrk p,k
isiqkaj bm;a lsulg iQodk lrkak' ixfldapkh yd bys,a ug yelshdj we;s fmaYs ;ka;= f,i yekafjk"
W; wkqms<sfj,lg wod< Ih ikaOdrh ia;drKh lrkak' fmaYs ffi,j,ska fmaYshla iE we;' foayhg ikaOdrKh iemhSf
yd p,kj,g bv ie,iSf iels,a, fmaYS iu`. tlaj l%shdlrhs'
p,kh my; ugj,ska is f'
ffi,Sh
wjhj
hd
imQK hd h ia:dkhl isg ;j ia:dkhlg p,kh u ixprKhhs'
ixprKfha Nd; ls
wdydr fidhd .ekSug
f,damslhkag f.dre fuka je,lSug
jHdma;shg
kj" W; jdiia:dk fidhd .ekSug
m%ckk ldhh i|yd ka tla/ia ug
130 131
ksmqK;dj 9'1'0 ( kaf.a ikaOdrKh i|yd ieliS we;s moaO;s yd p,k lxld, fmaYS isks fmaYS yD;a fmaYS
l%u uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 9'1'5 ( O fmaYs mglj, uQ,sl jHqyh yd ldhsl oHdj yevh - tlsfklg ;l= rEmS" fl" is,skavldr YdLkh
wkafIKh lrhs' iudka;rj ieliqKq" YdLkh ke;' we;'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06 hs' .=" is,skavldr" YdLkh
fkdjQ
bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldlru wjidkfha YsIHhd ; tl fmaYs ;ka;=jlg tal kHIal tal kHIal
fmaYs mglfha uQ,sl jHqyh yd ldh luh ia;r lrhs' ^ffi,h&kHIa
iuqyhla we;'
fmaYs mglfha uQ,sl ,dlaIKsl .;s.=K meye,s lrhs'
^tla tla ;ka;=f
fmaYs j. m%ldY lrhs'
mDIaGhg wdikakj
fmaYs mglfha uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s lrhs'
kHIa msysgd we;'
idfldhrhl jHqyh meye,s lsu yd lxld, fmaYs ixfldapkfha uQ,sl
hka;%Kh meye,s lrhs' f,aL orhs f,aL fkdorhs' f,aL orhs'
imK iQ;%sld jdofha uQ,sl ixl,am meye,s lrhs'
idfldhr we; idfldhr ke;' idfldhr we;
ilik ,o lod Wmfhda.S lr.k fmaYS mglfha uQ,sl ,dlaIKsl .;s.=K
biau;= l< hq;=h' wka;ria:dms; uv,a wka;ria:dms; uv,a wka;ria:dms; uv,a we;'
ilik ,o lod wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lrka O fmaYs mglj, rEm ke;' ke;'
igyka weug isiqkag u`. fmkah hq;=h'
isks` fmaYs iakdhq m%odkh iajhxidOl iakdhq iajhx idOl iakdhq
yD;a fmaYs uOH iakdhq moaO;sh iy moaO;sfhks moaO;sfhks
lxld, fmaYs mhka; iakdhq
my; i|yka lreKq biau;= jk whqka idlPdjla fufyhjkak' moaO;ssfhks
lxld, fmaYs p,kfha uQ,sl hka;%kh yd ifldhrfha jHqyh
iakdhq ckH iakdhq ckH fmaYs ckH
imK iQ;%sld jdofha uQ,sl ixl,am
bm;a lsula i|yd YsIHhka iQodk lrkak'
W; wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'
rsoauhdkql+, ixfldapk iuyrla rsoauhdkql+,h rsoauhdkql+, ixfldapk
ke;' iuyrla rsoauhdkql+,
Ih lreKq meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,la ( ke;'
fmaYs mglh
O fmaYs mgl wdldr myiqfjka vdm;a f' fika vd vd m;a fkdf'
isks fmaYs m;af'
yD;a fmaYs
lxld, fmaYs
bPdkq. wksPdkq. wksPdkq.
132 133
fmaYs mglfha ,dlaIKsl .=Kdx. H l,dmh I mh
1' ;kH;djh
2' m%;Hia:;djh
3' WoamH;dj
4' ixfldapH;djh
;kH;djh
weug fyda ixfldapkhg we;s yelshdj H
m%;Hia:;djh A mh welaka ;ka;=
ufhdiska ;ka;=
weug fyda ixfldapkhg Ndckh fuka miqj kej; uq,a . ,nd .ekSug we;s
yelshdj
WoamH;djh
Z fLdj Z fLdj
M fLdj
W;af;ach ,nd .ekSug yd m%;spdr oelaug we;s yelshdj
ixfldapH;djh lxld, fmaYs ;ka;=jl iQlaIu jHqyh
ixfldapkhg fyda fl ug we;s yelshdj
idfldahrfha jHqyh yd lxld, fmaYs p,kfha hka;%Kh' fmaYs ixfldapkfha imk iQ;%sld isoaOdka;h
fmaYs ieliS we;af;a l=vd fmaYs ;ka;=j,sks' ufhdaiSka iQ;%sld "ysila" iys; h'
fmaYS ;ka;= ieliS we;af;a fmaYs fl;s k l=vd tallj,sks' welaka iQ;%sld nkaOk m%foaY iys; h'
wkajdhduj ieliS we;s iQ;%sld foj.hlska fmaYs fl;s iuka;h' tajdhska ixfldapkh i|yd ATP w;HjYH h'
tla j.hla isyskah' wfkla j.h >klh' fmaYsh ixfldapkh u ufhdaiSka iQ;%sld u;ska welaka iQ;%sld ,siaid hdu ksid
isyska iQ;%sld welaka hk fm%dakfhka o >kl iQ;%sld ufhdaiSka hk fm%daka is f'
j.fhka o ieliS we;' ATP Nd;d lr ixfldapkh jk g wre mh jk A mfhys . fjkia
fmaYs fl;a;l fuu iQ;%sld ;=kS m wdldr rgdjlg ixOdkh we;' fkdfjhs' H l,dmh yd I mfha . wvqfjhs'
;o meye;s mh jk A mh >kl iQ;%sld tl u; tl msysfuka iEoS we;'
,d meye;s mh jk I mh isyska iQ;%sldj,ska muKla iuka;h' I mh ufhdaiSka iQ;%sld
welaka iQ;%sld
welakaa iQ;%sldj,ska muKla iuka;h'
A mfha iQ;%sld tl u; tl w;sPdokh fkdjk ufhdaiSkaj,ska muKla
iE m%foaYh H l,dmhhs'
,d mdg mh ueo we;s fLdj Z fLdjhs'
fmaYS ;ka;=jl tl Z fLdjl isg wkqhd; Z fLdjg we;s jHqyh kej; kej;
msysghs' ^ mqkrdj;kh & n, myr ^Power Strokes)
fufia mqkrdj;kh jk jHqy idfldhr k jk w;r" fmaYh s l ixfldapkhg fmaYsh ixfldapkh jk g ifldahrfha uOH foig welaka iQ;%sld imkh
odhl jk l=vdu fldgi fuhhs' fjhs' bys,ajk g uOH foiska bj;a fjhs'
yria fia;= ^ Cross bridges & idoka ufhdaiSka YSI welakaj, nkaOk
ia:dkj,g ifjhs'
ilS%h f yria fia;= uOH foig we;=,g ke fl" m%n, myrla we;s lrhs'
134 135
fmaYs ixfldapkh ksmqK;dj 9'1'0 ( kaf.a ikaOdrKh i|yd ieliS we;s moaO;s yd p,k
B<`. nkaOk ia:dkh iu`. inkaO u i|yd YSI ksoyia lr .ekSug ATP l%u uid n,hs'
wjYH fjhs'
wkqhd; n, myr .Kkdjla u.ska ie,lsh hq;= m%udKfhka fmaYsh ixfldapkh ksmqK;d ugu 9'1'6 ( Ydl j, ikaOdrKh yd p,k wdldr ms<n
s | wkafIKh
u is lrhs' lrhs'
ATP rys;j ufhdaiSk YsI nkaOk ia:dkj,ska ksoyia fkdfjhs'
>k i%;%sld ûfhdaiSka & fLdj
bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ;
ufhdaiSka i%;%sld Ydlj,g ikaOdrKh iemfhk wdldrh ia;r lrhs'
isyska i%;%sld
ufhdaiSka Ydl p,k meye,s lrhs'
welaka
ysi
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh(

welaka iQ;s%ldjlska ksoyia jQ wka;cd,fhka" fmd;aj,ska yd fjk;a m%Njj,ska f;dr;=re ,nd f.k
ufhdaiska ysilg ATP inkaO f'
wod< lKavdh my; oelafjk ud;Dld ms<ns | bm;a lsj,g iQodk lrkak'
wdj;s p,k
ikakuk p,k
idjir p,k
m%d:l yd oa;Shsl Ydl foayj, ikaOdrKhg fya;=jk Ydl foay ;=,
wvx.= mgl
ATP c,fokfhka ufhdaiSka ysi YsIHhka bm;a lsulg iQodk lrkak'
ti f' W; wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj Ih ikaOdrh ia;drKh lrkak'

Ydl ia:djrh' ^tl ;ekl /|S msysghs & Ydl p,k fndfyduhla jOk p,k
olajk w;r tajd fyka isfjhs'
wdj;S p,k hkq m%;spdrfha Ydj W;af;ackfha Ydj u.ska ;SrKh jk jOl
le,aishj, iydfhka ufhdiska ysi p,k j.hls'
welaka inkaOl ia:dkhlg inkaO f'
m%Ndj;S m%;spdr
Z fLdf kj msysu .=re;ajdj;S m%;spdr
iamYdj;S m%;spdr
wdj;S p,kj, Tlaiskaj, lD;H
Ydl p,kj, Tlaiskaj, ldh Ndrh
Tlaiska ixYaf,aIKh yd jHdma;sh
Tlaiska yd .=re;ajdj;kh
n, myr u`.ska welaka iQ;%sldj
,siaid hhs'
136 137
idjir p,k tallh 10 - m%ckkh" jOkh yd likh

fuu p,k Chlamydomonas jeks fm%diagd jkaf.a fydka kslaIkh
l< yel' Wiia Ydlj, ckaudKqj, o oelsh yelsh' ksmqK;dj 10'0 ( kaf.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh suid n,hs'
ikakuk $p,k idudkH ugulg wdf,dalu;a u" wd;djh" WIaK;ajh
jeks ksYa; Ydk;shla rys; W;af;ac j.j,g Ydl m%;spdr olajhs' fjd ksmqK;d ugu 10'1 ( kaf.a m%ckk rgd uid n,hs'
ikakuk p,khs' ksoiqka ( u,la msmSu yd yels,Su
iamY ikakuk ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
iamYh i|yd jQ ikakuk p,k
ksd ikakuk bf.kq M, (
iuyr fis j. wdf,dalh we;s g jD; u yd wdf,dalh ke;sg ^wf fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd (
& yels,Su" l;=reuqrex.d m;% w\qf oS yels,Su' w,sx.sl m%ckkfha sO wdldr WodyrK iys; j ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
oa,sx.slNdjh" tal,sx.slNdjh" fl!udfrdaoaNjh" ckaudkq iEoSu yd ixfiapkh
flfhka ia;r lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl

dldrl:
O m%ckk rgd ms<sn| uQ,dY% ûqs;$soHq;a& YsIHhkag imhkak'
jeo.;a lreKq Wlyd f.k idrdxYhla lsu i|yd isiqkag wjia:dj imhd fokak'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn|j bosm;a lsrSulg .kajkak'
jeo.;a lreKq u;= lsu i|yd Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

m%ckkh hkqfjka woyia jkafka l=ulaoehs ia;r lsrSu'
my; i|yka lreKq tys wka;.; h hq;= h'
tu fYaIfha u kj mrmrdjla ksmou
th cSka f.a uQ,sl ,laIKhla jk nj
fYaIfha meje;au bka ;yjqre jk nj
m%ckkfha wdldr folls'
w,sx.sl
,sx.sl
,sx.sl yd w,sx.sl m%ckkh WodyrK iu`. sia;r lsrSug yd tajdfha jdis" wjdis
oelaug yelshdj YsIHhka iska ,nd f.k ;sh hq;= h'
w,sx.sl m%ckkh - ;ks ckl ffi,hlska $hl=f.ka m%fKsl j ij iu
cks;hl= fyda ffi,hla fyda wkQkkh u`.ska we;s lsrSu w,sx.sl m%ckkhhs'
LKavkh
m%fKsl j ij iu cSka we;s lsrSu i|yd ;ks cSshl= wkQkkh is lrhs'
oaLKavkh
nyqLKavkh
138 139
oaLKavkh ckaudKq yd fuka hqla;dkqjla iEoSu ixfiapkh hs' ixfiapkfha wdldr folls'
ujq ffi,hg ijiu iudk ys;D ffi, folla we;s lsu i|yd tal ffi,slhka ndysr
wkQkkfhka is lrk m%ckkh hs' wNHka;r
kso ( Paramaecium, Amoeba, Bacteria ndysr ixfiapkh
nyqLKava kh mqreI ,sx.sl hd ckaudKq ndysr mirhg ^c,hg& ksoyia lrk w;r
;ks ud;D ffi,hla wkQkk j fnoS ujq ffi,hg ijiu ys;D ffi, Yd, ixfiapkh tysoS isf' ixfiapkh ia;%S m%ckl moaO;sfhka neyerj is fjhs'
.Kkla we;s lsu Wod ( fndfyda wial uiqka yd WNhka
kso ( Plasmodium wNHka;r ixfiapkh
wxl=rKh ia;%S m%ckl ud.h ;=<g ms hd iska ckaudKq we;=,a lrk w;r" ixfiapkh
ckl foayfhkaûd;D foayfhka&$ffi,hlska yg.kakd fkreula f,i we;s jOkh tys oS isfjhs' ckaudKq c,kfhka j<lajd .ekSu i|yd idudkHfhka fN!l
ckl foayfhka$ffi,fhka fjka kj fhl= we;s lsuhs' mirj, oS is f'
kso (hSia" ksvdhdjka ^.Kdjdi iEoSf oS ckl hd f.a foayhg inkaOj mj;S'& Wod ( lDka" Wr.hka" mlaISka" laISrmdhSka" Ydl rdcOdksfha idudlhka
lvlvu ,sx.sl yd w,sx.sl m%ckkfha jdis yd wjdis
fhl= len,s lsysmhlg le we;s jk fldgiaj,ska kj ka we;s u ,sx.sl m%ckkh
Wod ( Planaria, Ribbon worm, Spirogyra jdis
w,sx.sl cdKq$jHqy ieoSu m%fKsl m%fNaok ksmojd mKduhg u`. mdohs'
tal fyda nyq fyda kHIal tall$jHqy u`.ska os,Sr iQ;%sld" iQ;%sldldr nelahd fyda wjdis
iuyr ka f.a iqyqUq,ka we;s lsu cks;fhl= ksmoug ka fofofkl= wjYH u
Wod ( fldks cdKq" Marchantia ys f.ud" os.= ld,hla jeh u
,sx.sl m%ckkh w,sx.sl m%ckkh
reoaO ,sx.sl ka we;s lrk ckaudKq ydu u`.ska kj cks;hska ys lsu jdis
oa,sx.sl Ndjh ;ks ckl hl=g muKla is l< yels u
mqx yd cdhd ckaudKq ksmoug fya;= jk mqx yd cdhd ,sx.sl jHqy fyda mqx yd ujq hdg m%fKsl j ijiu cks;hka ksmou
cdhd ckaudKq tlu hl= ;=< iEu' Yd, cks;hka ixLHdjla tljr ksmoh yels u
Wod( .ev,d" jo Ydl wjdis
tal,sx.sl Ndjh m%frdayKh i|yd iqiq ia:dkhla fkdue;s fuka fndfyda g m%frdayKh is
;ks hl= jDIK fyda n fldaI fyda oeu$mqx fyda cdhd fyda ckaudKq fjkia fkdf' ^cdKq&
ka ;=< ksmou'
Wod ( ksid" uvq
fl!udfrdoaNjh
fYaIs; wdldrhl m%ckkhls' ixfiapkh fkdjQ nhlska ia;%S ,sx.sl i;a;ajhd
kj cks;hl= ksmouhs'
Wod ( ueiaid" iuyr lgqiq j.
ckaudKq iEoSu
ckaudKqjla hkq fYaIs; jQ tal.=K" tal ffi,sl m%ckl ffi,hls' weksud,shd
rdcOdksfha W!kkfhka ckaudKq ksmojk w;r" fndfyda fm%diagdjka yd Ydl
rdcOdksfha ka ckaudKq ksmojkqfha ckaudKq Ydlh u`.ska$wkQkkfhks'
140 141
ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( kaf.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs' Y=l%Or kd,sld

Y=l%dKq iNjhg fya;= jk" ffi, ia;rhlska iuka; ckl wmsPohla
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'2 ( mqreI m%ckk moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;Hhka uid n,hs' Y=l%Or kd,sld ;a;sfha we;' tys wkqms<sfj,ska hq;a ffi, ieliqula oelsh
yelsh' Y=l%Or kd,sld ;=< Y=l%dKq ckkfha O lik wjia:dj,g wkqj
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08 ieleiqkq ffi, wkqms<sfj, my; i|yka mos fjhs'
1 ndysr u ckl wmsPoh (2n) iy i'fgd,s ffi, ^sertoli cells&
bf.kq M, ( 2 Y=ldKq ud;D ffi, (2n)
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ( 3 m%d:l Y=ldKq ffi, (2n)
mqreI m%ckk moaO;sfha jHqyh iy lD;H ,ehsia;= .; lrhs' 4 oa;shsl Y=ldKq ffi, (n)
Y=l%dKq ckkfha m%Odk mshjr flfhka ia;r lrhs' 5 m%dla Y=l% (n)
Y=l%dKq ffi,hl jHqyh yd lD;Hh ia;drKh lrhs' 6 Y=ldKq (n)
Y=l%fha ixhq;sh m%ldY lrhs' i'fgd,s ffi,
mqreI m%ckl moaO;sfha fydafudakuh hdukh oyd oelau i|yd Y=l%dKq ckkfha O wjia:dj, miq jk ffi, j. i'fgd,s ffi,j,g
.e,SuS igykla w|shs' ne|S mj;sk w;r tajd Y=l%Or kd,sld ;a;sfha isg kd,sld l=yrh olajd
ys mj;shs'
dldrl: lD;Hh -
mqreI m%ckl moaO;sh yd wod< rEmigyka$wod< wfkl=;a im;a jH bkayska Y%djh lsu
isiqkag wOHhkhg bv ,nd fokak' fmdaIKh iemhSu ^Y=l%dKq ckkfha O wjia:dj, mj;sk ffi,
Tjqkg ksidf.a Y=l%dKq yd jDIKfha uQ,sl mgl oHd;aul jHqyh i|yd&
wOHhkhg bv i,ikak' Y=l%dKq ord isu
mqreI m%ckl moaO;sh yd inkaO w;sfl .%ka ms<sn| f;dr;=re imhd
f,a.a ffi, ^wka;rd, ffi,&
.ekSug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
Y=l%Or kd,sld w;r we;s wka;rd, wjldYj, mj;shs'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS mka;shg bosm;a lsu i|yd os.kajkak'
wod< Ih lreKq wkql%uhlg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak' lD;Hh - mqreI ,sx.sl fydafudakh jk fgiafgdiafgfrdaka Y%djh
lsu'
sIh lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( Y=l%dKq ffi,hl uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;Hh
s
mqreI m%ckl moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;Hh th wKalaISh" os.e ffi,hla jk w;r" ysi" f.," uOH fldgi" yd j,s.fhka
m%Odk jHqyh yd lD;Hh w;r inkaO;dj my; i|yka mos ia;r l< iuka;hs'
hq;= fjhs' ysi
jDIK yereKq g ish u jHqy Wor l=yrh ;=< msysgd we;' me;,s" jD;a;dldr f" Yd," tal .=K kHIahla wka;.;h'
jDIK fldaI - jDIK wdjrKh lr f.k isk ifuka ieKq ndysr kHIah u`.ska hqla;dKqj lrd mS;D ,laIK ifm%aIKh i|yd ms;D
uh jDIK fldaIh hs'
m%fKsl jH ord isu'
lD;Hh - m%Yia; mos Y=l%dKq ksIamdokh" tajd i j mj;ajd .ekSu
ffi,Sh l%shdjka hdukh lsu'
yd ^ta i|yd idudkH foay WIaK;ajhg jvd 1 -2 0C wvq j mej;Su
W;h'&" wdrlaIdj w.%foayh lrKh jQ ,hsfidfidauhls'
jDIK - hq.,uh" j,dldr f' th ;=< ishq w;sYh jYfhka tys wKavfha ma,diau mg,h rKh$wKavfha ma,diau mg,h kso
ixp,s; Y=l%Orkd,sldj,ska iuka; wkqlKald we;' hdug wjYH c,fol tkaihsu jk yhfrdksfia" %maiska iy
lD;Hh - Y=l%dKq yd fgiafgdiafgfrdaka ksIamdokh' fmmaiska we;'
142 143
uOH fldgi Y=l% kd,h

uhsfgdfldka%hd Yd, ixLHdjla ord ishs' kd, folls' Y=l% wdYhsldj, isg mefKk kd, iu`. tla tla wmsjDIKfhka
mek k`.sk Y=l% m%Kd, inkaO fl ick m%Kd,h idohs'
wKavh foig msyskd hdug wjYH Yla;sh ksmojhs' lD;H
f., wmsjDIKfha isg uQ;% ud.h lrd Y=l%dKq mjykh
ysi yd uOH fldgi w;r we;s ixl=pkh hs' f.f,ys fika%fhda, .nvd lsu
hq.,la we;' tajd tlsfklg ,nlh' tl fika%fhda,hlska wdrN ick m%Kd,h - tla tla Y=l% wdYhsldj ;=< we;s ;r,h" ick m%Kd,
jk wdlaIl iQ;%sldj j,s.fha fl,jr olajd je we;' ;=<g ksoyia lrhs' uQ;%dYfhka mek k`.sk kd,h iu`. inkaO uQ;% ud.h
idohs'
th lYsldj idohs'
lD;Hh - Y=l% wdYhsld ;r,h mjykh lrhs'
j,s.h uQ;%ud.h yd YsYakh
th .= lYsldjls" uQ;%ud.h - uQ;%dYfhka mgka f.k mqr#ia .%kah yryd YsYakhg msfihs'
wKavh foig msyskSug wdOdr fjhs' lD;Hh - Y=l%h yd uQ;% hk foj.hu mjykh lrhs'
Y=ldKq wKavh ;=<g we;= ug Wmld fjhs' YsYakh
^9 + 2& wdldrhg laIqkd,sld tys wka;.; fjhs' tys 3$4 la ma,diau is,skavrdldrhs' iamkauh Woa.dul mgl êrectile tissue& yd uQ;% ud.h
mg,fhka wdjrKh we;s w;r wdjrKh fkdjQ m%foaYh wjidk iys; fmaYsuh jHqyhls'
fldgihs' lD;H - Y=l%h fhdaks ud.h ;=<g ickh lsu
wKav ffi,h lrd msyskd hdug wjYH m%pd,k hdka;%Kh imhhs' - uQ;% mjykh$uQ;% neyer lsu
Y=l%dKq ickfhka miqj Y=ldKqj, j ld,h meh 48 - 72 ls' mqreI m%ckl moaO;shg wod< jQ w;sfl .%ka
Y=l%dKq ckkh i|yd osk 72l muK ld,hla .; f' Y=l% wdYhsld
^Y=l%dKq ud;D ffi,j,ska Y=l%Or kd,sld ;=< oS mK; Y=l%dKqjla iEoSug& hq.,uhhs" Y=l% kd, iu`. inkaO fjhs'
Y=l%dKq ckk l%shdj,shg my; i|yka wjia:d wvx.= fjhs' Y=l%fhka Yd, u mudjla ksIamdokh fjhs' Yaf,aIau, iys;
l,, jDIKj, we;s uQ,sl ckaudKq ffi, Y=l%dKq ud;D ffi, ^2n& njg laIdh ;r,hls' *arlafgdaia" fm%diagd.a,ekaka yd gka C wvx.= h'
fNaokh fjhs' lD;H (-
fh!jfkdaoh wdrNfha oS kej; kej;;a wkqkkfhka fnfoka m%d:l fhdaks ud.fha wd,sl nj WodiSk lrhs'
Y=ld% Kq ffi, ^2n& idohs' iafkaykh
m%d:l Y=l%dKq ffi, ^2n& W!kkfha m<uq Ndckfhka fnoS tal .=K Y=l% wdYhsld ;r,h Y=l%dKq i|yd Yla;s m%Njhls'
oa;shsl Y=l%dKq ffi, ^n& ksmofjhs' Y=l%dKqj,g msyskSu i|yd udOHhla imhhs'
ieu oa;shsl Y=l%dKq ffi,hla u W!kkfha fo jeks Ndckfhka fnoS mqr#ia .%ka
m%dla Y=l% ^n& idohs'
;ks .%kahls' uq;%dYhg jyd u hka uQ;% ud.h jgd msysghs' Yaf,aIau,
m%dla Y=l% mK; Y=l%dKq njg fNaokh fjhs'
yd iq`M f,i laIdh Y%djhla ksmojhs'
fuu l%shdj,sh fh!jfkdaofhka we/ jhia.; jk ;=re mejef;hs' FSH
lD;H -
u`.ska Y=l%dKq ckkh wdrN fjhs' LH, FSH iy fgiafgdiafgfrdaka
fhdaks ud.fha wd,sl;dj WodiSk lrk w;r iafkaykh lrhs'
Y=l%dKq ckkh mj;ajd .k hdu i|yd wjYH fjhs'
uq;% ud.fha b;s we;s uQ;%j, wd,sl;dj WodiSk lrhs'
wmsjDIKh
Y=l%h
jDIKj,ska wdrN Y=l%kd,fhka wjika jk o`.r .eiqKq kd,hla jk
Y=ldKq" wms jDIKh yd w;sfl ,sx.sl .%kaj, Y%djh tla j .;a g
w;r jDIKj,g iamYj mj;S'
th Y=l% hhs'
lD;Hh - Y=ld% Kq .nvd lr ;nd .ekSu" Y=ld% Kqj, ldhsl oHd;aul mK;sh
,s ,Sgrhl Y=ldKq ,shk 20 muK we;'
is lsu" ^Y=ldKqj, p,Ndjh we;s u yd ixfiapk yelshdj ,nd .kshs'&
idudkHfhka jrlg 2 - 5 ml ickh flf'
Y=l% ;r,fhka fldgila Y%djh lsu
144 145
lD;H - Y=ldKq i|yd ;r,uh udOHh imhhs' ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( ka f.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs'
fhdaks ud.fha wd,sl nj WodiSk lrhs'
mqreI m%ckl moaO;ssfha isqjk fydafudakuh hdukh ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'3 ( ia;%S m%ckl moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;Hh uid n,hs'
Y=l%dKq ckkfha fydafudakuh hdukh ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08

yhsfmd;e,ui yd mQj mshqgh u`.ska md,kh lrhs'
yhsfmd;e,uh GnRH uqod yhs' (Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone)
bf.kq M, (
FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) yd Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Y%djh i|yd
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd (
GnRH u`.ska mQj mshqgh W;af;ackh fjhs'
ia;%S m%ckl moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;H ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
FSH u`.ska Y=ldKq ckkh W;af;ackh lr m%dla Y=l%j,ska" mK; Y=l%dKq
wKafvdaoaNjfha m%Odk mshjr yd tys fydafudakuh hdukh flfhka ia;r lrhs'
likh imQK lsu i|yd i'fgd,s ffi, W;af;ackh flfrhs' ^Y=l%dKq
ckkh weru& ksia nfha jHqyh yd lD;Hh ia;drKh lrhs'
f,a.a ffi, fgiafgdiafgfrdaka Y%djh i|yd W;af;ackh lsu LH u`.ska fh!jfkdaofha oS isjk fjkial ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
isf' wd:j pl%fha isjk jHqyd;aul fjkial yd tys fydafudakuh hdukh oyd
tu ksid fuu fydafudakh ^LH & wka;rd, ffi, W;af;acl fydafudakh olajhs'
f,i ykajhs' (Interstitial Cells Stimulating Hormone)(ICSH) wd:jyrKh flfhka ia;r lrhs'
Y=l%dKq ud;D ffi," Y=l%dKq njg jOkh yd likh" fgiafgdiafgfrdaka u`.ska
W;af;ackh fjhs'
dldrl:
fgiafgdiafgfrdaka Y%djh by< hdu u`.ska yhsfmd;e,uiska GnRH Y%djh wvq
ia;%S m%ckl moaO;sfha rEmigyka yd wod< wksl=;a uQ,dY% wOHhkhg isiqkag bv
fjhs'
fuys m%;sM,hla f,i LH yd FSH ugu my< niS' LH Y%djh wvq lsu i|yd i,ikak'
fgiafgdiafgfrdaka o Rcqj u mQj mshqgh u; n,mdhs' n fldaIfha yd nfha uQ,l
s mgl oHd;aul jHqyh yd wd:j pl%fha fydafudakuh
Y=l%dKq ckkh je YS>%;djlska isjqfjd;a i'fgd,s ffi, bkayska Y%djh lrka hdukh ms<sn| wOHhkhg YsIHhka fhduq lrkak'
FSH Y%djh wvq lrhs' isiq wkdjrK mx;shg u bosm;a lsug Wkka lrjkak'
Y=l%dKq ckk f.h wvq jQ g bkayska Y%djh is fkd jk w;r FSH u`.ska wod< wkql%uhlg Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'
Y=ldKq ckkh W;af;ackh fjhs'
wKalaIh hgf;a Y=l%Or kd,sldjl$jDIKhl mgl oHd;aul jHqyh mlaId
sIh lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (
l< hq;= fjhs'
ia;%S m%ckl moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;Hh
oa;shsl ,sx.sl ,laIK we;s u yd mj;ajd .ekSu" m%ckl moaO;sfha ish u
fldgiaj, jOkh fgiafgdiafgfrdaka u`.ska W;af;ackh fjhs' uq`M moaO;shu fY%daKsh ;=< wka;.;h' rEm igykaj, wdOdrfhka tys uQ,sl
jHqyh meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
m%dfhda.sl mrSlaIKh ( m%Odk jHqy yd wod< lD;H w;r inkaO;dj ;=< my; i|yka lreKq
wdlD;s yd rEm igyka Nd;fhka mqreI m%ckl moaO;sh wOHhkh lsu' wka;.; h hq;= h'
n fldaI
hq.,uh" wduka yeve;s h'
n yd ia;%S ,sx.sl fydafudak ksmojhs' - Biag%cka yd fm%dfciagfrdka
wdf,dal wKalaIh hgf;a n fldaIhl yria lvl jHqyh mlaId lrkak'
mef,damSh kd,$n m%Kd,
r fl<jr mqkS,dldr jrhla yd wr fl,jr .NdIhg inkaO jQ kd,hls'
mlaIauOr wmsPohlska wdia;rKh we;'
146 147
oa;shsl wKavh yd fudre,dj .NdIh lrd mjykh lsu is jqk fyd;a muKS' ixfiapkh is fkdjqk fyd;a osk 3g muK miqj fhdaks ud.h
ixfiapkh is u Tiafia th foayfhka msgfjhs' nh uqod yefuka miqj mqmqrk ,o .%dmS iHqksldj"
mSs; foayh njg likh fjhs' fuh wka;rdi. .%ka:shla f,i l%shd lrhs' wd:j
.NdIh pl%fha oS n fldaIfha yd .NdIfha tkafvdfu%hf is jk fjkia l meyeos,s
fmhd yeve;s" fmaYsuh wjhjhla jk w;r f., iEoSu i|yd wOr j mgq fjhs' .e l< hq;= h' tys oS rer .; LH, FSH fm%dfciagfrdaka yd Biag%cka ug fjkia jk
f., yryd fhdaks ud.hg fhduq fjhs' ia;r 3lska iEoS we;' wdldrh o wd;j pl%h md,kfha oS fuu fydafudakj, ldhNdrh o meyeos,s l<
tkafvdfu%hu îa;N+; wmsPohlska wdia;rKh fjhs'& hq;= h'
ufhdafu%hu îsks fmaYsuh& my; i|yka lreKq we;=<;a jk mos nhl jHqyh yd lD;Hh meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
fmfu%hu ^;ka;=uh inkaOl mglhls'& wKalaISh kuq;a foayfha we;s Yd,;u ffi,j,ska tlls'
l,,h wfrdamKh yd N%EKh ord isu' m%iQ;sh i|yd ixfldapk we;s lsu' f.da,dldrh
fhdaks ud.h ksrkakh ^cdkakh ke;& - ujf.ka fmdaIKh jk neks'
m%ckk moaO;sfha ndysr yd wNHka;r wjhj tlsfklg inkaO lrka mj;sk tal .=Kh
ia;N+; wmsPohlska wdia;rKh jQ fmaYsuh kd,hls' jrhg wdikakj Yaf,aIau, meh isy;rl ; ld,hla we;'
Y%d ffi, we;' ore Wmf;a oS Wm;a u`. idohs' ixi.fha oS YsIakhg Y+l% ;r,h ud;D m%fKsl jH iys; h'
ksoyia lsug ud.h idohs' - ud;D m%fKsl ,laIK hqla;dkqjg ,nd fok w;r ffi,sh l%shd hdukh lrhs'
wKafvdaoaNj l%shdj,sh rEmigyka wdOdr lr f.k meyeos,s l< hq;= h' ,hsfidfidauj, ^ndysl lKsld& yd ,smsv |s;s iys; >k ffi, ma,diauhla we;'
N%EK n fldaI" wKav ud;D ffi, ^W!f.dakshd& orhs' m%iQ;shg wdikakj - ixfiapkfha oS ndysl m%;sl%shdj wdrN lrhs'
bka iuyrla m%d:l wKav ffi, njg m;a f' ma,diau mg,h$cdkak mg,h u`.ska wdjrKh we;'
N%EK likfha oS m%d:l wKav ffi, iEfok w;r tajd uq <ud ld,h mqrd u - wdrlaIdj
W!kkfha I m%dla l,df mj;shs' cdkak mg,hg msg;ska mcdkak wjldYh we;'
fh!jfkdaofhka wdrN iEu udihla mdid u tla m%d:l wKav ffi,hla - O%eh foay i|yd wjldYhla imhhs'
ne.ska W!kkfha I Ndckh imQK lrhs' tys oS is jk wiudldr ma,diau mcdkak wjldYhg msg;ska wffi,Sh wdjrKhla jk mEos l,dmh we;'
Ndckh ksid l=vd O%eh foayhla ^n& yd Yd, oa;shsl wKav ffi,hla ^n& - nyqY=l%dKq m%dma;sh j,lhs'
ksmojhs' W!kkfha oS bj;a jk w;sfl jKfoay r|jd .ekSu i|yd O%eh foay jeo.;a
oa;shsl wKav ffi,h Y+l%dKqjla u`.ska kso hdf oS muKla W!kkh II fjhs'
Ndckh is mK; nhla yd fo jk O%eh foayh ksmojkq ,nhs' mEos l,dmfha Y=l%dKq i|yd fYaI m%;s.%dyl m%foaY we;'
- w.% foay tkaihs fuu m%;s.%dyl ia:dk kdY lr ouhs' Y=l%dKqj,g ;jrg;a
wd:j pl%h mEos l,dmhg ne|Sug fkd yels fjhs'
wKav ksmou Wm;g fmr N%EKfha n fldaIj, is jqj o tla tla wKavfha mEos l,dmhg mska ffi,Sh wh uql=gh we;'
wjidk likh imQK jkafka jeys ld,fha oS ixfiapkhlg miqj h' nfldaIj, jHqyh yd lD;Hh
Wmf;a oS nfldaI foflys u 2 000 000 muK m%d:l iHqksld mj;s .%dmS os.h" me;,sh" wduka yeve;sh'
iHqksldj mqmqrd oa;shsl wKav ffi,h nfldaIfhka ksoyia u nfudapkh ckl wmsPohla we;' ^tal ia;h ir, >kdldr wmsPohls&
f,i ye|skafjhs' fh!jfkdaofha isg ^wjq'12 muK ld,fha& jrlg tla nfldaIhla mxcrh" ucdj yd ndyslfhka iEoS we;'
ne.ska l%shd;aul f' wd:jyrKh f;la ^wjq' 45 - 55& osk 28g jrla fuh isfjhs' ndyslfha m%Odk jYfhka O lik wjia:djkays mj;sk iHqksld" >kj
mef,damSh kd,fha mqkS,dldr jrfha we;s mlaIah l%shdj ksid uqod yereKq nh weysreKq inkaOl mgl" mS; foay yd Yaf; foay we;'
mef,damSh kd,h fj; weo .kq ,nhs' nfha je r likh is jkafkaa wKav ucdf m%Odk jYfhka ,sys,a inkaOl mgl" rer jdyskS yd iakdhq we;'
ffi,h Y=l%dKqjla iu`. yd u iHqksld - m%d:l iHqksld" .%dmS l+m$mK; iHqksld
148 149
ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( ka f.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs'

m%d:l iHqksld
s d ffi, ia;rhlska
m%d:l wKav ffi,hla ^2n& yd th jg flfrk ;ks iHqkl ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'4 ( ixfiapkfha isg Wm; f;la wod< l%shdj,s ms<sn| uid n,hs'
hqla; h'
.%dmS iHqksld ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05
m%d:l wKav ffi,h W!kkfha m<uq Ndckh we;' ;r,hla ms iHqksld
l=yrh" iHqksld ffi,j,ska jg we;' ixfiapkhg Ndckh h yels bf.kq M, (
oa;shsl wKav ffi,h ^n& r|jd .k is' Biag%cka ksmou m%Odk lD;H h' fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd (
mS; foayh ixfiapkh is jk ia:dkh m%ldY lrhs'
.%kauh ffi,j,ska iuka; h' ly meye;sh' uOHfha l=yrhla we;' ixfiapk l%shdj,sh wKalaISh ugfuka ia;r lrhs'
Biag%cka yd fm%dfciagfrdaka ksmojhs' wfrdamKh meyeos,s lrhs'
Yaf; foayh l,, nkaOh" l,, mg, yd fmlks jef,ys jHqyh yd lD;Hhka ia;r lrhs'
wl%Sh ;ka;=uh mglhlska iuka; h' .NksNdjh yd tys ld,iSudj ia;r lrhs'
ckl wmsPoh - >kdldr wmsPofhka iEKq ;ks ffi, ia;rhls' .NksNdjfha ff;%udisl ;=< N%EKfha isjk m%Odk fjkia l m%ldY lrhs'
l,, ckl wmsPofha uQ,sl ckaudKq ffi, wkQkkhg Ndck fuka n ysu yd Bg wod< Ok m%;sfmdaIK l%shdj,Ska ia;r lrhs'
ksmou wdrNu' likh jk l,,hg wdrlaIdj iy fmdaIKh iemhSu;a l,,h ord isu;a
Wmf;a oS m%d:l iHqksld ,shk 2la muK nfldaIj, we;' isjk wdldrh ia;r lrhs'
wd:jyrKh m%iQ;s l%shdj,sh idrdxY lrhs'
ldka;djl f.a jhi wjq'45 - 55 w;r ld,fha oS FSH yd LH j,g we;s ixfoS;dj
wvq u ksid nfudapkh yd wd:j pl%h k;r uhs' fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl
dldrl:
ixfiapkfha isg ysu f;la l%shdj,sh wvx.= fmd;a yd wfkla uQ,dY% YsIHhkag
m%dfhda.sl mrSlaIKh ( imhd fokak'
wdlD;s yd rEm igyka Nd;fhka ia;%S m%ckl moaO;sh wOHhkh lsu' YsIHhka wOHhkh lrk ,o foaa idrdxY lsug Tjqkg Wmldr lrkak'
ixfiapkfha isg Wm; f;la jd;djla iEoSug Wmfoia fokak'
Tjqka fidhd.;a lreKq mx;sh bosfha bosm;a lsulg wjia:dj i,id fokak'
wod< wkql%uhlg Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'
sIh lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

