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Thisdocumentwilldiscussthederivationofrulesforsketchingtherootlocus.Itisnotnecessarytounderstand
alloftheseinordertodothesketches,butitcanbehelpfultounderstandwhencecomethevariousrules.Instead
ofpresentingexamplesinthisdocument,therearelinkstofilesthatcontainfiveseparateexamples.Aftereach
rule,youcanselectthelinkforeachofthefiveexamples,andtheapplicationofthatspecificruletotheselected
ruleisdisplayed(alongwithabriefdiscussion).Eachofthefiveexamplescanalsobeexaminedinitsentiretyby
clickingonthelinkbelow.
Examples(ClicktoseerootlocusforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
Note:theexamplefilesareeditedversionsofwebpagesgeneratedautomaticallywithaMatLabscript,RLocusGui.
Tosketcharootlocusthereareseveraltechniquesthatcanbeusedasaguide.Notalloftheseareapplicable
toallloci.Thestepsusedtosketcharootlocusplotareenumeratedbelow:
GatherBackgroundInformationfromTransferFunction
Rules
1.Symmetry
2.NumberofBranches
3.StartingandEndingPoints
4.LocusonRealAxis
5.Asymptotesas|s|
6.BreakAwayandInPoints
7.AngleofDeparture
8.AngleofArrival
9.LocusCrossesImaginaryAxis
GivenGain"K,"DetermineLocationofPoles
GivenPoleLocation,DetermineValueof"K"
GetBackgroundInformationfromTransferFunction
Theclosedlooptransferfunctionofthesystemshown
is
Sothecharacteristicequationis
Wecanwritetheloopgainasaratioofpolynomials,(wewillassumeK>0,a0>0,b0>0generallya0=1).N(s),the
numeratorpolynomial,isdefinedtobemthorderD(s)isnthorder.N(s)haszerosatz i(i=1..m)D(s)haszerosat
pi(i=1..n).NotethezerosofD(s)arethepolesoftheloopgain.Thedifferencebetweentheordersofthe
numeratoranddenominatorpolynomial,nandm,isq,soq=nm.Weassumeherethatthetransferfunctionis
properinotherwordsq0.
,
orwecanwritetheloopgaininitsfactoredform:
AsKchanges,sodolocationsofclosedlooppoles(i.e.,zerosofcharacteristicequation).
Itisconvenientforthederivationofmanyoftherulesthatfollowtorewritethecharacteristicequationas
follows.
Manyoftherulesdiscussedbelowcomefromtwoconditionsimposedbythecharacteristicequation.Sincethis
equationinvolvesacomplexquantityboththemagnitudeandphaseofthetwosidesoftheequationmustbe
equal.
Themagnitudeconditionisexpressedas
SinceK0,wecanrewritethisas
Thephaseangleisexpressedas
SinceK0,ithasaphaseof0andcanbeignored.Theangleof1isanyoddmultipleof180.
KeyConcept:TheMagnitudeandAngleConditions
MagnitudeCondition PhaseCondition
Note:analternatesetofrules,forK<0canbederivedthisisreferredtoasthecomplementaryrootlocus.
KeyConcept:PropertiesofOpenLoopGainUsedtoDrawRootLocus
TheloopgainisKG(s)H(s)whichcanberewrittenasKN(s)/D(s).
N(s),thenumeratorpolynomial,ismthorderD(s)isn thorder:
Thedifferencebetweennandmisq,soq=nm.
Examples(ClicktoseeruleexplainedforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
Rules
Rule1:Symmetry
Sincethecharacteristicequationhasrealcoefficients,anyzerosmustoccurincomplexconjugatepairs(which
aresymmetricabouttherealaxis).Sincetherootlocusisjustadiagramoftherootsofthecharacteristicequation
asKvaries,itmustalsobesymmetricabouttherealaxis.
KeyConcept:Rule1SymmetryofRootLocus
TheRootlocusissymmetricabouttherealaxis.
Examples(ClicktoseeruleexplainedforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
Rule2:NumberofBranches
SincetherootlocusisjustadiagramoftherootsofthecharacteristicequationasKvaries,andtheorderofthe
characteristicequationisthesameasthatofthedenominatoroftheloopgain,thenumberofbranchesisn,the
orderofthedenominatorpolynomial.
KeyConcept:Rule2NumberofBranchesofRootLocus
Thenumberofbranchesoftherootlocusisequaltotheorderofcharacteristicequation.
Examples(ClicktoseeruleexplainedforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
Rule3:StartingandEndingPoints
Startfromthemagnitudecondition:
ItisapparentthatifK0,theonlywaythelefthandsideoftheequationcanbeequalto1isifthequantityinthe
absolutevaluegoestoinfinity.ThishappenswhenD(s)0.Sothepolesoftheloopgain(D(s)=0)arethestarting
pointsfortheloci(whenK=0).
