Irrigation Engineering Lectures & Notes

Definition:
Irrigation is the controlled application of water to croplands. Its primary objective is to create an
optimal soil moisture regime for maximizing crop production and quality while at the same time
minimizing the environmental degradation inherent in irrigation of agricultural lands.

OR

Irrigation is the application of water to the soil to supplement natural precipitation and provide
an environment that is optimum for crop production. Well Irrigated crops produce more food.

History & Introduction to Irrigation Engineering

History of irrigation Engineering

1. Ancient civilizations rose over irrigated areas

2. Egypt claims having the world's oldest dam, 108m long, 12m high, built 5,000 years ago

3. 6,000 years ago, Mesopotamia supported as many as 25 million people.

4. The same land today with similar population depends on imported wheat for food

Introduction to Irrigation Engineering

Irrigation is the controlled application of water to croplands. Its primary objective is to create an
optimal soil moisture regime for maximizing crop production and quality while at the same time
minimizing the environmental degradation inherent in irrigation of agricultural lands. Irrigation
is thus critical for food security in semi-arid and arid areas

Irrigation has two primary objectives:

 1. To supply the essential moisture for plant growth; &

2. To leach or dilute salts from the soil.

Irrigation water management deals with the frequency of irrigation, depth of water to be applied,
and measures to increase the uniformity of applications.

Irrigation management should be a set of practices designed to maximize efficiencies and

minimize the labor and capital requirements of a particular irrigation system.

Role of civil engineers in Irrigation Engineering

Irrigation is a cross cutting sector that involves civil engineers, hydrologists, environmental
experts, land surveyors, agricultural scientists and others, civil and irrigation engineers were
important for successful irrigation schemes

The supply of water at farm turnout

Water storage in Dams

Water conveyance
 Flood control

Supplying water WHEN needed and by the QUANTITY needed irrigation scheduling
e.g in Weirs, Barrages

Methods & Techniques of Irrigation

There are three broad classes of irrigation systems:

1. Pressurized distribution

2. Gravity flow distribution

3. Drainage flow distribution

1. Pressurized Distribution
The pressurized systems include sprinkler, trickle, and the array of similar systems in which
water is conveyed to and distributed over the farmland through pressurized pipe networks. There
are many individual system configurations identified by unique features (centre-pivot sprinkler
systems).

2. Gravity Flow Irrigation System

Gravity flow systems convey and distribute water at the field level by a free surface, overland
flow regime. These surface irrigation methods are also subdivided according to configuration
and operational characteristics.

3. Control of drainage flow irrigation System

Irrigation by control of the drainage system, subirrigation, is not common but is interesting
conceptually. Relatively large volumes of applied irrigation water percolate through the root zone
and become a drainage or groundwater flow. By controlling the flow at critical points, it is
possible to raise the level of the groundwater to within reach of the crop roots. These individual
irrigation systems have a variety of advantages and particular applications.

Irrigation systems are often designed to maximize efficiencies and minimize labour and capital
requirements. The most effective management practices are dependent on the type of irrigation
system and its design. For example, management can be influenced by the use of automation, the
control of or the capture and reuse of runoff, field soil and topographical variations and the
existence and location of flow measurement and water control structures.

Questions that are common to all irrigation systems are when to irrigate, how much to apply, and
can the efficiency be improved. A large number of considerations must be taken into account in
the selection of an irrigation system. These will vary from location to location, crop to
crop, year to year, and farmer to farmer.

Compatibility of the irrigation systems:

The irrigation system for a field or a farm must be compatible with the other existing farm
operations, such as land preparation, cultivation, and harvest.

Level of Mechanization

Size of Fields

Cultivation

Pest Control

Topographic Limitations.

Restrictions on irrigation system selection due to topography include:

1. groundwater levels

2. the location and relative elevation of the water source,

3. field boundaries,

4. acreage in each field,

5. the location of roads

6. power and water lines and other obstructions,

 7. the shape and slope of the field

Methods of Irrigation
Under gravity irrigation, water is distributed by means of open canals and conducts with out
pressure. Gravity irrigation methods are less expensive, but requires more skill and experience to
achieve rescannable efficiency. This method also requires that the land to be irrigated should
have a flatter slope, other wise the cost of land leveling and preparation at times be come very
high. Gravity irrigation method. Includes furrow, boarder, basin, wild- flooding and corrugation.