wKalaISh ugka ixfiapk l%shdj,sh wkqms<sfj,ska oelau
ia;%S m%ckk ud.h ;=< Y=l%dKq ;ekam;a u;a iu`. tys wvx.= Y%dj ksid" Y=l%dKq
ffi,j, ma,diaud mg,fha wKql ugf fjkia l /ila isf' f u`.ska
Y=ld% Kq ffi,j, p, Ndjh je fjhs' fuu ixiso
a h w il%hs lrKh (capacitation)
f,i ykajhs' fuu Y=l%dKq wh uql=gfha ffi, w;ka kso f.dia meosl,dmfha
m%;s.%dyl m%foaY iu`. inkaO fjhs' f u`.ska Y=l%dKq ffi,fha w.% foayfhka
yhfrdksfia yd fm%d
a fhaia ^Wod( %mi
a k
s &a uqod yeu isf' ^fuh w.%foay m%;l
s h
s% djhs'&
n ffi,fha cdkak mg,fhka tkaihsu ksl=;a lsu" iy Y=l%dKqf ysi cdkak
mg,h iu`. yd u is wfkl=;a Y=l%dKq we;=`M u je<flhs' ^nyq Y=l%dKq m%dma;sh&
150 151
Y=l%dKqf ysi n ffi,fha ffi, ma,diauhg we;=`M fjhs' mhka; m%foaYfha ûoHidr we;=`Mj& jhsri ^fymghsia B" refn,a,d&" I jH" is.r u" jeks jH
mj;sk ,hsfidfidau ^ndysl lksld& cdkak mg,fhka msg;g tkaihsu ksoyia ujf.a isg N%EKhg .uka l< yel' N%EKfhka ujg c,h" hqhd" CO2 yd
lsu ksid meos l,dmh .K" ;o nyqY=l%dKq m%dma;sh j<lhs' ^ndysl m%;sl%shdj& fydfudak .uka lrhs' l,, nkaOh uq,a ld,j, oS hCG o miqj fm%dfciafgfrdak"a
Y=l%dKqf we;=`M u" oa;shsl nfha fojk W!kk Ndck mshjr imQK lr Biag%cka yd l,, nkaO ,elafgdacka ksmojk wka;rdi.S jHqyhla o fjhs'
fojks O%eh foayh ksl=;a lr ^mcdkak wjldYh g ksoyia lrhs'& mk; nh l,, nkaOfha lD;Hhka
iEoSug fya;= fjhs' fojk O%eh foayh jydu mydks hk w;r kHIafha uj yd N%EKh w;r jH yqjudrej
jKfoayj, o`.r .eiqkq iajNdjh wvq u ksid kHIah m%idrKh fjhs' fuu wka ; rdi. ^Bia g % c ka " fm% d fcia g frdka " udkj l,, nka O ,ela f gda c ka "
wjia:df oS Y=l%dKq kHIah yd oa;shsl wKav ffi,fha kHIah" m%d.a kHIa f,i fldafhdaksla f.dkefvdfg%da*ska& lD;Hhla bgq lrhs'
ykajhs' N%EKh ujg inkaO lsu
iuyr jHj,g ndOlhla f,i l%shd lsu
mqx m%dla kHIah ia;%S m%dla kHIash iu`. yd fjhs' ixfiapkfha ieneka u isjk fjkia jQ rer .K yd Rh idOlj,g wod< j is h yels rerh le
l%shdj fuh hs' iEkq kj kHIah jKfoay lg, folla ork w;r tla lg,hla .eiSj,ska j<lajd .ekSu yd ud;D ixirKfha we;s idfmalaIj wl rer mSvkh
nfhka o wfkl Y=l%dKqfjka o ,efnhs' fuu oa.=K ffi,h (2n) hqla;dkqj k u`.ska N%EKhg h yels ydks j<lajd .ekSu
f' kj kHIah" jydu wkqkkfhka fnfohs' l,, mg,
fmdaI ,diagfha ndysr ffi,j,ska yg.kakd m%ir ^fmdaI ,diag wx.=,sld&
wfrdamKh tkafvdfu%h ;=<g hef' wx.=,sld yryd fmdaIl wjfYdaIKh fjhs' we;=
mef,damh
S kd,fha my<g .uka lrk hql;
a dkqj wkqkkfhka lsym
s gla fnoS fudre,dj ffi, mskavfha ffi, fnfohs' l,,h fkdkj;ajd jefvk w;r ndysr;u mgl
f,i ykajk l=vd ffi, f.dkqj idohs' fudre,dj" ,diag fldaIaGh f,i l,,djdrh yd cdkak uh idohs' l,,djdrh u`.ska ;r,h wvx.= l=yrhla
ye|skafjk ;r,hla ms l=yruh ffi, f.da,hla iEoSug m%;sixOdkh fjhs' th ^l,,djdl l=yrh& wdjrKh flfrk w;r l,,h tys wj,nkh mejf;ka
wdjrKh lrk ;ks ffi, ia;rh fmdaI,diagh k jk w;r thska yg .kakd hdka;%sl ydksj,ska wdrlaId lrhs' cdkak uhg meyeos,s lD;Hhka ke;s w;r
fmdaI ,diah wx.=,sld" .NdI tkafv%dfu%hug i ug wdOdr fjka is jk miqj l,, nkaOh ;=< .s,S hhs'
fuu l%shdj,sh wfrdamKhhs' wfrdamKh ixfiapkfhka 7 jeks oskfha oS wer 14 y;rjeks l,, mg,h jk w,ska:h l,,fha miq nvjef,ka yg f.k fldahu
jeks oskfha oS imQK fjhs' ud;D rerdYj, isg fuu wx.=,sld yryd fmdaIl jH iu`. b;d im f,i inkaO l,, nkaOh iEoSug odhlfjhs'
wjfYdaIKh u isfjhs' laIq wx.=,sld iys; wmsPohlska tu wx.=,sld wdia;rKh fmlks je,
jk w;r th wjfYdaIK mDIaGfha flaI;%M,h je lsug fya;= fjhs' N%EKh yd l,, nkaOh w;r inkaOh we;s lrk /yekhs'
.Nks Ndjh yd tys ld,iSudj
l,, nkaOh nh ixfiapkh jq wjia:df isg tu ia;%sh .NkS nj ie,flhs' ixfiapkfha
laISrmdhskaf.a muKla yuqfjhs' ka fofofkl=f.a ffi,j,ska iNjh jk isg Wm; olajd ld,h .e ld,hhs' ksidf.a th i;s 40 la muK fjhs'
tlu wjhjh fuhhs ûj iy N%EKh&' fuh m;kYs,s w,ska:fldah l,, tla tla ff;%udislh ;=< N%EKfha isjk m%Odk fjkial
nkaOhlak fjhs' l,, nkaOh u~,dldrh' .NdI ;a;sfhka" fldahfuka ieu udi ;=kl ld,iSudjla ;=<u isjk likfha m%Odk wjia:d m%ldY l< hq;=
yd w,ska:fhka iEoS we;' .NdI ;a;sfha we;s ud;D rer wjldYj,g" flaI h' my; i|yka lreKq biau;= jk mos l,, lik wjia:dj, mska;+r fmkah hq;=
kd,sld mq~q ork we`.s,s jeks m%ir ^fldah wx.=,sld& fkrd we;' ud;D yd N%EK h'
rerh Y% fkdfjhs' fuys we;s ;=kS ndOlh yryd ir, irKfhka yd il%sh ;=ka jk udih wjidkfha N%EKh 7'5 cm os.h" 25 - 30 g nr h' weia mQK jYfhka
mjykfhka jH yqjudre fjhs' jOkh we;' weis msh yd we;' kdih likh we;' ndysr lkafm;a;
msysghs' .d;%d imQKfhka je we;' ksh likh we;' m%Odk rer jdysKS
Tlaiscka" c,h" .afldaia" wefkd w," ,smsv" iuyr fm%daka" Lksc" gka yd likh we;s w;r yDo iamkaokh ykd .; yel' foayfha wksl=;a fldgiaj,g
fydafudak ud;D rerfhka N%EKh ,nd .kshs' m%;sfoay j. lsysmhla fT!IO wkqmd;slj ysfiys Yd,;ajh je h'
152 153
yh jeks udih wjidkfha N%EKh 25-35 cm os. h' idudkHfhka 550 - 700 g nr h' ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( kaf.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs'
weismsh fjkaj we;' weismsh likh we;' yu /,s .eiS mj;shs' ysi Yd, h'
uqyqfka udkj ,laIK we;s w;r ysiflia je mj;S' foayh ishq frdau j.hlska ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'5 ( orejdf.a fmdaIKh yd likh uid n,hs'
wdjrKh we;' fndfyda wia wiaNjh we;' foayfha wksl=;a fldgiaj,g
idfmalaIj ysfia ;snq iudkqmd;sl nj wvq h' ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02
kj jeks udih wjidkfha ^40 i;s& N%EKh 50 cm os.ska hq;= jk w;r idudkHfhka bf.kq M, (
3000 g muK nr h' ysfia Yd, iajNdjh wvq u ksid ysi yd foayh jvd;a fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd (
iudkqmd;sl we;' ;snQ ish
q frdau ye,S we;' we`.s,s w. olajd ksh je we;' jDIK kd, yd Lkald moaO;s wjOdrKh lrka ia;k .%kaj, o, jHqyh yd lD;Hh
fldaIhg jDIK wjfrdayKh we;' ishu wjhj moaO;s fyd|ska likh we;' ia;r lrhs'
rkaO% yer ysialnf,a wia wiaNjkh we;' i;s 40lg miq Wm; isf' ls ksIamdokh yd ickh ûqod yeu& yd wod< iakdhq yd fydafudak md,kh
Wm; meyeos,s lrhs'
N%EKh tla;rd m%udKhlg ^.NdIfha m%udKhg idfmalaIj& jOkh jQ miq Wm; u lsj, m%Odk ixrpl m%ldY lrhs'
isfjhs' l,, likfha 16 jeks i;sfha isg l,, nkaOfhka Biag%cka yd u lsj, m%Odk lD;H m%ldY lrhs'
fm%dfciagfrdaka ksmofjhs' ufhdafu%hf Tlaisfgdaiska m%;s.%dyl we;s u Biag%cka fnda;,fhka ls fmu g jvd ujq ls oSf jdisodhl ;;a;aj fpkh lrhs'
u`.ska W;af;ackh fjhs' ysug jydu l,ska fm%dfciagfrdaka ugu YS>%fhka O <ore yd <ud wjj, m%Yia; ldhsl yd udkisl jOkh i|yd wdydr" WKqiu
q "yd
my< nishs' N%EKfha yd ujf.a yhsfmd;e,uiska uqod yk Tlaisfgdaiska yd /ljrKfha jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs'
.NdIfha Tlaisfgdaiska m%;s.%dyl fya;=fjka ufhdafu%hf m%n, ixfldapk we;s
u W;af;ackh fjhs' fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl
dldrl:
orejdf.a jOkh yd fmdaIKhg wod< fmd;a yd m;%sld isiqkag imhd fokak'
Tla i s f gda i s k a u`.s k a l,, nka O h W;a f ;a c kh ls u fya ; = f jka ks m ofjk ia;k.%kaj, jHqyh yd lD;H" lsj, m%Odk ixrpl yd ujq ls oSf m%Odk jeo.;a
fm%diag.a,ekaka o ufhdafu%hf ixfldapk we;s lrhs' fuu ixfldapk ksid l ms<sn| idlPdjlg isiqka fhduq lrkak'
N%EKh fhdaks ud.h Tiafia msg;g ;,af' N%EKfha ysi yd fmaYs ixfldapk u`.ska fmd;a msxpla idod mx;shg bosm;a lrk f,i isiqkag mjikak'
.NdI ;a;sfha yd .e f.f,ys m%idr m%;s.%dyl W;af;ackh lrhs' ysu isjk Ih lreKq wkdjrKh jk mos iqiq wkqms<sfj,lg ia;drKh lrkak'
;=re u ufhdafu%hf ixfldapkh os.ska os.g u isu i|yd je jefhka
Tlaisfgdaiska yd fm%diag.a,ekaka ksoyia lsu i|yd W;af;ackh u f u`.ska is sIh lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (
fjhs' Ôk m%;sfmdaIs hdka;%Kh& ia;k .%ka
ia;k .%kaj, ls Y%djh jk .%ka we;' .%ka iEoS we;af;a ls Y%djh lrk ffi,
j,sks' ls Y%djh lrk ffi,j,ska iEoS ls Y%d moaO;s 15 -20 muK we;' iEu
moaO;shla u ls .nvd lrk LKald rdYshlska ^.ld& iEoS we;' kd, yd .ld
isks fmaYs yd fo ffi,j,ska jg we;' LKald$.ldj,ska m%kd,j,g o
bkamiq tu m%kd,j, Y%djhka wdYj,g$fldagrl o uqod yefrk w;r tu wdY Yd,
m%kd, yryd fjk fjk u ^;k mq~qj u;& jD; f'
mqvqj yd ta jgd jQ wh, m%foaYfha iamY ixfoS m%;s.%dyl msysgd we;'
154 155
ls ksmou yd ls uqod yeu yd wod< iakdhql yd fydafudakuh md,kh <orejdf.a yd <uhdf.a udkisl jOkh
idudkH ia;%shlf.a yhsfmd;e,uiska Y%djh jk ^PIF& fm%d,elaka ksfYaOk idOlh <orejd os.= ld,hla wdydr" WKqiqu yd wdrlaIdj i|yd foudmshka u; hefma' Wmosk
- Prolactin Inhibiting Factor ksid mqj mshqgfhka fm%da,elaka Y%djh ksfYa;j wjia:df oS iakdhq moaO;sh we;=<;aj <orejdf.a fndfyda moaO;s wmk; ;;a;ajfha
mj;shs' mj;sk w;r uq,a udi lSmh ;=< f.j;a jOkhla fmkajhs' bmoSfuka miq uq,a udi
lSmh ;=< <orejd b;d YS>% udkisl jOkhla fmkajhs' <orejd b;d blaukska ;udg
.NkS ld,h ;=< mshhqrej, m%udKh Yd,f ' laIr
S .%k
a jOkh fm%dfciafgfrdaka w,a,d .; yels O jia;= yeisrug yelshdjla ,nd .kakd w;r idudkHfhka udi
u`.ska o m%Kd,j, jOkh Biag%cka u`.ska o md,kh fjhs' 11-14 muK wjidk jk g ysfia yd w;a mdj, p,k md,kh lr .ekSug;a ms<f s j,ska
ys| .ekSug" isg .ekSug yd wdOdrhlska f;drj weoSug yelshdj ,nd .kshs' udi
mQj mshqgfhka Y%djh jk fm%da,elaka yd l,, nkaO ,elafgdacka ls ksIamdokh folla muK jhi jk g <orejdg O iajrj,ska y~ ke`.Sug yels jk w;r
yd wod< h' .Nks ld,h uq,af,a fm%dfciagfrdakaj, meje;au ksid fm%da,elaka m%:u jir ;=< oS u l:d lsf yelshdj ,nd .kS' jir follaa muK jhia jk g
Y%djh ksfYa;j meje;afuka ls Y%djh u is fkdfjhs' l,, nkaOh bj;a u idudkHfhka jpk 200l muK jpk ud,djla orejdg we;'
ksid Wmf;a oS Biagc
% ka yd fm%dfciagfrdaka ug my<j mj;sh's f ksid fm%d,
a elala
Y%djh ;j rg;a ksfYa;j fkd mj;shs' tu ksid .ld ls Y%djhg W;af;ackh wfkl=;a laISrmdhska yd ii|k g ksia fYaIfha udkisl jOk ld,h b;d
fjhs' mqvqj yd wh, m%foaYfha we;s m%;s.%dylj,ska werfUk iakdhq wdf. iqIqkdj wl h' fuh fud<fha wl ixlSK;ajh yd inkaOh' fuu ld,h uq`M,af,a u
Tiafia yhsfmd;e,uig ifm%aIKh tu`.ska wmr mshqgh" Tlaisfgdaiska Y%djhg foumsh wdrlaIdj ie,fik w;r wOHdmkh yd O mqyqKqj ,nd oSu o is flf'
W;af;ackh fjhs' f ksid .ld wjg isks fmaYs ;ka;= ixfldapkh is m%kd, fuh mKdufha oS udkj j.hdf.a id:l;ajh i|yd w;sYhska bjy,a we;'
yd wdY ;=<g yd miqj mqvqj Tiafia ndysrg ls uqod yeu is fjhs'
ls Wrd u ksid we;s jk W;af;ackh u`.ska fm%d,elakaa uqod yeu yhsfmd;e,ui

fj;g hefjk fjk;a m%;Slhla ksid isfjhs'
uq,a mYapd;a <ud ld,h ;=< fmdaIKh

<orejkag udi 6la muK jhi jk f;la ujq lsfrka muKla fmdaIKh l< hq;=
h' tu ld,fha oS jOkh i|yd wjYH jk ish u fmdaIl wjYH ksh; m%udKj,ska
ujq lsfrys wvx.= h' udi 6 isg wjq'2 olajd w;sfl wdydr o iu`. ujq ls oSu os.g
u lrf.k hd hq;= h'
udi 6 oS wO >k wddyr ykajd osh hq;= h' wO >k wdydr i|yd n;a" w;dm,a
yd OdkH j. Nd; l< yels h' tajdg t<j`M o tl;= l< hq;= h' fuu jhfia
oS m<;=re o oSu is l< hq;= h'
w;sfl wdydr wdrN lr udi 2la muK .; jk ;=re <orejdg isjrla muK tu
>k wdydr ,nd osh hq;= h' udi 8-9 muK jhi jk g fuu jdr .Kk 4-6la
muK je lsu ksfoaY flf'
jir folla muK jhia jk g orejd mjqf,a wks;a wh .kakd wdydru .ekSug
mqyqKq l< hq;= h'
156 157
ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( kaf.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs' jhi 13 - 14 w;r oS ms <uqkaf.a m%:u i Y=l%dKq fudapkh is fjhs'
ms <uqka ;=< m%Odk Ydl fjkial
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'6 ( m%ckl fi!LH ms<sn| i;su;a fjhs' wia yd fmaYsj, jOkh yd Wfiys yd nfrys lemS fmfkk jOkhla isu
iajrd,h Yd, u yd lg y~ .eUqre u
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
uqyqK" lsys,s" mmqj" Worh yd fY%daKs m%foaYfha frdau jOkh
YsYakh" mqr#ia .%ka yd jDIK fldaI Yd, u
bf.kq M, (
Y=l%Or kd,sld mk; u yd Y=l%dKq ksmou
Wrysia m<,a u
fh!jfkdaoh yd inkaO foayfha isjk m%Odk fjkia ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
.NkS Ndjfha uQ,sl ,laIK
.NkS Ndjfha uQ,sl ,laIK m%ldY lrhs'
.Nks Ndjh yd wod< fydafudakuh fjkia l ksid m%Odk jYfhka my;
.NkS Ndjh ykd .ekSf mlaId ia;drKh lrhs'
i|yka m%;sM, we;s fjhs'
mjq,a ixOdkh yd tys jeo.;a l m%ldY lrhs'
wd:jh k;r u
.e .ekSu je<elaf l%u wod< ldhsl oHd;aul l%h
s dj,s iu`. ixlaIm
s ;
a j inkaO
WoEik frda.S nj ^jukh" Tlaldrh" lerle,a,&
lrhs'
we;e wdydr i|yd oe wdYdjla iy$fyda we;e wdydr i|yd wm%sh njla we;su
,sx.slj ifm%aIKh jk wdidok frda. ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
mshhqrej, we;s jk uD nj
ixfiapkfhka osk 14 isg uQ;%j, o osk 10g miqj rerfha o hCG mej;Su
dldrl:
uQ;% my lsf jdr .Kk je u
ud;D frday,a" ,sx.dY%s; frda. ms<sn| idhk yd mjq,a ie,iq uOHia:dkj,ska m%ckl
iuyrekaf.a mshhqrej, wh, m%foaYfha meyeh fjkiau
fi!LH ms<sn| f;dr;=re tl;= lr .ekSug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
iuyrekag u,noaOh we;su
m;%sld" fmdaiag yd fmd;a msxp idoka m%oYkhla ixOdkh lrjkak'
.Nks Ndjh ykd .ekSu i|yd mlaId
rerfha yd uQ;%j, mj;sk hCG m%udKh u; uQ,sl jYfhka mok f'
.NkS ia;%shlf.a rerh hCG idkaKh je f'
fh!jfkdaoh yd wod< j foayfha is jk m%Odk fjkial' 14 jeks oskfhka miq uQ;%j, o 10 oskfhka miqj rerfha o hCG mej;Su
GnRH Y%djh je u ksid is jk FSH iy LH i%djfha by< hdu" fh!jfkdaofha .NkS ia;%shlf.a m<uq udi ;=k ;=< hCG rerfha by< j mej;S miqj wvq fjhs'
oS ldhsl yd udkisl fjkia l /ila we;s lr,Sug fya;= f' fuu m%ckl bkaSh Wm;a md,kh
W;af;acl fydafudak u`.ska is lrk ,sx.sl fydafudak Y%djfha jeu ksid im;aj, we;s iS; Ndjh ksid mj;sk im;aj, ;sridr Nd;h i|yd mjq,l
m%ckl moaO;sfha mK; u yd oa;shsl ,sx.sl ,laIK we;s u f.j;a lrhs' m%udKh iSudu iqiq nj m%ldY we;' mjqf,a idudlhka ixLHdj iSud
.eyeKq <uhskaf.a jOk f.h je "wjq' 12-13 w;r ld,fha oS m%:u wd;jh is lsug$ore Wm;a m%udo lsu flf foudmshkaf.a wdl ;;a;ajh o n,mdhs'
f' Wm;a md,k l%u - Wm;a md,k l%u u`.ska wkjYH ms,sis| .ekS je<fla'
m%Odk Ydl fjkial iq,N" ;djld,sl l%u jkafka"
m%ckl moaO;sh mK;sh lrd <`.d fjhs' .s,ks fm;s - ldka;djka i|yd Biagc
% ka yd fm%dfciagfrdka by< idkaKhlska
wd:j pl%h yd n fudapkh werfUhs' mej;Su ksid iHqksld mK; u yd wfrdamKh ksfYaOkh f' FSH yd LH
mshhqrej, jOkh isu iDK m%;sfmdaYs f,i fuys oS ksfYaOkh jk w;r .ef., Yaf,aIauh >k u
fY%daKs yd lsys,s m%foaYj, frdau jOkh fjhs' o fya;= fjhs'
Wl=, m<,a u yd Wi jef" f.h jefjhs'
Wm;a md,k fldmq ^fldkavuh& - mqreIhka i|yd
wOYaph fo ;ekam;a jk m%udKh je fjhs'
Y=l%dKq m%fYkh je<lSu'
ysiflia jeu isu'
158 159
,sx.slj ifm%aIKh jk wdidok

IUD ^mh& - ldka;djka i|yd ifm%aIKh jk
wdidokh jHdcklhd frda. ,laIK
wfrdamKh kj;hs' .NdYfha we;s jk m%ody ;;a;j
a hka f i|yd fya;f
= jhs' m%Odk l%uh
Depo Provera ldka;djka i|yd f.dfkdahdj Neisseria ,sx.sl mskaf.a -
1' tkafvdfu%hu ;=kS u ksid wfrdamKh je<lSu gonorrhoea inkaO;d uq;% msglsf oS we;sjk
ûjf.ka orejdg wmyiq;dj yd oe,a,"
2' .ef., Yaf,aIau,fha >klu wl u ksid Y=l%dKq we;=`M u je<lSu
Wmf;a & fu!;% ,sx.sl ud.fhka
3' n fudapkh je<lSu
ierj iys; ly meye
iq,N iar l%u i%djhla msgu'
mqreIhska i|yd - jdfi;al Y,Hluh f iu`. u WK iy
Y=l%dKq ksoyia lsu kj;shs' ysiroh
ldka;djka - mef,damSh kd, .eg .eiSu ldka;djkag -
.NdYhg n msiSu je<lSu mef,damSh kd, ierjj,ska
j| Ndjh msu" j| Ndjh
m%ckl wjfha miqjk hqj,lg Wm;a md,k l%u Nd; fkdlr l%uj;aj
isms,sia Treponema ,sx.sl foa y fha kEu ia : dkhl
ixi.fha fhko ^wd:j pl%fha ire ld,h ;=<& jirlg miq o ms<sis| .ekSula
pallidum inkaO;d" ^fhdaks ud.h" f;d,a" we`.s,s"
is fkduhs' ujf.ka orejdg ;kmqvq& jK fyda ,s
^Wmf;a& ^fokdld fkdjk jK& we;s
orejl= ms<sis| .ekSu ms<sn|j ffjoH oHd;aul Wml%u u" WK" if l=Iag
foayfhka neyer oS n yd Y=l%dKq wdikakj ;ekam;a lsu u`.ska ixfiapkh
myiq lsu yd l,,h .NdYh ;=< ;ekam;a lsu;a is lrhs' taia HIV ,sx.sl wdydr reh yd nr wvq u"
inkaO;d" foay WK" oS>ld,Skj mj;sk
^k;= lr.;a udkj
;r, yryd
m%;sYla;s m%;sYla;s h<s leiai'
^rerh" uia;=&
W!k;d W!k;d Lymphoma - ^jid moaO;sh
jdkqyrKh
iy,laIKh& jhsrih fkdjQ tkak;a wdY%s;j&" m%;sYla;slrK
lgq" ujf.a isg moaO;sfha |jeula f,i
N%EKhg .Nks ksfudakshdj yd fjk;a
iufha " ore frda. we;sf'
Wmf;a " u ls
u.ska
,sx.sl ,sx.sl m%foaY jgd

,sx.dY%s; Herpes
inkaO;d fokdld leis,a,la iys;
ymSia simplex
jhsrih jK" iuyr wjia:dj, oS
WK'
160 161
ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( kaf.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs' ffrfidau" fldau" n,an yd ialkaO wdlkaO jeks N+.; l|ka f i|yd l%shd lrhs'
fmdf<dj ugfuka ;sria f,i Odjl jOkh f' jdhj fldgiaj,ska n,a, mek
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'7 ( Ydl m%pdrK l%u m,odhS f,i fhdod .ekSf yqrej ,nhs' k`.shs' l|g wu;rj wksl=;a Ydl fldgiaj,ska wd.ka;=l wxl=r mek k`.shs' iuyr
tajd wdydr ix; lrka wys;lr ld,j, oS fkdkeiS j;a ug ld,;rK tall
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04 f,i l%shd lrhs'
ffrfidau
bf.kq M, ( ;sria f,i jefvk N+.; l|ka h' fndfydag u;= msgg wdikakj jef' jdhj
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ( m%frdayh" Y,al m;%" iqma; wxl=r" uq,a yd wd.ka;=l uq,a iys; hs' Wod (- Musa,
Ydlj, jOl m%ckk l%u flfhka meyeos,s lrhs' Zingiber, Curcuma, Canna.
jOl m%ckkh" ,sx.sl m%ckkfhka fjkia jk wdldrh olajhs' fldau
Ydlj, jOl m%pdrK l%u m%ldY lrhs' isria f,i jefvk fl m%idrKh jQ N+ .; l|ls' jdhj m%frdayh" Y,al m;%"
m%pdrKh i|yd w;= len,s" wxl=r noaOh yd ls,s noaOh Nd; lsu flfhka ia;r iqma; wxl=r" uq,a yd wd.ka;=l uq,a orhs' Wod( Colocasia, Alocasia, Gladiolus
lrhs' n,an
Ydl mgl kd,ia:j mj;ajd f.k hdf ;dlaIKhla f,i Ydl mgl frdamKh m%idrKh jQ m;% mdo ork fl N+ .; l|ls' Wod ( Allium, Crinum.
ykd .kshs' Odjl
Ydl mgl frdamKfha Nd; lrk fmdaIl udOHj, we;=<;a ix>gl ,ehsia;= .; isria Ydl lf|ys llaISh wxl=rj,ska mek kef`.k mdYal YdLd fmd<jg u;=
lrhs' mska" ;sriaj jefvk w;r ta u`.ska wd.ka;=l uq,a yd kj m%frday yg .kshs'
mgl frdamKfha oS Ydl jOl jHj, lD;H i|yka lrhs' Wod( Centella, Cyperus, Pistia
mgl frdamKfha Nd; lrk O wdrNl Ydl fldgia i|yka lrhs' ialkaO wdlkaO
laIq m%pdrKfha mshjr flfhka ia;r lrhs' ix; wjhjhla f,i l%shd lsug bosuqk YdLkh jQ N+.; l|ls' tajdfha Y,alm;%
laIq m%pdrKh we;=`Mj mgl frdamK ;dlaIKfha fhoS i|yka lrhs' yd iqma; llaISh wxl=r msysghs' ld,;rK jHqy f,i l%shd lrhs' Wod ( Solanum
n,a,
dldrl: jdhj l|lska yg .efkk llaISh wxl=r jOkfhka we;s jk m;% iys; l=vd
Ydlj, O jOl m%pdrK jHqy tl;= lrk f,i YsIHhkag mjikak' YdLdjlaa miqj m%Odk Ydlfhka fjkaj kj Ydlhla ksmojhs'
tajd kslaIKh lr tu jHqyj, ,laIK ykd .ekSug fhduq lrkak' Wod(- Annanas, Dioscoria
l|ka len,s lemSu" noaO lsu yd mgl frdamKh jeks Ydl jOl m%pdrK l%u wd.ka;=l wxl=r
fmkau i|yd mfhaIK uOHia:dk" uQ,sl wOHhk wdh;kh yd lDIslu ldhd, Ydl l|kaj,ska yer Ydl jOl jHqyfha m;% jeks fjk;a fldgiaj,ska we;s jk
jeks ia:dkj,g flaI;% pdld ie,iq lrkak' kj Ydl njg likh h yels wxl=rhs'
isiqka ,nd .;a oekqu u; bosm;a lsula iQodk lrkak' Wod (- Bryophyllum, Begonia
Ih lreKq wkdjrKh jk mos iqiq wkqms<sfj,lg ia;drKh lrkak' Ydl m%pdrK l%u
w;= len,s
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( llaISh wxl=r iys; l| len,s lD;%su f,i mfia isgqu' iuyr wjia:dj,
Wiia Ydlj, w,sx.sl m%ckkfha oS b;d u iq,n wdldrh jkafka jOl m%pdrKhhs' Tlaisk Nd; lrhs'
Ydlj, jOl fldgia u`.ska m%pdrl jHqy ksmojhs' Wod (- Manihot, Ipomea, Camelia, Rosa
162 163
wxl=r noaOh laIq m%pdrKfha mshjr yd l%shdms<sfj<

uQ, moaO;sh iys; Ydlhlg fjk;a Ydlhlska ,nd .;a llaISh wxl+rhla noaO laIq m%pdrKfha oS mgl frdamK l%shdj,sh u`.ska Ydl rdYshla ,nd .efka'
lsu W; mQjlhka êxplants& ,nd .ekSu" W; frdamK udOHhka jdkqy; ;;a;aj
noaO lrkakd jQ wxl=rh wkqch hs' th .%dylhg noaO flf' .%dylh O m%fNao hgf;a ms<sfh, lsu" l%shdj,sh wdrN lsu" m%frday we;su fm%arKh lsu"
follg wh;a fyda lsgq inkaO;d iys; fYaIj,g wh;a h yel' m%frday .=Kkh" uq,a we;su fm%arKh yd mir foaY.=Ksl ;;a;ajj,g .e,fmk
fuu l%shdj,sfha oS llaISh wxl=rhla iu`. Ydlhl fmd;a;la m%fifuka bj;a mos me,Eh ieliSu laIq m%pdrKfha mshjr fjhs'
lr" uqjy;a msyshl wdOdrfhka .%dyl Ydlfha fmd;a; m,d jD; lr leh laIq m%pdrKfha jdis jkafka tlu m%fKs oYh iys; Ydl Yd, ixLHdjla ,nd
iamY jk f,i noaOh is lrhs' tu ia:dkh fyd|ska noaO mj,ska fj,d wkqch .ekSu' wvq ld,hl " wvq bv m%udKhlska foaY.=Ksl ;;a;ajj, n,mEulska
.%dylhg inkaO ug bv yhs' f;drj Ydl ,nd .ekSu'
O m%fNaoj, uQ,moaO;s iu`. l|ka inkaO lsu" ujq Ydlfha u ,laIK iys; jH c fkdidok Ydl m%pdrKh" ksfrda.S Ydl ,nd .ekSu wdh hs'
j f.fhka m%pdrKh lsug yels u jdisodhl ;;a;ajhls' laIq m%pdrKhg wu;r j mgl frdamKfha wfkl=;a Nd; w;r wYS; ;;a;aj
Wod ( m<;=re Ydl jk Mongifera, Rosajeks is;=re Ydl hgf;a cklma,diau ixrlaIKh' cdk m%;sixfhda; Ydl ksmojd .ekSu" tal .=K
ls,s noaOh Ydl ,nd .ekSu o fjhs'
wxl=r noaOhg fndfydarg iudk h' wxl=rhla fjkqjg wkqch f,i ls,a,la
fhdod .kshs'
Ydl mgl frdamKh
jdKqy; lD;%su ;;a;aj hgf;a frdamK udOHhkays kd,ia:j Ydl mgl fldgia
jOkhg ie,iSuhs'
W; ;;a;aj imhd ka g fndfyda Ydl ffi,j, mQK Ydlhla we;s lsu i|yd
iuq,ckk Njhla we;'
frdamK udOHhl jOl jHj, ldh Ndrh
ihsfgdlhskska yd Tlaiska ffi, Ndckhg yd fNaokhg odhl fjhs' uq,a
jOkhg Tlaisk o l| jOkhg ihsfgdlhskska o jeo.;a h'
frdamK udOHhl ix>gl w;r c,h" wldnksl fmdaIl" ldnka m%Njh ^fndfyda
g iqfl%daia&" Ydl jOl jH yd wksla wjYH ldnksl ixfhda. we;'
jOkfha ,dlaIKsl .;s ,laIK ksKh jkafka Tlaisk yd ihsfgdlhskska
wkqmd;fhks'
mgl frdamK l%shdj,sh wdrN lsu i|yd wdrNl Ydl ^mQjlh& f,i Ydlhl
O fldgia jk w.%ia: yd mdYal wxl=r" l|ka" m;%" fKq yd l,, fldgia
fhdod .; yel'
udOHfha jdkqy; Ndjh mj;ajd .ekSu yd wmQ;s ;;a;aj w;HjYH fjhs'
lsklh hkq Ndckh jk fNaokh fkdjQ" mgl frdamKfha oS mQjlfhka
ksmojd .kq ,nk ffi, ialkaOhhs'
frdamK udOH yd ;;a;aj W; mos yiqrejd .ekSu u`.ska lsklfhka uq,a yd l|ka
we;s u fm%arKh l< yel'
164 165
ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( kaf.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs' fN!l Ydl mKdl l%shdj,sfha oS jk pl%j, ckaudkq Ydl mrmrdj laISK
cdKq Ydl u; hemSf ;;a;ajhla c Ydlj, oelsh yels h'
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'8 ( fN!l ;hg olajk wkqj;k ia;r lsug Ydlj, jk fN!l Ydlj, jk pl%j, O;ajh
pl%j, m%jK;d fhdod .kshs' my; i|yka Ydlj, jk pl% wOHhkfhka tajd fN!l ;hlg jvd;a
fyd|ska mKduh we;s nj wOHhkh lrkak'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 10 Wod ( Pogonatum, Nephrolepis, Selaginella, Cycas yd oYSh Anthophyta
(Angiosperm) Ydl
bf.kq M, ( Pogonatum j, cSjk pl%h
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ( cdKq" m%dla;%ka;h" mqx yd cdhd ckaudKq Ydl" wdlsf.dakshd" weka;hd" Y=l%dKq"
w,sx.sl m%ckkh yd iei|Sfuka ,sx.sl m%ckkfha jeo.;al ia;r lrhs' wKavh" l,,h" hqla;dKqj" cdKqYdlh" hk wjia:d weiqfrka jk pl%h ia;r
ckaudKq ksmojk tal .=K ckaudKq Ydl mrmrdj cdKq ksmojk oa.=K cdKq lrkak'
Ydl mrmrdj" mrmrd m%;Hdj;khg odhl jk nj meyeos,s lrhs' by; wjia:d fN!l mirhl j;aug fldf;la rg wkqj;kh we;aoe hs
fN!l Ydlj, mKdufha oS tal.=K ckaudKq Ydl mrmrd laISK f.dia fN!l idlPd lrkak'
mirhg wkqj;khla f,i oa.=K cdKq Ydl mrmrdj m%uqL jk nj meyeos,s cSjk pl%fha O wjia:d ksfhdackh lrk jOl iy m%ckl jHqyj, rEmigyka
lrhs' we;=`Mj iia;rd;aul ia;rhla isik
q a iska u;l ;nd .ekSu wfmalI
a d fkdflf'
fN!l ;hg olajk wkqj;k meyeos,s lsu i|yd Pogonatum, Nephrolepis,
Selaginella, Cycas yd oYSh wdjD; clhl m%ckkh yd jkpl%j, we;s jeo.;a Nephrolepis ys jk pl%h
,laIK fhdod .kshs' cdKq Ydlh" fidri" cdKqOdksh" cdKq" m%dla;,i" wdlsf.dakshd" weka;hd"
Y=ld% Kq" wKavh" l,,h" hql;
a dkqj hk wjia:d weiqfrka jk pl%h ia;r lrkak'
dldrl: by; wjia:d fN!l mirhl j;aug fldf;la rg wkqj;kh we;aoe hs
wod< Ydlj, ksoYl" iar lod" msx;+r yd ia;r imhd fokak' idlPd lrkak'
tla tla Ydlfha jk pl% f.dv kexug isiqka fhduq lrkak' cSjk pl%fha O wjia:d ksfhdackh lrk jOl iy m%ckl jHqyj, rEmigyka
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS bosm;a lsulg wjia:dj ,nd fokak' we;=`Mj iia;rd;aul ia;rhla isik
a d fkdflf'
Ih lreKq wkdjrKh jk mos iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'
Selaginella ys jk pl%h
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( cdKq Ydlh" ixfla;=j" uyd cdKqOdks" laIq cdKqOdks" uyd cdKq" laIq
Ydlj, ,sx.sl m%ckkh cdKq" cdhd ckaudKq Ydlh" mqx ckaudKq Ydlh" Y=ld% Kq" wKavh" l,,h" hql;
a dkqj
fndfyda fN!l Ydl ,sx.slj fukau w,sx.slj o m%ckkh lrhs' f iEu hk wjia:d weiqfrka jk pl%h ia;r lrkak'
l%uhlu jdis fukau wjdis o we;' Iu cdKql;dj c ,dY mKduh u flfrys n,md we;s wdldrh ia;r
ixfiapkfhka miqj jk pl%hl W!kkh m%udoj isu fya;=fjka oa.=K lrkak'
mrmrdjla we;s fjhs' tal.=K ckaudKq Ydl mrmrdj we;s lsf oS W!kkfhka by; wjia:d fN!l mirhl j;aug fldf;la rg wkqj;kh we;aoe hs
cdKq ksmou oa.=K mrmrdf is fjhs' idlPd lrkak'
iEu fN!l Ydlhl u j| ffi, ia;rj,ska wdjrKh jQ m%ckl jHqy we;' cSjk pl%fha O wjia:d ksfhdackh lrk jOl iy m%ckl jHqyj, rEmigyka
^ckaudKqOdks yd cdKqOdks& ixfiapkfhka miqj we;s jk hqla;dkqj ckaudkq we;=`Mj iia;rd;aul ia;rhla isik
a d fkdflf'
Ydlh ;=< /|s ckaudkq Ydlfhka fmdaIKh ,nk l,,h njg m;afjhs'
f.dv u id:l f,i .KdjdislrKh u i|yd mKdl l%shdj,sfha oS oa.=K
mrmrdj wkqj;k we;s lr f.k we;'
166 167
Cycas ys jk pl%h ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( kaf.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs'

cdKq Ydlh" mqx cdKq Ydlh" cdhd cdKq Ydlh" ixfla;=j"
laIq cdKq m;%h - laIq cdKqOdks" laIq cdKq" mqx ckaudKq Ydlh" Y=l%dKq" ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'9 ( imqIam Ydlj, ,sx.sl m%ckk l%shdj,sh yd inkaO jHqy yd
uyd cdKq m;%h - uyd cdKq Odks" nh" cdhd ckaudKq Ydlh" wKavdKqOdks" lD;H ms<sn| wkafIKfha fhfohs'
wKavh" hqla;dKqj" l,,h" ch hk wjia:d weiqfrka jk pl%h ia;r lrkak'
by; wjia:d fN!l mirhl j;aug fldf;la rg wkqj;kh we;aoe hs ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
idlPd lrkak'
cSjk pl%fha O wjia:d ksfhdackh lrk jOl iy m%ckl jHqyj, rEmigyka bf.kq M, (
we;=`Mj iia;rd;aul ia;rhla isik
a d fkdflf' fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd (
mqIamhl jHqyh yd lD;H ia;drKh lrhs'
oYSh imqIam Ydlj, (Anthophyta) jk pl%h imqIam Ydlj, mrd.kh yd ixfiapkh ia;r lrhs'
mKdl l%shdj,sfha oS imqIam Ydlj, jk pl%h f.dv u mirhl meje;au c yd M,j, likfha jeo.;alu m%ldY lrhs'
i|yd wkqj;kh jqKq wdldrh flfhka meyeos,s lrkak' md;fkdaM,kh WodyrK iys;j ia;r lrhs'
fN!l mirj, oS Yd, O;ajhla iys; w;sYhska u id:l O jdiia:dkj, c m%frdayKfha oS isjk m%Odk fjkia ia;r lrhs'
.KdjdislrKh jQ Ydl ldKavh ksfhdackh jkafka imqIam Ydl u`.sks' c iqma;;djfha jeo.;al m%ldY lrhs'

dldrl:
oYSh mqIam fldgia wvx.= mqIam isiqkag imhd fokak'
uq;s yd bf,lafg%dksl uQ,dY% u`.ska isik
q g
a mrd.kh" ixfiapkh" c yd M, likh
ms<sn| f;dr;=re tla/ia lsug mjikak'
tla/ia lr.;a f;dr;=re mok lrf.k mejreula ilikak'
bosm;a lsulg isiqka iQodk lrjkak'
Ih lreKq wkdjrKh jk mos fhda.H wkqms<sfj<lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'

imqIam Ydlj, m%ckkh
mqIamfha jHqyh yd lD;H
mqIam uxc yd mqIamj, iia;r b.ekaula n,dfmdfrd;a;= fkdf' mqIamhla ia;r
lsf oS Nd; jk nyqo," noaOo," uql=g" wmso," fKq" wmsPdhdx.s" mcdhdx.s"
wfOdachdx.s mqIam talfldaIah yd nyqfldaIah hk tajd ykajd fokak' ^mqIam
igyka yd mqIam iQ;% b.ekau wjYH fkdf'&
mqIam yd M, imqIam Ydlj,g ,dlaIKslh
mqIamhl oYSh jHqyh ia;r lrkak' th ixfla;=j iu`. ixikaokh lrkak'
uksh yd o, m;% j| m;% fjhs' fKq laIq cdKqm;% jk w;r wKvm uyd cdKq
m;% fjhs'
fKqf mrd. ksIamdokh u yd ksoyia lsu ia;r lrkak'
oYSh nfldaIhl jHqyh ia;r lrkak' nhl jHqyh" cdhdckaudKq Ydlfh$$a
l,, fldaIfha likh ia;r lrkak'
168 169
mrd.kh yd ixfiapkh
ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( kaf.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs'
mrd. lksldjl oYSh jHqyh yd mrd.kh i|yd tajd f.k hk wdldrh ia;r
lrkak'
h mqIamhl mrd. tu mqIamfha u l,xlh u; ;ekam;a u iajmrd.kh f,i ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'10 ( jOkfha oS iy likhfha oS Ydl jOl jHj, ldhNdrh
w: olajkak' h mqIamhl mrd. tu Ydlfha fjk;a mqIamhl l,xlh u; uid n,hs'
;ekam;a u fyda tlu fYaIfha fjk;a Ydlhl mqIamhl l,xlh u; ;ekam;a
u mrmrd.kh nj w: olajkak' ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03
fndfyda Ydl mrmrd.khg wkqj;kh we;s kuq;a fndfyda taljdIsl Ydl
^Wod ( & idudkHfhka c ksmojkafka iajmrd.kfhks' mqIamhl idudkH bf.kq M, (
,laIK jk meyeh" iqj| hkdosh mrmrd.k hdka;%K i|yd jdis odhl fjhs' ta fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd (
yereKq g iuyr mqIam mrmrd.kh i|yd fYaI wkqj;k orhs'
Ydl jOl jHj, idudkH ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
mrmrd.kfha jeo.;al meyeos,s lrkak' mrixfiapkh" mrmrd.kfha m%;sM,h
m%Odk Ydl jOl jH k lrhs'
fjhs' fYaIh ;=< cdk Y% u mrixfiapkh u`.ska is fjk w;r kj m%fKsl
ixl,k we;s lrka fYaIh ;=< m%fKsl m%fNaok we;s u je lrhs' mqIamj, Ydl ;=< Tlaiska" .snfr,ska" ihsfgdlhskska weisisla w,h yd t;s,Sskaj, lD;H
we;s fndfyda wkqj;k meje;au i|yd jeo.;a fjhs' m%ldY lrhs'
l,xlh u; mrd. m%frdayKh yd ixfiapk l%shdj,sh isjk wdldrh meyeos,s lDIsludka;fha oS Ydl jOl jHj, fhoS meyeos,s lrhs'
lrkak'
oa;aj ixfiapkh hkq l=ula oehs meyeos,s lrkak' tys jeo.;alu myod fokak' fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl
dldrl:
Ydl jOl jH ms<sn| f;dr;=re /ia lr .ekSug yd tajdfha lD;Hhka ,ehsia;=.;
l,,h" c yd M,j, likh
lsug isiqkag mjikak'
nhlska chla we;s jk wdldrh meyeos,s lr" cfha fldgia ykajkak'
bosm;a lsulg bv fokak'
nfldaIhlska M,hla we;s jk wdldrh iy oYSh M,hl fldgia ia;r lrkak'
mdf;fkdaM,kh
ixfiapkhlska f;drj n fldaIhla M,hla njg likh u h' tajd ;=< c Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (
likh fkdf' jOl jHj, idudkH ,laIK yd fydafudakhlg fok w: oelau" Ydl jOl
iuyr mqIamj, fuh iajdNdlj isjk w;r ^flfi,a& iuyr tajdfha Ydl jH u`.ska iEySulg m;a fkd lrkafka ukaoe hs meyeos,s lrkak'
jOl jH fhoS u`.ska isf' ôs yd fodv&
md;fkdM,kh" mdf;fkdaN a jfhka fjkia jk w;r fuys oS ixfiapkhlska f;drj
ksire c ksmofjhs' iq,N iajdNdl Tlaiskh bkafvda,a weisla weish" ,m m;% yd l| w.%ia:j,
ksmojhs'
c m%frdayKh yd c iqma;;dj tal osYdk;slj uDia;r ffi, Tiafia mjykh fjhs' Tlaiska ys idudkH
ch" M,h ;=< m%frdaykh je<lSu i|yd mk; f h wjhl" ch ;=< iajdNdl lD;H f,i ffi, oslau" w.%ia: m%uqL;dj mj;ajd .ekSu" wdj;Ss
l,,h likh ksfYaOkh fjhs' p,k hdukh lsu" m;% m;kh ksfYaOkh" lehf l%shdld;ajh W;af;ackh"
c,h" Tlaiscka yd W; WIaK;aj iemhqko fndfyda cj,g m%frdayKh fkd
M, yd uq,a jOkh fm%arKh" hkdosh fjhs'
mej;Sf hdka;%k we;' c iqma;;djg fya;= ia;r lrkak' Wod ( ksfYaOl ;su"
iajdNdl ihsfgdlhskska" wekska yd inkaO ixfhda. jk w;r Ydl uQ,w.%j,
oe$>k cdjrK" c,hg wmdr.uH cdjrK ;su wdoS jYfhka'
c m%frdayKh ia;r lrkak' yd Ndcl mglj, ksmo ffY,u Tiafia ifm%aYkh f' iajNdl lD;Hhka
c,h wjfYdaIKh u" tkaihsu il%sh u" ix; wdydr ip,u u`.ska l,,fha jkafka m%frday jOkh f.j;a lsu" w.%ia: m%uqL;dj ksfYaOkh" m;% jDoaO;dj
YS>% jOkhla isfjhs' th cdjrK w;ka c uQ,h my<g jOkh u`.ska m%udo lsu" Tlaiska iu`. wka;l%shd lrka ffi, Ndckh fm%arKh hs'
m%ldY jk w;r cdxl=rh RK .=re;ajdj;s nj o c uQ,h Ok .=re;ajd;s nj
o fmkajhs'
170 171
.sfn,ska$.sfnr,sla w,h" ,m m;%" uq,a yd m%frdaykh jk cj,ska ksmo" ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( kaf.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs'
uDia;r Tiafia mjykh fjhs' lD;H jkafka l| oslau f.j;a lsu" c
m%frdaykfha oS tkaihsu il%sh lsu' ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'11 ( Ydl jOkfha oS yd likfha oS isjk wNHka;r yd ndysr
weisisla weis ÂBA& uQ,d.% fldmqf iy wmk; cj, ksmof' ffY,u fjkia mlaId lrhs'
Tiafia mjykh fjhs' c m%frdaykh ksfYaOkh" c,h W!k ;;a;ajj, oS mqld
jeiS hdu" fi!uH l,dmSsl rgj, isisr R;=f oS wxl=r jOkh yd leh ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
l%shdld;ajh ksfYaOkh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
t;s,Sska fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd (
M, yd iuyr mglj, uDia;r ffi,j, ksmo uDia;r yd maf,dahu Tiafia Ydl foayfha m%d:l jHqyh meyeos,s lrhs'
mjykh fjhs' l| os.k
s a je lsu" M, boSu fm%r
a Kh" iuyr Ydlj, mqIm
a l
s rKh" tal cm;%s yd oac m;%S jOkfha fjkial ykd .kshs'
M, yd m;% m;kh i|yd jeo.;a fjhs' m%d:l yd oa;shsl jOkfha fjkial ykd .kshs'
iajdNdl jOl jH fukau Bg iudkj l%shd lrk ixYaf,aIs; lD;%Su jOl m%d:l Ydl foayfha jOl m%foaYj, jHqyh meyeos,s lrhs'
jH o lDIsludka;fha oS fhdod .kshs' lemQ l|kaj,ska uq,a yg .ekaug IBA jOl m%foaYj, mgl fNaokh jk wdldrh meyeos,s lrhs'
Nd; lrhs' oac m;%S yd tal c m;%S l|ka yd uq,aj, m%d:l jHqyhkays o< mgl jHqyh oyd
mdf;fkdM,kh iy M, likh W;af;ackh i|yd lD;%su TlaiSk Nd;h' olajhs'
2"4 - D yd MCPA j,ame,E kdYl f,i Nd;h' lemQ m;% yd u,a mr fkd je l| yd uqf,ys oa;shsl jOkh meyeos,s lrhs'
ld,hla ;nd .ekSug ihsfgdlhskSka Nd;h' l|kaj, os.ska jeu yd c oa;shsl jOkfhka miqj l|l yria lvl jHqyh wKalaIhlska kslaIKh lsf
m%frdaykh W;af;ackhg .snfr,ska Nd;h' M, boSu W;af;ackhg t;s,Sska oS olakd wdldrh meyeos,s lrhs'
Nd;h'
dldrl:
ilik ,o lod" wod< fmd;a hkdosh Wmfhda.S lrf.k my; i|yka tajdfha iia;r
igyka" fLd igyka yd tajd ms<sn|j igyka ,sug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
lf|a yd uqf,ys w.%ia:fha jHqy
talc yd oacm;%S lf|a m%d:l jHqy
talc yd oacm;%S uq,aj, m%d:l jHqy
bosm;a lsula i|yd isiqkag Wmldr lrkak'