ItisalsoapparentthatifK,theonlywaythelefthandsideoftheequationcanbeequalto1isifthequantity
intheabsolutevaluegoestozero.ThishappenswhenN(s)0,anditalsohappensassiftheorderofthe
denominatorisgreaterthantheorderofthenumerator.Sothezerosoftheloopgain(whichoccuratN(s)=0,and
perhapsass)aretheendingpointsfortheloci(whenK).
KeyConcept:Rule3StartingandEndingPointsofRootLocus
Thelocusstarts(whenK=0)atpolesoftheloopgain,andends(whenK)atthezeros.Note:there
areqzerosoftheloopgainass.
Examples(ClicktoseeruleexplainedforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
Rule4:LocusonRealAxis
Startfromtheanglecondition:
Writeouttheratioofpolynomials:
Wewilltakea0>0,b0>0(generallya0=1),so:
Sotheanglecriterioncanberestatedas:
Nowconsidertheanglebetweenapoint"s"(theredvector)ontherealaxis,andapoint"z"(thebluevector)
thatisalsoontherealaxis.Thediagramsbelowshowthevector"sz"f(thegreenvector)orthecasewhen"s"is
totheleftof"z,"andwhensistotherightofz.(Review:Howtosubtractvectors).
Inbothfigures,"s"isshownbyaredvector,and"z"isshownbyabluevector.Thedifferencecanbefoundby
drawingavectorfromthepoint"z"tothepoint"s,"whichisshownbyagreenvector.When"s"istotheleftof"z"
(leftdiagram),theangleofthevector"sz"is180(oranyoddmultipleof180).When"s"istotherightof"z"
(rightdiagram),theangleofthevector"sz"is0(oranyevenmultipleof180).
However,westillneedtoconsidercomplexconjugatepolesandzeros.Toseetheircontribution,considerthe
diagrambelow.
Inthisdiagramthevector"s"isred,"z"anditsconjugate"z*"areblueand"sz"and"sz*"aregreen.Clearlythe
anglecontributionsfrom"z"anditsconjugate"z*"(shownindottedgreen)areequalandopposite,andsocancel
eachotherout.Thereforeweneednotconsiderthecontributionofcomplexconjugatezeros,orpolesweneed
onlyconsiderthecontributionofzerosandpolesthatareontherealaxis.
Nowreconsiderourstatementoftheanglecriterion:
Thisequationindicatesthatanyzerostotheleftofaquantity"s"ontherealaxiscontributes180,apoletothe
leftwillcontribute180,butapoleorzerototherightof"s"ontherealaxiscontributes0.Sincethesumof
anglecontributionsfromzerosontherealaxisminusthesumofcontributionsfrompolesontherealaxisisan
oddmultipleof180,thisindicatesthatifapoint"s"ontherealaxiswillonlybeonthelocusifitistotheleftofan
oddnumberofzerosandpolesthatareontheaxis.
KeyConcept:Rule4RootLocusonRealAxis
Thelocusexistsonrealaxistotheleftofanoddnumberofpolesandzerosontheaxis.
Examples(ClicktoseeruleexplainedforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
Rule5:Asymptotesas|s|(Thisisthemostinvolvedderivation,youmaywishtoskipit)
Ifq>0(inotherwords,thedenominatorpolynomialoftheloopgainisofhigherorderthanisthenumerator),then
theloopgainhasqzerosas|s|.Wewillshowthatwecanmakesomesimpleapproximationsthatwill
describethebehavioroftheclosedlooppolesas|s|.Ifq=0,youneednotdothisstep.
Asimpleapproximationtogetangleofasymptotes
Firstwewilldoaverysimpleapproximationtostudybehavioroftherootlocusas|s|.Considerthe
characteristicequation.
Wecanrewritethis,andthenifwelet|s|,allbutthehighestordertermsofthepolynomialsgobecome
insignificant.
Nowwecanapplytheanglecriterion
Nowwecanwrite"s"as
andcompletethederivation
K,a0,b0andMareallpositivesotheydon'tcontributetotheangle,so
Tosummarize:as|s|,thelociareasymptotictoasetoflinesthatthatradiateoutwardfromtheorigin
withanglesof=r180/qwherer=1,3,5...
Aside:GraphicalRepresentationof
Ifthisisn'tobvious,considerapositivenumber,,with
Nowusethepolarformof"s,"
andweget
Sincethenumberiscomplex,boththemagnitudeandphasemustbeequal.
Considerfirstthemagnitude.
Thistellsusthatasgoesfrom0toinfinity,sodoesthemagnitudeof"s."
Nowconsiderthephase.
Thistellsusthattheangleof"s"isgivenbyr180/q,wherer=1,3,5...
Takingboththemagnitudeandphaseintoconsiderationthisshowsthat
isrepresentslinesemanatingfromtheoriginatequallyspacedanglesasgoesfrom0to.