1. Furrow irrigation
In this method of surface irrigation, water is applied to the field by furrow which are small
canales having a continuous our nearly uniform slope in the direction of irrigation. Water flowing
in the furrow into the soil spreads laterally to irrigate the area between furrows.

The rate of lateral spread of water in the soil depends on soil type.i.e. For a given time, water
will infiltrate more vertically and less laterally in relatively sandy soils than in clay soil.

Where the land grade is less than 1% in the direction of furrow, striate graded furrows may be
adapted. The grade can be as much as 2 to 3% depending on the soil type and the rainfall
intensity, which affects erosion. When field sloped is too steep to align the furrows down the
slope, control furrows which run along curved routed may be used. Spacing of furrows depends
on the crop type and the type of machinery used for cultivation and planting.

Length of furrows depends largely on permeability of the soil, the available labor and skill, and
experiences of the irrigation.

Flow rates are related to the infiltration to the rate of the soil.

Longitudinal slope of furrow depends up on the soil type, especially its errodiability and the
velocity of flow. slope may be related to discharge as follows.
2. Boarder - strip Irrigation
The farms are divided into number of strips of 5 to 20 meters wide and 100 to 400 meters long.
Parallel earth bunds or levees are provided in order to guide the advancing sheet of water.

Recommended safe limits of longitudinal slope also depends on the soil texture:

Sandy loam to sandy soils 0.25 - 0.6%

Medium loam soils 0.2 - 0.4%

Clay to clay loam soils 0.05 - 0.2%

3. Basin irrigation
Large stream of water is applied to almost level and smaller unit of fields which are surrounded
by levees or bunds. The applied water is retained in the basin until it filtrates.

Soil type, stream size and irrigation depth are the important factors indeterming the basin area.
4. Wild flooding
Water is applied all over the field especially, before plowing for soil that can't be plowed when
dry.

Under closed conduit- there are two types of irrigation

1. Sprinkler

2. Drip irrigation

1. Sprinkler irrigation:
It is mostly used for young growth, to humid the atmosphere, for soil compaction( specially for
sandy loam soils before planting, for land having up and down slope and used to wash out plant
leaves especially in dusty area.

Sprinkler irrigation offers a means of irrigating areas which are so irregular that they prevent use
of any surface irrigation methods. By using a low supply rate, deep percolation or surface runoff
and erosion can be minimized. Offsetting these advantages is the relatively high cost of the
sprinkling equipment and the permanent installations necessary to supply water to the sprinkler
lines.

Very low delivery rates may also result in fairly high evaporation from the spray and the wetted
vegetation. It is impossible to get completely uniform distribution of water around a sprinkler
head and spacing of the heads must be planned to overlap spray areas so that distribution is
essentially uniform

Advantages

Economical to labour & uniform distribution.

2. Drip irrigation
This is used especially where there is shortage of water and salt problem. The drip method of
irrigation, also called trickle irrigation. The method is one of the most recent developments in
irrigation. It involves slow and frequent application of water to the plant root zone and enables
the application of water and fertilizer at optimum rates to the root system.

It minimizes the loss of water by deep percolation below the root zone or by evaporation from
the soil surface. Drip irrigation is not only economical in water use but also gives higher yields
with poor quality water.

Advantages

No loss. of water because all water drops at root zone.

No water logging and rise of water table at result salinity problems caused by this
irrigation type is almost nil.

Uniform distribution of water.

Good water management.

Economical use of lobour.

Construction of Open wells & Types of Tube wells

Ground water:
It is the part of subsurface water which occur within the saturated zone of earth's crust, where all
openings are filled with water. It is that part of the subsurface water which can be lifted or which
flows naturally to the earth surface.

Occurence of ground water depends upon two factors:

1. Porosity of rocks: it is the percentage of void present in a given volume of soil

2. Permeability: it is the ability of a rock or unconsolidated sediment to transmit or pass

water through it.

Transmissibility: it represents the same physical meanings of permeability.

Water table: it can be said as the upper limit of saturated zone.

Aquifer:
A saturated geological formation capable of yielding water economically insufficient quantity is
known as aquifer or water bearing strata or G. W reservoir.

