Qualitative Research in Linguistics PDF

HKBU CIE (2016-2017) BLLS 2105
Introduction to Language Studies

Qualitative research in linguistics
Fundamentals of qualitative research in linguistics
Qualitative research approaches and methods
OCT 27, 2016 (15:30 17:30) (SMC904)
Bernie C. N. MAK
(PhD in Applied English Linguistics)
bcnmak@hkbu.edu.hk
Objective(s) / Intended learning outcome(s)
Focusing on applied linguistics
What is research in nature?
What are the general steps in
conducting a research study?
How could a qualitative research
study be designed?
How do researchers collect and
evaluate their investigative data?
What are the focal areas of
analyzing qualitative data?
What are the latest trends in
research?
(c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for
research, teaching, and private study purposes.
Warm-ups / Activity ahead
Think back to the first GE class you took as a CIE student
Walked into the lecture room
Noted the arrangement of tables and desks
Listened to what the other students chat to see what kind of people they
might be
Looked at the lecturer to understand his or her teaching style
Talked to a few students to see how they thought about the course
Went home to consider whether you should stay or join in another section
What you did was similar to collecting qualitative data by

participant observation and interviewing.
Warm-ups / Activity ahead (contd)
Once more, think back to the first GE class you took as a CIE student.
You noticed that
Some students seemed to have known each other before they came to class
Some students sat in pairs and talked like a couple
Some students made friends with someone who sat nearby
Some students isolated themselves from the others
Some students approached the lecturer for something
Finally, you figure out four to five relationships in the lecture room.
What you did was similar to coding, analyzing, and interpreting data,
then searching for patterns and new knowledge.
Part I Theory and basics
Philosophy of research
Research in linguistics
Linguistics focuses on
The science of language (e.g., phonetics, phonology, syntax, language and
logic, language and the brain, etc.)
Language in use (e.g., language acquisition, language policy, language in the
classroom, language in the workplace, language in society, etc.)
Research on applied linguistics concentrates on
The scientific description of language
The use of language in contexts
Cognitive experience and behavior of language use
The methods of researching the issues include
Quantitative research (collection of numerical data + statistical analysis)
Qualitative research (collection of textual data + interpretive analysis)
Mixed-method research (combination of the quantitative and qualitative)
Research in linguistics (contd)
Qualitative research approaches include
Case study
Ethnography
Action research
Grounded theory

The approaches embrace various data collection methods including
Participant observation
Interviewing (individually or in groups)
Analysis of authentic text (textual or verbal)
Diary study
Research in linguistics (contd)
Different requirements of research at different levels
Associate degrees
Critical thinking and analytical skills + references to professional sources
Bachelor degrees (BA)
All of the above
Literature review + references to scholarly sources in data analysis
Master degrees (e.g., MPhil, MA, MEd)

All of the above
Application of one theory to the topic under research + originality of research
Doctoral degrees (e.g., PhD, EdD)
All of the above
Evaluation of the existing knowledge of a research field + integrated use of
existing theories + generation of new theories
What is qualitative research Opposite perspectives on
knowledge
What is reality
Positivists believe that there is Qualitative research is based on a
only one fixed reality. constructivist view of the world. It
Research is to find this universal focuses on how participants
truth that can be tested, measured experience and interact with a
quantified, and generalized. phenomenon at a given point in
time and in a particular context,
and the multiple meanings it has
Constructivists believe that there for them These natural settings
is no so-called single reality. include such places as homes and
Meaning is socially and workplaces, staffrooms and self-
dynamically constructed by access centers, and online chat
interaction with the world. rooms (Croker, 2009, p.7).
Research is to find a possible
construction of the truth at a
particular moment. (c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for
What is qualitative research (contd)
Thus, when collecting and preliminarily analyzing data, qualitative
researchers (in linguistics) position themselves to each participant
to see the subjective world.
From the emic perspective from the insider point of view
Directly interact with the participants in the research context
At the later stage, they may position themselves back to the
scholarly standpoint.
From the etic perspective from the researcher/outsider point of view
Interpret and discuss the data and findings using professional terms and
academic concepts
A good qualitative research study presents the arguments from both
perspectives, but placing more emphasis from the perspective of
insiders and viewing meaning as more context- and time-specific
(Lapan et al., 2012). (c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for
What is qualitative research (contd)
Nevertheless, the subjectivity of researchers is an issue. They are
partial and biased in many ways.
[T]hey also take their own intellectual baggage and life experiences with
them. Inevitably, their gender, age, ethnicity, cultural background, sexual
orientation, politics, religious beliefs, and life experiences their worldview
are the lens through which they see their research.
(Croker, 2009, p.11)
The problem is (commonly) solved by triangulation
Obtain diverse perspectives on a phenomenon by gathering data from
different participants
Use diverse data collection methods and analyze the data together
(Employ mixed method research)
The process of qualitative research Make sure the questions
are interrelated if you ask
more than one question!
All kinds of research involve a Step 1 Formulate a question