Ydl foayfha m%d:l jHqyh
fhl=f.a likhg wod< j h<s ialkaOfha fyda mudf isjk wm%;sj;H
jeu jOkh f,i ykajhs' fuh ffi, ixLHdj jeu yd fndfydag
inkaOh'
kaf.a jOkfha we;s jeo.;alu;a" Ydlj, jOkh" i;=kaf.a jOkfhka
fjkia jk wdldrh;a olajkak'
172 173
jdIsl Ydl ksh; jOkhla o" nyq jdIsl ldIah Ydl wksh; jOkhla o tallh 11 - wdfKsh
fmkajhs' Ydlj, fldgia ksh; jOkhla orhs'
jOl m%foaY Ydlj, m%d:l jHqyfha ia:dk.; we;s wdldrh" w.%ia:" mdYal ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKS oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs'
yd wka;ria: Ndcl
Ydlj, l| yd uq, w.%fha jHqyh" w.%ia: Ndcl" ffi, Ndckh jk m%foaY" ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'1 ( fukav,af.a mlaIKj, oHd;aul moku uid n,hs'
ffi, oslajk yd ffi, fNaokh jk m%foaY" Ndcl mglj, ixOdkh'
l| yd uq, w.%ia:j, m%d:l mgl Ndcl mgl we;s lsf oS fNaokh jk ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06
wdldrh ia;r lrkak'
nfrys" osf.ys fyda mudf je u u`.ska Ydlhl fyda Ydl fldgil jOkh bf.kq M, (
kSu" jOk jl% fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd;
iqiq Ydl fldgia fhdod f.k h<s nr" os." mudj hk mrd;s mlaId lrka taldx. uqyqu" taldx. mlaId uqyqu" oajhdx. uqyqu" oajhdx. mlaId uqyqu" nyqO
mlaIKd.drfha oS jOk f.h uek m%;sM," m%ia;dr u`.ska ksrEmkh lrkak' mlaIK uqyqu meyeos,s lrhs'
oacm;%S yd talcm;%S l| yd uqf,ys m%d:l jHqy taldx. uqyqu w: olajd" fukav,af.a m<uqjk kshuh meye,s lrhs'
wKalaIfhka fmfkk wdldrhg m%d:l l| yd m%d:l uq, yrialvj, O oajhx. uqyqu w: olajd" fukav,af.a fojk kshuh meyeos,s lrhs'
mgl wdldr ykdf.k tajdfha lD;H yd jHdma;sh wOHhkh lr" rEmigyka nyqO uqyqj, m%fKsoY iy rEmdKq oYj, wkqmd; l,ska ks.ukh lrk
weùg fhduq lrkak' wdldrh fmkajhs'
Ydlj, oa;shsl jOkh fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl

dldrl:
oacm;%S l| yd uqf,ys ikd, lehu" j,al lehu yg.kakd wdldrh
fukav,af.a mlaIK ia;r lsug mrs.Kl bm;a ls (power point presentation)
yq~ska ia;r lrkak'
iy fjk;a uQ,dY%hka m%fhdackhg .kak'
ikd, lehf yd j,al lehf l%shdld;ajh ia;r lrkak'
fukav,af.a mlaIK ms<sn| f;dr;=re tla/ialsug Wmfoia fokak' tfia lr
oa;shsl jOkfhka miqj oacm;%S l|l O mglj, jHdma;sh yd lD;Hhka
my; i|yka lreKq wdjrKh jk f,i bm;a lsug fhduq lrjkak'
meyeos,s lrkak'
taldx. uqyqu
oej" jOl j," M,h yd wrgqj" oe oej yd uD oej j, uQ,sl ,laIK meyeos,s
lrkak' oajhx. uqyqu
m%fhda.sl mlaIK
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lsug w;aje,
oacm;%S yd talcm;%S m%d:l uqf,a yd m%d:l lf|a yrialv fo wOHhkh
taldx. uqyqu
lsu'
f.j;= uE Ydl ms<n s |j fukav,af.a mlaIK ms<ns | fl ia;rhla olajd fukav,a
oacm;S% Ydl lf|a ldIaGfhys wKalaIsh iy ufyalaIH jHqyh wOHhkh lsu'
iska lrk ,o taldx. uqyqula iia;rj olajkak' ^Wod- Wi iy & mriamr
,laIK hq.,a 7 la ms<sn|j fukav,a iska mfhaIK lrk ,o w;r tys iudk
m%;sM, ms<sn| jd;d we;' Tyq ,nd.;a m%;sM, ms<sn|j imsKavk igykla ,nd
fokak'
my; i|yka jpkj, f;areu meye,s lrkak' (Pure lines'& kquqyq fm," mriamr
,laIK " taldx. uqyqu" mriamr uqyqu" cklhd" m%cks;h" F1 iy F2 mrmrd
174 175
2nd
;ukaf.a fidhd .ekS ia;r lsu i|yd fukav,a iska lrkq ,enQ l,ams; ksmqK;dj 11'1'0( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs'
meyeos,s lrkak' Tyqf.a l,ams;j, mok jQfha m%uqL;dj iy hqla; uhs' m%fKs
idOl" we,S," iuhq.aul" Iu hq.aul" m%fKs oY" rEmdkq oY" ks,Sk" m%uqL hk ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'2 ( ,laIK wdfKs.; u i|yd jKfoayj, odhl;ajh .%y
jpk meyeos,s lrkak' lrhs'
taldx. mlaId uqyqu ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02
Tyqf.a l,ams;h ksjer oehs fidhd ne,Sug taldx. mlaId uqyqu fukav,a Nd;
lf<a h' Tyqf.a ;lh iy mlaIK m%;sM, ia;r lrkak' bf.kq M, (
mlaId uqyqu" hkq ljfo @ fuh ms<s uqyq ^Back crosses) j,ska fjkiajk fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ;
wdldrh olajkak' wkqkk Ndckfha jeo.;alu i|yka lrhs'
cdk iy we,S, W!kk Ndckfha jeo.;alu i|yka lrhs'
cdk iy we,S, ykajd fokak' fuu jpk fukav,af.a mlaIKj,g miqj W!kk Ndckfha jKfoayj, iajdk hqla; u isjkafka flfia oehs
ykajdfokq ,enqj;a fukav,af.a uQ,Ou ykajdug tajd fhdokq ,ef' ia;r lrhs'
fukav,af.a m<uqfjks kshuh"(-
m%fKsl - cdkuh ,laIK ;SrKh lrk idOl mj;skafka hq.,a jYfhks ^we,S,& fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl (
ckaudKq iEoSf oS tajd hqla; f' tneka tla cka u dKq j l we;a f ;a tla W!kkh iy wkQkkh wOHhkh i|yd O rEm igyka" iar lod iy oHq;a
we,S,hls' udOH myiql isiqkag imhd fokak'
fukav,af.a mlaIKj, m%cks; wkqmd;j, jeo.;alu olajkak' 3(1 iy 1(1 wkqmd; W!kk Ndckh yd wkQkk Ndckfha jeo.;alu fidhd ne,Sug YsIHhskag
iNd;d f ir, kS;S j,g wkqj we;sjk nj meyeos,s lrkak' Wmfoia fokak'
oajhx. uqyqu Tjqka fidhd.;a foa bm;a lsug fhduq lrjkak'
fukav,a iska lrk ,o oajhx. uqyqula ia;r lr tys m%;sM, meyeoss,s lrkak' l%udkql+, wkql%uhlg wkqj ia;r lsula lrkak'
ish oajhx. uqyqj, F2 m%cks;h 9 ( 3 ( 3 ( 1 wkqmd;hg rEmdKq oY we;s lrhs'
fukav,af.a iajdkj hqla; f l,ams;h ykajkak' Ih lreKq meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,la (
F2 m%cks;h hgf;a 9(3( 3(1 wkqmd;hka ,efnk wdldrh ia;r lsug mk fldgqj m%fKsfha jKfoay moku
(Punnet Square) m%fhdackhg .; yels h'
fukav,af.a m%ldYk wkdjrKhg fmr jKfoay" ffi,j, W!kk iy wkqkk
oajhx. uqyqu ms<sn| mlaId uqyqu Ndck wKalaI u.ska kslaIKh lr O oHd{hska iska ia;r lr
fukav,a iska iajdk hqla;u ms<sn| l,ams;h oajhx. uqyqu ms<sn| mrSlaId ;snqKs' WodyrK f,i m%fKsh ms<sn| jKfoay jdoh ika iy fndfj hk
uqyqu u.ska mlaIdlr ;yjqre lsu ia;r lrkak' fofokd iska bm;a lrk ,' fukav,af.a m%fKsl idOlj, yeisu iy
jK foayj, yeisu ms<sn| meye,s lrkak'
fukav,af.a fofjks kshuh(-
mriamr ,laIK ;SrKh lrk we,S, hq., ^fcdavq& m%ckkfha ksoyiaj hqla; wkqkk Ndckh
f' hq.,l we;s tla we,S,hla fjk;a hq.,l kEu we,S,hla iu`. inkaO wkQkk Ndckfha m%fKs oHd;aul jeo.;alu ia;r lrkak'
f'
W!kk Ndckh
nyq O ,laIk ms<sn| uqyqu' W!kk Ndckfha jKfoayj, iajdk hqla; u iy iajdk ixrpkh
iajdk hqla;u ms<sn| kshuh cdk follg jvd je w.hka i|yd ia;drKh isjk wdldrh ia;r lrkak' W!kk Ndckfha m%fKs oHd;aul jeo.;alu
l< yelsh' uqyqj, m%fKs oY iy rEmdkq oY wkqmd; uQ,sl ixLHdkh wkqj ia;r lrkak'
l,ska Wml,amkh l< yelafla flfia o hkak ia;r lrkak'
176 177
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'1'
11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs' ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'3 ( udkj fukav,Sh ,CIK m%fKs.; jk rgd mlaId lrhs' ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'4 ((fukav,Sh kshuhkaf.ka wm.ukh jk m%fKsl rgd .%y
lsug W; ixl,am iy uQ, Ou Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 01
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrlu yeoEfuka miq YsIHhd ( bf.kq M, (
udkj fukav,Sh ,CIK lsysmhla i|yka lrhs' fuu ls%hdldrlu ksu lsfuka miq YSIHhd (
fm<je,a igyka u.ska ksia mjq,aj, fukav,Sh m%fKs ,CIK Yaf,aIKh lr fukav,Sh fkdjk m%fKs ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
tys m%;sM, ms<sn| mqfrdal:kh lrhs' fukav,Sh fkdjk m%fKs ,laIKj,g WodyrK i|yka lrhs'
wimqK m%uqL;dj" iy m%uqL;dj" nyq we,S,;dj" cdkj, wka; ls%hd" nyqcdk
dldrl: m%fKsh iy cdk m%;snoaOh hk fukav,Sh fkdjk m%fKs ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
ksid ;=< mj;sk fukav,Sh ,CIK fmkaug O m%Njhka Nd; ksidf.a ,sx. ksKh ia;r lrhs'
lrkak' ksidf.a ,sx. m%;snoaO ,laIK i|yka lrhs'
isiqkag fm<je,a igyka ,ndfokak'
fm<je,a igyka Yaf,aIKh lsug bv " mjq,aj, fukav,Sh m%fKs fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl
dldrl:
,CIKj, m%;sM, ms<sn| mqfrdal:kh lsug i,iajkak'
fukav,af.a mlaIK iy tajdfha m%;sM, ms<sn| w;aoelS kej; isys .kajkak'
YsIHhkag ;uka iska fidhd.;a lreKq bm;a lsug i,iajkak'
fj wv iy fmd;a Wmfhda.S lrf.k my; i|yka lreKq .ek f;dr;=re
ksh; ms<sfj,lg wkqj iia;rj olajkak'
fiug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
wimQK m%uqL;dj
Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje, -
iy m%uqL;dj
ksidf.a fukav,Sh m%%fKs ,CIK
nyq we,S,;dj
ksidf.a f.a fukav,Sh ,CIK i|yd fmd WodyrK jk j frda,a lsu"
cdk wka;ls%hd
weKq lka fm;s" Widow's peak" luq,a j, .eiSu" w;af,a iDcqj msys udmg
nyq cdk m%fKsh
we`.s,a, wdh u`.skA meye,s lrkak'
cdk m%;snoaOh
Ih lreKq .ek bm;a lsula i|yd YsIHhska iqodk lrkak'
fm<je,a igyka mjq,aj, fukav,Sh m%fKs ,laIK Yaf,aIKh lsug iy
ksh; ms<sfj,lg wkqj iia;rj lreKq oelaula lrkak'
m%;sM, l,ska oelaug fhdod.kq ,ef' WodyrK u.ska fuh f.kyer oelau
lrkafka flfiaoehs ia;r lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr ug w;aje,
we;e m%fKs ,laIKj, rgd ir, fukav,Sh kshuj,ska wm.ukh fjhs' uqy
q j,
3(1" iy 9(3 ( 3(1 hk wkqmd; fkd,efnk wjia:d we;' my; i|yka fukav,Sh
fkdjk m%fKs ,CIK WodyrK iys;j ia;r lrkak'
178 179
2nd 2nd
wimQK m%uqL;dj
Mirabilis Ydlfha u,aj, jKh we;su ia;r lrkak' F1 kue;s Iu cdk m%;snoaOh
hq.aulhd foudmshkag jvd fjkia h' F2 wkqmd;h 1(2(1' wimqK m%uqL;dj cdk m%;snoaOh ia;r lrkak' uqyqj, bka we;sjk n,mEu WodyrKhlska
we;sjkafka wehsoehs ia;r lrkak' ia;r lrkak' m%;snoaOh fiug mlaId uqyq fhdod .kakd wdldrh ia;r
lrkak' cklhka iy m%;sixfhda; m%cks; ia;r lrkak' W!kk Ndckfha
iym%uqL;djh - fuh ksidf.a M yd N rer .K iy A iy B rer .K weiqfrka wj;rK ixLHd;h iy m%;sixfhda; ixLHd;h w;r inkaO;dj meye,s
meye,s lrkak' fuys fuu we,S, folu m%uqL jk w;r Iuhq.aul wjia:df lrkak' m%;snoaOh iy wj;rKh we;sjk wdldrh rEm igyka u.ska meye,s
fmkakq lrkqfha we,S, fol u.skau ksudKh lrk ,laIKh h' lrkak'
nyq we,S,;dj udkj ,sx. ksKh

ksidf.a A, B, O rer .K weiqfrka fuh meye,s lrkak' we;e cdkj, we,S, X iy Y jKfoay u.ska ia;S% mqreI nj ;SrKhjk wdldrh ia;r lrkak' tfiau
follg jvd ;sfnk nj;a .ykhla ;=, fuu we,S, idfmalaIj by< ixLHd;hlska iudk ixLHd;j,ska ia;S%ka iy mqreIhka we;sjkafka flfia oehs meye,s lrkak'
;sfnk nj;a ia;r lrkak' fuu we,S, m%uqL fyda iy- m%uqL;dj fmkakql<
yels h' ,sx. m%;snoaO m%fKsh
,sx. m%;snoaO ,laIK ia;r olajkak' ySfuda*s,Shdj WodyrKhg f.k ksia
cdkj, wka;ls%hd mjq,aj, tu wdndOh m%fKs.; jk wdldrh ms<sn| ia;r lrkak' wfmalaIs;
cdk wka; lsh % d O wdldrhg isf' wNsNjkh" m%uL
q wNsNjkh" ks,k
S wNsNjkh m%;sM, fkd,eug fya;= yd ,e we;s m%;sM, ia;r lrkak' ,sx. m%;snoaO ,laIK
hk fjd ia;r lrkak' ks,Sk wNsNjkh i|yd" Lathyrus odoratus mqIam jKh mskag muKla iSud we;af;a ukaoehs ia;r lrkak'
WodyrK jYfhkq;a" .DydYs%; l=l=<kaf.a msydgqj, jKh" m%uqL wNsNjkhg
WodyrK jYfhkq;a olajkak' wNsNjkh ms<sn| fjk;a WodyrK lSmhla ia;r
lrkak' WodyrK f,i " hkaf.a foay jKh" m%fKs.;jk wdldrh" Lathyrus
odoratus mqIm
a jKh m%fKs .;jk wdldrh White Leghorn f.a msydgqj, jKh
iy White Wyandotte j.fha l=l=,kaf.a msydgqj, jKh m%fKs .;jk
wdldrh yd 9(3( 3(1 wkqmd;h " fuu WodyrKj, fjkiajkafka flfiaoehs
olajkak'
nyqcdk m%fKsh
WodyrK foka .=Kd;aul .;s ,CIK ykd.kak' tla rEmdkq oYhla ,nd.ekSu
i|yd cdk lsysmhla fndfyda iudkj iy wdl,kj ls%hd lrk g tys m%;sM,hla
jYfhka we;sjk rEmdkq oYh m%udKd;aul iajNdjfhka hqla;h' nyqcdk m%fKs
,CIK we;s lrk cdk fndfyda g iajdkj hqla; jk w;r" tajdfha we,S,
m%uqL;djh fmkakq lrhs' tlsfklg imqKfhka m%;sreoaO foudmshka w;r
uqyqula jQ g F2 mrmrdf ldKavj, ,laIK jHdma; u isjk wdldrh ia;r
lrkak' cdk ixLHdj wkqj ldKav ixLHdj ks.ukh jk wdldrh olajkak'
Ydl" i;=ka iy udkjhdf.a nyqcdk m%fKs ,CIKj, jeo.;alu ia;r lrkak'
180 181
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs' cdk m%ldYkh iy fm%dak ixYaf,aIKh
cdkhl joHd;aul ldhh l=ula oehs meye,s lrkak' fm%dakhl m%d:l
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'5( m%fKsfha wKql moku uYkh lrhs' jHqyh cdkhla u.ska ;SrKh f' cdk iy fm%dak w;r inkaO;djla we;'
DNAj, NIau wkqms<sj, u.ska fm%dakfha wefkda w, wkqms<sfj, ;SrKh f'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06
m%fKs fla;h
bf.kq M, ( m%fks fla;hla hkq l=ulaoehs meye,s lr tys uQ,sl ,laIK" idj;% iajNdjh iy
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ( tys we;s jeo.;alu" wdrNl fla; iy wjika fla; meye,s lrkak'
DNA j, fN!;sl iy ridhksl ,CIK ia;r lrhs'
cdkj, jHqyh ia;r lr jKfoay w;r we;s inkaO;dj meye,s lrhs' RNA
cdkj, lD;H iy fm%dak ixYaf,aIK hka;%Kh idlPd lrhs' jHqyuh iy lD;Huh w;ska DNA iy RNA fjkiajkafka flfia o@ rRNA ,
mRNA iy tRNA hk RNA j. ;=fkys lD;H fm%dak ixYaf,aIKhg wod<j"
dldrl: ia;r lrkak'
DNA j, jHqyh ms<sn| YsIHhskaf.a oekqu kej; isys .kajkak' fm%dak ixYaf,aIKfha hka;%Kh
fm%dak ixYaf,aIKh ms<sn| uqs; iy oaHq;a f;dr;=re YsIHhskag ,ndfokak' msgm;a lsu yd mj;kh hk ls%hdj,Ska fol ms<sn| fl meye,s lsula
my; i|yka lreKq Wlyd .ekSug i,iajkak' lrkak' fmd,sfmmaghsv iEf RNA fmd,sufia" rhsfndfidau iy tRNA j,
DNA m%;sj,s;h lD;H flfhka meye,s lrkak'
RNA j. - m-RNA t-RNA , r-RNA
fm%dk ixYaf,aIKh hka;%Kh
Tjqka iska fidhd.;a lreKq bm;a lsug YsIHhskag Wmfoia fokak'
ksh; wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj ia;r lsula lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lrug w;aje, (-

DNA
wKql jHqyh" ridhksl iy fN!;sl ,CIK ia;r lrkak' NIau wkqmd;j,
jeo.;alu " wkqmQrl mg" iaaiajdNdlrKh iy iiajdNdlrKh' DNA u.ska
UV wjfYdaIKh hk fjdfha jeo.;alu' ffi, ;=< DNA iajhxm%;sj,s;h
isjk wdldrh ia;r lrkak'
jKfoay iy cdk
jHqyh wkqj cdk hkqq l=ula o hs ia;r lrkak' tajd jKfoay j, /f.k
hkafka flfiaoehs meye,s lrkak' jKfoay hkq .= odu DNA wKq jk w;r"
histone fm%dak iu. ;ka weisreKq wKqf' fYaIhl f.fkdau (genome) a
hkqfjka woyia jkafka l=ula oehs meye,s lrkak'
182 183
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs'
mKdufha lD;sj, jeo.;alu
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'6 ( lD;s u.ska isjk m%fKs ixhq;sfha fjkiau kaf.a lD;s u.ska jdisodhl iy wjdisodhl ,laIK we;sh yels h' .ykhl m%fNaok
meje;au flfrys n,mdk wdldrh ;=,kd;aulj .%y lrhs' we;sug lD;s m%Odk jYfhka n,mdhs' ;jo .ykhla ;=, we;sjk m%fKs m%fNaok
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04 u; iajdNdl jrKh ls%hd;aul fuka mKduh isf'
bf.kq M, ( lD;s ldrl

fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ( iajhx isoaO lD;s iy fm%a; lD;s w;r fjki olajkak' fm%a; lD;s we;su
lD;sj,g fya;=jk idOl ia;r lrhs' flfrys UV lsrK" X lsrK iy lD;sldrl ridhksl jH fya;= f'
lD;s j. iy tajdg WodyrK m%ldY lrhs'
mKdufha lD;sj, jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs' lD;s ksid isjk udkj m%fKs wdndO
lD;s u.ska ksid ;=< we;sjk m%fKsl wdndO idlPd lrhs' WodyrK lsysmhla f.kyer olajka lD;sh ksid ksiqkag we;sjk m%fKsl
jYfhka isjk wdndO lsysmhla olajkak' fuhska we;e lD;s isjkafka ;ks
dldrl: cdkhl lD;shlsks' WodyrK k we,s nj ykakavkaf.a frda.h (Huntingdon's
disease)" Cystic fibrosis, ;e,iShdj" oEle;s ffi, rla; ySk;djh iy ySfuda*,
S h
s djhs'
lD;s oelaug fj wv u.ska ,nd.kakd f;dr;=re iy rEm igyka Nd;d
wfkla tajd isjkafka jKfoay ixLHdfjys fjkila isu ksidh' fmd WodyrKh
lrkak'
k vjqkaia iy,laIKh yd gk iy,laIKh" la,skaf*,ag iy ,CIKhhs'
lD;s ms<sn| f;dr;=re ,nd.ekSug YsIHhska fhdojkak'
;uka fidhd.;a foa bm;a lsug Tjqka fhduq lrkak' m%fKs WmfoaYkh
ksh; wkql%uhlg wkqj ia;r lsula lrkak'
m%fKsl wdndOj, cdkuh iajNdjh iy tajd wdfKs.; jk wdldrh ms<sn|j
tu wdndO we;s mqoa.,hkag iy mjqf,a idudlhskag Wmfoia iy iydh ,ndug
Ih lreKq meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,
m%fKs WmfoaYlhkag yelshdj we;'
lD;s
lD;s hkq l=ula oehs iy tajd we;sjk wdldrh meye,s lrkak'
lD;s wdldr lsysmhls'
cdk lD;s
cdk lD;s isjkafka DNA m%;sj,s;fha NIau hq.,a f we;sjk fodaI ksidh'
jKfoay lD;s
jKfoay lD;s we;sjkafka W!kkfha jKfoay hq.,a f iy wj;rKh
isf we;sjk fodaI ksidh'
O lD;s j.
cdk lD;s - ks,Sk lD;s" m%uqL lD;s" udrl lD;s
ks,Sk lD;s Wod - ySfudms,shd" we,snj
m%uqL lD;s - nyq wx.=,sl;djh
udrl lD;s - ysfudams,Shdj
jK foay lD;s
Down's iskafv%dauh ^vjqkaia iy ,laIKh&
ffoysl lD;s - ms<sld
184 185
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdfjys uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs'
lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'8 ( ffcj mKduh Yaf,aIKh lsug iajdNdl jrK jdoh
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'7 ( .ykj, cdk ixLHd;fha fjkia Nd;fhka ffcj Nd; lrhs'
mKduh .%y lrhs' ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd;
bf.kq M, (
mKdu ls%hdj,sh ia;r lrhs'
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIihd;
mKdufha jdo fol i|yka lrhs'
.ykh ;=< we;s cdk O;ajh fidhd n,hs'
,eudlaf.a jdoh iia;rj olajhs'
cdk nyqrEm;djhg fya;= olajhs'
yd jhskan.a iu;=,s;;djh meye,s lrhs' iajdNdl jrK jdoh iia;rj olajhs'

dldrl: fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl
dldrl:
iajdNdl .ykhla ;=< cdk O;ajh idlPd lrkak'
YsIHhskag mKduh ms<sn| m%Odk jdo fol .ek oHq;a iy uqs; ,sms imhkak'
cdk nyqrEm;djhg fya;=jk lreKq ms<sn| f;dr;=re tl;= lr .ekSug YsIHhka
mKdu jdofha u; ms<sn| f;dr;=re tla /ia lsug YsIHhska fhduq lrjkak'
fmd<Ujkak'
Tjqka fidhd.;a lreKq bosrsm;a lsug fhduq lrkak' YsIHhka bm;a lsulg fhduq lrjkak'
ksh; wkql%uhlg wkqj iia;rj bm;a lsulg i,iajkak' ksh; ms<sfj,lg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;r lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje, Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,la'

iajdNdl .ykhla ;=< m%fKsl O;ajhla we;s nj meye,s lrkak' .ykhl iajdNdl jrKh iy mKduh
idudlhskfa .a ,laIK inkaOfhka nyqrEm;djhla fmkajhs' lD;s" jK foayj, yd-jhskan.a iu;=,s;;djg n,mdk idOl" mKduh is lrk ldrl f' .yk
iajdk hql;a u" W!kk Ndckfha wj;rKh u" wyUq wNsckkh wdh cdkuh w;r isjk l%udKql+, fjkial fYaI we;sug fya;=fjhs' 19 jk Y;jIfha
nyqrEm;djhg fya;=jk lreKq h' we,S,sl nyqrEmS;dj ir,h' cdk lsgqj hkafkys j oHd{hska w;r mKduh is h yels hka;%Khla ms<sn| Wkkajla we;sh'
woyi meye,s lrkak' jeo.;a jdo folla bm;a lrk ,'
yd -jhskan.a iu;=,s;;dj m; ,laIK Wreuf ,eudlaf.a jdoh

wyUq wNsckkh isjk m%fKsl ia;sl .ykhl cdk ixLHd;h fkdfjkiaj mirfha wjYH;d wkqj ka ;u ; ld,h ;=, wkqj;k we;s lr .kS' fuu
mj;skafka flfia oehs yd jhskan.a ilrKh weiqfrka meye,s lrkak'
wkqj;k B<`. m%cks;hg ,nd fok w;r tu m%cks;fha ka jvd;a fydka
mirhg iqiq f,i wkqj;kh f' WodyrK lSmhla f.k yer olajka fuh
.ykhla ;=, mj;sk ir, fukav,Sh ,laIKj, m%fKs oY ixLHd;h" yd
ia;r lrkak'
jhskan.a ilrKfhka .Kkh l< yel'
iajdNdl jrKh ms<sn| vdka - fjd,ia jdoh

fndfyda .ykj, yd-jhskan.a iu;=,s;;dj | jeug fya;= idOl jkafka"
lD;s " jrKh isu" wyUq fkdjk wNsckkh" mhgk " Yd, .ykhla ;=, pd,aia vdka iy Tyqf.a wOHhk .ek fl ia;rhla lrkak' vdka iy ri,a
wyUq f,i isjk cdk .,khhs' fjd,ia mKduh ms<sn| iudk woyia bm;a lf<a h'
186 187
2nd 2nd
iajdNdl jrKh ms<sn|j Tjqka f.a u;h" iajdNdl .ykj, ksYa; ksrSlaIK ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs'
iy Wml,amk u; mok h' jeo.;a kslaIKhla jkafka (-
1' wl m%ckl yelshdj ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'9 ((je hqKql< Ydl yd i;a;aj m%fNao ,nd .ekSug jrKSh
2' .ykfha Yd,;ajfha ia;sl nj' wNsckk uQ,Ou Nd;d lsf yqrej ,nhs'
3' .ykh ;=, we;s O;ajh hk fjdh'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03
Wml,amk k
1' ; igk bf.kq M, (
2' Wf;dakak;sh fuu ls%hdldrlu ksu lsfuka miq YsIHhd;
Ydl iy i;a;aj wNsckkfha jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs'
,CIK m%fKs.;u inkaOfhka vdka iy fjd,ia iska lsis woyia bm;a Ydl iy i;a;aj wNsckkfha Wmfhda.S lr.kakd l%u lsysmhla i|yka lrhs'
lsrSula lr ke;' m%fKs oHdj ms<sn| oekg mj;sk oekqu" iajdNdl jrK wNsckk ;dlaIKfha m%fKs oHd;aul uQ,Ou ia;r lrhs'
jdohg fndfyda fihska .e<fmk nj idlPd lrkak'
dldrl:
wNsckk l%u j, O wdldr ms<sn| YsIHhskaf.a oekqu kej; u;lhg k.kak'

uqs; iy oHq;a f,aLk wdOdrfhka lD;%su jrKh" iydNsckkh" ysckkh
fouqyq" fYaIdka;r uqyq" nyq.=Kl" lD;s wNsckkh iy m%fKs lrKh
hk lreKq .ek ia;r tl;= lrkak'
bm;a lsula i|yd YsIHhska iqodk lrkak'
iqiq wkql%uhlg wkqj ia;r lsula lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr ug w;aje,la

Ydl iy i;a;aj wNsckkh
fnda. iy .DydYs%; i;=ka i|yd fhdod.kakd wNsckk jevigykaj, jeo.;alu
ia;r lr tajd lDIsll b;sydifha bgql< ldh Ndrh meye,s lrkak' my;
i|yka Ys,amSh l%u iy tajd mok we;s cdk oHd;aul uQ,Ou flfhka
ia;r lrkak'
lD;%su jrKh
fuh lDIslufha b;d merKs iy jeo.;a Ys,amSh l%uhls' f ksid j.d fnda. iy
.DydYs%; i;=ka" Tjqkaf.a j,a oY j,g jvd fjkia we;'
iydNsckkh iy ysckkh
iajdNdl wNssckkh i|yd we;e Ydl wkqj;kh we;' lDIslufha Ys,amSh
l%uhla jYfhka iydNsckkfhys jeo.;alu iy m%fhdack ia;r lrkak'
188 189
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'2'0 ( cdk ;dlaIKh ms<sn| oekqu hdj;ald,Sk lr.kshs'

fouqyq lsu
_ lDIslufha iy WoHdk oHdf tlu fYaIfha m%fNao w;r uqyq lsu iy ksmqK;d ugu 11'2'1( cdk ;dlaIKsl l%ufo yd Ys,aml%u ms<sn| oekqu hdj;ald,Sk
fouqyq lsu nyq,j isf' lr .kshs'
_ fouqyq lsf m%fhdack ia;r lrkak' ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06
_ m%fKsl h hkafkka woyia jkafka l=ulaoehs meye,s lrkak'
bf.kq M, (
fYaIdka;r uqyq fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd;
wka;rdNsckkfha O fYaIj, cdkuh ndOl mj;S' tfy;a fuh we;e g DNA iu`. kd,ia: mlaIK idlPd lrhs'
fjkiaf' O fYaI uqyq lsfuka kj fYaI we;slrf.k we;' DNA taIKj, Nd;hka iy tu ;dlaIKfha uQ,sl mshjr ia;r lrhs'
DNA m%;sixfhdack ;dlaIKfha l%ufo ia;r lrhs'
nyq.K
= l
iuyr Ydl iajNdjfhka we;sjQ nyq.=Kl f' nyq.=Kl Ydl lDIslufha ksmojd fhda; bf.kq b.eka ls%hdldrl
we;' nyq.=Kl Ydl Tjqkaf.a ckl Ydlj,ska fjkiajk wdldrh meye,s lrkak' wKql m%fKs oHdf Ys,am l%u ms<sn| Power point bm;a lsulg
YsIHhka fhduq lrjkak'
lD;s wNsckkh fj wv" uqs; udOH wdh Wmldr lr .kska cdk ;dlaIKfha m%Odk mshjr
lD;s fma%rKh lsfuka Ydlj, kj iy m%fhdackj;a ,CIK we;s l< yels h' ms<sn| lreKq /ia lrjkak'
;uka iska fidhd.;a foa bm;a lsulg YsIHhka fhduq lrjkak'
m%fKs lrKh ksh; wkq ms<sfj,lg wkqj ;jrg;a meye,s lsula lrkak'
jvd fyd| fnda. iy i;=ka we;s lsu i|yd ;dlaIK l%uhla jYfhka Genetically
Modified ka ^m%fKslj lrKh lrk ,o& we;s lsug cdk ;dlaIKh Nd; Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,la (-
lsu YSs>%fhka je hqKq fjka mj;S' WodyrK lsysmhla f.k fuh idlPd cdk ;dlaIKsl l%ufo yd Ys,aml%u
lrkak' DNA iy th ls%hdlrk wdldrh ms<sn| miq.sh oYl lsysmhla ;siafia tla /ia l<
oekq iNdrh" cdk ;dlaIKfha hqKqjg Wmld we;' f ksid j oHdj
keue;s Ih miq.sh ld,fha ;snqK ;;a;ajhg jvd fnfyka fjkia
;sf' cdk ;dlaIKh ms<sn| oekqula fkdue;sj kk j oHdj bf.k .;
fkdyels h'
DNA iu`. kd,ia: mlaIK
DNA j, we;s ridhksl iy fN!;sl ,laIK ksid oHd{hskag ffi,j,ska
DNA fjka lr" klrKh lr kej; j ffi,hla ;=<g y\qkajd ug
yelshdj ,e we;'
my; oelafjkafka j ffi, j,ska msg; DNA wOHhkh yd klrKh
lsf Nd; lrkq ,nk Ys,amSh l%u f'
(DNA ksiaidrKh yd DNA Blotting iia;rd;aulj wOHhkh wfmalaId
fkdflf'&
190 191
2nd 2nd
DNA ksiaidrKh lsu ,o DNA wKqjls' my; i|yka lreKq ms<sn| oekqu fuu ;dlaIKh ykd.ekSug
nelahd frdamKj,ska DNA myiqfjka ksiaidrKh lr .; yels nj ixCIsma;j wjYH f'
i|yka lrkak' fjk;a ffi, wka;.;hka hlsu" DNA wjlafIamKh iy
flakamid lrKh" Wmfhda.S lr.kakd uQ,sl Ys,amS l%uf' >K;ajh wkqj D N A nelahd ma,diav (plasmid) iy jhsria f.fkdau ^genomes )
fjkalr .ekSf fYaI Ys,aml%uhla jkqfha >k;aj wkql%uK flakamidlrKhhs' jKfoay jYfhka mj;sk plS%h DNA wKq nelahdj, we;' fjd iqkHIal
jKfoayj,g jvd fnfyka l=vd h' DNA, ysiafgdak iu`. ne fkdue;s w;r'
DNA iu`. ls%hdlrk tkaihsu kHIa mg,hla o fkdorhs' ma,diav o jKdfoayj,g jvd l=vd plS%h DNA wKq
ffi, ;=< DNA j, meje;au i|yd ta u; iajdNdlj lsh% dlrk tkaihsuj,ska orhs' tajdfha cdk lsysmhla we;s w;r jejYfhka m%;sjl i|yd m%;sfrdaOh
iuyrla oeka Yd, m%udKj,ska ksIamdokh lrkq ,nk w;r" tajd mlaIKd.drj,
oelau is lrhs' tajd ykd .ekSug ma,diav m%fhdackj;a f' jhsria f.fkdau
Nd;h i|yd jdKscuh jYfhka ,nd.; yels h' tkafvdakshqla,sfhaia" ,hsf.aia
ma,diavj,g iudk jk kuq;a tajd wdidok ldrl f' DNA b;d myiqfjka
iy fmd,sufia hk tkaihsu ;=fkys lD;H iy Nd; meye,s lrkak' nelah ma,diav fyda jhsria j,ska fjkalr .; yelsh' flakadmidrkfhka
fyda fc, oHq;d.ukfhka DNA fjka lr .; yels h'
we.frdaia fc,a oaHq;d.ukh
fuh DNA wKq tajdfha Yd,;ajh wkqj fjka lsug ridhkd.drj, Nd; jk m%;sixfhda; DNA jdyl
nyq,j fhfok ir, ;dlaIK l%uhls' fuu ;dlaIKhg mok ;sfnk uQ,sl
ndysr cdk nelahdj,g /f.khdu i|yd ma,diav iy jhsria f.fkdau jdyl
l%ufoh iy uQ,Ou idlPd lrkak'
f,i Nd; lrkq ,ef' cdkfha wod, fldgi fyda DNA j,ska fldgila odhlhdf.a
DNA j,ska ix.ukh lrhs' f i|yd iSud tkaihsu u.ska DNA lmkq ,ef'
DNA Blotting
lemQ DNA fldgia we.frdaia fc,a j, ;nd fjka lrk w;r tajdfha wjYH jk
fuh fc,s udOHfha isg fmryka lvodis fyda mg, olajd oHq;d.ukfha DNA
cdk fldgi taIKh u.ska ykd .kq ,ef' fuh jhsri f.fkdauh iu`. fyda
wKq udre lrjk ;dlaIKhls'
ma,diavh iu`. fyda inkaO lsug iSud tkaihsuh iy DNA ,hsf.aia tkaihsu
Nd; f'
DNA Probes iy uqyqlrKh
_ DNA probes hkq ksYa;j i<l=Kq lrk ,o DNA wKqh' fjd Bg iudk fyda
nelahd mKdukh
fnfyka iudk NIau wkqms<sfj,la we;s DNA wKq ykd.ekSug uqyq lrKh
ndysr DNA wKq fyda cdk" nelahd ffi,j,g ykajdu nelahd mKdukh
lrkq ,ef' fuh DNA we`.s,s i<l=Kq iy cdk ykd .ekSf m%fhdackj;a
k f' E Coli j,g fjk;a wd.ka;=l DNA iu`. neug yelshdj ,ndf
f' DNA uqyq lrK ls%hdj,sh i|yd iaiajdNdlrKh odhl f'
l%u ykajd we;' mKdukfhka miqj tajd fm%isj, f;dard .;a udOHhl
j.d lr fuu m%;sixfhda; DNA iys; iqiq E .Coli .kdjdi ykd .kS' f
DNA we`.s,s i,l=Kq
i|yd m%;sjlj,g m%;sfrda i<l=Kq lrk ,o jdyl cdk Nd;d lrhs'
DNA we`., s s i<l=Kq fyda DNATyping; mqo.
a ,hka" Tjqkf
a .a keoEhka" wmrdOlrejka
wdh ykd .ekSug oeka fnfyka Wmfhda.s lr.kq ,ef' fuhg mok
cdk laf,dakSlrKh
we;af;a mqoa.,hska ;=< we;s cdkm: ^loci& j, we;s m%fKsl O;ajhhs' fuu
cdk laf,dakSlrKh hkq ndysr cdk Odrl ffi,;=<g mKdukh u.ska we;=,a
l%ufofha m%Odk mshjr idlPd lrkak'
lsu iy tfia mKdukh lrk ,o ffi, j.d lsu' fuys wruqK (
1' laf,dakSlrKh l< cdk" .=Kkh lsu
m%;sixfhda; DNA ;dlaIKh "
2' laf,dakl
S rKh l< Odrlhdf.ka ,nd.;a cdkfhka idokq ,nk fm%d
a khla
cdk bxfkare oHdjg mok we;af;aa O fYaIj,ska ,nd.;a DNA wKq Y%
ksiaidrKh iy ksIamdokh lr .ekSu'
lsfuka tla tallhla f,i ls%hdldrkakdjQ DNA wKqjla ,nd.ekSuh' fuu
l%uh uq,ska ykajk ,oafoa E.coli nelahd Wmfhda.S lrf.kh' m%;sixfhda;
DNA wKqjla hkq O kaf.ka ,nd.;a fouqy q DNA wKq tlg inkaOlrk
192 193
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( cdk ;dlaIKh ms<sn| oekqu hdj;ald,Sk lr .kshs' lDIslufha