1. Unconfined aquifer: when the water table is under atmospheric pressure and is free to
rise or fall. Depending upon the availibility of water.

2. Confined aquifer: artisan or pressure aquifer: it is separated from unsaturated zone by

impermeable foundation.

The ground water is under pressure and water level in the well indicates the piezometric pressure
at that point.

Availibility, movement and quality of ground water depends upon characteristics of soil:

1. Porosity

2. specific yield
 3. coefficient of permeability

4. transmissibility

Specific Yield:
It is the ratio of volume of water drained by gravity to its own volume

It indicates the yielding capacity of unconfined aquifer.

Specific retention:
It is the amount of water (volume) retained against the force of gravity to its own volume.

Coefficient of permeability:
K of a medium is measured in terms of hydraulic conductivity which is equal to the volume of
water which flows in unit time through unit cross sectional area of medium under unit hydraulic
gradient at the prevailing temperature units m/d or m/hr

Transmissibility (K)
b = aquifer thickness

T = Kb

T is the amount of water which flows through unit width of saturated aquifer under unit h.g

Darcy's law

Q = KIA or V = KI

i=HG

Wells
A water well is a hole usually vertical excavated in the earth for bringing Gw to surface

1. Open wells
 2. Tube wells

Types of tube wells

1. Strainer type

2. Cavity type

3. Slotted type

Design of strainer or well screen

In design, find its length, slot size, opening area, diameter and material requirements

a. Corrosion resistant

b. Strong enough to prevent collapse

c. Prevent excessive movement of sand into well

d. Minimum resistance to flow of water into the well

Materials

1. Zinc free brass

2. Stainless steel

3. Low carbon steel

4. High copper alloy

5. Design Of Non Erodible Channels - Cemented canals

The Initial dimensions of a channel are determined by uniform flow or manning formula. But
final dimensions are determined on the basis of
 1. Hydraulic efficiency

2. Emperical rule of the best section.

3. Praticability And Economy

Factors Considered In The Design:

1. Kind of material to find.

2. Minimum Velocity (2-3ft/s)

3. Maximum velocity.

4. Bed slopes.

5. Side slopes

6. Free board.

1. Kind of material is important to find the roughness coefficient of channel.

2. Minmum Velocity is 2-3 ft/sec -> non silting velocity to prevent aquatic growth.

3. Maximum velocity is upto 8 ft/sec more than the above value, the lining blocks, are
pulled away by moving water.

4. Bed slope is dependent upon topography and energy required for flow of water.

5. Side Slope: It Depends upon the maetrial forming the chemical section e.g earth with
lime stone h1 : 1v
earth with conrete h1/2 : 1v

6. Free Board: Distance between top of channel to max water surface it should prevent
 waves it should be 5-13 % of depth.

U.s B.r ---> F = underroot cy

F = Free Board In ft C=1.5 --->20ctt

Y = Depth in ft 2.5--->3000cft

Best section ---> Max Q for min p( wetted perimeter)

Best Section Of Half Hydrogens, Trepazoid (formula) Underroot 3y power 2, 2underroot 3y , y/2
4/3 2y 3/2y 3/5

Rectangular 2y power 2 4y y/2 2y 2y 2.5

Desing Steps For Non Erodible Channel:

1. Collect All information And estimate n and s.

2. Computer section factory AR2/3 = nq/1.486 s 1/2.

3. Substitute The values of a and r from

A = (b+zy) y
p = b+2y underroot 1+z power 2
R = (b+zy)y/b+2y underroot1+z power 2

Irrigation Water Requirement of Crops

It is defined as, "The quantity of water required by a crop in a given period of time for normal
growth under field conditions." It includes evaporation and other unavoidable wastes. Usually
water requirement for crop is expressed in water depth per unit area.

IRRIGATION WATER NEED = Crop water need available rain fall

The first thing you need to consider when planning your garden is what growing zone you live
in.

This is based on both the temperature range of your climate and the amount of precipitation.
Take a close look at the area in which you are going to plant your garden. If the ground tends to
be very moist, choose plants that can tolerate constantly wet soil, and even standing water.

If you live in an area that suffers from frequent droughts, however, select plants that can tolerate
going long periods without water, especially in light of the frequent watering restrictions
imposed on such areas.