lot of back-and-forth, so the that you want to address
movement is not linear, Read scholarly books or articles on
whether it is considered a a topic that you are interested in
process or cycle. But still, a Note what is happening every day
research study usually starts Select an issue and try to study it
with an interest in a topic. at a deeper level by asking the
5Ws + 1H, namely who, what,
when, where, why, and how
Come up with a specific question
that should be examined from an
academic perspective and can be
answered within the time frame
and in a single paper
The process of qualitative research (contd)
Step 2 Design a way (or some
ways) to study that question.
What kinds of information can be
drawn on? Will the information be
relevant and reliable?
How to gather the information? Is
the data collection feasible? Can
you finish the collection within the Step 3 Implement the data
time frame? collection activities.
How to analyze the information? Does it go well as planned? Need
Do you have any theories in hand it be adjusted to suit the research
that can help you in the analysis? progress?
Document the collected data
safely and effectively.
Step 4 Analyze and discuss
what have been collected.
What are the characteristics of
each piece of data?
Are there any patterns that are
observable in the data? Can the
data collected be coded into a few
categories?
Which categories are most useful
and interesting in addressing the
research question?
Decide what to be included,
discussed, and concluded in the
research report.
Step 5 Start drafting (and then Step 6 Come up with new,
finalizing) the research report possible research questions
by using the IMRC structure. from the conclusion.
Introduction Spell out the Another relevant study begins!
research background and research
question But still, in reality the process
Methodology Explain the data involves a lot of changes and
collection procedure struggles, because it can be
Results Present the data messy and it is always very
collected and interpret their human. Some things will go
meanings wrong; others will go right. Some
Conclusion Conclude the study aspects of data collection work
by answering the research out as planned, even as others do
question not (Freeman, 2009, p.30).
Every successful research project requires two things: a meaningful
research question and an appropriate way to answer that question
Choosing research methods that can accomplish your research goals
requires knowing both what your options are and how to evaluate
those options.
(Morgan, 2014, p.21)

Part II Research approaches
The design of an investigative study
Qualitative research approaches
There are many qualitative
research approaches in
scholarship. Here are four that Descriptive
are widely-used in linguistics: Longitudinal large amounts of
data are collected over a period of
time
1. Case study (see Hood, 2009)
Findings are often triangulated
An in-depth description and and sometimes confirmed by the
analysis of a single, smaller but participants
complex system, such as one
Usually reported in the form of
person, one workplace, one
narratives
course, etc. within a real-life
context (c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for
Qualitative research approaches
2. Ethnography (see Heigham &
Sakui, 2009) Triangulation is necessary
Prolonged observation of the Balance between the etic and
shared beliefs, practices, artifacts, emic
knowledge, and everyday Subjectivity is unavoidable
behaviors of a larger cultural
group
Focus on culture
The preset design is subject to
change during the research
Collect a large quantity of varied,
unstructured data
Data collected by more than two
or more researchers who stay in
the groups natural environment.
Qualitative research approaches (contd)
3. Action research (see Burns,
2009)
A systematic and self-reflective
process to help professionals solve
work-related problems and
improve work performance
Educational and practical
Reflective and prescriptive
4. Grounded theory (*difficult)
Systematic generation of theory by
different data collected from
participants who have
experienced the social process
being studied
Part III Sampling
Understanding of research data
Sampling and evaluating data
The sample of a study is the source from which data are drawn to
answer the research question(s) and/or to test any hypothesis that
might be made (Perry, 2011, p.56).
Human beings (e.g., interviewees)
Inanimate objects (e.g., texts from corpora) The rights and privacy of human participants
are protected, no matter how.
1. Representative sampling (more used in quantitative research)

