RUNNING HEAD: PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Repeated Exposure to Online Pornographic Material and its Influence on Opposite Sex

Interpersonal Attraction

Kelly Highum

Winona State University

1
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Abstract

This project examines the normalization of pornography within American society, particularly as

a consequence of the rapid expansion of communication technologies such as the Internet, and

the potential ramifications of pornography exposure on the enacted interpersonal attraction

tendencies between men and women. This qualitative thematic analysis examines comments

posted on the NoFap Reddit thread, a support forum for online pornography addicts. Four themes

were identified within the data: loss of interest in sex, loss of communication skills,

objectification [of women], and increased symptoms of ADHD and depression. The data

collected and the subsequent thematic analysis concludes that the consumption of online

pornographic materials influence a persons interpersonal attraction tendencies, and therefore

alters the enactment of interpersonal communication patterns. The author suggests that more

research about why people initially begin consuming pornography needs to be done, with

research focusing on the consumption of pornography as an emotional coping mechanism.

Keywords: pornography, interpersonal attraction, addiction

2
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Repeated Exposure to Online Pornographic Material and its Influence on Opposite Sex

Interpersonal Attraction

The context in which people consume erotic material has drastically changed within the

past twenty years due to the emergence of the internet. There is no universally recognized

definition of pornography; however, the conceptual definition used within the following

literature defines pornography as pornographic material displayed exclusively on an online

platform meant to sexually and/or erotically arouse the consumer to a point of orgasmic pleasure.

Pornography, defined as such, has become easily available and widely accessible on the internet.

This emergence of internet pornography has a variety of psychological, physiological, emotional,

and physical effects on those consuming internet pornography, and on the consumers

interpersonal relationships with other individuals. Cooper (1998, p. 198) argued that these

technological advances have created a triple A-engine that fuels the increased trend of

pornography consumption. The triple A-engine trifecta includes: accessibility, affordability,

and anonymity of pornographic materials on the internet. These technological changes have

allowed for the widespread societal normalization of the sexual and interpersonal scripts

presented within internet pornography.

The average American child is first exposed to pornographic images online when they are

twelve years old (UCLA, 2003). However, 87% of youth that intentionally seek out pornographic

material are 14 or older, with only 5% of self-identified searchers being female (Ybarra et al.,

2006, e1172). By age 14, 66% of males and 39% of females reported having seen at least one

piece of sexually explicit media in the past year (Brown & LEngle, 2009, p. 144). The

accessibility, affordability, and anonymity presented by the internet has allowed for young

viewers to be exposed both unintentionally and intentionally to pornographic material, often

3
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

years before their first sexual encounter. I intend to demonstrate with the following research that

this exposure to pornographic material has profound effects on the way people especially

young heterosexual boys and men approach sexual situations, interpersonal communication

interactions, and how they experience interpersonal attraction to women (Hooks, 2004). This

study will focus on young heterosexual boys and men and how the consumption of online

pornographic material influences their interpersonal attraction process with women.

The following review examines the themes normalized within online pornographic

material, the implications of internet pornography addiction on the consumers of cybersex habits,

the effect of online pornography consumption on opposite sex interpersonal communication, and

the consequences of cybersex consumption on the enactment of communication dominance. The

literature will then evaluate the previous themes in relation to opposite sex interpersonal

attraction.

Literature Review

Themes in Pornography

The scenes that young people young heterosexual men, in the majority of cases

(Carroll, et al., 2008, p. 23) are exposed to display unequal power balances between men and

women. Despite the prevalence of misogynistic themes within other modern forms of media,

online pornography is one of the primary forms of media that sexualizes these unequal power

balances, stereotypes racial and sexual minorities, and displays aggressive sexual tendencies.

Bridges et al. (2010) analyzed the content of 304 popular pornographic videos; 88.2% of the

scenes analyzed contained physical aggression, including spanking, gagging, and slapping;

48.7% of the scenes analyzed contained verbal aggression (Bridges, et al., p. 1075). Within the

4
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

scenes analyzed, the most common perpetrator of both verbal and physical aggression was the

male, while the receivers of the aggression were female (Bridges et al., p. 1076). The receivers of

the aggressive behavior often showed pleasure or responded neutrally to the displays of

aggression (Bridges et al., p. 1081).

As stated, gender disparities are often present within pornographic scenes, and are aimed

at reflecting the desires of a male audience (the primary consumers of pornographic material).

Women perform oral sex more often than men within pornographic scenes (McKee, 2005, p.

