TOPIC: INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE.

AIM :To study roles of Industrial architecture.

OBJECTIVE:

-To study importance of industrial revolution.

-To study the revolution in industrial architecture and milestones.

-To study the updatation and changes in industrial structure.

-To study changes in construction techniques.

-To study design aspects in industrial architecture.

-To study details of structure and its fixing method.

-To study materials and its techniques useful in industrial structure.

SCOPE:
-Meaning of industrial architecture, scope ,context. Impact of industrial revolution,

origin in the context of Britain and the United states.

-To study evolutions of industrial structures and its different element.

-To study and understand construction techniques in industrial architecture.

-To study of old industrial module or structure and new industrial structure.

-To study of comparison between old and new construction techniques in industrial

architecture.

-Circulation and area requirement, influence on design, internal and external

environment control, precaution at site.

-To study new techniques of erecting of factory or industry modules with the help of case

studies.

-To study zoning principles factory act and rule in India

.
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-Study sustainable design for factories i.e. processing of solid waste as a source of
energy.

LIMITATION:
-Study only important knowledge of planning and design features.

-Design and structural aspects of industries.

- Study only based on architectural design. It will not deals with details of factory and

machineries.

- Automation system, electrical layout and details of other machineries are not be part of

study .

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CONTENTS:

1. History of Industrial revolution

2. Early developments pre-WWI development of industrial
architecture
3. Industrial Architecture
4. Contribution of Peter Behrens to development of industrial
architecture
5. Crystal Palace (1851)
6. Peter Behrens:Turbine factory (Burlin)
7. Contribution of Albert Kahn to development of industrial
architecture
8. Modern Movement and Industrial Architecture
9. Industry after WWII - rise, decline and the consequences
10. Modern Industries (Factories)
11. Modern industrial construction techniques
12. New techniques in industrial architecture

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1. HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:
The Industrial Revolution, which began in England about 1760, led to

radical changes at every level of civilization throughout the world. The growth of heavy

industry brought a flood of new building materialssuch as cast iron, steel, and glass

with which architects and engineers devised structures hitherto undreamed of in function,

size, and form.

Disenchantment with baroque, with rococo, and even with neo-

Palladianism turned late 18th-century designers and patrons toward the original Greek

and Roman prototypes. Selective borrowing from another time and place became

fashionable. Its Greek aspect was particularly strong in the young United States from the

early years of the 19th century until about 1850. New settlements were given Greek

namesSyracuse, Ithaca, Troyand Doric and Ionic columns, entablatures, and

pediments, mostly transmuted into white-painted wood, were applied to public buildings

and important town houses in the style called Greek revival.

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the

period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840.

This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new

chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water

power, the increasing use of steam power, and the development of machine tools. It also

included the change from wood and other bio-fuels to coal. Textiles were the dominant

industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital

invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods. Daily

life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to

exhibit unprecedented sustained growth.

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Standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first

time in history. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and spread to Western

Europe and the United States within a few decades. The precise start and end of the

Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and

social changes.Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of

humanity since the domestication of animals, plants and fire.

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2. EARLY DEVELOPMENTS PRE-WWI DEVELOPMENT
OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE:

The germ of the industrial aesthetic is seen in the simple mill buildings from

late 1700, precursors of the modern factory, were straightforward wooden or masonry

buildings with repetitive forms and rhythmic openings. As long buildings, these mills fit

into the landscape, their scale and materials making little impact on their surroundings.

The conglomeration of these mills monopolized and blocked the rivers and canals that

fed the millwheels that provided power for their machines. These first mills reflected

building technology of their time and responded to the realities of fire and workplace

safety. In the day before electricity, flooding workspace with as much daylight as

possible was the most important. Long and narrow, these buildings had open and

unobstructed internal spaces to accommodate as many machines and workers as possible.

Their narrowness not only allowed light into their centres, but also efficiently

enabled machines on both sides of the building to be powered from a single central shaft

down the floor.Early industrial buildings were simple because their utilitarian nature

placed them low in the social and therefore aesthetic hierarchy. From the earliest times,

buildings generally reflected their social importance. While the buildings of higher

reputation, such as churches, public buildings, and royal structure, the more ornament

had used, the service buildings had been strictly no-frills. Most industrial buildings of

XIX c. were multi-storied buildings that combined brick or masonry bearing walls with

heavy timber structural frames to obtain the largest column-free interior spaces possible.