fjk;a fYaIj, m%fhdackj;a ,laIK ykajd ka Ydl m%fNao lDIslufha
ksmqK;d ugu 11'2'2( cdk ;dlaIKfha Nd; ms<sn| oekqu hdj;ald,Sk lr .kshs' Nd; lrkq ,ef' Wod - b`.=" fidahd" lmq iy Canola j. f' lDka f.ka jk
ydksj,g m%;sfrda Ydl ksmojd .ekSug Bacillus thuringiensis hk nelahd
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03 cdk fhdodf.k we;' Agrobacterium tumefaciens cdk fhdodf.k j,a
kdYlj,g m%;f s rda jk m fNda. m%fNao ksmojd f.k we;' Erwinia nelahdj,
bf.kq M, ( cdk fhdodf.k Carotene j,ska fmdfydi;a rka iy,a ksmojd we;' Ringspot
fuu ls%hdldrlu ksufuka miq YsIHhd; jhsrihg m%;sfrda mefmd,a ksmojd we;'
m%fKslj lrKh l, ka ia;r lrhs'
m%fKslj lrKh l, ka ffjoH oHdf " lDIslufha iy ffjoH oHdf
ludka;j, fhdod .ekSu ia;r lrhs' m%fKslj lrKh l< ka fhdodf.k O wdndO iy f,v frda.j,g
m%fKslj lsrKh l< ka Nd;h ms<sn| iudcfha .eg idlPd lrhs' Nd;d jk fm%dak j. ksmojd we;' WodyrK lsysmhla k udkj bkaishq,ska"
udkj jOl fydafudakh" jOl frda fydafudakh" rerh le .eiSf idOl
dldrl: bkagfmfrdka iy fymghsia m%;sfoaycklh hkdh'
(GMO) m%fKslj lsrKh l< ka ms<sn|j WodyrK fmkakq lrk rEm

ludka;j,
isiqkag ,nd fokak'
m%fKslj lrKh l< ka fhdodf.k tkaihsu iy ludka;j, Nd;d jk
lDIsluh" ffjoH oHdj iy ludka; hk fCI;%j, m%fKslj lrKh l< fjk;a M, ksmojd we;' WodyrK k invertase, chymosin, amylase, pectinase iy
ka Nd;h ms<sn| f;dr;=re tla /ia lrk f,i isiqkag mjikak' wdydr ludka;fha jeo.;a jk .agf jeks wdydr wdl,k jH^food additives
&'
is;a weo.kakd bm;a lsula i|yd isiqkaj iqodk lrkak'
m%fKslj lrKh l< ka inkaO iudh .eg
ksYa; wkqms<sfj,lg Ih lreKq iia;rj meye,s lrkak'
m%fKslj lrKh l< ka" fYaIfhka lDIs fNdA. f,i Nd;h ms<sn|j
fndfyda rgj, we;e wh frdaO;d olajd we;' fuu frdaO;djg mok
Ih lreKq meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,la: we;af;a wdpdr Ou" ffjoH oHd;aul iy mil fya;k
= h
a ' fCIa;j
% , m%fKslj
lrKh lrk ,o kaf.a Nd;fhka jk wjodku wju lr .eksug oHd{hska
cdkuh jYfhka fjkial< ka iy Tjqkaf.ka we;s m%fhdack iska iuyr jev ms<sfj, oekgu;a wkq.ukh lrkq ,ef'
O lghq;= i|yd m%;sixfhda; DNA ;dlaIKh Wmfhda.S lr.kska fjk;a
kaf.ka cdk iys; fndfyda nelahd" Ydl iy i;=ka ksmojdf.k we;' uq, f ksid we;s h yels m%Yak iy tajdg hyels ms<sh idlPd lrkak'
CIq ka " Ydl" i;=ka iy udkj cdk /f.k" nelahd fYaI j,g ykajd
fok ,o cdk u.ska m%fhdackj;a fm%dak ksmojdf.k we;' Odrlhd jYfhka
nelahd fhdodf.k tjeks fm%dak Yd, m%udKj,ska ksmou iy msis lr
.ekSu jvd myiqh' l l,lg miq hSia ffi," i;=ka iy Ydl Odrl ffi,
f,i fhdod .ekSfuka fuu ;dlaIKh ixjOkh lrk ,' fjd fmdf
m%fKslj lrKh l, ka (GMO) f,i ykajhs' ' oekg lDIslufha oS"
ffjoH oHdf oS iy ludka;j, oS m%fKslj lrKh l< ka nyq,
jYfhka fhdod .kq ,ef'
194 195
2nd 2nd
tallh 12 - mdil j oHdj .ykh

.ykhla hkq tlu fYaIhlg wh;a tlsfkld iu. wka; ls%hd lrka
ksmqK;dj 12'1'0 ( ka yd mirh w;r wka; inkaO;d ms<sn| j oHd;aul ksYa; m%foaYhl ksYa; ld,hl jik ka iuQyhls'
Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs' Wod - 2009 jif hd, cd;sl jk WoHdkfha is w,ska .ykh'
.ykhl ,laIK meyeos,s lrkak' ^.yk >k;ajh" .ykfha jOk f.h
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'1 ( O ixOdk ug ;=<ska ffcjf.da,h ms<sn| Yaf,aIKfha wka;# fYaI ;r`.h'
fhfohs' m%cdj
ksYa; m%foaYhl" tlsfkld iu`. wka;ls%hd lrk O fYaIj,g wh;a
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03 .yk iuQyhls'
Wod (- hd, cd;sl jfkdaoHdkfha i;a;aj m%cdj' fuu wka; ls%hdj,g
bf.kq M, ( f,damSsh;dj" Ydl NlaIl;dj" iy inkaO;d we;=,;a f'
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd; mir moaO;sh
mir oHdj wOHhkh lsf jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs' m%cdjl" ish ka yd wffcj mirh;a" tlsfkld w;r we;s wka;ls%hd;a
mirfha cS ixOdk ugj, uQ,sl ,laIK f.dvk.hs' we;=<;a ls%hdld$.;sl tallhhs'
m%Odk wffcj ixrpl ,ehsia;= .; lr" tajdfha m%Odk ,laIK i|yka lrhs' Wod - jkdka;rh
ffcj f.da,h
dldrl: mDfha we;s ish mir moaO;s we;=<;a Yd, ls%hdld moaO;shhs'
mDh
mirfha ixOdk ug isiqka ,jd f.dvkxjkak' mDfha yrialvl my; ia;r ;=k kslaIKh l< yels h; yrh" m%djrh"
iqiq rEmigyka Nd; lr mDfha iajNdjh ms<sn|j idlPd lrkak'
lfnd, ^weuqKqu n,kak&
lfnd, (- msg;u ia;rhjk fuh fjkia j.j, mdIdKj,ska hq;= h'
Ih lreKq meye,slr ug w;aje,la:
Ys,d f.da,h (- lfnd, yd m%djrfha by< fldgiska hq;= h' ^ 100 km
mir oHd;aul uQ,Ou ms<sn| oekqf jeo.;alu
muK jk&
j;udkfha udkj ixy;sh mdil .eg rdYshlg uqyqK we;' fuu
c,f.da,h (- id.rh yd h c,dYj,ska hq;= h' mDfha u;=msg 70]
.egj, m%udKh yd ixlSK;dj fkka k jOkh fjka mDh u; la muK c,fhka jeiS we;' mDh u; we;s c,fhka
jhg ;ckhla njg m;a we;' 3] la muK h f'
.=rejrhd iska j;udkfha ksia ixy;sh uqyqK we;s mdil .eg,q jdhq f.da,h (- WIaK;ajh wkqj jdhqf.da,h fldgia y;rlg fjka l,
,ehsia;= .; lrhs' fuu .eg i|yd id:l ms<sh fhug iqiq fhdackd
yels h' my;u ia;rfha isg wkqms<sfj,ska (
bm;a lsug tajd wOHhkh lsu jeo.;a h'
1' mj;s f.da,h
mirfha ixOdk ug yd tajdfha uQ,sl ,laIK 2' wmj;s f.da,h îa;r f.da,h&
taffllhd" .ykh" m%cdj" mir moaO;sh" ffcj f.da,h ms<sn| ixl,am 3' uOH f.da,h
.=rejrhd iska .ykh" m%cdj" mir moaO;sh" ffcj f.da,h hk tajdfha
4' ;dm f.da,h
,CIK meye,s l< hq;= hs'
ld,.=Kh i|yd b;d jeo.;a jk c, jdIam yd laIq wxY= mj;s f.da,fha
taffllhd(
muKla wvx.= h' fidaka ia;rh wmj;s f.da,fha msysgd we;' fidaka ia;rh
fYaIhl tla fhls' taffll ka Tjqkaf.a fndfyda wjYH;d i|yd
iqhhdf.ka ksl=;ajk UV lsrK Wrd.kS'
mirh iu. wka; ls%hd olajhs'
mD u;=msg isg tla tla ia;rj, idfmalaI Wi iy fuu ia;rj, WIaK;aj
iy mSvk fjkia u oelah hq;= hs'
196 197
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 12'1'0 ( ka yd mirh w;r wka; inkaO;d ms<sn| j oHd;aul

Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs ffcj ixrplh (-
mir moaO;sj, m%Odk ffcj ixrpl (
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'2 ( mir moaO;sj, ix>gl yd ls%hdld;ajh .fIKh lrhs' m%d:l ksIamdol
mdfNdacl ^m%d:l iy oa;shsl&
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05 kslafIam NlaIl ^fhdaclhkao we;=j&
Yla;s ixl%duK in|;d yd fmdaIK in|;d u; mir moaO;shl ffcj
bf.kq M, ( ixrpl tlsfkl yd wka; inkaO;d mj;ajhs'
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd (
mir moaO;sj, ixrpl ia;r lrhs' mdil ksfla;kh (-
ffcj yd wffcj ixrpl w;r inkaO;dj idlPd lrhs' mirfha $mir moaO;shl fhl= i;= ldh Ndrh'
we;s mir moaO;shl wdydr odu yd wdydr cd, f.dv k.hs'
mir moaO;shl Yla;sh .e,Su
dldrl: iqhhd uQ,sl Yla;s m%Njh f' m%ldY iajhxfmdaISka mir moaO;sfha wfkla
ish kag wjYH wdydr m%Njh fyda ridhksl Nj Yla;sh ksmojhs'
fjkia wdldrfha mir moaO;s oyd oelaug .e,S igyka yd iqiq rEm
m%d:l ksIamdokh hkq m%d:l ksIamdolhka iska fokq ,nk ld,hl
igyka Nd; lrkak'
ridhksl Yla;sh f,ig mj;kh lrKq ,nk wdf,dal Yla;s m%udKhhs'
Wod - fN!l " h yd lrh mir moaO;s m%d:l ksIamdol;dj hkq ksIamdok f.hhs' talSh ld,hl " talSh
mir moaO;sj, ,laIK ia;r lrkak' lafIa;%M,hl isk m%d:l ksIamdolhka iska ridhksl Yla;sh f,i
by; mir moaO;sj, we;s wdydr odu yd wdydr cd, isiqka ,jd f.dv kxjkak' mj;kh lrk wdf,dal Yla;s m%udKhhs'
isiqka ,jd fjkia mir moaO;sj, we;s mdil msrv f.dv kexug o, m%d:l ksIamdol;dj (GPP) hkq talSh ld,hl " tall lafIa;%hM,hl
i,iajkak' m%d:l ksIamdolhka iska ridhksl Yla;sh f,ig mj;kh lrk
ishu Yla;s m%udKhhs' ^fuhg Yajik Yla;sh (R) we;=,;a h& fuh
Ih lreKq meye,s lrug w;aje,la (- kJm-2yr-1 j,ska fyda gm-2yr-1 j,ska olajhs'
mir moaO;sj, jHqyh yd lD;H Y=oaO m%d:l ksIamdokh (NPP) hkq talSh ld,hl talSh lafIa;%M,hl
mir moaO;sj, ixrpl m%d:l ksIma dolhka iska ;sr lrkq ,nk ffcj ialkaOhhs ^fuhg Yajik
ish mir moaO;s m%Odk ixrpl follska hqla;h' Yla;sh (R) we;=<;a fkdf&
wffcj fuh kJm-2yr-1 j,ska fyda gm-2yr-1 j,ska olajhs'
ffcj GPP = NPP + R
wffcj ixrplh Yla;sh" mir moaO;shl ka wkql%uhla ;=<ska tla Ydjlg muKla
m%Odk ixrplj,; jd;h " c,h iy Wmia:rfhys fN!;sl yd ridhksl ixl%duKh fjhs ^tal Yd;aul m:hl&
jYfhka jeo.;a .=Kdx. rdYshla ffcj moaO;s flfrys n,mdhs'
Wod (- wdf,dalh" WIaK;ajh" jIdm;kh" ,jK;dj " pH wdydr odu - mir moaO;shl $m%cdjla ;=< Yla;sh .,dhk fmdaIK inkaO;d
wkqms<sfj,
198 199
2nd 2nd
fmdaIS ugu - mir moaO;shl$ m%cdjl Yla;sh ixl%duKh jk wdydr ksmqK;dj 12'1'0 ( ka yd mirh w;r wka; inkaO;d ms<sn| j oHd;aul
Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs'
oduhl tla mshjrla
wdydr cd,h (- mir moaO;shl $m%cdjl O fmdaIS ugj, ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'3 ( f,dalfha m%Odk fhdau ms<sn| uYkh lrhs'
wdydr odu tlsfkl yd inkaO fuka wdydr cd,hla ;efka'
tla fmdaIS ugulska ;j;a fmdaIS ugulg Yla;s ydkshla isjk ksid ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
wdydr oduhla mqrela 4 fyda 5 la blaujd fkd hhs' bf.kq M, (
idudkHfhka my; fmdaIs ugf isg B<`. fmdaIS ugug Yla;sh fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd (
ixl%duKh f 10] la muKla .uka lrhs' t neka 90] la ydks f' f,dalfha m%Odk fhdau j. ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
mdil msrv fhdauj, jHdma;sh ia;r lrhs'
^mir moaO;shl fmdaIK inkaO;dj oyd olajk rEm igyka $ ;Sre m%Odk ,dlaIKsl ,laIK Nd; lr fjkia j.j, fhdau j. fjkalr ykd
m%ia;dr& m%Odk j. ;=kls' .ksh's
Yla;s msrv
ffcj ialkaO msrv fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl
dldrl:
ixLHd msrv
ixLHd msrv yd ffcj ialkaO msrv iuyr wjia:dj, hl=re h fhdauj, jHdma;sh fmkau i|yd iqiq oDYHdOdrl Nd; lrkak'
yels h' Yla;s msrv lsisgl;a hl=re fkdf' odYHdOdrl Nd;fhka isiqka iska fjkia j.j, fhdauj, ,laIK ykd
.ekSu'
mir moaO;sj, iajdNdl jH plS%lrKh fhdauj, idudkH ,laIK u;=lr olajkak'
.=rejrhd iska ffcj-N+-ridhk pl% ms<sn| myod tajdfha jeo.;alu ia;r
l< hq;= h' Ih lreKq meye,s lrug w;aje,la (-
.=rejrhd iska ldnka" khsg%cka" fmdiamria yd c,dj;k pl% iqiq rEm fhdau hkq f,dalfha Yd, N+ m%foaYhla mqrd me;sreKq m%uqL jDlaI,;dh
igyka Nd; lr meye,s l< hq;= h' u; j. l< m%dfoaYSh foaY.=Ksl idOl u.ska iy wod, mirhg wkqj;k
orkakd jQ kaf.ka ,dlaIKsl jQ m%Odk mir moaO;skah'
f,dalfha m%Odk fhdau wgla yd l=vd fhdau lsysmhla we;'
m%Odk fN!l fhdau
ksj;k jeis jkdka;r
ijdkd
ldka;dr
pmrd,a
fi!uH l,dmSh ;DK
fi!uH l,dmSh m,,a m;% ork jkdka;r
ghs.d ^fla;=Or jkdka;r&
;=ka d
m%Odk fN!l fhdauj, jHdma;sh iy m%Odk ,laIK ia;r l< hq;= h'
200 201
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 12'1'0 ( ka yd mirh w;r wka; inkaO;d ms<sn| j oHd;aul ksmqK;dj 12'1'0 ( ka yd mirh w;r wka; inkaO;d ms<sn| j oHd;aul
Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs' Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'5 ( ffcj O;ajh ms<sn| oekqu tys ixrlaIKh i|yd fhdod
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'4 ( YS% ,xldf mir moaO;s ms<sn| wjfndaOh ;=<ska tajdfha
.ksh's
;sridr Nd;hg odhl fjhs
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
bf.kq M, (
bf.kq M, ( fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd (
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ( ffcj O;ajh" mir moaO;s O;ajh" fYaI O;ajh yd m%fKs O;ajh
YS% ,xldf fjkia j.j, mir moaO;s ,ehsia;= .; lrhs' w: olajhs'
YS% ,xldf mir moaO;sj, ,dlaIKsl ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
jI ,shk 3'5 l muK ld,hla ;=, kaf.a mKduh yd jHdma;sfha m%;sM,hla
tla tla mir moaO;sfha msysu ykd .kshs'
f,i ffcj O;ajh ms<sn| oekqu yd wjfndaOh ia;drKh lrhs'
dldrl: udkj ls%hdldrl ksid YS>%;dj fnfyka by< .sh iajdNdl ls%hdj,shla f,i
kIagu ms<sn|j idlPd lrhs'
YS% ,xldf mir moaO;s fmkaug oDYHdOdrl Nd; lrkak' WodyrK iys;j IUCN j. ls w: olajhs'
fjkia mir moaO;sj, we;s ,dlaIKsl ,laIK ykd .ekSug i,iajkak'
f.da,Sh yd cd;sl ugj, ffcj O;ajh ixrlaIKh lsf wjYH;dj
YS% ,xldf m%Odk mir moaO;s fjkalr ykd .; yels jeo.;a ,laIK
u;=lr olajhs'
u;=lr olajkak'
mir moaO;sj, ;sridr Nd;h ms<sn| ia;drKhl fhfokak'
dldrl:
Ih lreKq meye,s lrug w;aje,la (-
isiqka yg ;ud wjg mirfha isk rEmSh - fYaI ykd.ekSug i,iajkak'
YS% ,xldf mir moaO;s jfha wdrNh yd ffcj O;ajfha mKduh oelaug m.Kl wdOdrfhka
bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,sfha my; oelafjk mir moaO;s Nd; l< hq;= h' is lrk bm;a ls ( Power point presentations) Nd; lrkak'
jkdka;r ffcj O;ajh iq/lSf jeo.;alu u;=lr olajkak'
fjr<dYS%; mir moaO;s
ksj;k jeis jkdka;r
l<mq yd .x fudah
he<s Y% iody; jkdka;r
lfvd,dk Ih lreKq meye,s lrug w;aje,la (-
llr jkdka;r
fldr,a mr ffcj O;ajh
lgq mre yd , le,E
uqyq fjr< fN!l" lrh" fjk;a c,c mir moaO;s o" we;= ish m%Njj, iy Tjqka
;K
uqyq ;DK fm;a ( sea grass wh;ajk mdil ixlsKj, ka w;r we;s p,H;djhhs' ^fjkial h&
ijdkd
m;k beds) fuhg fYaIhla ;=<" fYaI w;r yd mir moaO;s w;r O;ajh wh;a h'
wNHka;r f;;a
m%fKs O;ajh
.x.d yd we< fod< tla fYaIhla ;=< mj;sk kaf.a m%fKs jHj, O;ajh hs' tneka
c,dY yd je
mirfha fjkiaj,g wkqj;kh ug kag yelshdj we;'
j.=re yd f.dfydre
fYaI O;ajh
,a
mdil m%cdjla ;=< we;s O;ajh ueksh yels kq oKavls' fuhg m%cdjla
;=< isk fYaI ixLHdj yd tajdfha idfmalaI nyq,;ajh we;=,;a h' ^m%fKs
O;ajh" fYaI O;ajhg mdol f'
202 203
2nd 2nd
fYaIhla hkq fmd ,laIK fndfyda ixLHdjla we;s tla ,laIKhla fyda 4' ffcj ridhksl mKduh ms<sn| jdoh
lsysmhlska fjk;a cSkaf.ka fjkiajk" iajdNdl ;;a;aj hgf;a wka; oHq;a ick yd iQh lsrK ksid wldnksl jdhq wKqj,ska wd jdhqf.da,fha
wNsckkfhka $wka; wNsckkh lsf Njh we;s ire cks;hka ysl< yels ldnksl wKq we;sh ' fuu jH id.r c,fha h m%:u wdldr we;sh'
ka ldKavhls' wef,laiekav Tmdka ^1923& yd f' ' tia' ye,fka fuu u;h m%:ufhka
bosm;a lrk ,' iageka,s , ^1953& mrSlaIKd;aulj fuu jdoh ;yjqre lrk
m%Odk j.SlrK ugj, isk ka weia;fka;= lr" oekg Ydl yd i;a;aj ,oS' Tyq iska wdos mDfha ;;a;aj ma,dial= ;=< wkqlrKh lrk ,oS'
fYaI ,shk 30 la muK isk nj oelaf'
jdhqf.da,fha ir, ldnksl wKq u.ska yhsfv%dldnka wefkda w, jeks ldnksl
jH id.rj, we;s ;sf hhs ie<fla' fuu m%;sl%shd i|yd wjYH Yla;sh iQh
mir moaO;s O;ajh
lsrK u.ska ;on, oHq;a ick u.ska we;sjk wl=Kq" oe huy,a ls%hdld;ajh
ffcj f,dalfha jdiia:dk" m%cd yd mdil ls%hdj,sj, O;ajhhs'
yd lsrKYS,S jH laIh fuka we;sjk ;dmh u.ska ,ef'
ffcj O;ajfha wdrNh" mKduh yd kIagu' wdos ld,Sk id.rh wd iQmhlaZ f,i (Primordial Soup) f,i ldnksl wKq u.ska
mDfha wdrNh we;s we;ehs ie<fla' fuu ldnksl iQmh ;=< wefkda w, " khsg%cka NIau" ir,
jir ,shk 4'5 g muK fmr mDh ie we;' tu ld,fha id.r" uydoam yd iSks yd kshqla,sfhdaghsv wvx.=h' fuu wKq tla/ia ,smsv ;gqjlska jg we;'
ffc jH lsisjla ;s ke;' wdrNfha mDh oe huy,a ls%hdld;ajfhka hq;=
j jQ mdIdK f.da,hla f,i mej;s we;' l%ufhka mDh isis,ajk g jdIamYS,S fuu ixlSK wd ffi, njg mKduh we;' fuu ffi, jOkh" iajhx
nj wvq f,day >k mDfha yrh ie we;' bkamiq ieye,a,q is,slduh mdIdK m%;sj,s;u jeks ,laIK lSmhlska hqla; f' fuh jfha wdrNh f,i
u.ska mDfha lfnd, ie we;' wdrNl jdhqf.da,h yhsv%cka" khsg%cka jdhqj" ie,lsh yels h' uq,skau we;sjQ ka IufmdaIS" ksjdhq m%d.akHIalhka f,i
ldnkavfhdlaihs" c,jdIam" yhsvc
% ka i,a*hs" wefudakh
s d yd f;akj
a ,ska iuka; ie<fla' fuh is we;af;a wjqre ,shk 3'5 g muK fmrh'
we;ehs ie<fla' tu ld,fha jdhqf.da,fha Tlaiscka ;s ke;' tu ksid th ffcj O;ajfha mKduh
Tlaisydrl jdhqf.da,hla f,i yekaf' mD:sfha b;sydih myiqj i|yd hq. y;rlska yd wj 11 lska hq;a fY%aKshlg fnod
we;'
jfha iNjh m<uq hq.fha isg hq. y;r my; oelaf (-
Archeozoic
jfha iNjh ms<sn| u;
Palaeozoic
1' ueu ms<sn| jdoh (-
Mezozoic
ish`t ka iqfYaI n,Od fohka jykafia flkl= iska ujk ,o njg we;s
Cenozoic
Yajdihhs' fuu u;h we;e wd. ^fYaIfhka ls%ia;shdks wd.u& u`.ska me;s
we;'
Archeozoic hq.fha m%d.afla%h wjfha nelahd yd fm%diagdjka muKla ish
2' iajhxisoaO ckk jdoh (- kEu f,djloS w jHj,ska iajhxisoaOj jh y' m%NdixYaf,aIl ka we;s Odx.SlrKh isjqfha jI ,shk 2'7 - 0'7 g
we;sjk njg we;s u;h' muK fmrh' uq,skau we;sjQ m%NdixYaf,aIl ka yg Tlaiscka ksmoug fkdyels
iqiq ;;a;aj hgf;a oS wm;% jH u`.ska mkqjka" lDka yd hka jeks i;=ka h' jdhqf.da,fha Tlaiscka m%udKh je" tajd whkSlrKhfuka fidaka
we;sjk njg fuu jdofha i|yka f' ia;rh ieoS we;'
3' Cosmozoic Theory wNHjHldYfhka mDhg jh meKs njg we;s u;hhs'
wog;a we;e oHd{fhda fjk;a .%yf,dalj, fyda iQh .%y uKav,hg msg;ska iqkHIalhka uq,skau we;sjQfha wjqre ,shk ^1-1'5& g muK fmrh' tuksid
ka isk njg u; m< lr;s' mDh u; jh f,i jI ,shk folla muK mej;sfha m%d.akHIalhka
mDhg ka meKsfha th u; m;s; jQ ka iys; W,aldjla fyda wkH muKls' fm%daiagdjka Odx.slrKhu yd ish`t m%Odk wmDIaGjxYS jxY we;su
.%yf,dalhlska meKs wNHjldY hdkd u.ska nj Tjqka woy;s' jI ,shk 0'7 g muK fmr ish' tal ffi,sl iqkHIalhka nelahdjkaaf.ka
204 205
2nd 2nd
mKduh h' nyq ffi,Sl ldKavfha wdos;u nyqffi,sl ka id.rfha laIsrmdhskaf.a wkqj;S lsrK we;su ksid g%heisla wjfha fYaI
mKduh h' ksvdhdjka ^fldr,a yd uqyq weksuks&" we;e wefk,svdjka yd .Kkdjla we;sh'
uq,au wdf;%dafmdvdjka ksoiqka h'
udkjhd kQ;k fYaIhls'Tyqf.a wdrNh jI 5"00"000 g muK fmr ish'
id.rfha is kaf.a Odx.SlrKh isu jI ,shk 700 l isg wo olajd
isf' mDIaGjxYslhkaf.a iNjh yd fudialdjka" %hsf,danhsgdjka yd fYaI kIag u'(-
l%iafIshdjka we;su jI ,shk 500 g muK fmr ish' f.dv Ydlj, oekg isk fYaI iska fjkiau fyda kIagu ;=<ska kj fYaI i|yd bv
.KjdiSlrKh;a jI ,shk 480 g muK fmr isjQ w;r" Tjqkf
a .a Odx.SlrKh ie,ish hq;= h' tneka iajdNdl kIagu mKdl ls%hdj,sfha fldgila f,i
tu ld,fha isg wo olajd isf' f.dvf i;a;aj .KdjdiSlrKh jI ,shk ie<fla'
420 g muK fmr is h' Tjqkaf.a Odx.SlrKh wo olajd isf' kIagf YS>%;djg jvd mKdl YS>%;dj je h' tu ksid ld,h;a iu`. ffcj
O;ajh je we;'
m%:ufhka f.dvug .sh mDIaGjxYSka WNhyq fj;s' f.dvu;a" c,h;a w;r kIagu hkq mDfhka $ ys u;ska fYaIhlg wh;a wjidk hd bj;auhs'
ixprKh lsf yelshdj Tjqyq os.gu mj;ajd .;ay' WNhka LKalSh jr,a ffcj O;aj b;sydifhys uyd m;a ksid w;s Yd, ixLHdj,ska isjQ kIag
iys; u;aiHhkaf.ka iNjh h' Wod(- Latimeria %f,danhsgdjkaf.a kIagu - mhka wjfha wjidkh ^jI ,shk 200
g muK fmr&
bka miq Wr.hka WNhkaf.ka iNjh h' Tjqyq fN!l ;h flfrys wefudksgdjkaf.a kIagu - ls%fiSh wjfha wjidkh ^jI ,shk 65 g
imQKfhka wkqj;kh we;' Tjqka yg ta i|yd fYaIKh jq jHqyd;aul yd muK fmr&
ldhsl oHd;aul ,laIK we;' fuu ld,fhaoSu uQ,sl mdis yd mKdx.j, Wpu vhsfkdirhka kIagu - ls%fiSh wjfha wjidkh ^jI ,shk 65 g
ish' Wr.hkaf.ka mlaIk
S a we;sh' mshdir lsf yelshdj ksid fndfyda mlaIk
S g
a muK fmr&
mq`t,a f,i jHdma;ug yels ;sf' lDka uq,skau we;sjqfha carboniferous hq.fhaoS udkj .ykh yd YsIagdpdrfhys jOkh;a iu`. ksid iska kIagf iS>%;dj
jk w;r Tjqkaf.a O;ajh je we;' Yd, jeis jkdka;r" .ia mKdx." club je lr we;'
mosses yd m%:u jD;cl iys;j Ydl mq`t,a f,i carboniferous wjfha oS j;udkfha ksid iska mDh u; ;u wdm;Hh m;=rd ;sfnk w;r" mDh
jHdma; h' u; ksia n,mEfuka f;dr lsis mir moaO;shla ke;'
bos jir 30 ;=< fYaI w;=frka 5 - 10] la muK kIag h yels nj weia;fka;=
j;udkfha Nd; lrk .,a w`.=re ks fndfydauhla fuu jkdka;rj,ska iEkq lr we;'
tajd fjhs' udkj .ykfha yd ksid iska Nd; lrk im;a mokf jOkh" lDIsluh"
ludka;" jkdka;r t<s lsu" m%jdykh" kd.lrKh jeks udkj uey;a
mhka ^jI ,shk 280 g fmr & wjfha oS fla;=Or .ia we;sh' Wr.hkaf.a .Kkdjla u; r|d mj;S'
wkqj;S lsrK ksid g%heisl wjfha oS vhsfkdirhka w;sh' vhsfkdairhka fuu ls%hdj,s mir moaO;sj, ls%hdld;ajh flfrys n,mdk ksid tu`.ska ffcj
fidfidhsl hq.fha oS mDfha m%uqLhka h' tys Wp;u wjia:dj l%hsfiSh O;ajhg ydks f'
wjfha oS we;sh' uq,au laIsrmdhska g%heisl wjfha oS we;sjQ kuq;a jI ,shk
.Kkla Tjqka wm%Odk ldKavhla f,i mej;=Ks' l%hsfiSh wjfha mqIam ksia n,mE ksid ffcj O;ajh kIagug fya;= jQ idOl (-
msfmk Ydl yd kQ;k u;aiHhkaf.a wdrNh yd l,, nkaOh iys; laIsrmdhska jdiia:dk wysu yd tajd le fjka hdu" lDIsluh i|yd uyd mudKfhka
we;su ish' isjk jkdka;r t<s lsu" fj<|du yd ludka;" udkj ckdjdi msysgq u`.ska
ffcj-N+-ridhksl pl% fjkialr" fYaI flfrys n,mdhs' fksid" ffcj O;ajh
mqIam iys; Ydlj, mq,a jHdma;sh yd Wpu wkqj;s lsrK ksid ydhkh isf'
ish'
206 207
2nd 2nd
wdl%uKsl fYaI (- YS% ,xldj yd bkaoshdf ngysr llr m%foaYh tlaj .;al< ol=Kq wdishdf m%Odk
uq,a ia:dkfhka neyerj me;sh yels" foaYSh fkdjk fYaIhls' kj ia:dkj, ffcj O;aj WKqiq l,dmhls'
ia:djru ksid tu m%foaYfha foaYSh ffcj O;ajhg ydkslr n,mE we;' f,dalfha ffcj O;aj WKqiq l,dm 25 la we;'
foaYSh fkdjk wdl%uKsl fYaI u.ska mir moaO;sj, ie<lsh hq;= fjkial
we;s lrhs' mdil ;=,s;;djg ndOd lrhs' ;jo wd:sl ydks we;slrhs' wdl%uKsl talfoaYsl fYaI
fYaI ykajd oSu iajdNdlj fyda wyUq f,i ish yels h' h rglg fyda m%foaYhlg fyda muKla iSud jQ fYaIhls' fuu fYaI f,dalfha
fjk;a m%foaYhl iajdNdlj yuq fkdf'
my; oelafjkafka YS% ,xldjg wod< WodyrK lSmhls' YS% ,dxlSh Ydl fYaI i|yd ksoiqka (-
Lantana camara - .|mdk Dipterocarpus zeylanicus ^fydr& yd Garcinia quaesita ^f.drld&
Mimosa pigra (Giant sleeping plant - fhdaO ksosl=nd& YS% ,dxlSh i;a;aj fYaI i|yd ksoiqka (-
Eichornia crassipes (water hyacinth - cmka cnr& Puntius nigrofasciatus (Black Ruby Barb - nq,;a ymhd yd Loris tardigradus
Chitala chitala - (Clown knife fish - udkakdjd& (Slender Loris - WK ymqjd&
Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium-Congress weed) md;Skh
s &
foaYSh fYaI (-
Ydl yd i;a;aj fYaI wmfNdackh-fndfyda Ydl yd i;a;aj fYaI ksid iska ft;sydislj ykd.;a iajdNdl iSudjka ;=< we;s Ydl fyda i;a;aj fYaIhls' th
w mfNdackh lrhs' ^m%Odk jYfhka wdydr i|yd & tu m%foaYfha iajNdl ffcj O;ajfha fldgils' fuu fYaI iajdNdlj h
Wod - lsUq,ka yd msUqrka iu i|yd we;=ka we;a o< i|yd" T!Ih Ydl T!IO m%foaYhl j;a f' ksidf.a ys;du;d isjk n,mEulska f;drj h N+f.da,Sh
ludka;h i|yd m%foaYhlg meKSu yd jdih lsu is we;'
mir IKh Wod - YS% ,dxlsl ksoiqka - Ophicephalus striatus (Snakehead&^,d& " Caryota urens
c,h" mi yd jd;h IKh mir moaO;sj, ls%hdld;ajh flfrys n,mdhs' ;jo ^ls;=,a&
ixfoS fYaIj, ixLHdj wvqu fyda bj;a u o ish yelsh'
f.da,Sh foaY.=Ksl fjkia - foaYsl fYaI -
jdhqf.da,fha y;d.dr jdhQka udkj n,mE u.ska jeu ksid f.da,Sh WIaK;ajh ;u iajdNdl m%foaYfhka msg; N+f.da,Sh m%foaYhlg ykajdka fYaIhls'
jeh yels h' mir moaO;sj, m%Odk fjkia ksid tu fjkiaj,g wkq.; Oreochromis mossambicus - ^;s,dmshd&" Hevea brasiliensis ^rn& tf,i YS%
h fkdyels fYaI ke;s hd yels h' ,xldjg y\qkajd ka foaYSh fYaI f'
lDIsluh ksid we;sjk m%fKsl ydhkh-j;udk lDIslufha oS by< M,odjla
,ndfok Ydl yd i;a;aj m%fNao iq ixLHdjla Nd; f' f ksid cdk O;ajh mhgk fYaI -
ke;sf' jdiia:dk wysu yd idm%odhsl fYaI wj;ekau ksid cdk im;a iD;= u.ska ;SrKh l< yd mqfrdal:kh l< yels f,i tla ;eklska ;j;a ;eklg
ke;su fyda m%fKsl ydhkh isf' ixprKhu mhgkhhs' mhgkh ksid m%ckkh i|yd n,mdk wys;lr mdil
;;a;aj u`.yrjd .; yels h'
ffcj O;aj WKqiq l,dm (- ^Bio diversity hotspots)
uhia iska ^1988& oS foaYSh ^wdfKsl& fYaIj, wl idkaKhla iys; yd tajdg Wod (- Indian flycatcher - îq fros fydrd&
wl ;ckhla iys; m%foaY ffcj O;aj WKqiq l,dm f,i k lr we;' Indian Pitta - ^whd&
YAS% ,xldf ks;os. m%foaYfha fldgia jYfhka we;s f;;a jkdka;r fjd w;r Barn Swallow - ^jeys,sysKshd&
we;' iuia;hla f,i YS% ,xldj ^talfoaYsl& fYaIj,ska nyq, h'
208 209
2nd 2nd
wjYsIag fYaI - Extinct in the Wild (EW)