284). The majority of pornographic sexual scenes end almost immediately after the male in the

scene ejaculates; the connotation promoted by these scenes focuses on male sexual pleasure and

disregards others in the scene as an accessory to male pleasure and ejaculation. Pornography

portrays women as receptacles of male pleasure in the majority of heterosexual scenes, women

are not active participants within the sexual situation (Schauer, 2005, p. 54).

According the PornHubs 2015 Year in Review (2016), the teen genre was the number

two most popular worldwide search on their website. PornHub is one of the largest, most

accessible, and least expensive internet websites that exclusively displays pornographic videos

meant to sexually excite consumers to the point of orgasmic pleasure. For this reason, PornHub

statistics represent a fairly accurate analysis of what people consume when they watch

pornographic material. The implications of this information point to the sexualization,

dehumanization, and objectification of young women within the teen genre. Pornography

coded within the teen genre often contains pedophilic sexual connotations; Peters et al. (2013)

coded 150 of the most popular teen pornographic videos available of three pornographic

websites. They coded for textual, visual, verbal, and behavioral content that carried the

connotation of sexual activity between an adult and a minor. Within the collected sample, 18.7%

5
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

of the scenes contained a disproportionate percent of youth sexualized content (54.2%) (Peters et

al., p. 527); youth sexualized content was coded as cues indicating innocence, sexual

inexperience, loss of virginity, direct and indirect references to the actors youth, and other

behavior meant to further indicate the actor is not of age (Peters et al., p. 537).

Pornographic videos within the teen genre inherently perpetuate the sexualization of

young girls. When men consume online pornographic videos, they are internalizing and

normalizing the sexual acts being displayed (Stack, 2004). In this way, the objectification of

young women as sex objects meant to be consumed by the male gaze is perpetuated by

pornographic material.

Online pornography is a medium that translates societal perceptions of traditional gender

roles, and inherently sexualizes adherence to hyperfemininity and hypermasculinity.

Hyperfemininity is the adherence to stereotypical feminine sexual behavior, and consists of three

main concepts: having a relationship with a man, the use of physical characteristics and sexuality

to attract men and build relationships with them, and the expected role of men as the dominant,

aggressive partner within a sexual relationship or encounter (Murnen, 1991, p. 480).

Pornographic material promotes hyperfeminine women as the epitome of a sexual attractiveness.

When young men are exposed to these types of narratives about women, and what a woman

should look and act like within a sexual situation, these narratives presented within pornography

become normalized for them (Dines, 2010).

Hypermasculinity, or hegemonic masculinity, is defined as the rejection of anything

labeled as feminine within Western culture (Garlick, 2010). Men within pornographic media are

portrayed as constantly in control, devoid of vulnerability, sexual awkwardness, or gentleness;

pornography provides a reflection of common societal perceptions of what a man should be, and

6
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

how he should portray that within a sexual situation (Hooks, B., 2004). The connotation dictates

that all men should strive to conform to hegemonic masculinity, especially within sexual

situations, in order to confirm his own masculinity. As Garlick (2010) states:

This is not simply a matter of mens domination over women; rather, mainstream

pornography stages a confrontation between man and nature one in which the ongoing

desire to establish control over nature by bringing it to order is central to the status of

masculinity (p. 608).

Pornography presents a dehumanizing, unrealistic version of womanhood:

hyperfeminine, hypersexual, whose worth stems from her ability to fulfill mens desires. When

young men are exposed to online pornographic media from a young age, their own physical and

interpersonal attraction preferences will shift to conform to the stereotypes about women

enforced within pornographic material (Hooks, B., 2004).

Addiction to Pornography

Due to the triple-A engine, people, especially young boys, are able to access online

pornography with relative ease, and without adult supervision. This presents a distinct challenge

for pornography consumers that begin watching online pornography at a young age: internet

pornography addiction, or more broadly, internet addiction disorder (IAD).

A behavioral addiction is the compulsion to engage in a non-drug related activity in order

to receive a desired result (Negash, S., Sheppard, N. V. N., Lambert, N. M., & Fincham, F. D.,

2016). In the case of IAD, the non-drug related behavior is going online (and in the case of

internet pornography addiction, consuming cybersex content) and the desired result is an escape

from reality (orgasmic pleasure from cybersex content). One of the central mechanisms of a

7
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

behavioral addiction is the need for an increase in stimuli in order to receive the same desired

result. For individuals suffering from IAD, or more specifically, internet pornography addiction,

the internet pornography they are exposed to must increase in the degree of novelty in order for

the consumer to receive the same level of orgasmic pleasure (Koukounas & Over, 2001).