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Fig 2.1 Massachusetts Waltham Mills Buildings dates from 1816

Fig 2.2 Interior of the typical cotton mill factory, Great Britain, mid-1830

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As the ultimate utilitarian places, their design features not only encouraged an efficient

work process but aimed to prevent fires. The fear of fire was so prevalent that insurance

companies shaped much of the early architecture. They discouraged interior wall

coverings as well as ornament on building exteriors; sought open, partition-free interiors

to facilitate extinguishing fires; suggested flat roofs and discouraged the attics;

encouraged large windows to facilitate fire suppression; and recommended flat floor

areas be separated from interior stairs. The resulting stair towers that punctuated flat

facades punctuated become a familiar building type. Whatever ornament, if any, was

located at the towers, which were sometimes capped with characteristic roof tops or

cupolas to distinguish the owners identity.

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3. INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE

Industrial architecture has always had two main goals: efficiency and safety.

Improved economy in turning raw goods into manufactured items and in the construction

of the buildings themselves, as well as the prevention of fire with the resulting loss of life

and materials shaped the design of warehouses and factories. The history of industrial

architecture is beyond the scope of this paper; however, a short review will be given.

The Industrial Revolution had introduced or popularized the use of steel, plate

glass, and mass-produced components.

These opened up a brave new world of bold structural frames, with

clean lines and plain or shiny surfaces.

In the early stages of modern architecture, a popular motto was "decoration is a

crime.

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4.CONTRIBUTION OF PETER BEHRENS TO
DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE:

Peter Behrens (Figure 1) was born 14 April 1868 in Hamburg and died in

Berlin 27 February 1940. He was a founder of modern objective industrial architecture

and modern industrial design. But before he became an architect he was a painter in his

youth and Art Nouveau designer of decorative and graphic art. He inherited considerable

wealth so was able to afford to study between the years 1886 until 1891 at art schools in

Karlsruhe, Dusseldorf and Munich. Year after his studies he became one of the founders

of a new wave formed in Munich called Munich Secession. From 1890 he worked as a

painter and graphic artist in Munich

In 1893 Behrens is one of the founding members of Munich Secession. Behrens was the

founder of the Vereinigten Werkstatten (United Workshops) in 1897. As stated by

Schmutzler (1962, p. 205) his earliest works in Jugendstil are ornament drawings like

the delicate sketch of butterflies alighting on lily pads framed by rushes (Figure 2), and

in this design his affinity with Japanese art is obvious.

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5. CRYSTAL PALACE (1851):

The Crystal Palace was a cast-iron and plate-glass building originally

erected in Hyde Park, London, England, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. More

than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world gathered in the Palace's 990,000 square

feet (92,000 m2) of exhibition space to display examples of the latest technology

developed in the Industrial Revolution. Designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, the Great

Exhibition building was 1,851 feet (564 m) long, with an interior height of 128 feet

(39 m). Because of the recent invention of the cast plate glass method in 1848, which

allowed for large sheets of cheap but strong glass, it was at the time the largest amount of

glass ever seen in a building and astonished visitors with its clear walls and ceilings that

did not require interior lights, thus a "Crystal Palace".

The name Crystal Palace came from the playwright Douglas Jerrold. On 13

July 1850 he wrote in the satirical magazine Punch as 'Mrs Amelia Mouser' about the

forthcoming Great Exhibition of 1851, referring to a palace of very crystal, a name that

was subsequently picked up and repeated even though the building had not been

approved at that stage.

After the exhibition, the building was rebuilt in an enlarged form on Penge

Common, at the top of Penge Peak next to Sydenham Hill, an affluent South London

suburb full of large villas. It stood there from 1854 until its destruction by fire in 1936.

Paxton's modular, hierarchical design reflected his practical brilliance as a designer and

problem-solver. It incorporated many breakthroughs, offered practical advantages that no

conventional building could match and, above all, embodied the spirit of British

innovation and industrial might that the Great Exhibition was intended to celebrate.

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5.2 Partial front (left) and rear (right) elevations of the Crystal Palace.

The geometry of the Crystal Palace was a classic example of the concept of form

following function - the shape and size of the whole building was directly based around

the size of the panes of glass made by the supplier, Chance Brothers of Birmingham.

These were the largest available at the time, measuring 10 inches wide by 49 inches long.

Because the entire building was scaled around those dimensions, it meant that nearly the

whole outer surface could be glazed using millions of identical panes, thereby drastically

reducing both their production cost and the time needed to install them.