Try to capture a sample that represents a defined population
2. Purposeful sampling (used in qualitative research)
Try to capture a sample that is rich in specific information
Sampling and evaluating data (contd)
1. Representative sampling
The sample is a portion of a larger 1.1 Simple random sampling
population (the entire number of
people of the target group to be Every member of the target
studied by the researcher). population has an equal
opportunity for being chosen to
participate in the study.
When the sample possesses
similar characteristics as the larger
population, it allows the The larger the sample, the better.
researcher to make inferences (Perry, 2011, p.62)
from the findings of the study to
the larger population.
1.2 Stratified random sampling 1.3 Cluster sampling
Used when the target population Randomly sample groups from the
contains subgroups (e.g., population.
Males/females, age groups) All members of the chosen cluster
become participants.
Proportional stratified random
sampling choose cases that
represent the proportion of each
of the subgroups in the population
Non-proportional stratified
random sampling sample the
same number of participants from
each of the subgroups
2. Purposeful sampling
Select samples for in-depth data 2.1 Convenience sampling
gathering, rather than trying find a
sample to represent the target Access participants from those
population immediately available
More commonly used in the area 2.2 Extreme sampling

of applied linguistics
Look for participants who are
unusual and contrast them with
normal cases

2.3 Intensify sampling 2.5 Stratified purposeful
Look for cases that concentrate sampling
the matter being studied Look for a wide variety of
individuals to maximize the
information to be collected
2.4 Maximum variation Also ensure at least one
sampling participant from each strata in a
Look for a wide variety of population
individuals to maximize the
information to be collected
2.6 Homogeneous sampling
Look for participants who share
the same attributes
Reliability (i.e. consistency of Validity (i.e. accuracy of the
the data results) measurement or observations)
Researchers normally want the Trait accuracy how accurately
method used to give the same the procedure measures or
findings or results no matter who observes the trait under study
takes the measurement or Utility whether the procedure is
observations, and no matter when used for the right, intended
they are taken. purpose.
Reliability coefficient (range
between 0.00 and 1.00) below 0.6
= low
Affected by subjectivity and
research design (c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for
Part IV Research methods
Collection of qualitative data
Qualitative research methods
Five commonly-used qualitative
research methods (to be The observer often interacts with
implemented following the the participants.
above approaches) are: The focus of observation should
be decided in advance.
Particularly common in
1. Participant observation (see ethnography.
Cowie, 2009) Often complemented by the use
Researchers consciously and of interviews.
carefully watch participants Analytical notes are often added
external behavior in a naturalistic to the field notes afterwards.
setting, and take detailed field The participants should be first
notes of any observable and informed that they would be
audible data. observed.
Qualitative research methods (contd)
2. Interviewing (see Richards,
2009)
Researchers ask participants
designed questions. The questions
can be close- or open-ended. The
participants answers are archived
by handwriting or a recorder
Focus on experiences, beliefs,
perceptions, and motivations Interviewers need to interact with
Structured, open, or semi- the interviewees, and ask follow-
structured up questions spontaneously
The interview guide involves Participants responses to
topics, subtopics, and key questions should be transcribed
questions clearly
3. Focus groups (see Flick, 2009)
Researchers ask a group of 4 to 6 Interactivity among participants
participants designed open-ended who do not know each other is the
questions, and have them discuss key. The method simulates
the subjects informally and everyday impromptu talk.
dynamically. Their answers are Ideally, participants have different
archived by handwriting or several education and career background.
recorders. Sometimes difficult to transcribe
The interviewer can raise the data.
spontaneous questions if needed.
The interviewer needs to move
onto the next question after
sufficient discussion on the
current issue. (c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for
4. Analysis of authentic text
(sometimes called discourse Data usually emerge in the form of
analysis or text analysis) (see social interaction in a particular
Lazaraton, 2009) setting.
Data are transcribed using a
Researchers collect naturally-
conventionalized transcription
occurring spoken and written texts
notation system.
in a setting, and analyze them
using an analytical framework. Detailed description of the context
is needed before data analysis.
Focus on the function of language
(including all aspects of symbolic Let findings emerge from the
communication, such as tone, transcribed data.
pause, etc.). The findings are further discussed
by a framework.
5. Diary study (see McKay, 2009)
Researchers access participants
inner worlds by studying their
intensive journals (or researchers
study their own diaries from the
etic perspective).
Particularly common in action
research.
Nearly all data are subjective.
Sometimes the content, context,
and form of the data are unclear.