Abetterapproximationtogetbothangleandrealaxisintersectofasymptotes
Intheapproximationabove,wekeptonlythehighestordertermofthenumeratoranddenominator
polynomialas|s|.Wecangetabetterapproximationifwekeepthetwohighestorderterms.Let'sstart
withthefactoredformoftheloopgain,andmultiplyitout:
Aside:Approximationofpolynomialas|s|
Ihaveonlywrittenoutthetwohighestordertermsofthepolynomial.Ifthesecondterminthe
polynomialisnotobvious,thenexaminingthecaseofathirdorderpolynomialshouldmakeit
obvious.
(Theequationonthesecondlineagreeswithourresult.)
Nowlet'sdosomemanipulationstogetthisintoamoreusefulform.First,welet|s|andonlykeepthe
twohighestordertermsofthepolynomials.
Wecanmultiplythenumeratoranddenominatorbythesameterm.Thissimplifiesthenumerator.
Notethatthesecondterminthenumeratorpolynomialissmall,sowecanusethebinomialapproximation.
Keeponlythehighestordertermsfromthedenominatorpolynomial(since|s|):
Nowwenotethatapolynomialwithrepeatedrootsisgivenby
Aside:Approximationof
Again,ifthisisn'tobvious,considerthethirdordercase(whichgeneralizestohigherorder):
As|s|wecan,again,simplifythisbykeepingonlythehighestorderterm
Thisisexpressionhasthesameformastheoneinthedenominatoroftheexpressionwejustderived(i.e.,
loopgainas|s|).Wecanmakethesubstitution:
ourexpressionfortheloopgainas|s|becomes
Puttingthisbackintoourexpressionforthecharacteristicequationweget(as|s|):
Thisrepresentsasetofvectorsthatintersecttherealaxisats=,thatradiateoutwardwithanglesof=
r180/qwherer=1,3,5...
Aside:Graphicalrepresentationof ass.
Since
representslinesemanatingfromtheoriginatequallyspacedanglesasgoesfrom0to,then
theexpression
isjustshiftedby.Inotherwords,itrepresentslinesemanatingfromatequallyspaceangles.
Thistellsusthatthelocusisasymptotictotheselinesbecauseboththelocusand(s)qhavethesame
formas|s|.
KeyConcept:Rule5AsymptotesoftheRootLocusas|s|
Ifq>0thereareasymptotesoftherootlocus,and...
asymptotesintersectrealaxisat ,
asymptotesradiateoutwithangles ,wherer=1,3,5
Examples(ClicktoseeruleexplainedforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
Rule6:BreakAwayandInPoints
Tofindwherethelocusbreaksawayfromtheaxis(orconvergesontheaxis),wenotethatthisalwaysoccurs
whentwo(ormore)rootsintersect.Itisawellknowfact,thatwhenapolynomialhasmultipleroots,notonlyisthe
valueofthepolynomialzero,butitsderivativeiszeroalso(Background).
Startbyconsideringthecharacteristicequation
Atthebreakaway(andin)points,thederivativeofthecharacteristicequationisalsozero.
Ifwesimplifythisweget:
Iprefertoswitchtheorderofthesubtraction(thoughitreallymakesnodifference),
.
KeyConcept:Rule6BreakAwayandBreakInPointsonRealAxis
Therearebreakawayorinpointsofthelocusontherealaxiswherever
.
Note:Manytimes,especiallyforsimplerootloci,therearenobreakawayorbreakinpoints.Inthesecases,thisstepisnotnecessary.
Examples(ClicktoseeruleexplainedforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
Rule7:AngleofDeparturefromComplexPole
Iftheloopgain,G(s)H(s),hasasimplepoleontherealaxis,weknowthatthelocuswillleavefromthepole,as
K0,alongtheaxis.However,ifthepoleiscomplexitcanleaveatanyangle.Tofindtheangleatwhichthe
locusleavesacomplexpole,westartfromtherestatedanglecriterion(fromthe"LocusonRealAxis"rule):
Tofindtheangleatwhichthelocusleavesfromthepolepj,wecanrewritetheanglecriterionbyisolatingtheangle
betweenthelocusandpj.
or
Inthisequationwehavetakenr=1sincethesolutionsarethesameforallvaluesofr.Nowifweconsiderapoint
"s"onthelocusthatisveryclosetopj,thenallthetermsontherighthandsidecanbeapproximatedbytheangle
betweenthepoleorzeroandpj.Inotherwords,if"s"isveryclosetopj,thenwecanapproximatetheangle
criterionas:
Thisisdemonstratedbyanexample,belowwhichshowsaRootLocusplotofafunctionG(s)H(s)thathasone
zeroats=1,andthreepolesats=2,ands=1j.:
Tofindtheangleofdeparturefromthepoleats=1+j(whichwewillcallp2),wechooseapointonthelocusvery
nearp2andthenfindtheanglesfromthezeroandtheotherpoles.