The original Hyde Park building was essentially a vast, flat-roofed

rectangular hall. A huge open gallery ran along the main axis, with wings extending

down either side. The main exhibition space was two stories high, with the upper floor

stepped in from the boundary. Most of the building had a flat-profile roof, except for the

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central transept, which was covered by a 72 foot wide barrel-vaulted roof that stood 168

feet high at the top of the arch. Both the flat-profile sections and the arched transept roof

were constructed using the key element of Paxton's design - his patented ridge-and-

furrow roofing system, which had first use at Chatsworth. The basic roofing unit, in

essence, took the form of a long triangular prism, which made it both extremely light and

very strong, and meant it could be built with the minimum amount of materials.

Paxton set the dimensions of this prism by using the length of single pane

of glass (49 inches) as the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, thereby creating a

triangle with a length-to-height ratio of 2.5:1, whose base (adjacent side) was 4 feet long.

By mirroring this triangle he obtained the 8-foot-wide gables that formed the vertical

faces at either end of the prism, each of which was 24' long. With this arrangement,

Paxton could glaze the entire roof surface with identical panes that did not need to be

trimmed. Paxton placed three of these 8' x 24' roof units side-by-side, horizontally

supported by a grid of cast iron beams, which was held up on slim cast iron pillars. The

resulting cube, with a floor area of 24'x 24', formed the basic structural module of the

building

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6. PETER BEHRENS:TURBINE FACTORY (BURLIN):

6.1 Shape and height of the building axis are given by the three joint ties.

The AEG turbine factory was built around 1909, in the Berlin district of Moabit,

the best known work of architect Peter Behrens. It is an influential and well-known

example of industrial architecture. Its revolutionary design features 100m long and 15m

tall glass and steel walls on either side. It was a bold move and world first that would

have a durable impact on Architecture as a whole

The turbine hall was built in 1909 under Peter Behrens as lead architect and

engineer Karl Bernhard at the angle of the Huttenstrae (12-16) with the

Berlichingenstrae streets in Berlin-Moabit. The original building measures 25.6 m +

12.5 m in width, a height of 25 m and a length of 123 m. Behrens' design provided a neo-

classical look to the industrial building, with weighty (but non-functional) gableends

and trabeated 'columns' to either side.[1] David Watkin describes it as a "temple of

power".Similarly, Tom Wilkinson likens it to an "up-to-date edition of the Parthenon".

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 In 1939, Jacob Schallberger and Paul Schmidt designed an extension of the hall

to the north. The whole building has been developed to function as a production site for

turbines. It is now part of Siemens, which still operates a gas turbine plant there. This

factory was actually designed with such foresight, that it still serves the same purpose of

producing turbines, a hundred years later.

The other factories that AEG had at that time, mostly known as "crenellated

castle-cities" were places where technology occurred in a dowdy coat of historicist

design. Among the requirements and expectations of the AEG was the intent to design an

impressive and sophisticated, large scale construction. Peter Behrens created an

architecture for the industry that came out of the clamp of hiding behind historic facades

and transformed itself into a new self-confidence.

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7. CONTRIBUTION OF ALBERT KAHN TO
DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE:

New ways of producing energy enhanced the growth of both buildings and

machinery, necessitating structures that could support more weight, span greater

distances. In addition, the manufacturing process was expanding beyond textiles,

demanding more flexible and adaptable layouts. The answer would come from a material

that had been known centuries before but needed enhancement: concrete and iron.

.
Figure 7.1 Albert Kahn's Packard Building , 1903 (left); Chrysler's Tanks Arsenal, Warren
Township, Michigan,1941(right)

One of a few architects that were most influenced the aesthetics and

development of industrial buildings and the glorification of the functional design was

Albert Kahn. He created the 1903 Packard Building No.10 (see Figure 3-left), the first

automobile factory to use reinforced concrete. The building of 30 foot spans provided

great flexibility for changes in production on the interior. This concrete frame, clearly

expressed on the exterior, had glazed openings to the ceiling permitting as much daylight

onto the factory floor as possible. Kahn designed buildings with an eye toward interior

flexibility in order to complement and enhance the manufacturing process, so the

buildings exterior was a continuation of this interior.