Part V Examples
Research in Applied English Linguistics
Hands-on practice(s) in pairs / Examples of
AEL research
1. Humor for workplace newcomers
Research question What is/are the function(s) of face-to-face humor for a
workplace new starter?
Approach case study

Methods analysis of authentic text and follow-up (semi-structured)
interviewing
Site a white-collar workplace
Participants a newcomer in the workplace and colleagues of the newcomer
Instruments voice recorder with a little label microphone and an interview
guide
Period one month
Intended outcomes ways to improve the workplace socialization process
AEL research (contd)
2. Student-teacher interaction during the break in class
Research question What is/are the characteristic(s) of student-teacher talk
during the break of a GE course at CIE?
Approach ethnography
Methods participant observation and focus groups
Site the room where English Academic Writing takes place in
Participants students, lecturer, and the researcher him/herself
Instruments a notepad with a pen and an interview guide
Period two to three months
Intended outcomes ways to decrease the social distance between students
and teachers in the tertiary classroom
3. Native-English speaking teachers (NETs) in Hong Kong
What are the common English sentence structures being used by NETs in
email in Hong Kong secondary schools?
Approach action research

Methods analysis of authentic text and diary study
Site email and a secondary school
Participants a NET, his/her students, and his/her colleagues
Instruments a software application for email record, a diary
Period Two months
Intended outcomes use of English in a bilingual society where English is
spoken as the second language
4. Code-switching (CS) between Chinese and English in mobile-
messaging
Research question Why is CS between Chinese and English more common
in teenagers mobile-messaging than in their face-to-face talk?
Approach case study x 20

Methods semi-structured interviewing
Participants college students who use mobile-messengers and code-switch
in the platforms every day
Instruments voice recorder and an interview guide
Period one to two months
Intended outcomes understanding of teenagers attitudes towards code-
switching in the information age
Part VI Dealing with results
Answering the research questions
Dealing with research results
Three types of research questions
What questions look for information that describes what attributes are
important, what relations the attributes have, and what contextual issues
matter
How questions look for information that describes the processes by which
some phenomena occur or develop
Why questions look for information that explain the causes behind some
phenomena
Qualitative (verbal) data versus quantitative (numerical) data

[W]hen we use statistics, we have basically transferred verbally defined
constructs into numbers so that we can analyze the data more easily. We
must not forget that these statistical results must again be transferred back
into terminology that represents these verbal constructs to make any sense.
(Perry, 2011, p.160) (c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for
Dealing with research results (contd)
The data presented in your essay or report have gone through some
types of selected or summarized forms.
Verbal data quotations from interviews, selections of excerpts, narratives
Numerical data tables of averages, frequencies, coefficients, etc.
Presentation of results and

Qualitative (verbal) data look for the following discussion are often combined
in qualitative linguistic research
Similarities and differences between data
The cause-and-effect relationship between two entities
Themes and patterns that repeat frequently or are shared by participants
Outliers that counter or deviate from the majority
Unexpected or counterintuitive (i.e. violating common sense) findings
Part VII Additional notes
Mixed method research
Mixed method research
Different methods have different strengths, so qualitative and
quantitative methods can make very different but complementary
contributions to any project that combines the two.
Qualitative research works from inductive reasoning;
Quantitative research works from deductive reasoning.
Qualitative research deals with meaning more subjectively;