Theangleofdeparture(135)isshowningreyonthediagram.
KeyConcept:Rule7AngleofDeparturefromComplexPoles
Theangleofdeparturefromacomplexpole,p j,is180degrees+(sumofanglesbetweenp jandall
zeros)(sumofanglesbetweenp jandallotherpoles).
Note:Manytimes,especiallyforsimplerootloci,therearenocomplexpolesinloopgain.Inthesecases,thisstepisnotnecessary.
Examples(ClicktoseeruleexplainedforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
Rule8:AngleofArrivalatComplexZero
Thisfollowscloselythederivationforthepreviousrule("AngleofDeparture")andwillbebrief.
Iftheloopgain,G(s)H(s),hasasimplezeroontherealaxis,weknowthatthelocuswillarriveatthezero,as
K,alongtheaxis.However,ifthezeroiscomplexitcanarriveatanyangle.Tofindtheangleatwhichthe
locusarrivesatacomplexzero,westartfromtherestatedanglecriterion(fromthe"LocusonRealAxis"rule):
Tofindtheangleatwhichthelocusarrivesfromthepolez j,wecanrewritetheanglecriterionas
or
Inthisequationwehavetakenr=1sincethesolutionsarethesameforallvaluesofr.Nowifweconsiderapoint
"s"onthelocusthatisveryclosetoz j,thenallthetermsontherighthandsidecanbeapproximatedbytheangle
betweenthepoleorzeroandz j.Inotherwords,if"s"isveryclosetoz j,thenwecanapproximatetheangle
criterionas:
KeyConcept:Rule8AngleofArrivalatComplexZeros
Theangleofarrivalatacomplexpole,zj,is180degrees+(sumofanglesbetweenzjandallother
zeros)(sumofanglesbetweenzjandallpoles).
Note:Manytimes,especiallyforsimplerootloci,therearenocomplexzerosinloopgain.Inthesecases,thisstepisnotnecessary.
Examples(ClicktoseeruleexplainedforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
Rule9:LocusCrossesImaginaryAxis
Ifitbecomesapparentthattherootlocuscrossestheimaginaryaxis(i.e.,itisunstableforsomevaluesofK),
useatechniquesuchasRouthHorwitztofindwherethelocuscrossestheimaginaryaxis(i.e.,thefrequencyof
oscillationwhenitbecomesunstable).
KeyConcept:Rule9FindWhereLocusCrossesImaginaryAxis
UseRouthHorwitztodeterminewherethelocuscrossestheimaginaryaxis.
Note:Manytimes,especiallyforsimplerootloci,therootlocusdoesnotcrosstheimaginaryaxis,ordoessoalongtherealaxis.Inthese
cases,thisstepisnotnecessary.
Examples(ClicktoseeruleexplainedforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
GivenGain"K,"DetermineLocationofPoles
Recallthatthecharacteristicequationcanbewrittenintheform:
or
Thevaluesa0...anandb0...bmareallknown.SogivenavalueofKwecandeterminetheresultingpolynomial
andfactorittofindtherootsofthecharacteristicequation(thismayrequireacomputer).
KeyConcept:FindLocationofClosedLoopPolesfromValueof"K"
RewritecharacteristicequationasD(s)+KN(s)=0.PutvalueofKintoequation,andfindrootsof
characteristicequation.
Note:Manytimesthisstepisnotnecessary.
Examples(ClicktoseeruleexplainedforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
GivenPoleLocation,DetermineValueof"K"
Recallthatthecharacteristicequationcanbewrittenintheform:
or
So,givenavalueof"s"thatisonthelocus,itispossibletosolveforthecorrespondingvalueofK.
Notethatifthevalueof"s"isobtainedbyinspectionofarootlocusplot,itisonlyapproximate.Ifthechosen
valuedoesnotactuallylieonthelocus,theresultingvalueofKmaybecomplex.Ifthishappens,theimaginary
partwillbesmall,sojusttaketheimaginarypartofK.YoushouldthenusethisvalueofK(seeabove)tofindthe
exactvalueoftherootlocation.
KeyConcept:FindValueof"K"fromLocationofClosedLoopPole
Rewritecharacteristicequationas ,replace"s"bythedesiredpolelocationandsolve
forK.
Note:Manytimesthisstepisnotnecessary,especiallywhenthetaskissimplytodrawtherootlocus.
Examples(ClicktoseeruleexplainedforeachTransferFunction)
1 2 3 4 5
References
Copyright2005to2015ErikCheeverThispagemaybefreelyusedforeducationalpurposes.
Comments?Questions?Suggestions?Corrections?
ErikCheeverDepartmentofEngineeringSwarthmoreCollege