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 During these early days of manufacturing there were two main theories of

building for industry housing different operations in separate buildings specifically

designed for those operations or having the entire plant in one building. Kahn preferred

the later as it allowed for more flexibility, and due to reduced number of exterior walls,

these larger buildings were cheaper to build. Building factories in which workflow

determined operations demanded flexible layouts that could change as the manufacturing

process changed. Kahn soon championed single-story buildings for their flexible and

adaptable use. Light entered through clerestories or monitors on the roofs which were

supported by wide-span structural grids.

These buildings required more acreage and also a change material thus

raised the use of steel. Steel not only was mass produced but could span great distances

compared to cast iron or concrete, thereby providing the flexibility required for the ever-

changing manufacturing processes.

Fig 7.2 Albert Kahn's Chrysler Half-Ton Truck Plant

Electric and coal-fired power combined with advances in mass production

developed for the heavy steel and automobile industries allowed greater flexibility for

buildings and their location. Soon the one-story factory that spread over many acres was

seen more efficient than multi-storied buildings. Industry indelibly changed the
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landscape and population patterns by moving outside compact cities to where land was

plentiful. This demanded a new and expanded road and rail system for materials and

workers.

Fig 7.3 Albert Kahn's Chrysler Half-Ton Truck Plant - Export Building, 1937, interior

8.MODERN MOVEMENT AND INDUSTRIAL

ARCHITECTURE:
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 Industrial forms, materials and aesthetics had a great influence on architects and

the direction of early modern architecture. Industry and its processes inspired and

continue to engage the imagination of the artists and architects: from the voice against

ornament by Adolf Loos to the design explorations of the Bauhaus and the sleek lines of

the International Style to the explicit expression of construction elements in the work of

Richard Rogers and his partners. Industrial architecture showed a simplicity that was

expressed on the exterior by undecorated flat surfaces, whether in brick, stone or wood.

While these buildings were obviously required for the rise of industry, their designers

were often anonymous and these structures remained outside the scope of traditional

architectural practices. Until the beginning of the twentieth century, architectural theory

and styles concentrated on important civic and commercial buildings or private

residences.

As industrial uses grew in complexity and importance, schools of design and

architectural theory emerged to respond to the challenges that this development posed.

Charged with defining new forms for the everchanging factories, industrial storage and

transport facilities, architects carved pathways toward defining the future. Around the

early 1900s, the factory was seen as a building type deserving of architectural treatment

in order to enhance the production of goods and dignify the workplace, as well as forge

corporate identities. In this context worth mentioning is the Deutscher Werkbund,

founded to improve the quality and design of Germans manufactured goods, although

was originally based upon craft and art, many of Germans most influential architects

passed through it including Peter Behrens, Walter Gropius, Mies van der Rohe. During

its existence, two influential industrial buildings were designed by its members: Peter

Behrens AEG Turbine Factory and Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyers Fagus Shoe Last

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Factory. Behrenss AEG factory, regarded as a temple to industrial power, had a

monumentality based upon neoclassical principles. For the Fagus factory, Gropius and

Meyer eschewed this masking of structure, striving to clearly express its materials, an

important hallmark of the aesthetic of Modern Movement.

Fig 8.1 Peter Behrens AEG Turbine Factory Berlin, 1907 (left); Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyers Fagus Shoe Last
Factory, Alfeld on the Leine, 1911(right)

Exploring how to respond to industry continued at the Bauhaus. Although it had several

phases and its aesthetics approach was not monolithic, its influence is still seen in

designers responses to mass production of everyday products. Its machine-celebrating

spare lines and structural expression still infuse discussions of modern design.

9. INDUSTRY AFTER WWII - RISE, DECLINE AND THE

CONSEQUENCES:

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 Intensively increased investments in industry after the World War II initiated

urban growth of industrial centres in the middle of XX century, especially in the 50s and

the 60s. Due to increase in business opportunities, population in cities increased

fulfilling demands on labour force, consequently housing areas, services areas, roads and

other infrastructural and communal facilities have expanded. This growth, mainly

focused on free land on the cities outskirts leaded to increase in traffic and in additional

pressure on the road network that expand too. Architectural aesthetic of this period is still

under the influence of Modern movement and the International style; intensive is usage

of modern materials as reinforced concrete, iron and glass, but also some entirely new

ones such as asbestos, later plastic, etc. Although this period has given some great

architectural works, among all building types, they always have had difficulties to be

appreciated in general population. The new materials, reputed at the time to be

permanent, have poor resistance to the passage of time. However, this architectures

worst enemy still remains the indifference, indeed the contempt that it continues to

arouse among the public. This is due, in particular, to the banality of a large part of the

production of the period, in which the examples of quality become lost. A policy for the

protection of the major works of the post-war period is being organized across Europe

and wider (Docomomo and others initiatives). The goodwill of owners who are aware of

the quality of their asset also constitutes an effective driver for the protection of the

architecture. The development of a realisation of the value of these constructions is

urgently needed in order to preserve the fragile balance on which their appeal rests.