j;udkfha yqfol,dj fyda iS;j mj;sk" tla;rd ld,hl oS mq,aj me;sr ;snQ ;lafidakhla j.d lrk ,o" isrlrk ,o fyda tu kaf.a w;S; iSudjkaf.ka
fYaIhl fYaIhkah' ndysr m%cdjla f,i muKla j;a f k fuu .Khg wh;a hhs ie<fla'
Wod (- Wod - iS fI,aia osjhsfka fhdaO bnd" YS% ,xldf Alphonsea hortensis ( Annonaceae
Tuatara - kjiS,ka; l=vd m;a lSmhl muKla we;' l=,hg wh;a Ydlhls&
Ichthyophis glutinosus- ^mdo rys;" mKqjl= jeks foayhla iys; wdos l,ams;
WNh fhls&" Critically Endangered (CR)
Lingula sp - ^,dmq fn,a,d& ;s%l=Kdu,fha ;U,.uqj fndlal jkdka;rj,ska j| hdf w;sYh by< wjodkula we;s njg ms<s.; yels fya;=
wdYS%;j jdih lrk fhls' idOl we;s ;lafidakhla fuu lKavdhug wh;a f'
OchOd fYaI Wod - Macrognathus aral (ngfld< f;,shd&
fuu fYaI mdil idOlhla îxrlaIKh w;HjYH mir moaO;shla jeks& Dermochelys coreacea (odr leianEjd&
ksfhdackh lsu i|yd fhdod.kq ,ef'
Endangered (EN)
fuu fYaI f;dard.kq ,nkafka wjodkug ,lau" is;a.kakd iq nj yd meyeos,sj jkdka;rj,ska j|hdf b;d by< wjodkula we;s njg ms<s.; yels fya;= idOl
fmfkk ,laIK iys;u ksid fmd iydh yd ms<.
s ekSu ,nd .ekSug we;s yelshdj we;s ;lafidakhka fuu lKavdhug wh;a f'
i<ld h' Wod - Caretta caretta ^Tf. leianEjd&
Melursus ursinus ^j,yd&
Vulnerable (VU)
OchOd fYaI lSmhlg ,efnk m%isoah ksid iuia; mir moaO;sh yd thg
jkdka;rj,ska j|hdf by< wjodkula we;s njg ms<s.; yels fya;= idOl we;s
wh;a ka ixrlaIKhg yelshdj ,eu fuu ixl,amfha jeo.;a ,laIKhls'
;lafidakhka fuu ldKavhg wh;a f'
Wod (- bkaoshdf fnx.d,s fldhd" kfha fhdaO mekavd" YS% ,xldf leys fn,a,d
Wod - Elephas maximus ^wdishdkq w,shd&
uQ,ia:dk fYaI (-
Near Threatened (NT)
fuu fYaI mir moaO;shl ia:djr nj yd ls%hdld;ajh flfrys jeo.;a ldh
;lafidakhka CR, EN, yd VU ldKavj,g wh;a fkdjk kuq;a kqre wkd.;fha
Ndrhla bgq lrhs' fuu fYaIh bj;a l<fyd;a mir moaO;sh lvd jef'
oS by; ldKaj,g wh;af wjodkula we;
Wod - wms%ldkq ijdkd j, Yd, Ydl NlaIlhka ^fYaIfhka w,s we;=ka& .ia
Wod - Melanochelus trijuga ^.,a bnd&
kdY lsu ksid ;DK fYaIj,g bv ,ef' fuu i;=ka fkdue;sj ijdkd
jk fm;la njg m;aug bv we;'
Least concern (LC)
CR, EN, VU yd NT ldKavj, wh;a fkdjk ;lafidak fuu ldKavhg wh;a f'
isiqkag YS% ,dxlSh mir moaO;sj, isk uQ,ia:dk fYaI lSmhla k lsug Wod (- Crocodylus alustris ^ye, lsUq,d&
mjikak' mq,aj jHdma; jqk nyq, ;lafidak fuu ldKavhg wh;a f'
IUCN r;= o;a; fmdf;ys y\qkajd oS we;s mos ;ckhg ,la jQ ka DD (Data deficient)
Extinct (Ex) ;lafidakhla j| f.dia we;s njg i<lkq ,efnkafka tys wjidk ;lafidakhla fuu ldKavhg wh;a jkafka tys jHdma;sh yd$fyda .ykfha ;;a;ajh
hd hf.dia we;s njg ie<lsh hq;= ;r ielhla fkdue;s jQ g h' Wod - ms<sn|j m%udKj;a o;a; rys; u ksid h' tneka ta ms<sn|j iDcqj fyda jl%j
fvdafvda ûqreis osjhsfka jdih l<& ;lafiare l< fkdyel'
Wooly Mammoth ^W;=re weuldf jdih l<&
ol=Kq os. mre uehd ^ YS% ,xldf jdih l<&
210 211
2nd 2nd
fuu ldKavhg wh;a ka ms<sn| j fyd|ska wOHhkh lr" j oHd;aulj fyd|ska fuu iuq;shg wkqj we;e fYaI wmkhkh i|yd mQj wkque;sh yd wmkhk
ykdf.k we;s kuq;a Tjqkaf.a jHdma;sh yd$fyda nyq,;dj ms<sn| o;a; fkdue;' n,m;% wjYHhs' wmkhk n,m;%hla ,ndfokqfha tu fYaIh wmkhkh ;=<ska
Wod - Mystus keletius ^m;a wxl=gd& Tjqkaf.a meje;aug ;ckhla fkdjkafka k muKs'
Not Evaluated (NE) YS% ,dxlsl WodyrK - WKymqjd" osh n,a,d" yd fldhd
;lafidakhla fuu ldKavhg wh;a jkafka th ;ckhg ,lajQ fYaI ms<sn|j
we;s ksKdhl Tiafia ;lafiare lr" ldKav .; lr fkdue;s goSh' ffcj O;aj iuq;sh ^1992&
Wod - Oecophyla smaragdina ôshd& fuu iuq;sfha wruqK ffcj O;ajh iq/lSu" tys ix>glj, ;sridr Nd;h
Chloroxylon swietenia ^nqre;& iy idOdrK fukau iudkd;au;dfjka hq;=j cdk im;aj,ska w;ajk jdis N=la;s
|Suhs'
ixrlaIKh lsf wjYH;dj
ixrlaIK ls%hdodufha m%Odku wruqK fYaI Wmu ixLHdjla os.= ld,Sk RAMSAR iuq;sh ^1971&
j;au ;yjqre lsuhs' j| hdf ;ckhg uqyqK md we;s ka fYaIfhka iq/ wka; cd;sl jYfhka jeo.;ajk f;;a ixrlaIKh ms<sn| iuq;sh f' fuh
lsh hq;= w;r" Tjqkaf.a m%ckk ls%hdj,sh fkdlvjd mj;ajdf.k hdug;a " Tjqkaf.a fYaIfhka c,c mlaIs jdiia:dk ms<sn|j wod< f' YS% ,xldf /id f;;a
meje;au ;yjqre lsu;a ish hq;= h' myla we;'
ixrlaIKh wdldr follg is l< yelsh' Wod - nQkao, cd;sl jfkdaoHdkh
uq,a ia:dkj, is flfrk ixrlaIKh (- fuys oS fYaIfha wdrlaIdj yd ud .`. rlaIs;h
Tjqkaf.a m%ckkh iajNdl jdiia:dkfha oS ;yjqre flf' wdkkaodj je rlaIs;h
uQ,sl jYfhka Yd, .ykhla yd m%udKj;a jQ;a" W; jQ;a jdiia:dk bvlvo jkaldf,hs rlaIs;h
;sfnk njg j.n,d .; hq;= h' l=uk f;;a
Wod - wdrlaIs; m%foaY" mdrml f.j;=" wNh N+" iajdNdl rlaIs;" kaf.a
iajNdl jdiia:dkj,g kej; ykajd oSu' Ydl yd i;a;aj ixrlaIK mk; (-
.=rejrhd iska ;j;a WodyrK lSmhla ,ndosh hq;= h' Ydl yd i;a;aj ixrlaIK wd{d mk; YS% ,xldf Ydl yd i;=kag wdrlaIdj
uq,a ia:dkj,ska neyerj is flfrk ixrlaIKh - ^;eka ixrlaIKh& ie<iSu ms<sn| mk;ls' fuh 1937 oS ls%hd;aul u wdrN h' fuu mk; 1993 os
iajNdl jdiia:dkfhka neyer m%foaYhl is flfrk ixrlaIKfha oS" ta fYaIh Ydl yd i;a;aj ixrlaIK mk;ska ixfYdaOkh h' tu`.ska iajNdl rlaIs; yd
tys iajNdl mirfhka bj;g f.k iudk ;;a;aj fYaIfhka we;s l< ;eklg wNhN+ msysgqug bvie,iSu o ta yd inkaO lghq;= ms<sn|j ls%hd;aulug o
f.k hkq ,ef' tys fYaIh fkdkeiS mejf;k fia;a" m%ckkh isjk fia;a bv i,id we;'
j.n,d .kq ,ef'
Wod - WoaNso WoHdk" i;afjdaoHdk" lafIa;% cdk nexl=" Captive breeding , cdk .=rejrhd iska YS% ,xldf we;s fjkia j.j, iajdNdl rlaIs; ,ehsia;=jla yd
im;a uOHia:dk' WodyrK ,ndosh hq;= h'
.=rejrhd iska ;j;a WodyrK lSmhla ,ndosh hq;= h'
ffcj O;ajh ixrlaIKh i|yd odhljk iuq;"s .siq yd md,sfka;= mk;aj,
m%Odk ,laIK
CITES - wka;rdhg ,lajQ Ydl yd i;a;aj fYaIj, wka;cd;sl fj<|du ms<sn|
iuq;sh ^1975& isg ls%hd;aul f' fuu iuq;sfha wruqK Ydl yd i;a;aj fYaIj,
wka;cd;sl fj<|du Tjqkaf.a meje;aug ;ckhla fkdjk f,i mj;ajdf.k
hduhs'
212 213
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 12'1'0 ( ka yd mirh w;r wka; inkaO;d ms<sn| j oHd;aul jdhq Il lSmhl wys;lr n,mE
Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs
jdhq Ilh n,mE
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'6 ( mir ydhkhg ;=vq fok idOl md,kh lsu ;=<ska
mirfha .=Kd;aul nj /l .ekSug odhl fjhs' ldnkafudfkdlaihs rerfha Tlaiscka mjyk Od;dj wvqu"
W;af;ack ixcdkkh n, lsu" m%;Sl fika
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03
isu" oDIahg ndOdlsu" ksu; we;su" fmaYS
bf.kq M, ( fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ( iudfhdackh wvqu" Tlaldrh" .= ld,hla " by<
mir IKh hk ixl,amh ia;r lrhs' idkaKhl ldnkafudfkdlaihsj,g ksrdjrKh
mi" c,h yd jd;fha Il j.=.; lr" tajdfha m%Njhka olajhs' fuka urKh mjd we;sh yelsh'
jd;h" c,h yd mi IKhfuka we;sjk n,mE ia;r lrhs'
i,a* vfhdlaihs W.%" ksoka.; weu" fn%dkalhsia" t*SiSud"
dldrl: (Emphysema), fmky ms<sld yd h inkaOhla
;su" w, jeis we;su - .=rejrhd iska w,
udkj YsIagdpdr ls%hdj,sh Tiafia ksia ls%hdldrlj,ska mirh flfrys we;s jeisj, n,mEu meye,s l< hq;= h'
n,mEu oyd oelau i|yd jHdmD;s jev-,sms " cdhdrEm" fmdaiagr tl;= lsu yd
bm;a lsu' khsg%ckaa Tlaihsv i,a*vfhdlaihsj,g iudk m%;sM, we;su' Bg
m%dfoaYShj we;s ydhkhg ,lajQ mirhl ;;a;ajh Wiia lsug jev igykla wu;rj rerfha Tlaiscka mjyk Od;dj wvqu
ixOdkh lsu yd iyNd.su' yd W.% mqmamqiSh fYda:h' ^Pulmonary oedema&
iqiq rEmigyka Nd;fhka mir ydhkhg ;=vq fok idOl ia;r lrhs' ;;a;ajh' Wod- fmky ;=< ;r, tla /iau'
photochemical smog ^m%Ndridhksl OQldj&
Ih lreKq meye,s lrug w;aje,la (- we;su' .=rejrhd iska m%Ndridhksl OQldj,
mir IKh hk ixl,amh ykajd u; jH yd Yla;sh ydksodhl h yels n,mEu ia;r l< hq;= h'
m%udKj,ska h mirhl ;su mir IKh f,i ykajhs'
mir IKh w: oelau yhsfv%dldnka m%Ndridhksl OQld we;s lsu" weiaj,
mirhg" tys fjfik kag yd mqoa.,hkag ydksodhl m%udKj,ska yd WoamH;djh" ksu;" iuyrla ms<sld ldrl h
ydksodhl h yels ld, mrdihla ;=< Yla;sh yd jH mirhg ksoyia u' yels h' iuyrla fmkyj, frda. we;sl< yels
mir IKh mirfha iEu wxYhla flfrysu n,mdhs' ksid iska idok ,o h'
yd iajNdl mir moaO;s" j yd wj ix>gl
jdhq IKh laf,dafrd*af,dfrdldnka fmd<j ugf ydksodhl ke;' kuq;a
fi!LHhg ydksodhl yd mirhg wys;lr n,mE we;slrk yd iajdNdl" jdhqf.da,fha fidaka ia;rhg ydkslrh'
ls%hdld;ajfha iu;=,s;;djhg " ndOd lrk m%udKj,ska jH yd Yla;sh ksoyia .=rejrhd iska fidaka ia;rhg ydksfuka jk
u ksid jd;fha ;;a;ajh msySu u jdhq IKhhs' n,mE ia;r l< hq;= h'
my; jdhq Ilj, m%Odk m%Nj olajkak'
i,am vfhdlaihs " khsg%cka Tlaihs" ldnka fudfkdlaihs" yhsfv%dldnka" w;sla; ldnkavfhdlaihs y;d.dr wdprKh yd ys;,h WKqiqu"
wxY=uh jH" laf,dafrd*afrdaldnka" ldnka vfhdlaihs" fidaka .=rejrhd iska ys;,h WKqiq f n,mEu
ia;r l< hq;= h'
214 215
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 12''0 ( ka yd mirh w;r wka; inkaO;d ms<sn| j oHd;aul

Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs'
fidaka i;=kag yd Yajik frda.j,ska mSvd k
mqoa.,hkag ydkslrh' leiai" yqiau ysru" ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'7 ( f.da,Sh mdil .eg ms<sn| oekqu hdj;ald,Sk lr .kshs'
fmky ls%hdld;ajhg ydksu" ksfudakshdjg
we;s m%;sYla;sh ysku" weu W.%u' ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05
wxY=uh jH Yajik frda. ^weu&" iuyrla ms<sld ldrl h
bf.kq M, ( fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd (
yels h' mDh lrd m;s;jk iQh lsrK lmd
f.da,Sh mdil .eg ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
yeu'
ys;,h WKqiqu" fidaka ia;rh ydhkh u" w, jeis i|yd odhl jk
idOl o" tajdfha n,mE o ia;r lrhs'
c, Il yd tajdfha m%Nj yd n,mE

dldrl:
khsf%g yd fmdaiafmag
jHdmD;s jev
jHdckl ka
f.da,Sh ugf mdil .eg ms<sn| bm;a lsula lrkak' nyq udOH
f;,a wdY%fhka l< yels k jvd;a iqiq h'
ner f,day ( Bh ^Pb& rih" leh" wdiksla " m,sfndaO kdYl"
ffcj ydhkh fkdjk jH ^fmd,s;Ska& Ih lreKq meye,s lrug w;aje,la (-
f.da,Sh mdrsirsl .eg,q
.=rejrhd iska by; jHj, m%Nj yd tajdfha n,mEu ia;r l< hq;= h' ys;,h WKqiqu - jdhqf.da,fha idudkH WIaK;ajh by< hka mj;S'
odhljk idOl - y;d.dr wdprKh" jdhqf.da,fha we;s CO2 " khsg%cka j,
mfia Il" tajdfha m%Nj yd n,mE Tlaihsv" f;ka " c, jdIam yd fidaka mdh u;g m;s;jk lsrKj,ska
lDkdYl fldgila kej; wjldYhg mrdj;khu j<lajhs' m%Odk y;d.dr jdhqj
laf,dakSlD; yhsfv%dldnka ( DDT, Aldrin , Endrin wdh& ldnkavfhdlaihs f'
nyq laf,dakSlD; nhs*Skhs,a ys;,h WKqiq f n,mE (-
ner f,day ^ Pd, Hg, Cd" As & id.rfha c, mudj by<hdu ksid uqyq ugu l%ufhka by< hdu'
lsrKYS,s jH .= ld,Skj WIaK;ajh by<hdfuka .a,eishr yd O%eh ysu wdjrK
fmd,s;ska yd ma,diala hu ksid uqyq ugu by< hhs'
jdhqf.da,Sh m%jdy" iq<x rgd" foaY.=Ksl idOl fjkiau yd jIdm;k
.=rejrhd iska by; Ilj, n,mE ia;r l< hq;= h' rgd fjkiah yels h'
lDIsldl ksIamdok flfrys n,mEu" jDlaI,;d j, ixhq;sh yd
jHdma;sh fjkiah yels h' jkdka;r" ;K yd ldka;drj, iSudjka
fjkiau'
ksh`. ;;a;aj jeu" jdud. i|yd b,au jeu'
c, .e,S jeu ksid jdiia:dk wysu" we;e fYaI kIagu
ish yels h'
le,E .sks we;su jeu u`.ska jDlaI,;d rgdjka fjkiau'
c, m%idrKh ksid fjr< Ldokh u yd fjr<dYS%; jr ludka;hg
ndOdu'
216 217
2nd 2nd
ksia .ykh yd fi!LHh flfrys WIaK;ajh ksid we;sjk frda. u.ska ksmqK;dj 12''0 ( ka yd mirh w;r wka; inkaO;d ms<sn| j oHd;aul
n,mE we;su' Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs'
ixl%uKh ksid ksj;k l,dmSh frda. fi!uH l,dmsl m%foaYj,g
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'8 ( mir ixrlaIKh yd inkaO Odk yd iuq;s ms<sn|
me;su'
i;su;a fjka mdil im;a ;sridr f,i Nd;h i|yd
fidaka ia;rh ydhkh fhduqfjhs'
wmj;S fida k a ia ; rh ldhla I u wdjrKhla f,i ys r ef.ka ms g jk
mdrcnq, lsrK mDh u; m;s;u wdjrKh lrhs' th mDfha jh /l ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03
.ekSug jeo.;a odhl;ajhla imhhs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd (
odhljk idOl - laf,darda*af,dafrdldnka ixfhda. uqod yeu f.da,Sh .siq " cd;sl kS;s moaO;s ms<sn| oekqu yd wjfndaOh oyd olajhs'
im;a ;sridr Nd;fhys we;s jeo.;alu idlPd lrhs'
fidaka ia;rh ydksf n,mE
- wefia iqo we;su yd pu ms<sld we;su by< hdu ^mdrcnq, lsrK fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl
dldrl:
lD;s ldrlhls'& iqiq m%ldYk Nd;lr YsIHhd ixrlaIKfhys we;s jeo.;alu ms<sn|j lshu
- m%NdixYaf,aIKhg ndOdu ksid j.djkays M,odj wvqu i|yd .kajkak'
- ldka;drlrKh mdil im;a ,ehsia;= .; lsug fhduq lrkak'
ôdhljk idOl yd n,mE ia;r lrkak& mdil im;aj, ;sridr Nd;h biau;= lr idlPd lrkak'
w, jeis Ih lreKq meye,s lrug w;aje,la (-

ôdhljk idOl ia;r lrkak& mir ixrlaIKh i|yd odhljk m%Odk iuq;s" ikaOdk yd md,sfka;= wK
- f,day u<lv lEu mk;a
- ys.,a $f.dvke.s,s Ldokh u Basel iuq;sh
- Ydl u.ska ner f,day wjfYdaIKh jeu" wk;=reodhl wmjH foaYiSudjka w;r mjykh yd neyer lsu" md,kh
khs%ldrl mdxY= ka wvqu' lsu' I iys;" msmsfrkiq" Ldol yd frda. ldrl wmjH ksmou yd
l<ukdlrKfha we;sjk wys;lr n,mEj,ska udkj fi!LHh yd mirh
m;% lymeye;su$ ms<siaiSu ksid m%NdixYaf,aIKh wvqu" wdrlaId lsu fuys wruqKq f'
pH w.h wvqu ksid c,c ka f.a nyq,;djh wvqu" Marpol iuq;sh (-
mfia ire nj wvqu' ke u.ska isjk IKh je<elaf cd;Hka;r iuq;sh
Montreal ikaOdkh ^1987& ( fidaka ia;rh ydhkh lrk ix>gl ms<sn|j we;s
ikaOdkhls' .=rejrhd iska Montreal ikaOdkh ms<sn|j ia;r l< hq;= h'
Kyoto ikaOdkh
tlai;a cd;Skaf.a foaY.=Ksl fjkiaf ms<sn| mdoljHqy iuq;sh yd neKq
wka; cd;sl tl`.;djls' fuys m%Odk ,laIKh jkqfha y;d.dr jdhq
msglsu wvq lsu i|yd ldl rgj,a 37 la yd hqfrdamd ix.ufha rgj,aj,g
iSudld b,lal we;s lsuhs'
1990 jif ;snQ ugfuka 5] l m%udKhla ^2008-2012& mia wjqre ld,h ;=<
wvqh hq;= h'
218 219
2nd 2nd
cd;sl mdirsl mk; - tallh 13 - CIq j oHdj

fuu mk;g wkqj uOHu mir wldh 1980 msysgqjk ,' fuu wldhg
mdil n,m;% ksl=;a lsu' ixjOk jHdmD;sj, mdil n,mEu ;lafiare ksmqK;dj 13'1'0 ( CIq cSkaf.a O;ajh" ls%hdld;ajh yd n,mE udkj
lsu ^ we.hS mmd u`.ska & yd inkaO mq,a n,;, we;' ls%hdldrlj, id:l;ajh i|yd fhdod .kshs'
mdil im;a ;sridr f,i Nd; lsf wjYH;dj ksmqK;d ugu 13'1'1 ( CIq kaf.a O;ajh yd iajNdjh ms<sn| .fIKfhys
iajdNdl im;a" tfkod ;h yd wdl ixjOkh i|yd wjYH jH yd fhfohs'
Yla;Skaj, iajNdl m%Nj f' ld,fo ixLHdj ( 07
iajNdl im;a (- bf.kq M, (

fyda w fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd;
mqkckkh l<yels yd mqkckkh l< fkdyels CIq f,dalfha iajNdjh ia;r lrhs'
m%;splS%lrKh l<yels yd fkdyels CIq kaf.a j.SlrK O;ajh ia;r lrhs'
oykhjk fyda oykhfkdjk CIq kaf.a fmdaIK yd ldhll hdka;%Kh ia;r lrhs'
f,i j. l< yels h' by; j. i|yd WodyrK ,ndfokak' CIq kaf.a rEmSh yd m%ckk ,CIK ia;r lrhs'
iajdNdl im;a iSudiys;j Nd; l< hq;=h' WodyrK iys;j iajNdl im;aj, m%Odk rEmSh wdldr y\qkd .ekSu i|yd oHd.dr mlaIK mj;ajhs'
w mdfNdackfhys n,mE olajkak' ir, fmdaIH udOH (NA/PDA) idod" fhda.$rd idm,hlska wduq;=,kh lr" tys
wvx.= nelahd jK .kajhs'
iajdNdl im;aj, wu;a Nd;h wju lrk wdldrh ia;r lrkak'
dldrl:
;sridr Nd;h" ;sridr ixjOkh" tajdfha w:h" jeo.;alu yd WodyrK idlPd ksoYl" lod yd rEm igyka isiqkag ,ndfokak'
l< hq;= h' uqs; fyda oaHq;a udOH weiqfrka nelahd" jhsri yd ,Sr inkaO uQ,dY%
imhkak'
by; CIqcSka j. ;=k inkaOj Tjqkaf.a fmd ,dlaIKsl ,laIK f.dkq
lsug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
lKavdh bm;a lsulg isiqka iqodk lrkak'
wod, Ih ikaOdrh imQK lsug i|yd ia;drKhl fhfokak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,la (

CIq oHdj hkq msh weiska meye<sj kslaIKh l< fkdyels ka
ms<sn|j wOHhkhls'
CIq kag
- nelahd îhfkdanelahd we;=j&
- jhsri
- ,Sr
- fm%dfgdfidajd
- iQ;s%ldldr w,af.a yd tal ffi,sl w,af.a wh;a f'
220 221
2nd 2nd
CIq ka idudkHfhka 0'1 mm g jvd l=vd jk w;r msh weig fkdfmfka' CIqka Tlaiscka flfrys olajk inkaO;djhkays O;ajhla fmkajhs'
CIq ka uksk tall k ksoiqka - Tlaiscka flfrys olajk inkaO;dj wkqj CIq kaf.a ldhsl
uhsfl%dgrh = 10-6 oHd;aul ldKav y;rla ykdf.k we;'
kefkda grh = (1 =10-6 m iy 1nm = 10-9m)
a) iajdhq CIq ka - Acetobacter
ksoiqka ( b) ffjl,amsl ksjdhq CIq ka - Saccharomyces
nelahd = 0.25 - 5 c) wksjdh ksjdhq CIq ka - Clostridium
ihfkdnelahd = 1.0 d) CIqjd;ld CIq ka - Lactobacillus
hSia = 5.0 -10.0
iQ;s%lduh ,Sr = 5 iuyr CIq ka yg wKql khsgr % cka ;srl< yels f' khsgc
% ka ;srlsu inkaOj
jhsri = 20 - 300 nm o Tjqka O;ajhla fmkajhs'
Wod (
CIq ka Odldr mirj, olakg ,efnk w;r i;=ka fyda Ydl fuka fkdj iuyrla CIqkag fjk;a ka iu`. iy inkaO;d f.dvke`.Su u.ska N2
;sr l< yels h' Wod( Rhizobium yd rks, Ydl uq,a" iuyrla laIq ka ksoyia ka
ffcjf.da,fha yeu ia:dkhlu olakg ,ef' Tjqka mfiys" jd;fhys yd c,fhys
f,i N2 ;sr lrhs' Wod( Azotobacter
o" 6 km la muK f;la by< jdhqf.da,fhys o olakg ,ef' ;jo Ydlj,;a
i;=kaf.a;a ksidf.a;a foay u;=msgo" ksidf.a yd i;=kaf.a fu!;% ,sx.sl" Yajik
CIqkaf.a jOl yd m%ckl f.h wlh' m%udKfhka l=vd u fya;=fjka
yd wdydr ud.j, o olakg ,ef' WKq h W,am;a " Kq f,ajd" wl w, iys;
Tjqka by< mDIah j.M,$ mud wkqmd;hla fmkajhs' ka woyia lrkafka
mirj,o" fmr,a" N+f;,a" i,a jeks yhsfv%dldnk iys; mir wka;j, o
Tjqka olakg ,ef' mirh fj;ska fmdaIH jH wjfYdaIKh i|yd Yd, j.M,hla we;s njhs'
fhda.H mirhl fmdaIH jH we;=<g .,d tau;a" wm jH msg;g .,d hdu;a
CIq ka Odldr fmdaIK l%u fmkajhs' ksoiqka - Tjqka w;r fmdaIK l%u f.j;a f' fuu ksid Tjqkaf.a mjD;a;Sh f.h wl f' ;jo ckk ld,h
^.ykh - fo.=K ug .; jk ld,h& wvqf'
i;rla olakg ,ef' fuu fmdaIK l%u tajdfha ldnka yd Yla;s m%Njh u; mok
f'
hd ckk ld,h ^ meh j,ska&
fmdaIK l%u Yla;s m%Njh ldnka m%Njh ksoiqk
E - Coli 0.35
Clostridium botulinum 0'58
1' ridhk - iajhx fmdaIl wldnksl CO 2 Nitrobacter
Anabaena cylindrica 10.6
ridhksl jH Nitrosomonas
Acantha amoeba 11
2' ridhk - IufmdaIl ldnksl ldnksl C fndfyda nelahd Saccharomyces cerevisiae 2
ridhksl ,Sr" fm%dfgd
nelahdjkaf.a O rEmSh wdldr yd ieliS we;s wdldr
jH fidajd
- nelahdjkaf.a lemS fmfkk jHqyd;aul ,laIKh k Tjqkaf.a yevhhs'
- uQ,sl yev wdldr ;=kla we;'
3' m%NdxiajhxfmdaIl wdf,dalh CO 2 ihfkdnelahd
oKavdldr
o i,am nelah"
f.da,dldr
y; i,am
ims,dldr
nelahd
- oKavdldr ffi, neis,i f,io
- f.da,dldr ffi, fldlhs f,i o
4' m%NdIufmdaIl wdf,dalh ldnksl C o fkdjk
- ims,dldr ffi, iams f,i o yekaf'
i,a* nelahd
222 223
2nd 2nd
f.da,dldr nelahd ffi, ieliS we;s O iajrEm jhsri jHqyh

- fldl=i
- maf,da fldl=i - jhsri m%dla kHIal fyda iqkHIal fyda fkdjk w;r tajd lsis ffi,Sh
- iafg%mafgd fldl=i ixOdkhla fmkakq fkdlrhs'
- iage*hsf,d fldl=i - m%udKfhka 20nm - 300nm olajd O jk w;r jhsri oel .; yels jkafka
- p;=Ialh bf,lafg%dak wKalaIhka Nd;fhka muKs'
- idisfka - jhsri kshqlaf,hsla w,h iys; uOH l=yrhlska o ta jgd jQ fm%dakuh wdjrKhla
jk lemaisvh ^Capsid & lska o iuka; f' lemaisvh" lemafidhr k jQ fm%dak
oKavdldr nelahd ffi, ieliS we;s O iajrEm wKq ksYa; m%udKhlska ie we;'
- maf,da neis,i - jhsri j.h wkqj DNA fyda RNA wvx.= f'
- iafg%mafgd "" - Ydl wdidokh lrkakdjQ fndfydauhla jhsri RNA iys; f' b;du iS;
ixLHdjl DNA o wvx.=h i;a;aj jhsrij, DNA ^ymsia ismaf,laia& fyda RNA
ims,dldr nelahd ffi, ieliS we;s O iajrEm ^bka*afjkaid" c,NS;sld jhsrih" frfrd ffjri - HIV) o wvx.= h' nelaahd
- fhda' wdidokh lrkakd jq jhsri ;=< DNA fyda RNA wvx.= h'
- iama
- iamhsfrdlSg - jhsrij, fm%dak fldmqj Tjqkg ,dlaIKsl iu;shla ,nd foa' fuh mok
lrf.k jhsri j,g rEmSh mok folla ykdf.k we;' tajd k"
Icosahedral
ihfkdnelahd Helical
f;;ukh rod mj;sk mDIaGj, " fYaIfhkau jeisls,sj, lmrdre l< ;a;sj," - iuyr jhsri fmd,sfmdiafmd,smsv wdjrKhlska wdjrKh we;' Wod(-
isfuka;s f.j, iy mfiys olakg ,efnk ks,ajka fld< meye;s m%foaY frfg%d jhsri - fudjqka ;=, reverse transcriptase k jQ tkaihsuh we;' tu.ska
fndfydauhl ihfkdnelahd fYaI we;s ne myod fokak' RNA - DNA njg msgm;a l< yel' Wod - HIV
mfiys o h yd uqyq mirj,o ihfkdanelahd Yd, jYfhka me;sr we;' - Odrl ffi,h ;=<g jhsri we;= fuka miq wdjrKh .e, f.dia ffi,h ;=,g
we;e ihfkdanelahd WKqh W,am;a j,o jefvk w;r tajd ;dmld ^thermophilic& ksoyia flfrk tkaihsu tlla fyda lsysmhla jhsri lemaisv ;=, wvx.=h' jvd;a
f' iq,N jkafka fmd,sufia tkaihsuhhs' fuh jhsriaj, kshqlaf,hsla w, nyq
.=Kkh i|yd Wo f'
we;uqka ,Sr ^,hslk& yd Wiia Ydl wdYs%;jo jef'
- O ,smsv ixrpl .Kkdjlau jhsri ;=< wvx.= h' ksoiqka ; fmdiafmd,smsv"
yevh yd iajrEmh w;ska ihfkdnelahd Yd, O;ajhla fmkajhs' tajd tal .a,hsfld,smsv yd fo w,
ffi,sl iajrEmfha isg .=" nyq ffi,Sh iajrEmh olajd O f'
- iuyr jhsri wdjrK .a,hsfldfm%dakj,ska iEkq lKagl iys; h'
fjdfha lIsldOr ffi, ke;s w;r iq;S%lduh fYaI imK p,k fmkakq
lrhs'
jhsrij, iajNdjh
we;e ihfkdnelahdj, fyfgfrdisiag u.ska is lrk ls%hdj,s yd lD;H - jhsri wksjdh mrfmdaIs;hka f' Tjqkag j;au yd m%ckkh is l, yelafla
ms<sn|j ia;r lrkak' ;jo ksh`.hg;a wl WIaK;ajhg;a m%;sfrda jQ >k ;a;s mjD;s; Odrl ffi,fha fm%dak ixYaf,aIKh yd Yla;s ckl moaO;s Nd;hg
iys; m%;sfrdaOl cdKq jk talhsfkgj, âkinete& lD;Ho ia;r lrkak' .ekSfuka muKls'
ir, ffi, Ndckh u.ska yd lv lv fuka w,sx.slj muKla m%ckkh isf' - Tjqka iajNdjfha b;d mq,a f,i jHdma;j we;s w;r" wfkl=;a CIq ka wdidokh
lsug o Tjqkg yelshdjla we;'
224 225
2nd 2nd
- Tjqka wksjdh mrfmdaIs;hka jk neka j.d l, yelafla i ffi, ;=, - iuyrla tal ffi,sl f - (Saccaharomyces&
muKls' - oe ffi, ;a;sh lhska j,ska ie we;'
ksoiqka - l=l=,a l,,h Iu fmdaIS" wjfYdaIl" fmdaIKh - foayhg msg;ska jk fmdaIl jH fl,skau
wjfYdaIKh lr .kq ,nkafka ,Sr u.ska ksmofjk nysia#ffi,Sh tkaihsu u`.ska
- iuyrla jhsri yg ixlSK jHqy we;' tajd rKh l, miqjh'
ksoiqka - nelahd NlaIl jhsri ,Sr uDf;dam " mrfmdaIS fyda wfkdkHdOdrh ^,hslk yd ,SrluQ,& f'
ix; wdydrh msIagh fkdj .a,hsfldackah'
- jhsrij, m%ckkh m%ckkh cdKq u.sks'
nelahd NlaIl jhsrihl jk pl%h ,Sr j.SlrKh i|yd my; lreKq uQ,l s jYfhka mok jk ne meye,s lrkak'
1' ,sx.sl m%ckkfha ,laIK" ,sx.sl cdKq" cdKqlr yd w,sx.sl m%ckkh
- Ydl yd i;a;aj jhsri j, jk pl% tl iudkh' 2' jOl ,Sr cd,fha rEmSh ,laIK
Ydl u;=msg ;=jd, fyda Ydl hqI u; fmdaIKh jk lDka ud.fhka Ydl ffi,
;=,g jhsri we;= f' Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Allomyces, Rhizopus, Saccharomyces yd Agaricus
my; ldKavj,g wh;a h'
ms%fhdak
ms%fhdakj, iajNdjh ls%fhduhsfldagd jxYh - Allomyces
ms%fhdak fm%dakuh wdidol wxY=f' ihsf.duhsfldagd jxYh- Mucor, Rhizopus
jhsrij,g jvd l=vdh weiaflduhsfldagd jxYh - Saccharomyces, Asperigillus, Penicillium
kshqlaf,hsla w, fkdue;sj fudjqkag mej;Sug yd nyq.=Kkh ug yelsh' Tjqka neisfhduhsfldagd jxYh- Agaricus
ms%fhdak fm%dak ieug Wojk CIsrmdhs cdkj, Wofjka nyq .=Kkh f'
CIsrmdhska yd mCISkag iEfok udrdka;sl fud<fha l%ufhka mrsydkshg fhduqjQ laIqka wOHhkh lsu$ frdamKh lsu
(degenerative) frda. ;;a;ajhlg fuh n,mdk nj ykdf.k we;' wOHhkh i|yd laIqka mlaIKd.drfha j.d l< hq;= jkafka ukaoehs hkak
wdid; fud<h iafmdkauh iajrEmhla .kakd w;r isre iys; f' (Transmissible meye,s lrkak' lafIa;%fha mia kshehla kslaIKh lsfuka mfiys laIqka
Spongiform Encephalopathies) wOHhkh l< fkdyels h' ksheh f.ke;a m<uq j frdamK udOHj, (Culture
ksoiqka - ksidf.a Creutzfeldt Jakob ^CJO &" .jhkaf.a Wu;= .j frda.h" media) j.d lsu wjYH f'
fuu frda. iuyrla - .jhkaf.ka ksidg ifm%aIKh h yel' ksidf.ka laIqka jOkhg wjYH fmdaIl" frdamK udOHj, wvx.= f' fmdaIH ta.d yd
ksidg ifm%I a Kh u mgl yd wjhj noaO lsf o wdid; rerh mdr,hkh w;dm,a fvlaiafg%dia ta.d" ms<sfj,ska nelahd yd ,Sr j.d lsug idudkHfhka
lsf o ish yels h' Nd; flfrk udOH folls'
,Sr
,Sr i;= ,laIK ^3 jk tallh n,kak& fmdaIH ta.d w;dm,a fvlaiafg%dia ta.d
,Sr j.SlrKh }
fmmafgdaka 10g w;dm,a 200g
f;;a ldnksl jH" mdka " i" rdm;ajk t<j wdh u; jefvk mqia j. ,Sr udxY ksiaydrlh 10g .afldaia 20g
nj meye,s lrkak' ^yrla uia&
,Sr mDh u; isk m%Odk fhdaclhka f' fndfydauhla ,Sr uDf;damka fidah laf,darhs 5g ta.d 15g
(Saprotrophes& jk w;r" ldnksl jH fhdackfhka Tjqka fmdaIKh ,nd.kS' ta.d 15g
iuyrla ,Sr i Ydl yd i;=ka wdidokh lrka frda. we;s lrhs' wdi%e; c,h 1000ml wdi%e; c,h 1000 ml
,Srj, idudkH ,laIK meye,s lrkak' wjidk pH 7.2 wjidkpH 5.6
m%NdixYaaf,aIl fkdjk" p,kh fkdjk hqlefhdagdjka f'
w;= fnkq ishq kd,ldr ,Sr iQ;S%ld k kQ,a f.dkaklska ffi, foayh iuka; laIqj oHd;aul lghq;=j, Nd;hg .efkk ish u re NdKav" frdamK
f' fuu ,Sr iQ;s%ld tlaj .;a l, uhsiS,shu fyj;a ,Sr cd,h f,i ykajk udOH iy j fmdaIH djK ish,a, jdKqyrKh l< hq;= f'
jHqyh idohs' ,Sr iQ;S%ld idjdr (Septate& fyda ksrdjdr (aseptate& fyda f'
226 227
2nd 2nd
O wjia:dj, jH jdKqyrKfha yd laIqka md,kh lsf Nd; ksmqK;dj 13'1'0 ( CIq kaf.a O;ajh" ls%hdld;ajh yd n,mE udkj
flfrk m%Odk l%u yd l%u Ys,am;a tajdfha m%dfhda.sl fh yd uQ,Ou;a meye,s ls%hdldrlj, id:l;ajh i|yd fhdod .kshs'
lrkak'
f;;a ;dmh
ksmqK;d ugu 13'1'2 ( wdidol frda.j,g wod< ixl,am yd uQ,Ou ms<sn| .fIKh
cSjdKqyrKh
lrhs'
mSvkh hgf;a yqud,h j'w`.$rd' 15" 121 0C ' 15 la
mSvk;dmlhla $mSvk W`kla Nd;h
frdamK udOH ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
meiaglrKh bf.kq M, (
w WIaK;aj fl ld, l%uh - 161 0F (71.7 oC) ;;a;amr 15 la frda. j,g wod< ixl,am meye,s lrhs'
wvq WIaK;aj r|jd .ekSf l%uh - 145 0F (62.8 oC) ks;a;= 30 la frda.hla we;slsf ,d jHdcklhd i;= ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
Wod - ls" jhska" h
m%pKav;d idOl meye,s lrhs'
kegu ^100 oC& iq Y,Hlu i|yd Nd; jk WmlrK" ie; (Scalpels)
jHdcklhka ksia isrerg we;=jk m%fY ud. i|yka lrhs'
re wOYaph iskac (hypodermic syringes)
h<s ;dmh fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl

dldrl:
WIaK jdhq Wk" meh 1- 2 la 1600C hgf;a " re NdKav " fm is" wdfrda.HYd,d n,Odkaf.a Wo ,ndf.k frda. ms<sn| ilaIKhla lsug
msfmgq isiqkag mjikak'
jD; oe,a,la ;=<" wdl%uK mqvqj oe,au' wdidol yd wdidol fkdjk frda. ,ehsia;= .; lsug isiqkag Wo lrkak'
wdidol frda. ms<sn| jeo.;a lreKq Wmqgd .ekSulg isiqkag myiql imhkak'
fmu
jeo.;a lreKq biau;= jk fia fhda.H m ia;drKhl fhfokak'
;dmwia:dhs j yd c,h f l%ufhka jdKqyrKh flf'
mg, fmryka ^0.45 m) ;rf fmryka
Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK CIqka iy frda.
O laIq wdldr ykd .ekSu" nelahd yd ,Sr kslaIKh
ir, frdamK udOHhla ms<sfh, lsu ^fmdaIH ta.d& yd rd$fhda. wdidol frda.hla hkq foayfha we;sjk jHqySh fyda ldhlh wdndOhla jk
idm,hlska wdl%uKh lsu w;r tys m%;sM,hla f,i frda. ,laIK keue;s oel ykd.; yels i<l=Kq
ir, jKl Nd;fhka fhda. fyda rdj, isk nelahd jK .ekau jOkh f'
CIq frda. iEu w;skau Iucd;Sh f' tajd foayfha we;s kEu wjhjhlg
n,mE we;slrk w;r f ksid O frda. ,laIK .Kkdjla we;s lrhs' f
ksid tajd iudk jkafka tajdfha fmd fya;=j jk jHdckl CIqka u.ska
muKs'
ksia foayfha idudkH CIq iuqodfha iajNdjh" me;su iy lD;H'
ksia isrer u; yd ta ;=< idudkH CIq iuqodhla jYfhka w;s Yd,