Quantitative research deals with meaning more objectively.
Qualitative research generates knowledge in context;

Quantitative research generates knowledge in generality.
Mixed method research (contd)
Three motivations for mixed
method research Doing mixed methods research
1. Compare the results of different requires expertise in both
methods that address the same qualitative and quantitative
research question methods. One obvious but difficult
2. Assign different methods to way to provide this expertise is for
different research questions that a single researcher to achieve a
are related relatively high level of mastery in
both kinds of research. As an
3. Use the findings (e.g., themes) alternative, an increasingly
of one method to create a smaller common approach is to use teams
(or sometimes larger) follow-up of researchers and divide the work
study using another method between those who execute the
qualitative and quantitative
components.
research, teaching, and private study purposes. (Morgan, 2014, p.224)
Quantitative research draws on
numerical data Surveys (Questionnaires)
Human judgment (e.g., scores in Closed questions (yes/no, 5-point
oral exam) Likert scale, order of importance)
Impersonal instrument (e.g., Open questions
surveys)
Response rate is normally less
than the number of people who
are invited to the survey.
70% response rate =
representative of the target
population
Simple ways of setting up a
survey
1. Decide on the unit of analysis
(i.e. what is being studied)
E.g., Hong Kong Teenagers use of
English swearwords on campus
2. Consider the variables that are

involved in the subject
E.g., Residential areas, gender,
education, age, oral English ability, *There are many free survey tools on the web.
etc. One famous example is SurveyMonkey.
3. Consider measuring variables Interval variables meaningful

(i.e. must vary to some degree) numbers; e.g., age
Nominal variables qualitative *Ordinal variables that are
categories that cannot be ranked meaningfully ordered by numbers
in terms of magnitude; e.g., (as in most questionnaires) can be
residential areas considered interval variables.
Ordinal variables qualitative E.g., Your oral English ability (1 =
categories that can be ordered in very bad, 2 = bad, 3 = neither bad
terms of magnitude; e.g., nor good, 4 = good, 5 = very good)
education, oral English ability Dichotomous variables variables
with two categories only; e.g.,
gender, yes-no
4. Collect data and document

them in software
E.g., IBM SPSS; Microsoft Excel
5. Conduct descriptive statistics

(analyzing one variable at a time)
E.g., Frequency, mean, mode,
median, standard deviation
6. Interpret the meanings behind

the resulting numbers
Mixed method research (contd) Only 28.57% (less than one third) of
participants believed that they had
good or very good understanding of
More about descriptive statistics English swearwords.
Absolute frequency how many times a particular category in a variable

occurs
Relative frequency the percentage of each category relative to the total
number

More about descriptive statistics (contd)
Cross-tabulation using a grouped frequency table to show two variables
(*only the absolute frequency is displayed)
91.6% (no fewer than 90%) of male

participants reported that they
would swear in English.
Compared to males, more

females declared that they have
never used English swearwords
in communication.
Mixed method research (contd) Explain what the numbers
presented in the tables or
texts imply or suggest!
Have a closer look at the above three interpretations of data

Only 28.57% of the participants believed that they had good or very good
understanding of English swearwords.
Over 90% of the male participants reported that they would swear in English.
Compared to males, more females declared that they have never used English
swearwords in communication.
It seems that males would swear in English despite their lack of knowledge
of English expletives.
Compared to males, females appear to be more hesitant about swearing in
English.
What are the reasons behind the phenomena? We need more literature, if
not another follow-up (qualitative) study, to elaborate on the findings.
More about descriptive
statistics (contd)
Mean () (for interval
variables only) value that
represents the average
Mode () (for nominal, ordinal,

and interval variables) the value
or category that occurs most
frequently
Median () (for interval and

ordinal variables) the value or
category that lies in the middle
Standard deviation (SD) () (for interval variables only) average
deviation of values from the mean (i.e. the average distance of each value
away from the mean)
(*The larger the SD, the father away the values are from the mean and the
numbers are very different. The smaller the SD, the closer the values are to
the mean, and the numbers are quite similar. Only used in normal distribution.)
Interquartile range () (related to the median) estimation of where

the middle 50% of the values are located in the data distribution
Range () the distance from the lowest to the highest values in the data
distribution (c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for
E.g., Your oral English ability (1 = very bad, 2 = bad, 3 = neither bad nor good,
4 = good, 5 = very good)
1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5
Mode (the most commonly-occurring number) = 4