Industrial buildings of the post-war period shared the destiny of the other buildings of the

time, burdened additionally by theirs everlasting lower reputation as a building type.

However, industrial heritage from this period is the greatest and most common

worldwide, although it is not jet perceived and evaluated rightly.

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Fig 9.1 Diemme Filtrations, Lugo, Italy, from '60s (left); Saarinen's IBM Rochester building from

1958 (right)

The end of XX century had brought many causes that leaded to the

fundamental shifts in society and, consequently, shifts in industry and in organizational

matrix of the cities. Deindustrialization, share of total employment and total investments

indicated a dramatic decline in industrial growth. Changes in economy structure, decline

in employment in manufacturing, accompanied by rise in employment in services and

other supporting companies. Globalization, economic changes that influenced the urban

structure of cities is not limited anymore to national and regional borders. Production

facilities are being relocated intensively to other regions that offer suitable economic

incentives, lower production costs in form of cheaper labour force and lower taxes. Shifts

in business strategies, technical innovations and new organizational and economical

concepts lead to functional concentration, efficient land use and higher productivity,

which cause radical changes in organization of spaces and facilities.

10. MODERN INDUSTRIES (FACTORIES):

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 Most modern industries have large warehouses or warehouse-like facilities

that contain heavy equipment used for assembly line production. Large factories tend to

be located with access to multiple modes of transportation, with some having rail,

highway and water loading and unloading facilities. Factories may either make discrete

products or some type of material continuously produced such as chemicals, pulp and

paper, or refined oil products. Factories manufacturing chemicals are often

called plants and may have most of their equipment like tanks, pressure vessels, chemical

reactors, pumps and piping outdoors and operated from control rooms.

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11. MODERN INDUSTRIAL CONSTRUCTION
TECHNIQUES:

- PORTAL FRAME:

Fig 11.1 Portal frame

The vast majority of single storey, steel framed buildings are portal

frames. These were first widely used in the 1960s. During the 1970s and early 1980s

they developed rapidly to become the predominant form of single storey construction.

Using plastic design techniques first developed at Cambridge University, for spans up to

about 50m portal frames are the most economical solution available. Large column-free

areas can be achieved at relatively low cost. Often on multi-span frames the intermediate

valley columns are omitted (hit-and-miss) so that on, say, a 45m span frame, with bay

centres of 8m, each column-free box covers an area of over 700m2, which is nearly a

fifth of an acre!

Portal frames typically use hot-rolled beams and columns for the roof

rafters and supporting columns, although cold formed sections may be adequate for some

small span structures. Portal frames come in a variety of different shapes and sizes, with

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flat and pitched roofs. The schematic arrangement of a typical single storey portal

frame building is shown

Fig 11.2 Section of Portal frame

A small number of steelwork contractors offer portal frames made wholly from plates,

often to form a tapered rafter section, which more closely follows the load profile on the

steel member. The extra fabrication cost involved is offset by savings in the material

content of the resultant frame. However, overall this form of frame has not been

successful in the UK, mainly due to the efficiency of steelwork contractors

offering parallel flange beam solutions.

Sophisticated computer software is widely available to design portal

frames to the optimum efficiency. These programs use plastic or elastoplastic design

techniques, and can handle multi-span frames with varying geometries and multiple load

cases

- LATTICE TRUSSES:
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 The main alternative to portal frames is lattice construction. Lattice trusses are

generally more expensive than portal frames for routine applications and spans.

However, for certain applications they will offer the best framing solution, such as: for

very large spans (greater than 50m), for production facilities needing heavy plant

suspended from the roof area, or where deflection criteria are particularly critical.

Trusses are a triangulated assembly of members usually

either rolled or structural hollow sections. The internal members can beangles,

beams or hollow sections, depending on the design loads, configuration and fabrication

costs. Two basic configurations are used in single storey buildings pitched roof trusses

and flat trusses of near uniform depth. Trusses are usually planar and will generally

require bracing of some form to provide stability. As an alternative, three-dimensional

trusses can be created.