O;ajfhka hq;a CIqyq is;s'
228 229
2nd 2nd
ksfrda.S ksia isrer ;=<" CIqka Yd, ixLHdjla jdih lrk nj ^ 1 x 1014la Odrlhd iy mrfmdaIs;hd w;r mir oHd;aul inkaO;djla f,i frda.
nelahd ffi, isk w;r" ksia isref wvx.= jkafka foay ffi, 1 x 1013 la we;sf'
muKs'& ksfrda.S kaf.a isrer u;=msg" mgl yd inkaOj;a " mirfha iEu ;eklu
fuu CIqka idudkHfhka ksidg ydkslr fkdjk w;r iyfNdaka jYfhka mdfya;a CIqka iajNdlj j;a f' fudjqka w;=ka we;efula ydkslr
fyda jdis f.k fok f,i j;a f' fkdf' tfy;a we;efula NjH jHdcklfhda fj;s'
Wod - CISrmdhskag Ydl jH rKh lr ug iuyr CIqka bvi,ihs'
CIqka yeu ;efklu jdih l< o tfiau Tjqka NjH jHdcklhka
ksia isrer ksrka;rfhkau CIqka u.ska wdl%uKh lrkq ,nhs ^fYaIfhkau jqjo ksiqka Tjqkaf.a ; ld,h mqrd wdidokh frda. we;s fkdf' ;jo
nelahd iy jhsri&' tfukau iuyr fm%dfgdfidajd" ,Sr iy hSia o we;' we;e jHdcklhka iska we;e whg wdidok we;s l< o" ;j;a iuyrlg
we;e CIqyq iu u; j;ajk w;r jefofklau isref jD; ia:dk j,ska tfia fkdf'
we;= kdih" W.=r" Yajik ud.fha by< fldgi" wdka;l
s% ud.h hk fjdfha
Yaf,aYau, mg, we;= wNHka;r mDIaGj,o jdih lr;s' Tjqyq fu!;% ,sx.sl f ksid frda.hla we;s lsf ,d jHdcklhdf.a we;e ,laIK iy
ud.fha o jdih lr;s' Odrlhdf.a we;e ,laIK n,mdhs'
ksfrda.S ksia isref wNHka;r wjhj yd mgl idudkHfhka CIqkaf.ka jHdcklhkaf.a ksi`. .=K
f;drf' m%pKav;d idOl
idudkH CIq ka jefofkla u iyfNda ka f j;s ' iuyre wjia : djd" m%pKav;djh u.sk"a jHdckl;djfha m%udKh ;SrKh flf' we;e CIqka
jHdcklhka fj;a' mgl ydkshla jQ g fyda >ld,Skj m%;sjl Nd;h" wl m%pKav;djfhka hqla; f ^mefmd, jhsrih&' we;e CIqka
m%;sYla;s uOk T!IO Nd;h" u;ajH Nd;h iy wl fjfyi fya;=fjka m%pKav;ajfhka wvqh'
isref idudkH m%;sfrdaOh wvq .sh g Tjqyq isref wdidok we;s lr;s'
jHdcklhd iy Odrlhd w;r inkaO;djh .;slh' wdidokh lrk laIq
frda.j,g wod< ixl,am ka ud;%dj m%pKav;djh fyda m%pKav;d idOl iy Odrl m%;sfrdaOh wkqj
frda.h ^wdidol frda.h& th fjkia f'
CIq wdidokh" CIq M, yd CIq ls%hdld;ajh hk fjdfha
m%;sM,hka jYfhka ldhslj we;sjk n,;djhls' CIq m%pKav;djh x ud;%dj
wdidol frda.h } Odrl m%;sfrdaOh ^ wdrlaIKh&
jHdckl;dj
CIqka u.ska Odrlhd" wdidokh jQ l, tu Odrlhd ;=, frda. yg.ekau
i|yd CIqkag we;s yelshdj f' Odrl mgl ;=< CIqkaf.a jOkh m%pKav;d idOl u.ska jHdckl;dj je oshqKq flfrk w;r CIqkag
u wdidokh kka yekaf' ksia mgl jdiN+ lr.kska tajd wdl%ukh lsug;a idudkH foay
ls%hdld;ajhg ydks muqKqug;a bv i,ihs'
jHdcklhd
frda.hla yg.ekaf yelshdj we;s CIqyq frda. yg.ekaf yelshdjg odhl jk fYaI ,laIK tlla fyda lsysmhla
ishu jHdcklhka i;=f'
Odrlhd
foayh u; fyda foayh ;=< fyda mrfmdaIS kag jdih lsug bv i,ikakdjQ wdl%uK;dj -
hd' ksia ffi, iy mgl wdl%uKh fldg" mgl ;=, .=Kkh f yelshdj
f' ksid iu. Odrl - mrfmdaIS inkaO;djh f.dv kexu i|yd Odrl
mrfmdaIs;hd - mgl u;= m s g jdiN+ lr.ekS u g fyda Odrl mgl wdl% u Kh ls ug
Odrlhd hkqfjka yekafjk fjk;a fhl= u; fyda tu hdf.a mgl jHdcklhdg yelshdj ;sh hq;=hs'
;=< fyda jdih lrka tu Odrlhdf.ka fmdaIH jH ,nd.kakd jQ fhls'
230 231
2nd 2nd
jHdcklhka u.s k a ks m ojk nys ( ffi,S h tka i hs u .Kkdjla u ksmqK;dj 13'1'0 ( CIq kaf.a O;ajh" ls%hdld;ajh yd n,mE udkj
wdl%uK;djhg fya;= f' ls%hdldrlj, id:l;ajh i|yd fhdod .kS'
Wod -
fmdiaf*d,hsfmaia - i;a;aj ffi, mg, kdY lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'1'3 ( ksia foayfha wdrlaIl hka;%k ms<sn|j .fIKh lrhs'
(Phospholipase)
f,is;sfkaaia - ffi, mg,fha ,smsvj, f,is;ska ixrplh
(Lecithinase) c, fokh lrhs' ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05
yhfrdksfia - ffi, w;r msysgk tajd tlsfkl ne| ;nk
(Hyalu ronidase) yhfrdksla w, ix>gl wdl%uKh lrka bf.kq M, (
foay mgl kdY lrhs' fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfhaa YsIHhd;
OQ,lckl;djh - ksia foayfha CIq wdidokj,g tfrys wdrlaIl moaO;s ia;r lrhs'
ffi,j, idudkH ls%hdld;ajhg ndOd muqKqjk" OQ,l ksia foayfha YsIaG fkdjk wdrlaIl hka;%K ia;drKh lrhs'
^ toxins& hkqfjka yekafjk ffcjridhksl ksmoug CIq ka i;= yelshdj
ksia foayfha YsIaG wdrlaIl hka;%K ia;drKh lrhs'
f' fjd fm%dak fyda ,sfmdafmd,sielrhsv jk w;r Odrlhd flfrys
ilS%h yd wlS%h m%;sYla;sh ia;r lrhs'
fYaIs; jQ ydkshla we;s lrhs' f ksid fjd ffcj I f,i y\qkajhs'
fjd wdldr folls'
wka; OQ,l - CIq ffi,hl fldgila jk fjd " ;dmia:dhs OQ,l fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl
dldrl:
f' ksia foayfha wdrlaIl moaO;s ms<sn|j fi!LH ffjoH ks,Odjrfhla " uyck
kso( - Salmonella typhi ffi, ;a;sfha wvx.= ,ssfmdafmd,sielrhsv fi!LH mlaIljrfhla iy fyo ks,Odkaa iu. ldKavdh idlPdjla fyda
nysIaOQ,l - fujd ;dm wia:dhs fm%dak OQ,l f' kegfuka fjd wls%h iuka;%Khla ie,iq lrkak'
f' Tjqka bf.k.;a foa ms<sn|j bm;a lsulg iqodk jk f,i isiqkag
nysIaOQ,l j. ;=kls' mjikak'
1' kshqfrdfgdlaisk - idudkH iakdhq wdf. ifm%aIkhg ndOd lrhs'
fidhd.;a foa uq mka;shgu bm;a lsug isiqkaj fmd<Ujkak'
Wod - Clostridium tetani u.ska ksmojk OQ,lh'
iqiq wkqms<sfj,lg ia;drKhl fhfokak'
2' tkagfrdfgdlaisk - wdudY wdka;%sl ud.fha ffi, widudkH
f,i W;af;ackh lrhs'
Wod - Vibrio cholerae u.ska ksmojk OQ,lh Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,
3' ihsfgdfgdlaisk - tkaihsu u.ska myr Odrl ffi, urhs' ksia foayfha CIq wdidokj,g tfrys wdrlaIl moaO;s
Wod - Corynebacterium diphtheriae u.ska ksmojk OQ,lh'
CIqka ksia foayhg we;=jk m%fY ud. NjH jHdcklhka isrerg we;=u yd ta ;=, ;yjqre u j<lajd,k
jHdcklhska" CIq frda. yg.kajkafka Tjqka ksYa; ud.hla Tiafia kSfrda.s Odrl isrerl we;s ,laIK
ksia isrer ;=<g we;=fuka muKs' CIq wdidokj,g tfrysj ksia isrer ;=, wdrlaIl hka;%K we;' fuu
wdudY wdka;%sl ud.h wdrlaIl hka;%K wdldr folls'
Yajik ud.h
fu!;% ,sx.sl ud.h - YsIag fkdjk wdrlaIl hka;%K
iu u; we;s ;=jd, - YsIag wdrlaIl hka;%K
m%dfhda.sl mlaIKh YsIaG fkdjk wdrlaIl hka;%K

c,h" frdamK udOH" re WmlrK" ;dm wia:dhS jH" wdl%uK lgq fjd kEu jHdckl fYaIhla flfrys Odrlhd wdrlaId lrkq ,nk w;r"
jdKqyrKh lsf Ys,am l%u mqyqKq u' kEu idudkH ksfrda.S ksfil= ;=< ;sfnkakdjQ iajNdl wdrlaIl hdka;%K
f'
232 233
2nd 2nd
ksia foayfha YsIaG fkdjk wdrlaIl hdka;%K j, iajNdjh - wdid; ia:dkh r;=u
iu iy Yaf,aYau, mg,h - wdid; ia:dkh bu
foay ;r,j, wvx.= m%;sCIq jH - wdid; ia:dkfha fokdjla oekSu
NCIl ffi,;dj - wdid; ia:dkfha WIaK;ajh by, hdu
m%odyl m%;spdr
YsIaG wdrlaIl hdka;%K-
iu fN!;sl ndOlhla f,i ls%hd lrhs' if msg; flrka ia;rh fndfyda YsIGa wdrlaIl moaO;sh Odrl foayh ;=, lsh
% d;aul jkafka" jhsri" nelahd"
CIqka we;=ug m%n, ndOlhla f,i ls%hdlrhs' CIq tkaihsu u.ska th ,Sr jeks msgia;r fhla " fyda mrd." ridhksl jH jeks wd.ka;=l jH
myiqfjka kdY fkdf' ifuka ksmofjk fia,hska" oyh" iafkay i%d .%ka:s foayh ;=<g we;=fuka miqjhs' m%;sfoay ckl k jq fuu wdl%uksl hdg
i%dj iy m%;sCIq jH iu u; jHdccklhka ;yjqre u j<lhs' fyda jHhg tfrysj m%;fs oay ksmofuka YsIGa m%;Y
s la;l
s rK m%;p
s dr wdrN
Yajik ud.fha Yaf,aIau, mg, u.ska Yaf,aIau, Y%djh lrk w;r" CIqka f' fuu YsIag m%;sfoay" m%;sfoay ckl iu. inkaO wdl%uksl CIqka
fuu Yaf,aIau, u.ska r|jd .efka' Yajik ud.fha mCIuOr wmsPofha mCIu bj;a lr wdidokh j<lajhs' fuh m; m%;sYla;sh kka yekafj'
ie,Su u.ska tu Yaf,aYau, W.=r foig ;,a lsfuka Yajik ud.h wdl%uKh
lrkakdjq CIqka bj;a lrhs' m%;sfoay hkq rerfhys yuqjk bhqfkd.af,dhq,ska f,i yekafjk
wd.ka;=l wxY=ka Yajik ud.fhka bj;a lsug leiai iy lsiq Wo f' fm%dakhls'
CIqkaf.a whym;a jOkh j<lkakdjq m%;sCIq jH iy tkaihsu we;e HIV ûdkj m%;sYla;s W!k;d jhsrih&
foay ;r,j, wvx.= f' ksia m%;sYla;slrK moaO;sh kdY lrhs' fu ksid tjeks mqoa.,fhl=
Wod - fgfhys iy lj, wvx.= ,hsfidihs nelahd ffi, ;a;s | ouhs' kEu frda.hla iE h hd yels h'
,elafgdf*ka (Lactoferrin) l" Y=l%h" uls" ms; hk tajdfha fuh wvx.= f' m; m%;sYla;sfha wdldr
fuu ridhkslh" jHdckl CIqka yg w;HjYH jQ jOl uQ,jHhla jk iajdNdl ils%h m; m%;sYla;sh
hlv iu`. nefuka jHdcklhkaf.a jOkh iSud lrhs' iajdNdl wl%sh m; m%;sYla;sh
wdudYhsl HCl u.ska wdydr iu`. mefKk fndfyda nelahd kdY lrkq lD;s%u ils%h m; m%;sYla;sh
,nhs' lD;s%u wl%sh m; m%;sYla;sh
fndfyda widudkH ;;a;ajj, jukh iy mdpkh u.ska wys;lr nelahd
wdydr ud.fhka fkrmkq ,nhs' ils%h m%;sYla;sh we;sjkafka fhl= ;udf.a m%;sfoay ksmojkq ,eu
fhdaks ud.fha jdih lrk nelahd u.ska ksmojk ,elala w,h ( L actic ksidh' wlsh
% m%;Y
s la;h
s we;sjkafka mqo.
a ,fhl= iska ksmojd.ekSu fjkqjg
acid) fndfyda jHdckl CIqkag wys;lrjQ mirhla ksudKh lrhs' m%;sfoay ljr l%uhlska fyda mqoa.,fhl=f.a foayhg we;=fuks'
iQkHIal ffi,j, jhsri wdidok j,g m%;spdrhla jYfhka rerfhys
ksmofjk bkagf*frdka (Interferon) Odrlhd jhsri wdidokj,ska wdrlaId iajNdl ils%h m; m%;sYla;sh
lrhs' irm" mefmd, fyda luq,a.dh jeks wdidokj, m%;sM,hla f,i fuu
NCIlffi,;djh - CIqka isref msg;ska we;s ndOlh kso f.dia m%;sYla;sh we;sf' h wdidol frda. ldrlhlg ^m%;sfoay cklhlg&
rer ixirK moaO;shg we;= jq l," rerfha;a" jid moaO;sfha;a isk O m%;spdr f,i jrl foayh u.ska ksmojkq ,enQ YsIag m%;sfoay ksid kej;
ffi, u.ska tajd NCIlffi,;djhg Ndckh f' tu m%;sfoayckl u.ska we;sjk wdidok flfrys Odrlhd m%;sfrda f'
Wod - kshqfg%dms," uydNlaIdKq
m%odyl m%;p s drh - Inflammatory response iajdNdl wl%sh m; m%;sYla;sh
wdidokhl fyda mgl ydkshl olajk idudkah; s m%;p
s drhhs' uq,a ia:dkfha ujlf.a m%;sfoay l,, nkaOh yryd N%EKhg ,efnk g fyda uls
isg wdidokh me;sr hdu j<lajhs' m%odyl m%;spdrh my; ,laIK j,ska u.ska ujf.a m%;sfoay w; Wmka orefjl=g ,efnk g tu m%;sfoay u.ska
iuka; f' ;udf.au m%;sYla;s moaO;shla ls%hd;aul jk;=re iuyr wdidok frda. j,ska
orejd wdrlaId lrkq ,nhs'
234 235
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 13'1'0 ( CIq kaf.a O;ajh" ls%hdld;ajh yd n,mE udkj

lD;s%u ils%h m; m%;sYla;sh ls%hdldrlj, id:l;ajh i|yd fhdod .kshs'
iuyr frda. j,ska wdrlaIdu i|yd fn,ySk lrk ,o CIq ffi,
j,ska ksmojkq ,enQ tkak;a Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'1'4 ( CIq frda.$wdidok md,kh lsf l%u .fIKh lrhs'
Wod - fmda,sfhda tkak;" BCG tkak;'
fuu CIq ffi, hkq m%;sfoaycklhs' fjd tkak;a u.ska foay.; l, ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
g ksmofjk YsIag m%;sfoay u.ska jHdcklhkaf.ka wdrlaIdj ,ef'
bf.kq M, (
lD;%su wls%h m; m%;sYla;sh fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd;
fjk;a flfkl=f.ka ,nd.;a m%;sfoay tkak;a lsu u.ska wls%h m%;sYla;as CIqka u.ska je<f|k frda. md,kh lsfuys ,d jHdidol iy m%;smQ;slj,
lD;s%uj ,ef' wyfnka wdidok ldrl foay.; we;s wjia:djl ks lhNdrh ia;r lrhs'
m%;sfoay tkak;a lsfuka lD;%su wls%h m; m%;sYla;sh ,ef'
jHdidol iy m%;smQ;sl fjkalr ykajhs'
CIqfrda. md,kh lsfuys ,d m%;sjlj, ldhNdrh i|yka lrhs'
Wod - m%;sfggkia tkak; - (Anti tetanus Vaccine)
m%;sfia tkak; - (Anti Rabies Vaccine) nyq, m%;sjl lsysmhl ls%hdld;ajh flfhka ia;r lrhs'

dldrl:
CIqkaf.ka je<f|k frda. md,kh lrk l%u ms<sn|j" fi!LH ffjoH
ks,Odjrfhl= " uyck fi!LH mCIl jrfhl= iy fyo ks,Odkaa iu`.
lKavdh idlPdjla fyda iuka;%Khla ie,iq lrkak'
my; i|yka lreKq w<,d is;a weo.kakd iq bm;a lsula lsug isiqkag
myiql imhkak'
- jHdidOlj, Nd;h
- m%;smQ;sl j, Nd;h
- m%;Y
s la;ls rKh
is;a .kakd iq bm;a lsula i|yd myiql imhd fokak'
iqiq wkqms<sfj,lg ia;drKhl fhfokak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,

CIqka u.ska iEfok frda. md,kh lrk l%u ms<sn| .fIKhl fhug isiqkag
wjia:dj fokak'
fndfyda CIqkag jHdckl Njhla we;s ksid wm j;ajk .Dyia: mirfha
CIqka md,kh lsu wjYH f'
jHdidOl Nd;h
jHidOlhla hkq jeisls<s f.u" jeks w mirj, fjfik CIq .ykhla
kdY lsug fyda .ykfha m%udKh wvq lsug Nd;d lrk ridhksl jH f' f
ridhksl jH Nd;d lrk idkaK wkqj tajd CIq kdYl fyda CIq ia;sl
h yels h'
Wod - mSfkda,a" ,hsfida,a" laf,daka ixfhda.
236 237
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 13'1'0 ( CIq kaf.a O;ajh" ls%hdld;ajh yd n,mE udkj

ls%hdldrlj, id:l;ajh i|yd fhdod .kshs'
m%;smQ;sl Nd;h
m%;m
s ;Q ls hkq m%Odk jYfhka iu u;=mg s isk CIq .ykfha m%udKh wvql s ug
ksmqK;d ugu 13'1'5 ( ludka; iy lDIsluh i|yd CIqka Nd;h ms<sn| uid
Nd;d lrk ridhk jH f'
n,hs'
Wod - we,afldfyd,a
m%;Ys la;l s rKh
lD;s%u ils%h m%;sYla;slrK yd lD;s%u wls%h m%;sYla;slrK l%u f,dalfha iEu ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05
rglu CIqka u.ska we;slrk frda. j<lajd .ekSug mq,a mudkfhka Nd;d
flf' bf.kq M, (
CIqka u.ska je<f|k frda. iqj lsf l%u fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd;
m%;sjl CIqka ludka;j, fhdod .ekSf jdis meye,s lrhs'
frda. ksjdrkh fyda iqj lsu i|yd ridhksl ixfhda. fhdod.ekSu ridhksl
jdksc ksIamdok j, Nd;djk CIq ls%hdj,s ia;r lrhs'
ls;aidj hkqfjka yekaf'
jdkscj ksIamdok f,i Nd; jk CIq ksIamdos; ia;r lrhs'
m%;sjl iy fjk;a T!IO j. CIq wdidok frda. ksjdrkh i|yd
nyq,j Nd;d f' jdkscuh ksIamdokj, m%fKslj lrkh l, CIqkaf.a Nd;h ia;drKh
m%;sjlhla hkq CIqka u.ska iajNdlj ksmojk fyda lD;s%uj lrhs'
ixYaf,aYkh lrkq ,nk ridhksl ixfhda. f' fjd fjk;a laIqkag
wys;lr f' fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl
dldrl:
Wod ls wdydr ksIamdokh fyda iald.drhla jeks CIqka Nd; jk
- fmksis,ska - nelahd ffi, ;a;s ixYaaf,aYkh ksfYaOkh lrhs' ludka;Yd,djla kerug lafIa;% pdldjla iQodk lrkak'
- lD;s%u isf*%dmaf,dlaiiska - nelahd DNA ixiaf,aYkh ksfYaOkh
ludka; iy lDIslufha CIqka Nd;h ms<sn|j uqs; fyda wka;cd,
lrhs'
uQ,dY% imhkak'
- fmd,slaiska - nelahd ffi, mg,j, mdr.uH;djhg ydks
muqKqjhs' CIqka fhdod lrkq ,nk ksIamdok iy tla tla ksIamdokhg wod, CIqka
- tf;%duhsiska - nelahd j, fm%dak ixYaf,aYkh ksfYaOkh oelafjk igykla ms<sfh, lsug isiqkag mjrkak'
lrhs' th mka;sfha ish,a,kagu bm;a lsug i,iajkak'
- lSfgdfldkefida,a $laf,d%uefida,a - ,Sr ffi, mg, ixYaf,aYkh Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m ia;drKh lrkak'
ksfYaOkh lrhs'
^wmf.a foayh ;=< m%;sYla;shla we;sjk ;=re fuu m%;sjl ksh; f,djg .; Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,
hq;= h'& ludka; iy lDIslufha CIqkaf.a Nd;h
CIqka iy Tjqkaf.a ls%hdj,s O ksIamdok i|yd fhdod.ekSf ft;sydisl
miqu
CIqka fidhd.ekSug fndfyda ld,hlg fmr isgu m%fhdackj;a lghq;= i|yd
CIqka Nd;hg f.k we;' ls%'mQ'6000 ;r wE; ld,fha nef,dakshdkqfjda yd
iqudhdkqfjda uOHidrh iEu i|yd hSia Nd;d l< y'
CIqka iy Tjqkaf.a mjD;a;sh ls%hdj,s Nd;fhka wdl jYfhka jeo.;a jH
Yd, mudkfhka ksIamdokh" ldl CIqj oHdf moku we;' ksia
j.hdf.a hym; msKsi" CIqka iy Tjqkaf.a M, fufia uQ,slj fhdod.ekSu wo
ffcj ;dlaIKfha tla wxYhla we;' ;dlaIKh fhdod.ekSf fya;f = jka CIqka
fhdod flfrk ludka; oshqKq we;s w;r tajd jvd;a mq,a we;'
238 239
2nd 2nd
ksidg m%fhdackj;a CIqka fhdod flfrk jdkscuh ksIamdos; fkdfhla frda.j,g tfrysj ils%h m%;sYla;slrKfha Nd;djk CIq ffi,
- CIq ffi, uyd mudKfhka jdksc ugfuka ksmojd we;'
- Tjqkaf.a mjD;a;sh ls%hd Wod - fymghsia nelahd
- wka; M, CIqka fyda Tjqkaf.a ,sx.sl m%ckl jHqyhka wdydr f,i Nd;d f'
CIq mjD;a;sh ls%hd u.ska lrkq ,nk ksmo j,g wod< uQ,Ou Wod - Pleurotus, Agaricus iy Lentinus
ldl CIqj oHdjg wod<j" CIqka jkdys b;d l=vd ridhksl ly,a
f,iska ie,lsh yelsf' wuq jH ^fmdaIl fyda Wmia:r& wka; M, njg mj;kh jdksc ksIamdok f,i CIq mjD;a;sh M,
lsf yelshdj CIqkag we;' uOHidh mdk-
ldl CIq ls%hdj,shl m%Odk wx. fufia idrdxY l< yels h' B;hs,a uOHidrh" jhska" h iy rd hkq lfndyhsf%g Wmia:r
CIqhd + Wmia;rh > ksIamdok M, + wjfYaI iy wmjH Saccharomyces cerevisiae hSia fYaIh u.ska uOHidr meiSug ,la lsf
,efnk mjD;a;sh M, f'
ixY=oaO lsu C6H12O6 hSia 2C H OH + 2CO2
> 2 5
>
ksIamdokh
t;s,a uOHidrh" rd" jhska " h" wrlal= iy ials ksIamdok ls%hdj,sfha
ludka;j, fhdod.efkk CIq ldKav jkafka Nd;d jk O wdrNl jH o i|yka lrka tu jdKsc ksIamdok ls%hdj,s
nelahd
ieflka ia;r lrkak'
,Sr
- mdka ksIamdokfha meiSf ls%hdj,sfha ldh ia;r lrkak'
w,af.a
jhsri
ridhksl l%shdj,sj,g jvd CIqka fhdod.ekSf jdis kdls ksIamdokh - mshjr follska isf'
wl jOk f.h;a" O jH fyj;a Wmia;r rdYshla Nd;d lsug we;s - t;fkda,a ksmojd.ekSug ldfndyhsf%g meiSu
mjD;a;sh yelshdjka ksid" CIqyq ,dN wuq jH" m%fhdackj;a ksIamdok M, - t;fkda,a " weisla w,h njg TlaislrKh lsu
njg f.fhka mj;kh lrhs'
C2H5OH + O2 > CH3COOH + H2O
fuu ridhksl mj;k fndfyduhla i|yd wl WIaK;aj" mSvkh iy
Yla;sh wjYH jk w;r iu; ldl l%u Wmfhda.S lr .kska tajd is
kdls ksIamdokfha Nd;djk O wuqjH i|yka lrkak'
l<fyd;a wl Y%uhla o fhoug isf'
kdls ksIamdokfha Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Acetobacter iy Gluconobacter
j, ldh Ndrh meye,s lrkak'
CIqka iy Tjqkaf.a ls%hdj,s Nd;fhka idokq ,enQ" jdkscj jeo.;a ksIamdok
oyia .Kkla we;' fjd ldKav lsysmhla hg;g we;=,;a l< yels h' B;hs,a uOHidrh" weisla w,h njg mj;kh u" iajdhq ls%hdj,shls'
- wka;M, f,i CIq ffi, fhdod.ekSu' ,elala w,h iy meiqkq ls ksIamdokh lsu
- wka;M, f,i CIqkaf.a mjD;a;sh M, fhdod.ekSu - ,elala w,h" jdkscj ksIamdokfha ia iy ng ludka;fha iEfok
- wka;M, f,i CIq mjD;a;sh ls%hdj,s fhdod.ekSu' wmjH Nd;d flfrk w;r Lactobacillus bulgaricus nelahdjo Wmfhda.S
- wka;M, ,nd.ekSug m%fKslj lrKh l< CIqka fhdod .ekSu' lr.kq ,ef'
- uqojdmq ls iy fhda. jdkscj ksIamdokfha ,elala w, nelahd jk
jdksc ksIamdokj, CIq ffi, Nd;h L. bulgaricus iy Streptococcus lactis u.ska meiSu isf'
wdydr m%;smQrl jYfhka CIq ffi, Nd;d lrhs'
Wod - fm%dakj,ska ire ^;ks ffi, fm%dak& wdydr m%;smQrl jYfhka" hSia iy
w,af.a uy mudkfhka j.d lrkq ,ef' Wod( - Spirulina
240 241
2nd 2nd
tkaihsu iy m%;sjl ksIamdokh ffcj fmdfydr " ffcj m,sfndaOlkdYl iy Rhizobium wdl%uksl
- jdksc f,i ksIamdokh flfrk we;e m%;sjl j." tkaihsu" CIqka iuyr CIq ka Wmfhda.S lrf.k jdkscj ffcj m,sfndaOkdYl ksmojd we;'
u.ska isflrk ixYaf,aYk ls%hdj,s mok jQ ludka; i|yd ksoiqka f' tfiau lDIsldl mfiys khsg%cka m%udkh je lsug rhsfidah
- m%;sjl " tkaihsu" weuhsfkda w, iy ldnksl w, jeks O ldl wdl%uksl ksmojd we;'
ksIamdok /ilau O CIqka Wmfhda.S lr.kska ksmojkq ,ef' kQ;k lDIslufha m,sfndaOkdYl iy khsg%ckSh fmdfydr j. mq,a f,i
- tjeks ksIamdok M, lsysmhla iy tajd ksIamdokfha Wmfhda.s flfrk Nd;d flfrk w;r ridhksl m,sfndaO kdYl j, mq,a Nd;h ksid mir
CIqka i|yd ksoiqka lsysmhla fokak' IK .eg rdYshla mekke.S we;s nj meye,s lrkak' tfiau ridhkslj
ixYaf,aYs; khsg%ckSh fmdfydr j. mig tl;= lsuo mdilj ys;lr
m%;sjl fkdjk w;r ho o wl f'
fmksis,ska - Penicillium notatum
Penicillium chrysogenum kj CIq ;dlaIKh u.ska" ffcj m,sfndaOkdYl fyj;a lDkdYl f,i
iafg%mafgduhsiska - Streptomyces griseus yekafjk jl,am m,sfndaOkdYl ksmojd we;' fjd CIq ieliq j,ska
fgg%dihsla,ska - Streptomyces aureofaciens iukaa; jk w;r m,sfndaOhkag YsIag n,mE we;s lrhs'
Wod - Bacillus thuringiensis wka;iafmdar ksmojk nelahdjla jk w;r
tkaihsu fndfyda lD lSghkag jHdckl f' fuu nelahdj u.ska ksmojk
weuhsf,aia - Aspergillus niger fm%dAk iaMl" m,sfndaO lD lSghkag Ijk w;r fjd w.%yKh jQ
- Aspergillus oryzae l, tu.ska lSghkaf.a wdka;% mgl h lSghka kdY f'
- Bacillus subtilis
fi,shqf,aia - Aspergillus niger jdKscj Nd;djk CIq l%shdj,s
.afldaia Tlaisfiaa-Aspergillus niger fldfmdAia ksmou
bkajfia - Saccharomyces cerevisiae - Ydl ksIamdokh je lsug" Ydl wjfYaI iy ftkaSh fmdfydr tl;= lsf
,hsfmaia - Rhizopus sp. ms<sfj;a iy fldfmdaia iEu o CIq ls%hdld;ajh u; r|d mj;S'
fm%%dafhaia - Aspergillus oryzae - Ydl wjfYaI iy i;a;aj u, jYfhka fmdfydr f,i mig fhf fmdaIH
jH uqod yka fhdackh bgq lsf CIq ka i;= iajNdl fhdack
yelshdj m%fhdackhg .efka'
tkak;a ksIamdokh - fldfmdAia iEu hkq" WKqiq" f;;a" iajdhq ;;a;Aj hgf;a Y% CIq
fkdfhla frda.j,g tfrysj ils%h m%;sYla;slrKfha Nd;d flfrk .ykhla u.ska ftkash jH fhdackh lsuhs'
m%;sfoayckl .Kkdjlau jdksc jYfhka ksIamdokh flf' fjd w;=ka iuyrla - by; i|yka lsk fyda jHhla mig tla lsf mfiys wvx.= iajNdl CIq
cdk ms<sieliqug ,lal, tkak;a f' .ykj, ls%hdld;ajh m%fhdackhg .efka'
Wod - fymghsia B tkak;

jjdhq ksIamdokh
- wl%sh m%;sYla;slrKfha Nd;d flfrk O m%;sfoay j." jdkscj ksIamdokh - kshu jYfhka j jdhqj hkq ldnksl jH" Tlaiscka rys;j ffcj oHd;aulj
Wod - msg.eiau frda.hg tfrysj msg.eiau m%;sOQ,lh | oef ksmofjk jdhqjls' j jdhqj W;amdokh jkqfha j ckH jH
c,NS;sld frda.hg tfrysj bhqfkd.af,dhq,ska j,ska neka th ffcj bkaOk wdldrhls' ksjdhq rK ls%hdj,sfha m%Njh
fndhq,skshd OQ,lh wkqj j jdhq ixhq;sfha fjkial we;sf'
j jdhqf kshu ixhq;sh jkafka
f;ka" CO2, N2, H2 iy H2S h'
242 243
2nd 2nd
- fldfmdaia iEu f.j;a lsug

fldm jeks f,day ksiaidrkh - f,day ludka; wmjHj,ska lafrdah" f," rih jeks I f,day
- hlv iy i,a*hsv wvx.= nd, j.fha f,damia j,ska ;U ksiaidrkh lr j. bj;a lsug;a Nd;d f'
.ekSu msKsih' Thiobacillus ferroxidans iy Thiobacillus thiooxidans hk
iajhxfmdaIs nelahd fhdod .efka' jdkscuh wruqKq i|yd m%fkslj lrKh l, ka Nd;h
- fuu yq ;u mjD;a;Sh ls%hdj,sj, i,amshqla w,h iy Fe3+ ksmojk w;r - fydafudak" bkaishq,ska iy tkak;a
f,damia TlaislrKh lr Cu, CuSO4 njg mj;kh lrhs' - cdk ms<sieliqulg ,lal, CIq ka Nd;d fldg bkaishq,ska iy udkj
- fuu ls%hdj,s CIq CIsrKh f,i yekafjk w;r CuSO4 djKh oaHq;a jOl fydfudakh ksmojd we;'
fokh lsfuka fldm ksiaidrKh lr.kq ,ef' - CIq ;dlaIKfha jvd;au kQ;k fh jkqfha frda. j,g m%;sldr i|yd
ls;aiSh T!IO ksIamdokf'
fl ksmou - iu; l%u u.ska udkj bkaishq,ska ksmou ho wl f' cdk
fmd,af,,s m,alsfuka fldyq ,nd .ekSf idm%odhsl ls%hdj,sh" Iucd;Sh ms<sieliqug ,lal, nelahdjla jk E. coli Nd;fhka b;d ,dNodhs
CIq cS .ykhla u.ska is flf' f,i bkaishq,ska ksmou j;udkfha is flf'
Ydl m;% fl" l|kaj, fl wd O Ydl fl j. ,nd.ekSu" m,a lsu - cdk ms<sieliqug ,la l< nelahd Nd;fhka jvd;a ldhCIu f,i
^Retting& hk CIq ls%hdj,sh ^tkaihsu" m%Odk jYfhka fmlafkaia& u; ksmojk ;j;a T!Ih ksIamdokhls" udkj jOl fydafudakh' l,ska fuh"
mok jk nj meye,s lrkak' i;=kaf.a mshqg .%ka:sfhka l=vd m%udKj,ska ksiaidrkh lr ,nd .kakd
m,a lsu hkq ldIah lfòys fyda fjk;a Ydl jHhl fyda wvx.= fl ,'
,sys,a lsf ls%hdj,shhs' fuu ls%hdj,sfha O ld,iSud uq,af,a Ydl jH
c,fha .s,ajd ;ef'
iajdhq fukau ksjdhq nelahd wh;a Iucd;Sh CIq ldKavhla fuu
ls%hdj,sfha iyNd.s f'
mir Il bj;a lsu" ffcj m%;slulrKh

ffcj m%;slulrKh (Bio - remediation) ffcj ydhkh jehqKq lsu
u.ska mir Il bj;a lsu wruqKq fldgf.k CIq kaf.a mdil
fh fya;=fjka ysjQ kj CIq ;dlaIKhls'
wmjH ydhkh lsu;a tajd bj;a lsu;a wod,j CIq ka i;= yelshdj
fuu ;dlaIKfha Nd;hg .efka' fuu ls%hdj,sh ffcj m%;slulrKh
kka yekaf'
ffcj m%;slulrKh hkq" CIq ka u.ska is flfrk W;afm%arK ls%hdj
Il u; ls%hdlr mir Il bj;a lsu fyda tajdhska isjk ydks bj;a
lsu u; mok jQ iajNdl fyda md,kh lrkq ,nk ls%hdj,shls'
fuu ffcj m%;slulrKh oekg
- c,c mirj,ska ftkash wmjH m%udkh wvqlr,Sug
- ldlj wdydr ieliq ls%hj,sfha iy ridhksl msh;a j,
msgjk Is; c,h fhdackh u f.j;a lsug
- c,c mirj,ska f;,a bysre bj;a lsug
244 245
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 13'1'0 ( CIq kaf.a O;ajh" ls%hdldrs;ajh yd n,mE udkj O .Kj,g iy fYaIj,g wh;a jk os,Sr" nelahd" w,af.a iy jhsri jeks
ls%hdldrlj, id:l;ajh i|yd fhdod .kshs' O CIq yq mfiys j;a f' O ldKavj,g wh;a idfmalaI m%udK" mdxY=
mirh wkqj fjkia f'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'1'6 ( lDIsldl lghq;= m%Yia; ugka mj;ajd .ekSu i|yd mdxY=
idrj;a lDIsldl mil mdxY= CIq .yKh
laIqkaf.a ls%hdld;ajh Wmfhda.S lr.kshs'
j.h mia .a?uhg wvx.= ixLHdj
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05 nelahd 2500 000 000
welafkdauhsisg 700 000
os,r
S 400 000
bf.kq M, (
w,af.a 50 000
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd;
fm%dfgdfidjd 30 000
mdxY= CIq kaf.a iajNdjh" jHdma;sh iy ls%hdj,s ia;r lrhs'
jH plS%lrKfha oS fhdaclhka jYfhka mdxY= CIq kaf.a iajNdl mfiys fN!;sl yd ridhksl mirh CIq kaf.a jOkh i|yd ksfrda.S
ldhNdrh meyeos,s lrhs' udOHhla f,i ls%hdlrhs'
khsg%cka pl%fhaoS iy ldnka pl%fha oS mdxY= CIq kaf.a fYaIs; lhNdrh
ia;drKh lrhs' mfiys wjldY wkqj;a tys wvx.= Lksc" fhdackh fjka mj;sk jH" c,h"
Ydl jOkhg wod<j mdxY= CIq kaf.a wka; ls%hd ia;r lrhs' CO2, O2 iy N2 hkdoS ldnksl jH wkqj;a n,k l, CIq kaf.a jOkhg
m%udKj;a fN!;sl iy ridhksl mirhla mi u.ska i,ihs'

dldrl:
mfiys .eUqr wkqj" CIq kaf.a jHdma;sh O f' u;=msg ia:rj, " .eUqre
ia:rj, olakg ,efnkjdg je CIq ka ixLHdjla olakg ,ef' fufia
mdxY= CIq ka ms<sn|j uQ,dY% isiqkag imhkak'
jHdma;ug fya;= meyeos,s lrkak'
mdxY= CIq kaf.a iajNdjh" jHdma;sh iy ls%hdj,s ms<sn| f;dr;=re tl;=
lsug isiqkag mjikak' .eUqr * iajdhq ksjdhq welafkdauhsisg os,Sr w,af.a
;uka iska fidhd.;a foa ms<sn|j fmd;a msxpla ilia lsug isiqkaj (cm) nelahd nelahd
fhduqlrjkak'
Tjqka fidhd.;a foa bosrsm;a l< miq "ia;drKh lrkak' 3-8 7800 1950 2080 119 25
20-25 1800 379 245 50 5
Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,la ( 35-40 472 98 49 14 0'5
65-75 10 1 5 6 0'1
mfiys Yd, CIq .yKhla j;ajk w;r mi u.ska CIq kaf.a meje;aug 135-145 1 0'4 - 3 -
m%udKj;a fN!;sl iy ridhksl mirhla tu.ska i,ihs'
* ka $mia .a?uhg x 103
mdxY= CIq kaf.a iajNdjh iy jHdma;sh
Lksc plS%lrK ls%hdj,sfha oS mdxY= CIq kaf.a ldhNdrh
ksid wydr m%Njhla jYfhka Ydl u; imQKfhkau hemSu fndfyda rg Ydl yd i;a;aj jH fhdackfha oS nelahd iy os,Srj, wvx.=
isf' Ydl fndfyduhlau mfiys uq,a nei we;s w;r" w;HjYH Lksc fmdaIl nys# ffi,Sh tkaihsu" ixlSK ldnksl jH ir, wldnksl jH ^Lksc&"
rdYshlau Ydl uq,a u.ska mfika ,nd.kS' fuu fmdaIl uereKq Ydl iy i;a;aj H2O yd CO2 njg | fy,hs'
wjfYaIj,ska iy mdIdK u.skq;a uQ,drN f' fulS m%Njj,ska fmdaIl uqod,Su
fN!;sl ridhksl yd ffcj ls%hdj,s u.ska isf' tfy;a fmdaIl uqod,Sf fuu ls%hdj,sh LkscNjkh (Mineralization) kka ye|skafjk w;r Ydlj,g
jvd;au jeo.;a fufyhla bgqjkafka mdxY= CIq kaf.ks' wjYH fmdaIl jH iemfhk m%Odk;u ls%hdj,sh fuhhs'
246 247
2nd 2nd
fhdackh" ksmqK;dj 13'2'0 ( mdkSh c,fha .=Kd;aulNdjh mj;ajd .ekSu iy >k wmjH
a) Ydl iy i;a;aj iqkanqka mD mDIaGfhka bj;a lsug Wo lrka fjk;a l<ukdlrKh i|yd CIq j oHd;aul ixl,am yd uQ,Ou
Ydlj,g;a i;=kag;a j;a ug bv i,ihs' Nd; lrhs'
b) mDh u; b;d iS; m%udKj,ska ;sfnkakd jQ Lksc m%;splS%lrKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'2'1 ( mdkSh c,h yd wmc,h l<ukdlrKh i|yd CIq j

iajNdl khsg%cka pl%fhys khsg%cka iy khsg%ckSh ixfhda. ffcj ridhksl
mKdukfha oS CIqkaf.ka bgqjk ldhNdrh meyeos,s lrkak' oHd;aul ixl,am iy uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs'
- fm%dafhdaa,hsish
- wefkda w, ydhkh ^ wefudkslrKh& ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05
- khs%lrKh
- khsy % rKh bf.kq M, ( fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd(
- khsg%cka ;sr lsu c,h u.ska ifm%aIKh jk frda. ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
kd.l mdkSh c, msmy msh;l c,h msh lsf mshjr ia;r lrhs'
Ydl jOkfhys,d mdxY= CIqkaf.a wka; ls%hd
iajNdl c, m%Njj,g wm c,h uqodyef m%;sM, meye,s lrhs'
CIqka mfiys ksoyiaj jHdma; we;s w;r uq,a u; iy uq,a wdYs%;j j;ajk
CIqka Ydl jOkh flfrys O n,mE we;s lrhs' ldl wmc,h msh lsf m%Odk mshjr iy uQ,Ou ia;r lrhs'
ire mfiys " ukd mdxY= jHqyhlg ,dlaIKsl jQ ia:dhs mdxY= iudydr (soil Aggregates) YS% ,xldf m%;shg wkqj wmc,h c, m%Njj,g tl;= lsf kS;suh iSud
iEoSf ,d CIqka iyNd.s f' os,r
S iQ;l
%s d "welafkdauhsi
s ia iQ;l
%s d"fmd,sielrhsv ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
ue,sh j." nelahd u.ska ksmojk fij, hk fjd mdxY= iudydr iEoSfys ,d
iyNd.s f' fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl
dldrl:
khsg%cka ;sr lsu" iy inkaO;d u.skq;a ^Rhizobium nelahd iy uQ,.e;s&"
iy fkdjk inka O ;d u.s k q ; a ^ks o e,a f ,a fjfik nela hd iy kd.l mdkSh c, msh;la iy ldl wmc,h msh lsf msh;la ne,Sug
ihfkdnelahd& hk fowdldrfhkau isf' lafIa;% pdldjla iqodk lrkak'
Wiia Ydl uq,a iy os,Sr w;r mj;sk os,Srl uQ, inkaO;d o Ydl jOkh flfrys mdkSh c,h iy ldl wmc,h msis lsf uQ,sl mshjr iy uQ,Ou wvx.=
n,mdhs' f u.ska mfika djH fmdaIl $fmdiafmag tla /ia lr bka miq tajd
jd;djla ms<sfh, lsug isiqkag mjikak'
Ydlj,g udre lrkq ,ef'
lKavdh ls%hdldrlula f,i c,h u.ska me;sfrk frda. ,ehsia;=jla isiqka ,jd
mdxY= CIqyq bkafvda,a weisla w,h" .sfnr,ska iy ihsfgdlhkska jeks Ydl
jOl jH ksmojhs' ms<sfh, lrjkak'
fnda. Ydl flfrys n,mdkakd jQ o tajd kdY lrkakdjQo Ydl jHdckl is;a weo.kakd iq bosm;a lsulg isiqkag iydh jkak'
CIqkaf.a m%Odk jdiiaa:dkho mihs' Ih lreKqq wdjrKh jk mos fhda.H wkqms<sfj,lg ia;drKh lrkak'
Ydl uq,a u;=msg" uq,a wdYs%;j .K CIq .ykhla we;' fuu CIqka uQ,f.da,
nelahd (Rhizosphere bacteria ) fyj;a Rhizo bacteria hkqfjka ye|skaf' Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,la (
fuu nelahd" fkdfhl=;a Ydl i%dj u; j;a jk w;r fjd w;=ka rdYshlau
Ydl jOkhg Wmldr jk jH iy Ydl jHdckl nelahdj, jOkh mdkSh c,h" ldl wmc,h iy >k wmjHj,g wod, CIq j oHdj
ksfYaOkh lrkakd jQ ridhksl jH ksmojhs'
mdkSh c,fha iajNdl m%Nj iy tajd IKh h yels l%u
fndfyda m%cdj,g;a" k.r iNdj,g;a mdkSh c,h iemfhkafka .x.d"Th" je wdoS

u;=msg c, m%Njj,ska iy <sx j,sks' fujeks iajdNdl c, iemhq ksfjiaj,ska
iy ludka;j,ska neyer flfrk wmjHj, wvx.= jHdckl CIq ka u.ska
IKh h yel'
248 249
2nd 2nd
fuu jHdckl CIq yq" ksidf.a;a" i;=kaf.a;a u, ud.fhka iajdNdl