Median (the middle number when the numbers are all in order) = 3
Mean (add all the numbers and divide the total by how many numbers) = 3.09
Standard deviation = 1.22 (*Theoretically, this means that on average, each
rating is approximately 1.22 points away from 3.09.)
Rely on the mean because it looks at all the numbers and contains more
information
E.g., 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5 (mean = 3.36; more representative than the
median 3)
Rely on the median if there are some obvious outliers

E.g., 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 98, 167 (mean = 23.2; not reliable!)
(median = 4; more representative than the mean)
Look at the mode when you count up how often something happens or want
to find the most commonly-occurring thing
E.g., noun, noun, noun, adjective, adjective, verb, verb, verb, verb, verb, verb,
adverb, adverb, preposition, preposition
Two simple ways to integrating
a survey into a qualitative 2. Implement a survey >> Make
research study inferences from the numbers >>
Use the inferences to generate a
1. Conduct a qualitative study >> few research questions >> Answer
Concentrate on the findings >> the question by a qualitative study
Generate some themes to be >> Compare and contrast the
surveyed >> Set a questionnaire qualitative findings and the
>> implement the survey >> previous survey findings >> Form a
Compare and contrast the survey general picture of the subject
findings and the previous
qualitative findings >> Form a
general picture of the subject
Summary / Check your understanding
Now you should be able to
answer the questions below:
What is research in nature?
What are the general steps in
conducting a research study?
How could a qualitative research
study be designed?
How do researchers collect and
evaluate their investigative data?
What are the focal areas of
analyzing qualitative data?
What are the latest trends in
research? (c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for
Reference(s) / Suggested reading(s)
Bauer, M. W., & Gaskell, G. G. (Eds.) (2008). Qualitative researching with
text, image and sound. London, UK: Sage.
Flick, U. (2009). An introduction to qualitative research. London, UK: Sage.
Heigham, J., & Croker, R. A. (Eds.) (2009). Qualitative research in applied
linguistics: A practical introduction. New York, NY: Palgrave.
Lapan, S. D., Quartaroli, M. T., & Riemer, F. J. (Eds.) (2012). Qualitative
research: An introduction to methods and designs. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Morgan, D. L. (2014). Integrating qualitative and quantitative methods: A
pragmatic approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Perry, F. (2011). Research in applied linguistics: Becoming a discerning
consumer (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Walker, I. (2010). Research methods and statistics. New York, NY: Palgrave.
Enjoy your research!
See you around

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HKBU CIE (2016-2017) BLLS 2105

Introduction to Language Studies

What you did was similar to collecting qualitative data by

Master degrees (e.g., MPhil, MA, MEd)

All kinds of research involve a Step 1 Formulate a question

(c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for

1. Representative sampling (more used in quantitative research)

More commonly used in the area 2.2 Extreme sampling

(c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for

(c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for

Approach case study

Approach action research

Approach case study x 20

Qualitative (verbal) data versus quantitative (numerical) data

Presentation of results and

Qualitative research deals with meaning more subjectively;

Qualitative research generates knowledge in context;

2. Consider the variables that are

3. Consider measuring variables Interval variables meaningful

4. Collect data and document

5. Conduct descriptive statistics

6. Interpret the meanings behind

Absolute frequency how many times a particular category in a variable

(c) 2007-2016 Bernie C. N. MAK. This document can be used for

91.6% (no fewer than 90%) of male

Compared to males, more

Have a closer look at the above three interpretations of data

Mode () (for nominal, ordinal,

Median () (for interval and

Interquartile range () (related to the median) estimation of where

Mode (the most commonly-occurring number) = 4

Rely on the median if there are some obvious outliers

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