Fig 11.3Lattice truss using tubular members

Trusses typically have a greater depth than single beams or plate girders. The deflection

of a truss is modest, and can be controlled, making them especially suitable when

significant loads have to be supported from the roof structure, or when a flat (or nearly

flat) roof is to be provided.

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TYPES OF LATTICE TRUSS:

Long-span industrial buildings can be designed with lattice trusses,

using channel, beam or tubular sections. Lattice trusses tend to be beam and

column structures and are rarely used in portal frames.

Various configurations of lattice trusses are illustrated. The two generic forms

are W or N bracing arrangements. In this case, stability is generally provided

by bracing rather than rigid frame action.

- CABLE STAYED ROOFS:

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 Fig 11.4 Cable stayed roof beams of a storage facility

In a cable-stayed structure, tensile members (wire ropes or bars) are

provided to give intermediate support to members such as roof beams, thus allowing

those members to be reduced in size. The stays need to be supported by columns or

masts and those members need to be anchored or braced with other stays. The bracing

arrangement is usually very conspicuous and the aesthetics of the building must be

considered carefully. An example of a cable stayed building structure is shown .

As most of the structure is outside of the building, maintenance costs can be

high for this form of construction. Care must be taken in detailing

the waterproofing where the stays pass through theenvelope.

- MEZZANINES:

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 Fig 11.5 Typical mezzanine floor in an industrial building

Mezzanine floors in single storey industrial buildings offer the flexibility of

providing additional floor space without extending the overall size of the building. They

can be part of a new building construction, or as an upgrade to an existing building.

Mezzanine floors tend to be separate steel framed structures which are supported directly

off the ground floor concrete slab and tied into the main structural framing of the

building.

However, in industrial buildings it may be a requirement that uninterrupted

working spaces are provided over the whole of the ground floor area (support forklift

traffic). In these cases the mezzanine floor structure can be supported directly off the

roof main framing members, thereby providing an unobstructed area underneath.

Typically mezzanine floors are lightweight open grid floors. To restrict the loss of

headroom to a minimum, cellular beams can be specified which will allow services to be

provided within the depth of the mezzanine floor beams. A typical mezzanine floor in an

industrial facility is shown.

- CONNECTION DETAILS:

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 Typical eaves connection in a portal frame

The apex connection is often designed similarly.

The base of the column is often simple with larger tolerances to facilitate the interface
between the concrete base and steelwork. Pinned connections are typically preferred as
they enable smaller foundations to be designed, however, stability during construction
needs to be considered as must whether the column is in a boundary condition.

Fig 11.6 Example of a nominally pinned column base in a portal frame

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 - OPERATIONAL ENERGY PERFORMANCE:

Fig 11.7 Air pressure testing of an industrial building

Driven by Part L of the Building Regulations, the required reductions in U-

values over recent years have led to a considerable increase in insulation thickness, with
possible implications for frame stability, cladding weight and consequential handling
requirements. There is a common perception that this trend will continue indefinitely
as regulatory changes increase the demands on the building envelope. However, in
reality the relationship between insulation thickness and energy efficiency is subject to a
law of diminishing returns and the point is now close to being reached where further
increases in insulation thickness are unlikely to yield significant improvements in
operational energy performance, a fact recognised in a 2012 consultation.

For many applications, the inclusion of roof lights is important because they
reduce the amount of artificial lighting that is needed and, consequently, the energy
demands of the building. However, they also increase solar gain, which can lead to
overheating in summer and increase cooling demand. Heat loss through thermal
bridging also becomes more significant (relatively) as the insulation thickness increases,
requiring the use of enhanced construction details and specialised components in order to
satisfy regulatory requirements.

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 - NEW TECHNIQUES IN INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE:

Fig 11.8INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS FOR PALLETIZING FOOD PRODUCTS

Henry Ford further revolutionized the factory concept in the early 20th
century, with the innovation of the mass production. Industrial robots on the factory
floor, introduced in the late 1970s. These computer-controlled welding arms and grippers
could perform simple tasks such as attaching a car door quickly and flawlessly 24 hours
a day. This too cut costs and improved speed.
Highly specialized laborers situated alongside a series of rolling ramps
would build up a product such as (in Ford's case) an automobile. This concept
dramatically decreased production costs for virtually all manufactured goods and brought
about the age of consumerism.

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