c,dYj,g we;=jk w;r bla;s tu c,h mfNdackh lrkakkaf.a Yr f ksid ksia u,j, ksr;=rej jdih lrk flda,sf*da nelahd keue;s tla;rd
fi!LHhgo Tjqkaf.ka ydks we;sf' iQpl fhl= Nd;fhka c,fha wdrlaIK $ fi!LHdrlaIK .=Kh ks;m s ;d mlaId
lrkq ,ef' fuu nelahdj iajdhq fyda ffj,amls ksjdhq" .a? iDK" wka;iafmdr
c,h u.ska fndfyda g ifm%I a Kh jkafka" wdka;l
%s ud.h ;=, wdidok we;slrk fkdidok" hIa yeve;s" meh 48 la ;=, ,elafgdaia meiSug ,lalr jdhqjla ksmojk
jHdckl CIq kah' kso (- ghsf*dhs iy merdghsf*dhs nelahd" fld,rd nelahdjls'
nelahd " Entero virus iy w;Sidrh we;s lrk CIq ka flda,sf*da nelahd ;sfuka ye`.fjkafka tu c,h ksia u,j,ska wm;%
we;s nj;a f ksid tajdfha fjk;a jHdckl CIq ka o isf yelshdj we;s
k.r iNd oHd.drj,;a" c, imdok uKav,fha oHd.drj,;a ks;sm;d flfrk nj;a h'
mlaId ms<sfj;a u.ska mdkSh c,fha .=Kd;aul nj ;yjqre flf' .=Kd;aul nj flda,sf*da i|yd iu; mlaId Nd;d flf'
ksKh flfrkafka " u,jH j,ska IKh fuka tlajk flda,sf*da (Coliform) wmc,h
nelahd we;s ke;s nj wkqjhs' ksfjiaj, fyda ludka; Yd,dj, Nd;fhka miq c,h Is; c,h njg m;af'
wdydrj, yd fjk;a jHj, wvx.= ftkash wm jH Yd, m%udKhla" tk
kd.l mdkSh c,h msis lsf msh;l m%Odk mshjr ldfndayhsf%g" foh" fm%dak iy CIq ka fuu Is; c,fha wvx.= f'
fuu Is; c,h" iajNdl c,dYj,g uqodyeu ksid we;sh yels wys;lr
fuu ls%hd ms<sfj; u.ska ksidf.a mfNdackhg iqiq .=Kfhka hq;= c,h ksmojkq n,mE'
,ef' fuys m%Odk mshjr ;=kla we;' g wu;rj we;e c, msh;j, .x.d c,h a) frda. ldrl CIq ka jHdma;u
m fm<lska my<g .e,Sug i,iajkq ,ef' ta u`.ska c,h jd;khu isf' b) ffcj ydhkh h yels jH iy tajd fhdackh fuka we;sjk
a) wjidokh M, tla/ia fuka c,h IKh u'
b) fmu c) tfia fhdackh f oS c,fha wvx.= Tlaiscka Yd, m%udKhla
c) Ic kdYkh m%fhdackhg .ekSu" c,rey ka flfrys n,mEula we;s lrhs'
^wl ffcj Tlaiscka b,au" by, BOD w.h &
a) wjidokh - fuh islrkq ,nkafka Yd, ;gdl ;=, ksh; ld,hla d) .| we;s lrk ksjdhq fhdackhla isu'
c,h r|jd ;efuks' tu ld,h ;=,oS Yd, jHuh wxY= m;=f,a ;ekam;a
f' we, ^weksh i,af*a& tl;= lsfuka wjidokh jeflfrk f ksid Is; c,h" iajNdl c,dY fj; uqodykq ,eug fmr th ksh;
w;r tysoS wef,k iq`t wjlafIamhla iEfoa' f wdldrfhka fndfyda CIqka iu; ugulg ksis mos msh lsu fndfyda rgj, kS;suh wjYH;djhls'
fukau ishq wj,nk jHo bj;a flf' IS; c,h msh lsf uQ,sl mshjr yd uQ,Ou
b) fmu - je,s ;=,ska fmu is lrk w;r nelahd 99] la bj;a flf' uQ,sl msh lsu ^m%d:l msh lsu&
Yd, mdfjk jH bj;a lsu
c) Ic kdYkh - fuys oS laf,daka Nd;fhka c,fhaa Ic kdYkh je,s bj;a lsu
lrkq ,ef' fuys oS Nd; flfrk laf,daka m%udKh" ksoyia laf,daka f;,a yd .S%ia bj;a lsu
0'2-2'0 mg/l l wjfYaIhla b;ss lsug m%udKj;a ;r h hq;=hs' wjidok ;gdl ;=, >k jH ;ekam;a u
frdkafndr tl;= lr bj;a lsu ^rEm igyk - weuqKqu 314 msgqj n,kak&
mdkSh c,hg wod<j ie,ls,a,g Ndckh h hq;= m%Odk lreK jHdcklhka fuys oS ffch ls%hdj,shla Nd;d fkdf'
u.ska ifm%aIKh jk frda. Wkikaksmd;h" fld,rdj wdoS f' f ksid c,fhys uQ,sl mshf oS ftkaSh jH 25-35] l m%udKhla bj;a flf'
ikSmdrlaIl .=Khg wod,j tys wdrlaIs; nj ksKh lsug mlaId fidhd f.k
we;' Salmonella, Shigella iy Vibrio jeks jHdcklhka fidhd .ekSug ks;sm;d oaa;Shsl msh lsu
Yaf,aIKh lsu m%dfhda.sl fkdf' Bg fya;= k uQ,sl mshfuka miq msg;g .,dhk jH" oa;Shsl msh wjia:djg
a) Tjqka b;d iq`t ixLHd jYfhka mej;Su ^jix.;hla fyda frda. me;srhdula we;= f'
we;ak i&
b) tajd wkdjrKh lr .ekSug Ialr jk w;r ta i|yd je ld,hla .;u'
250 251
2nd 2nd
fuu mshf oS iajdhq nelahdj, jOkh;a YS>% CIq Tlail

s rKh;aa ksmqK;dj 13'2'0 ( mdkSh c,fha .=Kd;aulNdjh mj;ajd .ekSu iy >k wmjH
myiqlr,Su i|yd Is; c,h jd;kh lrkq ,ef' fuys oS l<ukdlrKh i|yd CIq j oHd;aul ixl,am yd uQ,Ou
ilS%h l, fndr l%uh (Activated sludge) Nd; lrhs'
ldka fmryka l%uh (Trickling filter)
hk l%u foflka tlla Nd;d f'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'2'2 ( >k wmjH m%;splS%lrKfha mdil yd fi!LHuh jeo.;alu
ilS%h l< fndr l%ufhaoS Is; c,h hdka;s%lj YS>%fhka jd;kh flf' ldka
fmrykal%uh Nd;fhaoS mdIdKuh jH ;gqjla u; Is; c,h" fika biSug .fIKh lrhs'
i,id bla;s th ldkaug i,ikq ,ef' fuu l%ufhaoS fmryka ;gqj u;
CIq ka jOkh ftkaSh jH TlaislrKh lrhs' ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02
oa;Shsl mshf oS ftkaSh jH 75-95] l m%udKhla TlaislrKh flf'
fuu moaO;s ;=,ska .,d hk jH" bkamiq Ic kdYkh fldg iajNdl bf.kq M, (
c,dYj,g .,dhdug i,iajkq ,ef' fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd;
fuu msh l%u foflaoSu b;sjk frdkafndr ksjdhq frdka fndr mSrlhla
>k wmjHj, iajNdjh ia;r lrhs'
fj; hjkq ,ef tysoS isjk ksjdhq fhdackfhaoS tu frdkafndrj, wvx.=
>k wmjH m%;splS%lrKfha mdil yd fi!LHuh jeo.;alu meyeos,s lrhs'
ftkash jH wjidkfha oS f;aka iy CO2 njg m;a flf'
rKh jQ frdkafndr fmdfydr jYfhka Nd; l< yel' >k wmjH l<ukdlrKfha oS Nd; jk Ys,amSh l%u ia;r lrhs'

dldrl:
uOHu mir wldh u.ska m%ldYhg m;a lr we;s w;a m;s%ld iy m%ldYk isiqkag
imhkak'
>k wm jH" tajd m%;splS%lrKfha mdil iy fi!LHuh jeo.;alu iy >k
wmjH l<ukdlrKfha os Nd; jk Ys,amSh l%u ms<sn|j jd;djla ilia lrkak'
bosm;a lsula i|yd isiqka fhduq lrkak'
fhda.H wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

>k wmjH
- >k wm jHj, iajNdjh
- ldnksl iajrEmfha wmjH jk Ydl jH" wdydrj, bj;,k fldgia" lvodis
wmjH" fmd,s;ska iy re wdosh >k wmjH f,i ie<fla'
- wdydr wmjH iy Ydl jH f.fhka ydhkh f'
- ma,diala "re iy lvodis f.fhka ydhkh fkdf'
>k wm jH m%;splS%lrKfha mdil iy fi!LHuh jeo.;alu
>k wmjH jD;j f.dv.eiSu" mdil .eg rdYshla we;s lrhs'
- tu ia:dk urejka fndajk ia:dk f,i jOkh fjhs'
- wmjHj, ksjdhq fhdackh ksid .| yuk jdhqka ksmof'
- >k wmjHj, ksjdhq fhdackfha m%Odk M,hla jkafka f;akah' th msmsfrk
iq neka wk;=reodhl f'
- lDka iy lDka;lhka jHdma; f'
- N+.; c,h" IKh h yel'
252 253
2nd 2nd
f ksid >k wmjH fyd|ska l<ukdlrKh l< hq;= h' >k wmjH u.ska w;sjk ksmqK;dj 13'3'0 ( CIq ka wdydr flfrys we;s flfrk wdprK ch.ekSug
.eg`t wju lr.ekSu i|yd l%u lsysmhla we;' lghq;= lrhs'
fjka lsu iy m%;splS%lrKh ksmqK;d ugu 13'3'1 ( Is; wdydr u.ska je<f|k frda. ksjdrKh i|yd odhl fjhas'
fndfyda rgj, .Dyia: ldnksl wmjH jk uq`t;ekaf.a le,sli," Ydl fldgia"
ma,diala " re iy lvodis fjka fjka nyd j, tl;= flf' fjdhska
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 07
lvodis iy re kej; Nd;h i|yd m%;splS%lrKh flf'
bf.kq M, (
ldnksl jH fhdackh lsu" fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd;
ffcj oHd;aulj fldfmdia iEoSu fyda rK ls%hdj,s Nd; lr Ydl jH" wdydr krlaf oS isjk fN!;sl iy ridhksl fjkia meyeos,s lrhs'
bj;,k wdydr fldgia iy lvodis ksIamdok m%;splS%lrKh l< yel' m%;sM,h wdydr krlau ksidf.a fi!LHh flfrys we;slrk n,mEu ia;r lrhs'
f,i ,efnk ldnksl jH" lDIslufha oS fldfmdai a f,ig fyda N+ w,xlrkh
i|yd kej; Nd; l< yels h' fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl
dldrl:
g wu;rj ls%hdj,sfha oS ksoyia jk wm jdhQka ^f;aka jeks & r|jdf.k ,sh
krla jQ wdydr idm, lsysmhla isiqkag imhd tajdfha is we;s fN!;sl
ckkh lsu i|yd Nd; l< yel'
fjkial y\qkd.eksug i,iajkak'
wdydr u.ska je<fòk wdidok" wdydr krlaug n,mdk idOl" by; krla jq
ikSmdrlaIl N+ msr (Sanitary land fills)
wdydrj, is we;s ffcj yd ridhksl fjkia ms<sn|j f;dr;=re tl;= lsug
jvd;a m%p,s; jQ wmjH bj;a lsf wdldrh f,i i<ld we;af;a th uQ,slj th isiqkag mjikak'
,dNodhSj >k wmjH bj;a lsf l%uhla neks' kd.l >k wmjHj,ska wdydr krlau ms<sn|j bosm;a lsulg wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
mfyka y;rla u fuu l%ufhka neyer lrhs' Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos fhda.H wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'
ikSmdrlaIl N+ msru hkq bxfkare ;dlaIK l%u mok lr.;a >k wmjH
neyera lsf l%uhls' fuys oS idudkHfhka wdka;sl fyda Wm wdka;sl ;Sre u;g
CIq ka yd wdydr
>k wm jH ia;r f,i m;=rejkq ,ef' fuys wruqK jkafka ia;r f,i me;sru
ksidf.a mfNdackh i|yd ,o yels ish`tu wdydr jH Ydl yd i;a;j a iNjhlska
iy iqixys;j weisu u.ska wmjHj, mudj Yd, jYfhka wvq lsuhs' bka miq
hqla; f'
mia u.ska fuu wmjH ia;r wdjrKh lrkq ,ef'
mDh u; jk yeu wjldYhlu mdfya;a" Ydl fyda i;a;aj iNjhla we;s kEu
wdydr iemhqul;a CIq ka jdih lrk nj meyeos,s lrkak' wdydrj, iajNdl
by, N+.; c,h we;s m%foaYj, N+ msr msysgqu fkdl< hq;=hs' ikSmdrlaIl N+
CIq .ykhla wvx.= jk w;r wdydr w;m; .ef oS yd ieliq lsf oS tajd
msrj, we;s fndfyda wmjH ffcj oHd;aul iy ridhksl ls%hdj,s u.ska
iajNdl CIq kaf.ka IKh f'
fhdackh >k" j iy jdhquh M, we;s lrhs'
CIq kaf.a jOkh i|yd frdamk udOHhla jYfhka wdydr jH ls%hd lrhs'
wdydrj, fmdaIH jH wvx.= nj;a" tu fmdaIH jH CIq ka rdYshlf.a jOkhg
wjYH jk nj;a meyeos,s lrkak'
f ksid fmdaIl ;enq idrh jeks CIq frdamk udOHhla f,i wdydr ls%hd
lrhs' fuu ;enq idrfha nelahd" hSia" mqia fYaI .Kkdjla jOkh f'
wdydr krla u hkq wdydr j, CIq ka jOkh uksid tu wdydr j, fN!;sl"
ridhksl iy j oHd;aul jHqy fjkia tajd mfNdackhg kqiqiq ;;a;ajhlg
m;auhs'
wdydr u; jefvk CIq ka IufmdaIS nelahd iy os,Sr f' fuu ls%hdj,sfha
oS f CIq yq " ldfndyhsf%g " fm%dak iy foh | fy,ka Tjqkaf.a jOkh
i|yd wjYH Yla;sh iy wfkl=;a wjYH;d ,nd.ks;s'
254 255
2nd 2nd
fuu ls%hdj,skaj,oS CIq ka u.ska i%djh flfrk weuhsf,aia" fm%dafhaia" ,hsfmaia wNHka;r idOl
wdoS nys# ffi,Sh tkaihsu iyNd.s f' wNHka;r idOl hkq wdydrfhau wvx.= idOl f' my; oelafjk wNHka;r idOl
wdydr krlau flfrys olajk n,mEu meyeos,s lrkak'
fuys m%;sM, jYfhka wdydrfha wvx.= m%Odk ix>glj, ridhksl iy fN!;sl
.+K fjkia f' 1' pH
2' f;;ukh
wdydrfha isjk ridhksl mhdi meyeos,s lrkak' 3' fmdaIl m%udkh
4' j oHd;aul jHqyh
mQ;N
s jkh (Putrefaction)
1' pH
fm%dafhd,sl
fm%dak wdydr > wefkda w, + wefudakshd + H2S + wek fndfyda CIq ka fyd|skau jOkh jkafka pH 7.0 g wdikak ^6'6 -7'5& w.hka
CIq ka ;=<h' pH 4.0 g wvq udOHj, jOkh jk CIq ka ixLHdj b;d wvq h'
meiSu (Fermentation)
ielfrd,sl idudkHfhka mqia iy hSiaj,g mq`t,a pH mrdihla ;=< tk b;d my, isg b;d
ldfndyhsf%g wdydr > w, + uOHidr + jdhq by, (pH 2 -10& mrdihla ;=, jOkh h yel'
CIq ka
nelahd idudkHfhka pH ^5 -7& w;r jOkh f'

uqv
q u (Rancidity)
foy's (pH 1'8 - 2'0&"fodv (pH 3'6-4'3&" flfi,a (pH 4'5 -4'7& " jeks m<;=re j."
,sfmda,sl
fo wdydr > fo w, + .a,sifrda,a mqia iy hSia u.ska krla ug bv we;'
CIq ka
fndfyda uqyq wdydr" uia" yrla uia (pH} 5'1-6'2& l=l=,a uia (pH } 6'2 -6'4&" ud
wdydr j, isjk fN!;sl mhdi meyeos,s lrkak' (pH } 6'6-6'8&" ls (pH 6'3-6'5& nelahd "hSia iy mqia u.ska krla u is f'
wdydr uDu" jKSNjkh" .=Kd;aul nj wvqu" fij, fyda ue,sh iEoSu
^fmd,sielrhsv&" I tl;=u' 2' f;;uk m%udKh
g wu;rj frda. ldrl h yels ils%h CIq kaf.a Yd, .yK wdydrfha wvx.= wdydr mrlaIKh lsf merKsu l%uh jk h<Su" f;;uk m%udKh wvq
h yels h' lsu u; mok jk wdldrh meyeos,s lrkak'
f ish lreKq ksid wdydrh ksidg mfNdackhg kqiqiq ;;a;ajhg m;af' wl f;;uk m%udkhla we;s uia" ud jeks wdydr nelahd u.ska krla
fkdfhl=;a ndysr idOl iy wdydrfha wvx.= wNHka;r idOl" wdydr krlau f'
flfrys n,mdhs' wvq f;;uk m%udKhla we;s ial" mdka jeks wdydr mqia j. u.ska krla
ndysr fukau wdydrfha wvx.= wNHka;r idOl wdydr krlau flfrys n,mdk f'
wdldrh meyeos,s lrkak' b;d wvq f;;uk m%udKhla we;s h<s ls ms" ms jeks wdydr nelahd
CIq kaf.a jOkh iy ls%hdld;ajh flfrys n,mdk kEu idOlhla" wdydr iy mqia u.ska myiqfjka krla fkdf'
krlau flfrys n,mdhs' Kq iy iSks wvx.= wdydr ^c,h m%udKh b;d wvqh& idudkHfhka krla
ug ,lajkqfha ,jKld nelahd ^Kq oeuq wdydr& yd wdi%e;ld iy
Y=Ialld" mqia iy hSia îSks iys; wdydr& u.sks'
256 257
2nd 2nd
3' fmdaIl m%udKh wl f,i IS; wdydr mfNdackhg .kakd flfkl=" CIq ffi, Yd,
c,h" Yla;s m%Njh" khsg%cka " gka iy Lksc ,jk CIq jOkh ixLHdjlao" I ridhksl o w.%yKh lsfuka frda.S h yels h'
i|yd w;HdjYH fmdaIl f'
fmdaIlj,ska ire wdydr myiqfjka CIq ka u.ska krla f' fuu frda. wdldr folls'
Wod - ls" uia
w& wdydr u`.sakA je<f|k wdidok
4' j oHd;aul jHqyh wd& wdydr I
we;e wdydr j, iajNdl wdjrKh " wdydrh ;=<g CIq ka we;=`t u
iy ydks meKu j<lajhs' wdydr u.ska we;sjk wdidokj,oS krla jQ wdydr mfNdackh lrk mqoa.,hkaf.a
Wod - m<;=rej, ndysr wdjrKh " ;a;r lgqj foayh ;=,g CIq ka we;=`t jOkh fjka .=Kkh jk w;r frda.hg
,dlaIKsl jQ frda. ,laIK we;s lrk I jH ksmojhs'
ndysr idOl Wod - WK ikaksmd;h - Salmonella typhi
ndysr idOl hkq wdydr yd CIq ka hk fofldgigu n,mdk mir w;Sidrh - Shigella
idOlhs' fld<rdj - Vibrio cholerae
1' .nvd lsrSf WIaK;ajh
2' mirfha idfmalaI wd;djh wdydr If oS" krla jQ wdydr j, CIq ka jOkfha oS ksmo jQ I jH wvx.=
3' mirfha ;sfnk jdhq iy tajdfha idkakh" (O2 iy CO2 ) jk w;r fuu I jH wvx.= wdydr mfNdackh lrk kEu wfhl=g fl
CIq kaf.a jOkh flfrys mq`t,a WIaK;aj mrdihla n,mdk nj meyeos,s ld,hla ;=< frda. ,laIK my< f'
lrkak' my, WIaK;ajj,oS jOkh fika isjk w;r" wdydr krla u o Wod - wdydr Iu - Staphylococcus aureus
fika isf' idudkH jgmsgdf WIaK;ajfha oS jOkh wl f.fhka fndhq,skshdj - Clostridium botulinum
isjk w;r krlau o wl f'
idudkHfhka fuu frda. j. folu wdydr Iu ksid isjk nj mejfia'
flfia jqjo b;d my< WIaK;aj j,oS mjd ^kso' 40C& YS;ld nelahd u.ska
wdydr krla f'
mj;sk f;;ukh m%udKh CIq ka jOkh wdydr krlau flfrys n,mdk

jeo.;a idOlhla jk neka" wdydr .nvd flfrk mirfha idfmalaI wd;djh
b;d jeo.;a f'
wvq f;;uk m%udKhla wvx.= wdydr" by< idfmalaI wd;djhla we;s mirj,
.nvd fkdl< hq;= h' ukao h;a tu wdydr u.ska f;;ukh Wrd .ekSu fya;=fjka
CIq jOkh isjk neks'
wdydr u.ska je<f|k wdidok$ wdydr I
we;e CIq ka wdydr u; ksmojk O I jH iys; wdydr mfNdackhg

.ekSfuka wdydr wdidok iy wdydr I we;s f'
CIq ka u.ska krlaug ,lajQ wdydr mfNdackhg .ekSfuka frda.S h yelsh'
CIq yq wdydr ;=< jOkh " .=Kkh f oS CIq ffi, ixLHdjo je

lrka I ridhksl jHo ksmojhs'
258 259
2nd 2nd
ksmqK;dj 13'3'0 ( CaIq ka wdydr flfrys we;s flfrk wdprK ch.ekSug

lghq;= lrhs ' - ka lsu
- wmQ;s weysu - (Aseptic packaging)
ksmqK;d ugu 13'3'2 ( wdydr mrlaIK l%u ffoksl lghq;= id:l lr.ekSu i|yd - h<Su
fhdod .kshs' - kq oeu
- kq oud h<su
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 01 - iSks tl;= lsu
- meiaglrKh
bf.kq M, ( - .eiSu
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd; - ridhk jH tl;= lsu
wdydr mrlaIKh iy wdydr mrlaIKfha jeo.;alu meyeos,s lrhs' - lsrK mrlaIKh
wdydr mrlaIK l%u j,g wod< uQ,Ou ia;drKh lrhs' - wvq WIaK;aj mrlaIKh

dldrl:
mrlaIK l%u ms<n

s | oek .ekSug mrlaI;
s wdydr j. lsym
s hla /f.k kslaIKh
lsug isiqkag mjikak'
tu l%uj,g mok we;s uQ,Ou fudkjdoehs oek.ekSug isiqkag mjikak'
bosm;a lsula i|yd myiql i,ikak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos ia;drKh lrkak'

wdydr mrlaIKh " tosfkod ;fha jeo.;a wx.hls'
wdydr mrlaIKh wjYH ukaoehs meyeos,s lrkak'
fndfyda wdydr j. mrlaIKh i|yd fYaI l%u wkq.ukh fkdlrkafka k
tajd" CIq ka u.ska myiqfjka fhdackh f'
b,au wNsNjd wdydr ksIamdokh jkg jemqr wdydr mrlaIKh l< hq;= h'
;dmh" wmQ;s Ys,am l%u " wvq WIaK;ajh" c,kh" ridhk jH iy lsrK fhdod
.kska CIq kaf.a jOkh iy ls%hdlda;ajh md,kh lsu u; wdydr l,a
;nd .ekSf l%uj, uQ,Ou mok we;'
iqiq ksoiqka iys;j" wdydr mrlaIK l%u mok we;s uQ,Ou meyeos,s lrkak'
wdydrhg CIq ka we;=`tu je<elau ^wmQ;s l%u&
wdydrj, CIq kaf.a jOkh iy ls%hdld;ajh je<elau'
wdydrj, CIq ka bj;a lsu fyda kdY lsu'
my; oelafjk wdydr mrlaIK l%uj,g by; uQ,Ou fhfok wdldrh meyeos,s
lrkak'
260 261
2nd 2nd
tallh 14 - jHjydl j oHdj Catla catta ^le,d&

Labeo rohita ^frdayq&
ksmqK;dj 14'1'0 ( ;fha .=Kd;aul nj je oshK
q q lr .ekSug j oHd;aul ixl,am Cirrhinus mrigala ^.d,a&
yd uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs' nyq, c,c Ydl - Cabomba , Ceratophyllum, Vallisnaria, Aponogeton
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1'1 ( c, moaO;shla l%udkql+, j mj;ajd .ekSf l%fudamdh uYkh (fllh) Hydrilla, Pistia (oshmr~e,a)
lrhs' ndysr ,laIK Nd; lrka fuu u;aiH" biaika yd Ydl fYaI ykd .ekSug
isiqkag yels h hq;= hs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08 c, j.d l%u
m%Odk c, j.d l%u - iQlaIu
bf.kq M, ( wO iQlaIu
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ( ia;D;
c, j.d l%u ia;r lrhs' nyd >k;ajh" w;sfl wdydr iemhSu" c,fha .=Kd;aul Ndjh mj;ajd .ekSu"
j.d l< yels u;aiHhskaf.a ,dlaIKsl ,laIK meyeos,s lrhs' wiajekak fk,k l%u" M,odj wdosh mok lr f.k fuu l%u ii|kak'
u;aiHhskaf.a yd biaikaf.a O fYaI ykd .kshs' j.d l< yels u;aiH fYaIj, ys;lr ,laIK .=rejrhd meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
c,d,hla iEoSug wNs,dYhla we;s lr .kshs' talj.dj" nyqj.dj hkak meyeos,s lrkak' talj.djg jvd nyqj.df we;s jdis o
meyeos,s l< hq;= h' fya;= olajka nyqj.dj i|yd fhdod .ekSug iqiq u;aiH
dldrl: fYaI ixl,k i|yka l< hq;= h'
lafIa;% pdld - c, j.d uOHia:dkhla yd c,d,hla kslaIKh lsug hdu Y%S ,xldf biaika j.df mdil n,mE
j.d lrkq ,nk kaf.a ndysr ,laIK oelaug wod< ksoYl yd rEmigyka Nd;h' Y%S ,xldf biaika j.df mdil n,mE meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
yels;r Y%jH oDYH wdOdrl Nd;h' iqr;,a u;aiHhska j.dj
nyq,j fhdod .kq ,nk fYaI - .mams" rkaud`M" ldmhka" .=rd" iafjdaf,a" fud,Sia"
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( ndia ^lshqkaia nd" ,ela rE nd&" takac,a ud`M'
c, j.dj - c,c kaf.a ,dnd, wjia:d c,dYj, jOkhug i,iajd wiajekak ndysr ,laIK fhdod .kska fuu fYaI ykd .ekSug isiqkag yels h hq;= h'
,nd .ekSuhs' c,d,hla mj;ajd .ekSu
c, j.df wjYH;dj my; idOl i,ld ne,sh hq;= h'
ksia ck.ykfha jOkh yd c,c mirj,ska ,efnk iS; wdydr im;a c,fha fndr;djh
ie,ls,a,g .kska c, j.df wjYH;djh .=rejrhd meyeos,s l< hq;= h' Yd, c,c Ydl ;su
jeo.;a fm%dak m%Njhla jk u;aiHhska fYaIfhka u .%dh m%foaYj," idfmalaIj ma,jdx.j, nyq,;dj
c,fha WIaK;ajh
wvq <lg c, j.dj u`.ska ,nd .; yels nj;a i|yka l< hq;= h'
osh jQ O2 m%udKh
fkdao lghq;= yd foaY ksuh Wmhd .ekSu i|yd c,c Ydl yd iqr;,a uiqka
,jK;dj
j.d lsf wjYH;djh o meyeos,s l< hq;= h' pH
Y%S ,xldf j.d lrkq ,nk fYaI idudkH m;%;dj
biaika fYaI - Penaeus monodon ^l=regq biaid&" isiqka Tjqkaf.a ksjfia fyda mdif,a c,d,hla mj;ajd f.k hdug Wkka l<
Penaeus indicus ^bkaoSh lsbiaid& hq;= h'
wdydrhg .kakd
u;aiH fYaI - Oreochromis mossambicus ^fudiela ;s,dmshd&" m%fhda.sl mrSlaIKh
Oreochromis niloticus ^khs,a ;s,dmshd& c,cS j.df Nd; lrk u;aiHhska biaika yd Ydl fYaI ykd .ekSu'
262 263
2nd 2nd

q q lr .ekSug j oHd;aul ixl,am ;a;r" YSY= wjia:d folla yd iqyqUq,a wjia:dj jk pl%hg wh;a f' .eyekq
yd uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs' i;d ;a;r 30 - 50 muK m%udKhla ouhs' ;a;r os,sfik" iq meye;s" f.da,Sh
yevh iys; tajdh' osk ;=klska muK ;a;r |S m%d.aYsY=jka msgf' B<`.
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1'2 ( m<sfndaO ydksh wju lr .ekSf l%u fhdackd lrhs' wjia:dj jk YsY=jka yejye,Sfuka iqyqUq,ka njg m;af'
;a;r isg iqyqUq,d njg m;aug osk 7-10 la muK .; f'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08 m%d.aYsY=jka " YsY=jka yd iqyqUq,ka hk wjia:d ish,a,u ydks lr;s'
uhsgdjkaf.a jHdma;sh uQ,sl jYfhka iq<`.ska isf'
bf.kq M, ( ydksfhys iajNdjh yd Wjfrys ,laIK
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ( frda. ,laIK M, u; ^kEu wjhl& kslaIKh l< yels h'
fmd,a yd j, m%Odk lD m<sfndaOhka ykd .kshs' udi 3 - 7 muK jk M,j, nyq,j me;sr we;'
Wjfrys ,laIK ia;r lrhs' mmqIam fldgia hg fmdl=re f,i j;a jk w;r hqI Wrd fndhs' tu ksid
wdidos; fnda. Ydl ykd .kshs' M,j,g ydks f'
iqiq uok l%u Nd; lrhs' m<uqj lymdgg yqre iqmdg" ;%sfldaKdldr me,a, oelsh yels w;r ^mmqIam
fldgia hg& miqj tajd Yd, Uqre meyef'
dldrl: f,,af,a u;=msg ia;r h<s .e, hhs
lafIa;% pdld - fmd,a mfhaIK wdh;kh M,fha likhg ndOd we;s u ksid M, m%udKfhka l=vd f' M, jeu yd
mfhaIK wdh;kh M,j, yevh widudkH ula isf' M,j,g wl ydkshla fuka M, u;
m<sfndaOhdf.a ndysr ,laIK yd ydksh ms<n
s | wOHhkhg wod< ksoYl yd rEmigyka fkd.eUqre msmsula êrruptions& we;s f'
Nd; lrkak' uok l%u
Y%jH oDYH wdOdrl fhdod .kak' id:l yd os.= ld,Sk uok l%u ;ju fidhd f.k ke;' tneka ydksh wju
lsug;a" uhsgdjdf.a me;su md,kh lsug;a mshjr f.k we;'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( wdidos; M, lvd mq`Miaid oeu
m<sfndaOhd hkq ljfrlaoe hs meyeos,s lrkak' fuys oS wdl ydksodhs ugu yd iqiq ridhksl l%u Nd;h - jhi udi 2 - 6 muK jk <m fmd,a j u;
wdl foay,sh ugu flfrys wjOdkh fhduq lrkak' fl,ska u oef;,a ^burnt engine oil & fhoSu' fuu`.ska M, u; isk uhsgdjka h
my; fmd,a m<sfndaOhkaf.aa ndysr rEmSh ,laIK" jk pl%fha wjia:d" ydksfha hhs'
iajNdjh" Wjfrys ,laIK" uok l%u meyeos,s l< hq;= hs' fmd,a uhsgdjd nyq,ju jHdma; jkafka iq<`.k
s a fyda wdidos; <m M, yd fmd,af,,s
r;= .=,a,d" l`M l=reKshd" fmd,a uhsgdjd' m%jdykh u`.sks' wiajekak fk,Sf oS iuyr uhsgdjka fmd,a M, u; isug
fmd,a uhsgdjd Âceria guerreronis& ms<sn| my; ia;rh b.ekau i|yd Nd; l< mq`Mjk' tneka M, fk miq tajd udihla muK ;nd m%jdykh l< hq;= h' ka
yels h' fjk;a m%foaYj,g frda.h me;s hdu wju f'
Y%S ,xldf m<uq jrg jd;d jQfha 1997 oS l,amsh m%foaYfhks' j;udkfha osia;%slal j, my; m<sfndaOhkaf.a iqyqUq,df.a ndysr rEmSh ,laIK" jk pl%fha wjia:d"
lSmhl me;s we;' ydksfha iajNdjh" Wjfrys ,laIK yd uok l%u meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
ykd .ekSug fhdod .; yels rEmSh ,laIK Uqre me< lSvEjd f.dh ueiaid ly mqrela mKqjd
l=vdh' m%udKh 0'1 - 0'2 mm muK f' msh weig meyeos,sj fkdfmfka' os.h' uok l%u
idm%odhsl l%u ridhksl l%u ffcj oHd;aul l%u
mKq wdldrh' mdo hq.,a folla orhs' iq meye;s jk w;r" mdrNdIlh ^translucent&'
ifudaOdks; m<sfndaO md,kh
m%fhda.sl mrSlaIKh
YS% ,xldf iq,n f.dh yd fmd,a lD m<sfndaOhka wOHhkh lsu'
264 265
2nd 2nd

q q lr .ekSug j oHd;aul ixl,am ksmqK;dj 14'1'0 ( ;fha .=Kd;aul nj je oshqKq lr .ekSug j oHd;aul
yd uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs' ixl,am yd uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1'4 ( j,ame<Ej,ska we;s h yels ydks wju lr .ekSug j oHd;aul
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1'3 ( mrfmdaIs;hkaf.ka isoqjk ydksh wju lr .ekSug j oHd;aul oekqu yd wjfndaOh fhdod .kshs'
oekqu yd wjfndaOh fhdod .kshs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06 bf.kq M, (
bf.kq M, ( Tyq$wehf.a mirfha ;sfnk nyq, j,ame<E ykd .kshs'
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ( j,ame<E hkq fudkjdoehs meyeos,s lrhs'
uef,ahd mrfmdaIs;hd" nrjd mrfmdaIs;hd iy fldl= mkqjdf.a wdidol wjia:d j,ame<Ej, ,dlaIKsl ,laIK ia;drKh lrhs'
ykd .kshs' Tjqkaf.a jk pl%h ia;r lrhs' j,ame<E md,k l%u i|yd miq jk uQ,Ou ia;r lrhs'
fuu mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a ifm%aIK l%u" wdidokfha ,laIK iy uok l%u ia;r O j,ame<E uok l%uj, jdis iy wjdis idlPd lrhs'
lrhs'
dldrl:
dldrl: j,ame<Ej," ksoYl" mska;+r" PdhdrEm yd fj im;a isiqkag imhkak'
by; mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a jk jl%fha wjia:dj, mska;+r" PdhdrEm isiqkag iemhSu' j,ame<E ykd .ekSug wi, we;s t<j`M j.djla" l=Uqrla fyda j;=hdhla jeks
fuu mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a uok l%u ms<sn|j bosm;a lsulg isiqkag bv ie,iSu' ia:dkhlg hdug flaI;% pdldjla iQodk lrkak'
Y%jH oDYH wdOdrl Nd;fhka Ih lreKq wdjrKh lsug ia;drKhl fhfokak' j,ame<Ej, ksoYl tl;= lsug isiqkag mjikak'
j,ame<E ykd .ekSu i|yd isiqkag u`. fmkajkak'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( my; f;dr;=re /ia lsug isiqkag mjikak'
iqiq rEmigyka wdOdrfhka mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a iqyqUq,a wjia:dj, ndysr rEmldrh" - j,ame<E md,k l%u
jk pl%h yd ifm%aIK l%u ia;r lrkak' - j,ame<Ej, .;s ,laIK
- uef,ahd mrfmdaIs;hd bosm;a lsula i|yd isiqkag bv i,ikak'
- nrjd mrfmdaIs;hd Ih wka;.;h wdjrKh lsug ia;drKhl fhfokak'
- fldl= mKqjd
jk pl%h ms<sn| j oHd;aul oekqu Nd;fhka mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a uok l%u j,a m e<E
idlPd lrkak' kqiqiq ia:dkhl jefvk me<Ehla" j,ame<Ehla f,i ye|skaf'
udkj l%shdld;ajhg ndOd jk mos ;r`.ld" fkdkeiS mj;sk^persistent&"
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK ( kdYld ^pernicious& jk iy tys m%;sM,hla f,i kqiqiq jk me<Ehls'
YS% ,xldf isk uef,ahd mrfmdaIs;hd" nrjd mrfmdaIs;hd yd fldl= mKqjd hk fuu me<E foaYSh fyda foaYSh h yels h'
mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a frda. we;su yd jHdma;sh ms<sn| o;a; wOHhkh yd tu fmdaIl" c,h" wdf,dalh yd wjldYh i|yd fnda. Ydl iu`. j,ame<E ;r`. lrhs'
mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a jk l%j, wj kslaIKh lsu' fnda. yd j,ame<E w;r ;r`.h wiajekakg n,mdhs' ,nd.;a M,odf .=Kd;aul
Ndjh o wvq f'
j,ame<Ej, .;s ,laIK meyeos,s lrkak'
266 267
2nd 2nd
c,h" wdf,dalh" CO2 fmdaIl wdos im;a ldhlaIuj Nd;h' j,ame<Ej, jOkh ksfIaOkh lrk fyda j,ame<E kdY lsf yelshdj we;s
jOl fldgiaj, m%n, jOkh Wod ( Cyperus, Salvinia, Eichhornia-Odjl ridhksl jH jk j,ame<E kdYl fhoSu
c ksmojk wjia:djg blaukska mK; u' Wod ( Parthenium, Eupatorium, jdis
j.df j,ame< fndfyduhla ldhlaIu l%uhls'
c ksmou nyq,u Wod ( Lantana, Eupatorium, Parthenium. idOdrK hou
wys;lr ;;a;aj hgf;a c ksmof yelshdj Wod( Eupatorium, Parthenium. wjdis
je,k cj, os.= ld,Sk meje;au' Wod ( Eupatorium j,ame<E me;su je<elaug lSmjrla fhoSug is u
ldhlaIu c jHdma;sh Wod( Lantana, Eupatorium, Cyperus iria, Vernonia YsIag fkdjk j,ame<E kdYl fnda.hg o ydks l< yels h'
c m%frdayK f.h wlu' Wod ( Lantana, Eupatorium, Ageratum,Parthenium. mi yd c,h IKh f'
we,sf,dams;;dj îuyr tajdfha& - I ksmojka wfkla Ydl jOkh j<lajd ffcj oHd;aul md,k l%u
;r`.ld;ajh bj;a lsug we;s yelshdj' Wod ( Cyperus rotundus ^l<dre& j,ame<E .ykh wvq lsug iajNdl i;=rka Nd;h
^fuu j,a me<Ej,g Nd; flfrk idudkH ku o yels iEu wjia:djl oS u jdis
i|yka lrkak'& os.= l,lg md,kh f'
j,ame<E md,kh mir ys;ld h'
wdl n,mEu wju lsu i|yd j,ame<E uokh wjdis
j,ame<E md,khg my; foa oek .; hq;= hs' Odrl YsIag jk fhl= f;dard .ekSug isf'
j,ame<Eh ms<sn| f;dr;=re hou wlh'
j.SlrK oHdj iy ffcj N+f.da, oHdj iqiq hl= f;dard .ekSug os.= l,la .;f'
me;sf rgdj yd f.h im%odhsl l%u
n,mE ms<sn| ;lafiarej j.d l%ufohka iy mir oHd;aul l<ukdlrK l%u
mdil f;dr;=re Wod ( fnda. jeug iqiq ld,
md,kh ms<sn| f;dr;=re fnda. j.d lrk l%u
j,ame<E md,k l%u ldKav y;rlg j. l< yels h' iEu l%uhla u idlPd fnda. >k;ajh
lr tla tla l%ufha jdis yd wjdis i|yka l< hq;= h' ;r.ld fnda. j.d l%ufohka
fnda. udrej
fN!;sl md,k l%u c ;jdk l,a .;ug ie,eiau
j,ame<E fN!;slj bj;a lsu fyda kdY lsu' l=Uqf fyda t<j`M md;a;sj, fnda.h$j,ame<Efha mirh fjkia lsu
j,ame<E w;ska Wrd bj;a lsu' Yd, m%foaYj, hka;% yd WmlrK Nd; l< yels jdis
h' mir ys;ld h'
jdis jdis
os.= ld,hlg j,ame<E imQKfhka bj;a f' ld,h .;f'
fnda. ydksh wvq h'
jD;a;suh olaI;d wjYH ke;' m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
wjdis
f;dard.;a m%foaYhl O j,a me,E lSmhla ykd .ekSu yd rEmSh fYaI wkqj fjka
ld,h .;f'
lsu'
Y%uh wlj jehf'
N+.; l|ka iys; Ydlj,g fuh id:l fkdu
ridhksl md,k l%u
268 269
2nd 2nd

q q lr .ekSug j oHd;aul ixl,am msmqia hkq m;%$l| u; jQ ;=jd, u; cdKqOdksOr ksid f;;ukh iys; ;;a;aj
yd uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs' hgf;a we;s jk iq fyda w`M mdg msmSuls'
fmd frda.,laIK i|yka lrkak'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1'5 ( laIq ka ms<sn| j oHd;aul oekqu yd wjfndaOh Nd;fhka l=Kq
laIq kaf.ka Ydlj,g isjk ydksh wju lr .kshs' nelahd u`.ska we;s f'
Erwinia carotovora k nelahdj Ydlj, mgl wdl%uKh lr" uD l=Kqu
we;s lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02
fmd frda. ,laIK i|yka lrkak'
;%h
bf.kq M, (
jhsri u`.ska we;s f'
m;%j, ,dlaIKsl jQ lymdgg yqre me,a, yd jK jQ bosuqKq ,m we;su iy
laIqka u`.ska Ydlj,g we;s lrk frda. ,ehsia;=.; lrhs' fklafrdaiSh' iuyrg u,aj, o oelsh yels h'
tu frda. je<elaf l%u ia;r lrhs' Wod( msms[a[d" fld<" .ia,nq" flfi,a
laIqkaf.ka isjk ydksh wju lsug j oHd;aul oekqu yd wjfndaOh Nd; wx.udrh
lrhs' nelahd$os,Sr u`.ska we;sf'
j, m;% wx.udrh - Xanthomonas oryzae ^nelahd& u`.ska
dldrl: frda. ,laIK meyeos,s lrkak'
ue,u" msmqia" l=Kqu" ;%h iy wx.udrh wdosfhka n,mE we;s jQ Ydlj, j, fldmq wx.udrh - Rhizoctonia ôs,Srh& u`.ska
mska;+r isiqkag imhkak' w;dm,aj, mYau wx.udrh - Phytophthora infestans ôs,Srh&
my; f;dr;=re /ia lsug isiqkag mjikak' Ydlj,g laIqkaf.ka we;s jk frda. je<elau
frda.ldrl ka ksfrdaOdhk ms<sfj;a" Ydl fyda Ydl jH ykajd oSu ;yk lsu u`.ska Ydl
frda. ,laIK frda. rg ;=<g we;=`Mu je<elau
fnod yeug fmr Ydl jH mlaIdjg ,la lsu
je<elau
me< lsug m%:u jHdcklhka bj;a lsu
md,k l%u
iqiq WodyrK iu`. meyeos,s lrkak'
bosm;a lsulg isiqkag u`. fmkajkak'
laIqkaf.ka we;s jk Ydl frda. uok l%u
iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'
l%u flfhka meyeos,s lrkak'
uQ,slj l%u folls'
1' imQKfhka bj;a lsu'
laIqkaf.ka we;s jk frda.
2' frda.j,g m%;sfrda m%fNao wNsckkh lr .ekSu
ue, imQKfhka bj;a lsu - jHdcklhd ;yjqre we;s g my; mshjr uokh
Ydlh ;=< idudkH c, .ukg ndOdfuka ^Y=k;dj ke;sfuka& we;s f' i|yd fhdod .; yels f'
ue,f ,laIK meyeos,s lrkak' 1' frda.S Ydl bj;a lsu
nelahd$os,Sr u`.ska we;sf' 2' fnda. udrej" lmamd lsu" iS iEu wdoS im%odhsl l%u u`.ska bj;a lsu
nelahd ue,u - fld<j, Pseudomonas solanacearum u`.ska 3' m%;sjl" os,Sr kdYl wdosh u`.ska jHdcklhka kdY lsu
os,Sr ue,u - ;lald,s j, Fusarium fYaI u`.ska
msmqia frda.j,g m%;sfrda m%fNao wNsckkh lr .ekSu'
os,Srj,ska we;s f'
Wod( rnj, msmqia Oidium heavea u`.ska
270 271
2nd 2nd