If you are lucky enough to live in an area that has a balanced climate, you have a wider range of
choices for your plants.

Low Water Requirement Plants

Plants that require low levels of water are often called drought tolerant. Drought-tolerant plants
can thrive in hot, dry conditions with very little water. They include both perennials and annuals.
Most drought-tolerant plants only have to be hand-watered when they are planted and while they
are establishing themselves. After that, they can be left to the natural cycle of the elements.
Popular drought tolerant trees include the red cedar. live oak, crape myrtle, and the windmill and
saw palmetto palm trees. All citrus trees are also drought tolerant. Many homeowners in areas
prone to drought, such as parts of the southern United States, use shrubs and ground covering
vines as part of their landscaping. These include Texas sage, orange jasmine and Chinese
fountain grass. There are not many perennial drought-tolerant plants, but amaryllis is one that is
very popular, along with the African iris. Popular drought-olerant annuals include marigold,
cosmos and the Dahlberg daisy.

Mid-Level Water Requirement Crops

Most plants land in this range when it comes to water requirements. These plants do not need to
be watered every day, but they need to be watered when the soil has been dry for over a week or
two. Sometimes these plants are classified as plants lying in the "occasional water zone". These
include popular plants such as geraniums, most roses, wisteria, clematis and other vine plants,
sunflowers, spring flowering bulbs, and most flowering perennial shrubs. Note that flowering
annuals planted in containers will need watering at least once or twice a week, while annuals
planted in the ground will need watering less often.

High Water Requirement Plants

Some plants require large amounts of water. These plants typically grow in marshy areas or bogs,
or along the banks of rivers, streams and lakes. The soil for these plants should always be kept
moist. Standing water is not a concern for these plants, so you don't have to worry about root rot.
Perennials are especially good for wet areas because they don't have to be replanted year after
year, which can be difficult in marshy areas. Popular perennials for wet soil include iris plants,
cannas, bee balms, ferns, and bog salvia. Aquatic mint is a pleasant ground cover that likes wet
soil. The red osier dogwood does very well in wet conditions. Most annual flowering plants also
do well in constantly moist soil.
Water Requirement of Different Crops
Amount of water required by a crop in its whole production period is called water requiremrnt.
The amont of water taken by crops vary considerably.

What crops use more water and which ones less.......

This case study shows how to calculate the total water requirement for a command area
(irrigation blocks) under various crops, soil textures and conveyance loss conditions. In order to
evaluate the required irrigation gift for the entire command area a simple water balance has to be
set-up. The total water demand for each irrigation block and the crops in each block are
calculated by summing the following components:

infiltration (percolation loss) through the soil (I)

seepage (conveyance loss) through the channel (S)

maximum evapotranspiration of the crop (ETm)

In this exercise, the irrigation water requirement is calculated for a 10-day period during the
harvest stage.

Evaluation of Percolation loss (I)

The command area is divided in irrigation blocks. First, these irrigation blocks are crossed with
the soil texture map to determine the area of each soil texture class in each block. Percolation
losses differ per soil texture class so a table with the following percolation data is created:

The percolation table is joined with the cross table to get the percolation for each soil texture
class in each block. The amount of water loss for each soil texture class per block is calculated
with a tabcalc statement. In order to get the total percolation loss per block the results of the
previous operation are aggregated.

Evaluation of Conveyance loss (S)

Conveyance losses are calculated in about the same way as the percolation losses. First, the map
with the irrigation blocks is crossed with the channel distribution map. The conveyance loss per
meter channel length differs per channel type and is 0.2 m per day for clay channels and 0.01 m
per day for concrete channels. A new table indicating water loss per channel type is created
and joined to the cross table. The amount of water loss for each type of channel per block is
calculated with a simple tabcalc formula. Finally the results are aggregated to evaluate the total
conveyance loss per irrigation block.

Evaluation of maximum evapotranspiration (ETm)

Crop water requirements are normally expressed by the rate of evapotranspiration (ET). The
evaporative demand can be expressed as the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) which
predicts the effect of climate on the level of crop evapotranspiration. In this case study the ETo is
8 mm/day. Empirically-determined crop coefficients (kc) can be used to relate ETo to maximum
crop evapotranspiration (ETm) when water supply fully meets the water requirement of the crop.
The value of kc varies with crop and development stage. The kc values for each crop and
development stage are available in a table.

For a given climate, crop and crop development stage, the maximum evapotranspiration (ETm)
in mm/day of the period considered is:

ETm = kc * ETo

Maximum evapotranspiration refers to conditions when water is adequate for unrestricted growth
and development under optimum agronomic and irrigation management. Maximum
evapotranspiration is calculated in this case study by crossing the irrigation block map with the
map that shows the different crop types in the command area, joining the cross table with the kc
table and by applying the maximum evapotranspiration formula with a tabcalc statement.

Water balance calculation (S+I+ETm)

The required irrigation gift for the entire command area is equal to the sum of water losses due to
infiltration through the soil (I), seepage through the channel (S) and maximum
evapotranspiration (ETm) for each block. The total amount of water requirement in harvest
period for each block is reclassified in irrigation classes using the following table:
Finally, you will create a script to automate the calculation procedure. With the script, you can
easily calculate the water requirements for other growing stages.

Causes of Flood, Importance, factors, Prediction & Estimation of flood

Flood is a natural even which has always been an integral part of geological history of earth. It
occurs along rivers, streams and lacks.

Importance of flood:
1. Most of the hydraulic are designed on flood record.

2. Small hydraulic structures are based on a minimum of 25 years flood records e.g all
structure constructed in the canal, soil conservation practices etc.

3. Medium type strs are mainly based on 50 years flood records e.g culuerts, drainage strs
and waterway structures.

4. Large irrigation projects are based on 100 years of flood record e.g Dams, reservoirs,
headworks, bauages.

Causes of floods:
Intensive rainfall and high melting of snow are two main causes of flood.
Factors affecting flood
Metrological factors
Physiological factors

These factors are given as fallows

Main made activity:

Aforestation and deforestation

Intensive rainfall:

High flood occurs due to intensive rainfall.

Slop of Catchment.

Magnitude of Catchment

Soil type.

Catchment shape.

Improve drainage system/poor drainage system.

Climatic changes.

Form of ppt.

Water logging

Control of flood:
Check on deforestation and well planed watershed management project

Check dams and reservoirs

 Distribution of water at various streams

Empowering drainage system

Decrease water logging

Construction of leeves and improvement of steams

Prediction and flood estimation:

No method is available for knowing the exact amount and intensity of rainfall by which
flood can be determined

Similarly rainfall and flood prediction cannot be performed but with certain precision

The expected flood and its consequent damage can only be judged and appointed and
hence while designing flood protection and judgment of design engineer is of utmost
importance

Various methods have been used for flood estimation

Some methods are based on basic characteristics and others are based on the theory of
probability by using previous flood data and some others are based on the study of
rainfall and runoff data

From marks of height flood on rivers bank, the area of flow the wetted parameter and
slope can be found
Peak discharge can be calculated from mannig eq. Q = 1/n R2/3 S A

Design of Water Channel (Canal)

The channel is the same thing that is used for the water carriage purpose, however in case of
hydropower projects the channel that takes water from the intake (Diversion Structure) is usually
called connecting channel. It's tunnel is to be used in between the intake and power house
otherwise called headrace channel, if no tunnel is to be used in between the intake and power
house.

Lets take a general Example of design of small channel with design discharge of 390 lit/sec.

Design of Canal / Channel Design

Design discharge of the channel Q = 390 lps

Length of the channel L = 65 m

Cross sectional area of the channel A = Q / V = 0.39 / 1.0

= 0.39 m2

V = max. velocity permissible through the channel = 1.0 m/s

From economic consideration

Top width = T = 2d

Area A = T x d = 2d2

Depth d =0.39/2 = 0.44 m

Provide a free board of 15cm

Total depth D = 0.60 m

Base width B = 0.44 x 2 = 0.88 m ~ 0.9 m

Hydraulic radius R = wetted area = A/P = 0.90 x 0.45

wetted perimeter 0.90 + 0.45 x 2 = 0.225

Channel bed slope S = nv 2 R 2/3 = 0.015 x 1.0 2 = 0.00164(0.225) 2/3

Head loss = Channel bed slope x Length of the channel = 0.00164x 65 = 0.11m