q q lr .ekSug j oHd;aul ixl,am fhoS
yd uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs' .j wNsckkfha oS fndfyda laf,dak ksmou ^multiple clones&
ydks jQ yD;afmaYs" ydks jQ iqIqkd kshqfrdak w`M;ajehd lsu" mdlskaikaia
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1'6 ( j oHdj inkaOj kjH ;dlaIKj, Nd; ms<sn| oekqu frda.hg m%;sldr lsf " hkaf.a oshjehdjg m%;sldr lsf oS
hdj;ald,Sk lr .kshs' rer uQ,sl ffi, ms<sld frda.Skaf.a weg`M kej; imQK lr .ekSug
fhdod .ekSu
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04 jdis
ydks jQ fyda ke;s jQ udkj mgl kej; ,ndoSf oS yd cdk ls;aidf oS uQ,sl
bf.kq M, ( ffi, fhdod .ekSug yelshdjla we;'
j oHdf oS kefkda;dlaIKfha fhoS i|yka lrhs' udkj f.fkdau jHdmD;sh ms<sn| ye|skau'
uQ,sl ffi, hkq fudkjdoe hs i|yka lr tajdfha m%Nj ,ehsia;= .; lrhs' udkj f.fkdaufha imQK kshqla,sfhdghsv wkqms<sfj< ksKh lsu iy ishu
udkj f.fkdau jHdmD;sfha fhoS yd m%;sM, i|yka lrhs' cdk is;sh lsug ;sfnk cd;Hka;r jHdmD;shls' ms<sld" oshjehdj wdos
uQ,sl ffi, ls;aidf yd jdis yd NjH m%fhdack i|yka lrhs' fndfyda m%fKsl frda.j,g m%;sldr lsug yd tu frda. ykd .ekSug ka Wo
,nd .; yels h'
dldrl: fuu jHdmD;sh 1990 oS uq,ska u msysg jQfha oHd{hka lKavdhula cd;Hka;r
my; f;dr;=re /ia lsrSug isiqkag mjikak' udkj f.fkdau wkqms<sfj< ms<sn| ikaOdkh idod.;a wjia:df oS h' fuu fmd
kefkda;dlaIKh uqo,a iemhQ W;aidyfha wruqK jQfha udkj f.fkdaufha wkqms<sfj< oek .ekSug
udkj f.fkdau jHdmD;sh laf,dakfhka la,dakh m%fYhla Nd; lsuhs'
uQ,sl ffi, ls;aidj 2004 oS o;a; wkqm<
s f
s j, m%ldYhg m;a h' bhqfl%duel êuchromatic& wkqm<
s f
s j<ska
bosm;a lsulg u`. fmkajkak' 99]la fuu wkqms<sfj<g oeka we;=,;a lr we;' ^fuu w.h fmr oS 95]ls'& NIau
iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak' 100"000 lg 1la f,i" tys fodaI YS>%;djla êrror rate& we;'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( jeo.;alu

uQ,sl ffi, ls;aidj ^stem cell therapy & imQK f.fkdaufha ^fygfrdfl%dueka we;=<;aj& mfhaIK boshg f.k
uQ,sl ffi, hkq fNaokh fkdjQ ffi, jk w;r tajdg wkQkk Ndckh u`.ska hd yels h'
kej; w`M;a h yels h' ;jo tajdg O j.j, mgl njg fNaokh f cdk inkaO m%fKsl wdndO ykd.; yels h'
yelshdj we;' uQ,sl ffi, j. folls' ^l,, yd mK;& l,, uQ,sl ffi, ,nd m%fKsl wdndO ykd .ekSf fuj, f,i DNA wkqms<sfj< fhdod .;
.kafka ,diagfldaIaGfha we;=`M ffi, ialkaOfhks' yels h'
mK; uQ,sl ffi, fndfyda mglj, we;s w;r tajdg kj ffi, ksmojd ydks tl cdkhlg jvd je ixLHdjl fodaI ksid we;s jk oshjehdj jeks iuyr
mQrKh l< yels h' frda. i|yd fhduq h yels h'
Wod( rerh" weg`M" fmlksje, fjk;a f.fkdau iu`. iei|S u`.ska f.fkdau mKduh ms<n
s | wfma wjfndaOh
frdams; udOHj, kd,ia;slj oeka uQ,sl ffi, frdamKh l< yels w;r l,, fyda oekgu;a fjkiafjka we;'
mK; kag we;=`M lr mgl mqkckkh l< yels h'
udkj l,,j,ska uQ,sl ffi, ,nd .ekSf oS iodpdrd;aul Ndjh ms<sn|j o fhoS
ie,ls,a,la we;' fuu ffi, Odrlfhl=g$Odrl l,,hlg we;=`M l< g ta wjg frda. ykd .ekSu oshqKq u
we;s ffi, iu`. wka;l%shdj wkqj tajdfha jer likh ksKh f' frda.j,g m%fKsl fmrkeUqrej l,awe;sj wkdjrKh
272 273
2nd 2nd
DNA mok jQ custom drugs ^frda.shdg fYaIs;& ie,iq lsu kefkda ljphla fmda,sfhda jhsrihlg jvd uola Yd, h' fuu ljpj,g
cdk ls;aidj iy fT!IO i|yd md,k moaO;s fnfy;a we;=`M lr foayhg tkak;a l< yels h' tg fuu ljp ms<sldldrl
udkj mKduh iy udkj oHdj ms<sn| wOHhkh ffi, jgd ldKav.; f' IR Nd;fhka T!IO oshlr ms<sldldrl ffi,
foig ksoyia l< yels h'
kefkda;dlaIKh
kefkdagr ^ 1nm } 10-9 m& j,ska ukskq ,nk b;d l=vd wxY= Nd; jk l%h
s dj,shls' j oHd;aul frdfnda
l=vd wxY=j,g b;d by< mDIaG mud wkqmd;hla we;s w;r tuksid Yd, wxY=j,g frda.Skag m%;sldr lsf oS gka" fydafudak yd tkaihsu ksmoh yels h'
jvd fjkia fN!;sl yd ridhksl .=K we;' ^p f*auka& ^1959& k fN!;sl thg wu;rj tajdg IjH wjfYdaIKh lr f.k tajd Irys; jH njg
oHd{hd f,djg kefkda;dlaIKh myod fok ,oS' yerh yels h'
ffjoH oHd flaI;%fha oS frda. ykd .ekSug" je<elau yd m%;sldrh i|yd lD;%su wia
kefkda;dlaIKh fhdod .; yels h' kefkda ixhq; ^nanocomposites& kq wia fjkqjg yd o;a msrug Nd; f'
je<elau i|yd
m%;slaIq wdf,am
m%;sjl wdf,amk oshr - nelahd" os,Sr jeks ydkslr laIqkag reoaOj
l%shd lrhs'
Y,Hd.dr" wdfrda.HYd,d yd Y,H WmlrK jdKqyrKh ^ghsfksh Tlaihs
yd oS fhdod f.k laIqka kdY l< yels w;r Y,H.drj, joHd;aul
oshr mej;Su j<lajd,hs'&
oS kefkda - wdf,amk oshr o laIqka we;=`M u je<elaug Y,Hd.drj,
fhdokq ,ef'
kefkda fmryka - oS" TiO2 fmryka jeks kefkda wxY= fmryka jhsri jeks
laIqka we;=`Mu j<lajhs' ^kso( SARS frda.Ska mlaId lsug fhdod .kshs'&
- SevereAcute Respiratory Syndrome
ykd .ekSu
WmlrKhla fhdod .kska ksjfia oS rer mSvkh" foay WIaK;ajh" kd
uekSu'
m%;sldrh
fokd kdYl
weu i|yd fT!IO
HIVi|yd jdfc,a ^Viva gel& ^jhsri we;=`Mu je<elah yels h'&
ms<sldj,g m%;sldrh
kefkda frdfndajre fhdod .ksuska ridhksl ls;ail we;=`M lsu'
oshjehdj md,kh - foayhg inka; Wml%uhla ^device& u`.ska wjYH
ld,dka;rj, oS Yrhg wjYH bkaishq,ska m%udKh foayhg ksoyia flf'
^Nanoshells/needles& kefkda ljp$lgq
274 275
2nd 2nd
mdi, mok lr.;a ;lafiarelrKh - ye|skau

bf.kqu-b.ekau iy we.hSu wOHdmk l%shdj,sfha jeo.;a ixrpl ;=kla nj;a bf.kqfuys
iy b.ekafuys m%.;sh oek.ekSu msKsi we.hSu fhdod .;hq;= nj;a iEu .=rejrhl= iska
u o; hq;= meyeos,s lreKls' tajd wfkHdakH n,mEfuka hq;= j l%shd lrk nj;a tfiau
tlsfkflys ixjOkh flfrys tu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a tfia u tlsfkflys ixjOkh
flfrys tu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a .=rejre oks;s' ika;;sl ^ksrka;rfhka isjk& we.hS
uq,Ou wkqj we.hSu ish hq;af;a bf.kSu yd b.ekau flfrk w;r;=r oSh' fuh
bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh wdrNfha oS fyda ueo oS fyda w. oS fyda hk kEu wjia:djl
oS ish yels nj f;are .ekSu .=rejrhl=g wjYH h' tf,i ;u isiqkaf.a bf.kq m%.;sh
we.hSug wfmalaId lrk .=rejrhl= bf.kqu" b.ekau iy we.hSu ms<sn| ixOdkd;aul
ie,eiaula fhdod.; hq;= fjhs'
mdi, mok lr.;a we.hS jevms<sfj, yq Nd. l%uhla fyda mlaIK meje;aula fyda
fkdf' th ykajkq ,nkafka isiqkaf.a bf.kSu;a" .=rejrekaf.a b.ekau;a je oshqKq
lsu i|yd fhdod.kq ,nk ueosy;a ula jYfhks' fuh isiqkag mm j iska Tjqkaf.a
m%n,;d iy n,;d ykdf.k tajdg ms<sh fhdoka isiqkaf.a Wmu jOkh <d lr
.ekSug fhdod.; yels jevms<sfj,ls'
bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ;=<ska wkdjrK l%shdj,shlg isiqka fhduq flfrk w;r"

;lafiarej yd we.hSu .=rejrhd isik
q a w;r .ejfika Tjqka bgqlrk ldh kslaIKh lrka udf.damfoaYl;ajh
imhka lghq;= lsu mdi, mok lr.;a we.hS jevms<f s j, l%h
s d;aul lsf oS wfmalI
a d
flf' fuys oS YsIHhd ksr;=re j we.hSug ,lah hq;= w;r" YsIH yelshd ixjOkh
wfmalaIs; wkaoka isjkafka oehs .=rejrhd iska ;yjqre lrkq ,eh hq;= fjhs'
bf.kSu iy b.ekau u.ska ish hq;af;a isiqkag ksis w;aoelS ,nd foka tajd isiqka
iska ksis mos w;am;a lr f.k ;sf oehs ;yjqre lr .ekSu h' ta i|yd ksis udf.damfoaYh
iemhSu h' we.hSf ^;lafiare lsf& fhoS isk .=rejrekag ;u isiqka i|yd fohdldrhl
udf.damfoaYl;ajh ,nd osh yels h' tu udf.damfoaY fmdf ykajkafka m%;sfmdaIKh
^Feedback& yd bos fmdaIKh ^Feed Forward& hkqfjks' isiqkaf.a n,;d yd fkdyelshd
wkdjrKh lr.;a g Tjqkaf.a bf.kq .eg u.yrjd .ekSug m%;sfmdaIKh;a isiq
yelshd iy m%n,;d ykd .;a g tu olaI;d je oshqKq lsug bos fmdaIKh;a ,nd oSu
.=re ldhh fjhs'
bf.kq-b.ekak q l%hs dj,sfhaa id:l;ajh i|yd mdGud,df wruqKq w;frka ljr wruqKq
ljr ugka idlaid;a l< yels jQfha oehs ykd .ekSu isiqkag wjYH fjhs' we.hS
jevms<fs j, Tiafia isikq a <.d lr .;a m%K;d ug ksYp
a h lsu f wkqj .=rejrekaf.ka
n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk w;r isiqka yd foumshka we;= fjk;a wod< mdYjj,g isiq m%.;sh
ms<sn| f;dr;=re ikaksfokh lsug .=rejreka fhduqh hq;= h' f i|yd fhdod.; yels
fyd| u l%uh jkafka ika;;sl j isiqka we.hSug md;% lsug bv m%ia:d i,ik mdi,
mok lr.;a we.hS l%uhhs'
276 277
hf:dala; wruqK iys; j l%shd lrk .=rejreka iska ;u b.ekakq l%shdj,sh;a isiqkaf.a bf.kq b.eka ls%hdj,sh > lsu
bf.kq l%shdj,sh;a jvd;a ldhlaIu lsu msKsi jvd fyd| ldhlaIu;dfjka hqla;
bf.kq" b.ekakq iy we.hS l%u fhdod .; hq;= fjhs' f inkaOfhka isiqkag iy jdrh 1
.=rejrekag fhdod .; yels m%fY ms<sn| m%fNao lsysmhla u;= oelafjhs' fjd fndfyda we.hS ie,iqu 1
l,l isg .=rejreka fj; Nd. fomd;fka;=j iska o cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh iska
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 1 - WmlrKh 01
o f;dr;=re imdokh lrk ,o l%ufo fjhs' tfyhska tajd inkaOfhka mdi,a moaO;sfha
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 1'1'3
.=rejreka fyd|ska oekqj;a we;ehs wfmalaId flf' tu m%fNao fufiah( 3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( jd;dj
01' mejre 02' jHdmD;s
03' ilaIK 04' .fIK 4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( ffoksl .eg`M i|Su i|yd oHd;aul l%uh
05' kslaIK 06' m%oYk$ bosm;a lsu Nd; lrhs'
07' lafIa;% pdld 08' fl ,s; mlaIK isiqkaf.a kslaIK l=i,;d jOkh lrhs'
09' jHQy.; rpkd 10' jD; .%ka: mlaIK
11' ksudKd;aul l%shdldrl 12' Y%jK mlaIK 5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( iqiq .eg`Mjla f;dard .ekSug isiqka
13' m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrl 14' l:kh fufyhjkak'
oHd;aul l%uh Nd; lr .eg`M i|Sug u`.
15' iaj ksudK 16' lKavdh l%shdldrl
fmkajkak'
17' ixl,am is;shu 18' oa;aj ck,
19' ;a;s mqj;am;a 20' m%Yak pdrd;aul jevigyka we.hS ie,iqu 2
21' m%Yak yd ms<s;=re fmd;a 22' jdo
23' idlPd uKav, 24' iuka;%K 1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 1 - WmlrKh 02
25' laIKsl l:d 26' N+ld rx.k 2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 2'2'1
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( idys;H uYkh
ykajd oS we;s fuu bf.kq" b.ekakq iy we.hS l%u iEu tllau iEu Ihhla
inkaOfhka ieu Ihh tallhgu fhdod .; hq;= hehs wfmalaId fkdflfrhs' ;u 4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( ms<s.; yels m%Njj,ska f;dr;=re tla/ia lrhs'
Ihhg" Ih tallhg .e<fmk m%fNaohla f;dard .ekSug .=rejreka oekqj;a h hq;=h; j. wkalaISh Ys,am l%u ms<sn| isiqkaf.a oekqu
n,d .; hq;= h' hdj;ald,Sk lr .ekSug os .kajhs'
f;dr;=re bosm;a lsug u;a l%u Nd;
fuu .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yj, .=rejrekag ;u isiqkaf.a bf.kq m%.;sh ;lafiare lsu lrhs'
i|yd fhdod .; yels bf.kq-b.ekakq yd we.hS m%fNao ms<sn| i|ykla ;sf' tajd
.=rejreka iska iqiq mos ;u mka;sfha isiqkaf.a m%.;sh ;lafiare lsu msKsi fhdod .; 5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( wkalaISh Ys,am l%u ms<sn| ms<s.; yels
hq;= fjhs' tajd Nd; fkdfldg u. yeu isiqkag ;u Ydia;%sh yelshd fuka u wdfoksl f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSug iqiq uQ,dY% fj; isiqka
.;s ,laIK;a ufkdapd,l olaI;d;a ms<sn| jOkhla <.d lr .ekSu;a m%oYkh lsu;a fhduq lrjkak'
f;dr;=re bosm;a lsu i|yd Nd; l< yels
ms<sn| wvqmdvq we;s lrjhs'
u;a l%u i|yd isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
we.hS ie,iqu 3

3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%dfhda.sl mlaId
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( isiqkaf.a m%dfhda.sl l=i,;d by< kexu

;ud iska u mfhaIKd;aul l%ufo ie,iq
lsu
278 279
jdrh 2
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( isiqka fj; iqiq wdydr im, imhka we.hS ie,iqu 1
Tlaisydrl iSks" ksTlaisydrl iSks" msIagh"
fm%dak yd ,smsv we;s$ke;s nj fiug fhduq 1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 2 - WmlrKh 01
lrkak' 2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 3'1'6" 3'1'7" 3'1'8
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( lafIa;% igyka fmd;
we.hS ie,iqu 4
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( ka ykd .ekSu i|yd ndysr ,laIK Nd;
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 1 - WmlrKh 04 lrhs'
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 2'2'3" 2'2'4 oHd;aul j rEm igyka weiqfrka f;dr;=re
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( ldh idOk f.dkqjla ms<sfh< lsu' ikaksfok lsf l=i,;d jOkh lrhs'
kaf.a ndysr ,dlaIKsl .; ,laIK
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( o;a; tl;= lr ilid u;a wdldrhlg weiqfrka Tjqka j. lrhs'
.nvd lsf l%u ms<sn| oekqj;a f' 5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( flaj, fyda iuQy jYfhka isiqka ,jd
f;dr;=re bosm;a lsf l=i,;d jOkh lr f;dr;=re tla /ia lrjkak'
.ksh's fuu l%shdldrlu i|yd lafIa;% jd;d
ffi, yd mgl ms<sn| jer wOHhkhg ixOdkh lsu o jeo.;a f'
osu;a f'
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( O uQ,dY% imhka wod< f;dr;=re

;ldkql+, yd u;a wdldrhlg f.dkq we.hS ie,iqu 2
lsug isiqka fufyhjkak'
ffi, yd mgl ms<sn| jer wOHhkhlg 1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 2 - WmlrKh 02
fhduq lrjkak' 2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 3'1'6" 3'1'7" 3'1'8
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%dfhda.sl mlaId ^Spot Test&
we.hS ie,iqu 5
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( weksud,shd rdcOdksfha kaf.a O;ajh
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 1 - WmlrKh 05 ms<sn|j jer fidhd ne,Sug os .kajhs'
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 2'2'1" 2'2'2" 2'2'3" 2'4'3 ndysr ,laIK Nd; lr ka ykd .ekSf
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( idlPd uKavmh l=i,;d jOkh lrhs'
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( kaf.a Yla;s inkaO;d ms<sn|j .fIKh 5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( mka;sfha we;s isiqka ixLHdjg wod<j m%Yak
i|yd isiqka os .kajhs' ms<sfh, lrkak'
idlPd u`.ska oekqu fnod .ekSf yelshdj ish m%Yak i|yd wod< ksoYl iys; fi
je oshqKq lrhs' ms<sfh, lrkak'
jrlg tla isiqjd ne.ska wod< ia:dkj,
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( iajNdjfha mj;sk Yla;s inkaO;d ms<sn| /f|ka tla tla m%Yakhg ks;a;= tlla ;=< oS
fidhd ne,Sug iqiq uQ,dY%j,g isiqka fhduq ms<s;=re iemhSug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
lrkak' ish u isiqka iEu m%Yakhlg u ms<s;=re we;s
tu Yla;s inkaO;d Odldr ksrEmk Ys,am njg j.n,d .kak'
l%u Nd; lsfuka bosm;a lsug u`.
fmkajkak'
280 281
we.hS ie,iqu 3 we.hS ie,iqu 5
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 2 - WmlrKh 03 1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 2 - WmlrKh 05
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 4'1'0" 5'1'0" 6'1'0" 7'1'0 2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 4'1'2" 5'1'1" 7'1'1" 7'1'2
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( mejreu 3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( laIKsl l:d
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( ksudKYS,S l=i,;d jOkh lsu 4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( wod< ssIh ikaOdrh ms<sn|j we;s iQodku
tla tla moaO;sfha l%shdld;ajh ms<sn| mrSlaId lsrSu
bf.kSug Wkkaj je lsu woyia b;d u ksYa;j yd f;audjg wod<j
iyfhda.Sj lghq;= lsu i|yd isiqka os bosm;a lsf yelshd ixjOkh lsu
.ekau
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( wdjrKh flfrk Ih ikaOdrh hgf;a
f;aud .Kkdjla ms<sfh< lr.kak'
tla tla f;audj fjk fjku lvodis ;Srej,
,shd frda,a lrkak'
we.hS ie,iqu 4 fuu lvodis ish,a, fmhl oud wyUq f,i
f;dard.;a isiqfjl=g tu fmfhka f;audjla
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 2 - WmlrKh 04 f;dard f.k laIKsl l;djla meje;aug
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 6'1'1" 6'1'2" 6'1'3" 6'1'4" 6'1'5" 6'1'7 Wmfoia fokak'
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%oYkh
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( ksudKYS,S l=i,;d ixjOkh lsu

kslaIK yd Yaf,aIK l=i,;d jeoshqKq
lsu jdrh 3
iyfhda.Sj lghq;= lsu ms<sn|j os .ekau we.hS ie,iqu 1
bosm;a lsf l=i,;d jOkh lsu
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( wod< Ih lafIa;%j,ska iqiq f;aud f;dard 2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 7'1'4" 7'1'5" 7'1'6" 7'1'7" 7'1'8" 7'1'9
.ekSug isiqka fufyhjkak' 3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%Yak pdrd;aul jevigyk
tu f;audj,g wod<j O m%oYk NdKav
fyda mqjre fyda wegejq fyda ilia lsug 4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( f;dard.;a Ih ikaOdrh ms<sn| oekqu w.hhs'
isiqka u`. fmkajkak' fok ,o .eg`Mjlg ksh; wdldrhg jdl
iqiq oskhl oS m%oYkh meje;aug wjYH ms<s;=rla f.dv kexug yelshdj je oshqKq
lghq;= imdokh lr fokak' lrhs'
282 283
we.hS ie,iqu 2
we.hS ie,iqu 4
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 4'1'3" 5'1'2" 8'1'3" 9'1'3 1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 3 - WmlrKh 04
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( lKavdh iuka;%K 2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( ;=kajk jdrh i|yd wod< ksmqK;d ug
ish,a,'
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( wdydr rK moaO;sh" Yajik moaO;sh" 3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( fl m%Yak yd jHqy.; rpkd m%Yak
nysiai%d moaO;sh yd iels,s moaO;sh wdY%s;
wdndO ms<sn| iudch fj; f;dr;=re 4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( iuia;sh" iudfhdackh" nysiai%djh"
ifm%aIKh lsug isiqka ;=< Wkkajla we;s ikaOdrKh yd p,kh inkaO oekqu
lsu' we.hSug ,la lrhs'
tu wdndOj,ska je,lS isug wjYH wdl,am fok ,o m%Yakhlg ksh; ,s; ms<s;=rla
f.dvke`.Su' f.dvke`.Sf yelshdj jOkh lrhs'
Y%jH oDIH wdOdr ksis f,i Nd; lsf
l=i,;d jOkh lrhs'
we.hS ie,iqu 5
we.hS ie,iqu 3
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 3 - WmlrKh 03 2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 7'1'6" 7'1'7" 7'1'10
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 7'1'8 3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%oYkh
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( jD; .%ka:
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( ixfok wjhj$jHqy ms<sn| .fIKh lsug
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( wka;rdi. .%ka ms<sn| f;dr;=re fiug isiqka Wkka lrhs'
isiqka Wkka lrhs' wdlD;s ;ekSu i|yd O jH myrKh
iqiq uQ,dY% u`.ska f;dr;=re Wmqgd .ekSf ms<sn| l=i,;d jOkh lrhs'
yelshdj je oshqKq lrhs' bosm;a lsf l=i,;d jOkh lrhs'
ksudKd;aul ka;kh i|yd isiqka
fmd<Ujhs'
284 285
13 fYa%Ksh - jdrh 1 we.hS ie,iqu 4
we.hS ie,iqu 1 1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 1 - we.hS WmlrKh 4

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 2'2'2" 2'2'4
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 1 - we.hS WmlrKh 1 3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( mejreu
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 10'1'1" 10'1'2" 10'1'3" 10'1'4 4'0 wruqKq ( 1' ksudKd;aul l=i,;d jOkh
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%Yak pdrd;aul jevigyk 2' m%fKsh ms<sn| l=;=y,h je lsu'
4'0 wruqKq ( 1' f;dard .kakd ,o Ih ikaOdrfha
oekqu we.hSu
2' fok ,o .eg`Mjlg jvd W; jdl we.hS ie,iqu 5
ms<s;=r f.dvke`.Sf yelshdj je
jOkh lsu 1'0 we.hS wjia:dj (
jdrh 1 - we.hS WmlrKh 5
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug (
11'1'1" 11'1'2" 11'1'3" 11'1'4
we.hS ie,iqu 2 3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh (
idlPd uKavmh
4'0 wruqKq (
1' fukav,Sh m%fKsh yd m%fKsfha
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 1 - we.hS WmlrKh 02
wKql moku ms<n s | isik
q a wNsfm%r
a Kh
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 10'1'5" 10'1'6" 10'17"
2' idlPd u`.ska oekqu fnod .ekSf
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( iuka;%Kh ^lKavdh&
yelshdj je oshqKq lsu
4'0 wruqKq ( 1' m%ckl fi!LH ms<sn| f;dr;=re
5'0 l%shd;aul lsu i|yd .=rejrhdg Wmfoia ( 1' fukav,Sh m%fKsh yd m%fKsfha
jHdma; lsug isik q a wNsfm%r
a Kh lsu
wKql moku .fIKh ms<sn|
2' ixl=,;d u`.yer .ekSu ms<sn| l%u
isiqkag u`. fmkau'
Wmdh yd wod< wdl,am m%.=k lru
3' Y%jH oDYH wdOdrl ksjerosj Nd;h
i|yd l=i,;d jOkh lsu
4' u;a l%u Nd;fhka bosm;a ls
i|yd isiqka fhduq lsu
we.hS ie,iqu 3

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 10'1'8" 10'1'9" 10'1'10" 10'1'11" 10'1'12
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( jD; .%ka: mlaIKh
4'0 wruqKq ( 1' Ydl m%ckkh ms<sn| f;dr;=re /ia
lsug isiqka wNsfm%arKh lsu
2' YajdikSh m%Njj,ska f;dr;=re Wlyd
.ekSf yelshdj je oshqKq lsu
2nd 2nd
286 287
jdrh 2 we.hS ie,iqu 3

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 12'1'5" 12'1'8
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 2 - we.hS WmlrKh 1 3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( mejreu
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 11'2'2 4'0 wruqKq ( 1' ffcj O;aj ixrlaIKh i|yd
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( jdo wNsfm%arKh
4'0 wruqKq ( 1' cdk lrKh lrk ,o ka yd 2' iyfhda.s;ajfhka hq;=j lghq;= lsu
wod< j iudh m%Yak ykd .ekSu i|yd wNsfm%arKh
2' cdk lrKh lrk ,o ka yd 3' YajdikSh m%Njj,ska f;dr;=re
wod< j Y%S ,xldf j;udk ;;a;j
a h tla/ia lsu'
.fIKh we.hS ie,iqu 4
3' ,dlaIKsl ndysr ,laIKj,g wkqj
ka j. lsu 1'0 we.hS wjia:dj (
12'1'1" 12'1'2" 12'1'3
5'0 l%shd;aul lsu i|yd .=rejrhdg Wmfoia ( 1' iqiq l%uhlg wkqj ud;Dld ,nd 3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh (
laIKsl l;d
fokak' 4'0 wruqKq (
1' wod< Ih ikaOdrh ms<sn| iQodk
2' f;dr;=re tla/ia lr .ekSug iqiq yelshdj kSu
ld,hla ,nd fokak' 2' b,lalhg woyia m%ldY lsf
yelshdj jOkh
5'0 l%shd;aul lsu i|yd .=rejrhdg Wmfoia ( 1' Ih ikaOdrh wdjrKh lrk f;aud
we.hS ie,iqu 2 lsysmhla iQodk lrkak'
2' tla tla f;audjg l=im;a woskak'
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 2 - we.hS WmlrKh 2 3' tla l=im;la f;dard f.k laIKsl
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 12'1'4" 12'1'5 l:djla mj;ajkakg mjikak'
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( flaI;% igyka fmd;a we.hS ie,iqu 5
4'0 wruqKq ( 1' Y%S ,xldf mir moaO;sj,
,dlaIKsl .=Kdx. .fIKh 1'0 we.hS wjia:dj (
2' iajNdl im;a ixrlaIKhg 2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug (
13'1'2
wNsfma%rKh 3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh (
m%dfhda.sl mlaIKh
4'0 wruqKq (1' isiqkaf.a m%dfhda.sl l=i,;d jOkh
5'0 l%shd;aul lsu i|yd .=rejrhdg Wmfoia ( 1' fuu l%shdj,sh myiq lr .ekSu i|yd 2' O jH jdkqyrKfha O
mdi,ska lafIa;% pdld ixOdkh ;dlaIK l%u mqyqKqj
2' ;ks ;ksj fyda lKavdh f,i 3' wmQ;s ;;a;aj mj;ajd .ekSf oS
f;dr;=re tla /ia lsu i|yd isiqkag jdkqyrKfha jeo.;alu biau;= lr
bv ie,iSu oelau
5'0 l%shd;aul lsu i|yd .=rejrhdg Wmfoia ( 1' YsIHhka fj; wjYH lrk WmlrK$
jH imhkak'
2' Nd;dj i|yd we;s jH Wmfhda.S
lr.k tal,$lKavdh
l%shdld;ajhkag bv i,ikak'
2nd 2nd
288 289
we.hS ie,iqu 3
jdrh 3

1'0 we.hS wjia:dj (
jdrh 3 - we.hS WmlrKh 1 3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( fCIa;% jd;d fmd;la iEoSu
13'1'5" 10'3'2" 10'1'6 4'0 wruqKq ( 1' ka ykd .ekSu i|yd ndysr
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh (
idys;H uYkh ,laIK Nd; lsrSu'
4'0 wruqKq (
1' YajdikSh$ms<s.; yels m%Njj,ska 2' oHd;aul rEm igyka we|Sf
f;dr;=re tla/ia lrhs' l=i,;djh jOkh lsrSu'
2' ludka; yd lDIslufha oS laIq
kaf.a Nd;h ms<sn| oekqu 5'0 l%shd;aul lsu i|yd .=rejrhdg Wmfoia ( 1' flaj, fyda iuQy jYfhka isiqka ,jd
hdj;ald,Sk lr .kshs' f;dr;=re tla/ia lrjkak'
5'0 l%shd;aul lsu i|yd .=rejrhdg Wmfoia ( 1' wkalaISh Ys,aml%u ms<sn|j ms<s.; 2' fuu l%shdldrlu myiq lr .ekSu
yels f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSug uQ,dY% i|yd fCIa;% pdldjla mdi, u`.ska
isiqka fj; fhduq lrkak' ixOdkh lrjkak'
2' f;dr;=re bosm;a lsu i|yd Nd;
l< yels u;a l%u i|yd isik
q a fhduq we.hS ie,iqu 4
lrkak'
we.hS ie,iqu 2 2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 13'2'1" 13'1'3" 13'1'4" 14'1'5" 14'1'6
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%Yak pdr;aul jevigyk
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 3 - we.hS WmlrKh 2 4'0 wruqKq ( 1' f;dard.;a Ih ikaOdrhla ms<sn|
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 14'1'1 oekqu we.hSu
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( spot test ^m%dfhda.sl mlaId& 2' fok ,o .eg`Mjlg ksh; wdldrhg
4'0 wruqKq ( 1' c, frdamKfha oS Nd;d lrk jdl ms<s;=rla f.dv ke`.Sug we;s
u;aiH" biaika fYaI ykd yelshdj je oshqKq lrhs'
.ekSf yelshdj ,nd .ekSu
2' ndysr ,laIK Wmfhda.S lrf.k ka we.hS ie,iqu 5
ykd .ekSf l=i,;d jOkh lr
.ksh's 1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 3 - we.hS WmlrKh 5
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( ;=kajeks jdrfha ish u ksmqK;d
5'0 l%shd;aul lsu i|yd .=rejrhdg Wmfoia ( 1' mka;sfha isk isiqka ixLHdj wkqj ug
m%Yak iQodk lrkak' 3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( fl m%Yak yd jHqy.; rpkd m%Yak
2' tla tla m%Yakhg wod<j ksoYl 4'0 wruqKq ( 1' CIq j oHdj yd jHjydl j
iys;j fi ms<sfh< lrkak' oHdf oekqu we.hSu
3' tlaflkd ne.ska m%Yak f;dard.k tla 2' fok ,o m%Yakhlg ksh; ,s;
m%Yakhlg ks;a;= tll ld,hla ;=< ms<s;=rla f.dvke`.Sf yelshdj
ms<s;=re iemhSug Wmfoia fokak' jOkh lsrSu'
4' iEu isiqfjl=u iEu m%Yakhlg u
ms<s;=re iemhQ njg ;yjqre lr.kak'
2nd 2nd
290 291
Umbilical Blood Vessels

Chorion
Amnion
Yolk Sac
Villus of Chorion frondosum

Allantois
Maternal Blood Vessels

The extra embryonic membrances

weuqKqu
Hormonal interactions between the tests and anterior pituitary. LH

stimulates the Leydig cells to secrete testosterone and FSH stimulates the
Sertoli cells of the seminiferous tubules to secrete inhibin. Testesterone and
inhibin. in turn , exert negative feedback inhibition on the secretion of LH and
FSH respectively.

2nd
292
Chorion
Alveoli of milk gland
duct
Amnion
Sinuses
Openings of ducts on nipple

Pigmented area (areola)
Supporting tissue
Adipose tissue
Umbilical cord The human female breast showing the milk glands where milk is secreted and the ducts
and sinuses carrying milk to the nipple
Chorionic
Frondosum
(fetal) Placent
decidus
basalis
Matern Matern Uterine (maternal)
al al wall

Structure

of Placenta

Diagram of a section of an ovary showing the stages of
development of one ovarian follicle

^
Membranous
Capsomere
envelope
Sheath
Tail fiber
Capsid
Capsomere of Glycoprotein Glycoprotein
capsid
a) T-even
d) Tobacco c) Adeno virus b) Influenza virus bacteriophage
mesaio

^

Types of acquired immunity
Representative sources of Antibiotic
TYPE OF IMMUNITY HOW ACQUIRED
MICROOGANISM ANTIBIOTIC Naturally acquired active immunity Antigens enter the body naturally; antibodies
Gram-Positive Rods and specialized lymphocytes are produced
Bacillus subtilis Bacitracin Naturally acquired passive immunity (placental Fetus or baby receives antibodies from an
Bacillus polymyxa Polymyxin and milk transfer) immunized mother
Actinomycetes Artificially acquired active immunity Prepared antigens in vaccines are introduced
into susceptible individual, who produces
Streptomyces nodosus Amphotericin B antibodies and specialized lymphocytes
Streptomyces venezuelae Chloramphenicol Artificially acquired passive immunity Immune serum is injected into susceptible
Streptomyces aureofaciens Chlortetracycline individual, who receives preformed antibodies

(Aureomycin) and Tetracycline

Streptomyces erythraeus Erythromycin

Streptomyces fradiae Neomycin

Streptomyces noursei Nystatin
Streptomyces griseus Streptomycin

Micromonospora purpurea Gentamicin

Fungi

Cephalosporium Cephalothin

Penicillium griseofulvum Griseofulvin
Penicillium notatum Penicillin

Summary of predominant normal flora found according to body site Some protein toxins produced by microorganisms
^ D D
^ ^ ' > that cause disease in humans
^ z
^ Microorganism Toxin Disease Action
W ^
> Clostridium Several Neurotoxins Botulism Paralysis, blocks
^ botulinum neural transmission
W
Clostridium -Toxin Gas gangrene Lecithinase
^ perfringens
-Toxin Collagenase
^ >
-Toxin Hemolysin
^
W Clostridium tetani Neurotoxin Tetanus Spastic paralysis
< (tetanospasm) interferes with motor
h ^

neurons
Tetanolysin
^
Hemolytic
^ K
&
Cardioxtoxin

E Corynebacterium Diphtheria toxin Diphtheria Blocks protein
>
diphtheriae synthesis at level of
,
D d translation

d ^
Streptococcus Streptolysin O Scarlet fever Hemolysin
pyogenes
^ ' ^
Streptolysin S Hemolysin
E ^
Erythrogenic Causes rash of scarlet
s
E fever
>
z >
Shigella dysenteriae Neurotoxin Bacterial dysentery Hemorrhage, paralysis

d
Staphylococcus Enterotoxin Food poisoning Intestinal
& aureus inflammation
^ W
^ d Blocks protein
Aspergillus flavus Aflatoxin B1 Aflatoxicosis

>
synthesis at level of
W transcription

W Amanita phalloides -Amanitin Mushroom food Blocks protein
^ poisoning synthesis at level of
d transcription
t
^
d

Causative Agents for Some Common Diseases, by Portal of Entry Diseases caused by Exotoxins
PORTAL CAUSAINE AGENT DISEASE INCUBATION PERIOD
OF ENTRY DISEASE BACTERIUM MECHANISM
Botulism Clostridium botulinum Neurotoxin prevents transmission

Respiratory
tract of nerve impulses flaccid
paralysis results
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Neurotoxin blocks nerve impulse
that permits relaxation of one

skeletal muscle while the
opposing muscle is contracting
Gas gangrene and food poisoning Clostridium perfringens and One exotoxin (cytotexin) causes
other species of Clostridium massive red blood cell
destruction (hemolysis); another
exotoxin (enterotoxin) is related
to food and causes diarrhea
Gastro Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae Cytotoxin inhibits protein
intestinal
synthesis, especially in nerve,
tract
heart and kidney cells

Scalded skin syndrome, food Staphylococcus aureus One exotoxin causes skin layers
poisoning, and toxic shock to separate and slough off (scaled
syndrome skin): another exotoxin
(enterotoxin) produces diarrhea
and vomiting; still another
exotoxin produces symptoms
associated with TSS
Genitourinary
tract
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Enterotoxin includes diarrhea

Skin or Scarlet lever Streptococcus pyogenes Cytotoxins cause vasodilation

parenteral that results in the characterisc
route rash
Travelers diarrhea Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Enterotoxin causes excessive

and Shigella spp. secretion of ions and water ;
diarrhea results

All causative agents are bacteria, unless indicated otherwise. For viruses, only the viral group is given, except where the virus

has a name different from the disease it causes. ** These pathogens can also cause disease after entering the body via the
gastrointestinal tract.

Comparison of selected characteristics of bacterial LPS toxins (Endotoxins) and

protein toxins (Exotoxins)
Characteristic LPS Toxin Protein Toxin
Chemical LPS- protein complex Protein

composition
source Cell walls of Gram-negative Gram-negative and Gram-positive
bacteria; released upon death and bacteria; excretion products of growing
autolysis of the bacteria cells or, in some cases, substances
released upon autolysis and death of the
bacteria
Effects on host Nonspecific Generally affects specific tissues
Thermostability Relatively heat-stable (may resist Heat-labile; most are inactivated at 60-
1200C for 1 hour) 800C
Toxoids No Yes
Lethal dose Large Small

Current Industrial Effluent Discharge Quality Standards
General Effluent Tolerance limits for Tolerance limits
standards for effluents discharged for effluents
Parameter Units
discharge to inland to marine coastal discharged on land
surface waters* areas* for irrigation
- 6.0 to 8.5 6.0 to 8.5 5.5 to 9.0
PH Range (at ambient temperature)
0
Temperature of Discharge C 40 45 -
Total suspended solids (TSS) practical doze of Mg/1 **50 ***150 -
Primary sedimentation
a) Total suspended solids m 850 - - tank

b) Floatable solids m - 3 -
c) Settleable solids m - 850 -
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/1 - - 2100

Chloride (as Cl) mg/1 - - 600
Sulfate (as SO4) mg/1 - - 1000 Activated
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) - - - 10 to 15 stage
Residual Sodium Carbonate mol/1 - 2.5 Aeration tank
Per cent Sodium - - (figure 27.11)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (5 day, 200C) mg/1 **30 100 250

Chemical Oxygen Demand mg/1 **250 250 -
Oil and Grease mg/1 10.0 20 10.0
Ammoniacal Nitrogen mg/1 50.0 50.0 -
Phenolic Compounds (as phenol) mg/1 1.0 5.0 -
Colour Varies **** **** -
Surfactants mg/1 - - -
Cyanides (as CN) mg/1 0.2 0.2 -
Sulfides (as S) mg/1 2.0 5.0 -
Fluorides (as F) mg/1 2.0 15 -
Total Residual Chlorine mg/1 1.0 1.0 -

Arsenic mg/1 0.2 0.2 0.2
Boron mg/1 - - 2.0
Cadmium, Total mg/1 0.1 2.0 2.0
Steps of typical sewage waste treatment. A particular system would use either activated sludge
Chromium, Hexavalent mg/1 - - - aeration tanks or trickling filters, not both, as shown in this figure. The sludge is disposed of in
Chromium, Total mg/1 0.1 1.0 1.0 landfills or agricultural land. Microbial activity occurs aerobically in trickling filters or in activated
Copper, Total mg/1 3.0 3.0 - sludge aeration tanks and anaerobically in the anaerobic sludge digester.
Lead, Total mg/1 0.1 1.0 1.0
Mercury, Total mg/1 0.0005 0.01 0.01
Nickel, Total mg/1 3.0 5.0 -
Selenium, Total mg/1 0.05 0.05 -
Zinc, Total mg/1 5.0 5.0 -
Pesticides - Not detectable - -
Organo-Phosphorous Compounds (as P) mg/1 - 1.0 -
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (as Cl) mg/1 - 0.02 -
Radioactive Materials
a) Alpha emitters C/ml 10-7 10-8 10-9
b) Beta emitters C/ml 10-8 10-7 10-8

Trickling filter method of secondary treatment. (a) The sewage is sprayed from the system of
rotating pipes onto a bed of rocks or plastic honeycomb designed to have a maximum surface area and
allow oxygen to penetrate deeply into the bed. Microorganisms grow on the enormous surface area,
forming a microbial slime layer that aerobically metabolizes the organic matter in the sewage tricking
down through the bed. (b) Diagram of a trickling filter system.

S 12 Tim 92

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