According to Koukounas and Over, the consumer increases that degree of novelty by watching

more taboo forms of pornography (e.i. hardcore or bondage porn, rape porn, etc.) in order to

continue to achieve orgasmic pleasure from online pornographic material. This eventual increase

in stimuli further normalizes misogynistic themes within pornography to the male consumer, and

presents that type of sexual behavior as acceptable by enforcing that belief through orgasmic

pleasure (Dines, G., 2010).

The neurobiological dopamine rush associated with sexual arousal and orgasm to online

pornographic material allows for the consumers brain to associate the dopamine reward with a

distinct set of circumstances: being alone, practicing voyeuristic sexual tendencies, multiple

videos with new sexual simulations, and constant novelty (Negash et al., 2016). Koukounas and

Over (2001) conducted three separate experimental procedures exposing three groups of eight

heterosexual men to habitual and novel sexual stimuli. Their research suggests that sexual

arousal is less likely to be habitual if attentional focus remains constant during repeated

stimulation to erotic material (Koukounas and Over, 2001, p. 49). The erections of the men who

participated in the stated study increased when they were exposed to new pornographic videos

displaying novel participants.

The constant novelty offered by online pornographic videos is a new phenomenon, even

within the realm of wider pornography use. Prior to internet pornography, the consumer would

focus on one video, or one picture, to reach the desired end goal an orgasm. With the

8
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

emergence of online pornographic videos, the consumer is able to experience multiple dopamine

surges within the brain, brought on by novel mates (persons within a pornographic video)

across multiple scenes (Koukounas and Over, p. 62).

Repeated dopamine surges within the brains of online pornography consumers creates an

incentive to recreate the behavior that caused these surges of hormonal pleasure on a

neurobiological level (Negash, et al., 2016). The desire to recreate this behavior (watching online

pornography) is further enforced by the eventual orgasm of the consumer to the online material.

It is important to recognize that individuals consume pornography within a specific set of

circumstances: being alone, practicing voyeuristic sexual tendencies, multiple videos with new

sexual simulations, and constant novelty. These circumstances do not resemble interpersonal

sexual situations, and the repeated dopamine surges that consumers experience when watching

online pornography cannot be recreated within the reality of sex with another person.

Online pornography consumers obtain immediate sexual reward through the consumption

of online pornography videos (Negash, et al., 2016, p. 696). In a sample of 89 heterosexual male

participants, the global symptom severity of internet pornography addiction, as well as

interpersonal sensitivity, depression, paranoid thinking, and psychoticism were correlated with a

high Internet Addiction Test score (Brand et al., 2011, p. 375). The same study found that time

spent on cybersex sites was not predictive of problems in daily life stemming from IAD. These

results emphasize that higher sexual arousal is linked to a tendency towards being addicted to

pornography and experiencing problems in everyday life, not the amount of pornography

consumed (Brand et al., p. 375).

Previous research has focused on the neurobiological mechanisms of internet addiction

disorder (IAD). Dopamine transporters (DAT) are proteins situated in the presynaptic terminal of

9
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

the brain. Striatal DAT are responsible for active dopamine reuptake and plays a critical role in

striatal dopamine levels (Hou, H., Jia, S., Hu, S., Fan, R., Sun, W., Sun, T., & Zhang, H., 2012, p.

2). Hou et al. (2012) found that individuals with IAD had significantly decreased levels of DAT

expression as measured from brain scans against a control group. IAD is associated with

dysfunctions in the dopaminergic brain structures; this evidence suggests that individuals with

internet addiction disorder share similar neurobiological structural abnormalities with other

addictive disorders (Hou et. al, p.4).

Multiple interdisciplinary studies have shown that IAD results in impaired individual

psychological well-being, academic failure and reduced work performance among adolescents

(Flisher, 2010; Scherer, 1997; Young, 1998). Yuan, et al. (2011) found that grey matter volume

changes and white matter fractional anisotropy changes in adolescents with IAD (p. 4). Grey and

white matter in the brain make up the central nervous system; grey matter serves to process

information in the brain, while white matter allows for nerves to communicate, connecting the

central nervous system the grey matter of the brain together.

The biggest predictor of IAD is the level of sexual arousal gained from consuming

pornographic media. There are an endless number of cybersex videos available online, with

endless amounts of novelty mates available at the click of a button; this phenomenon is

changing the way young heterosexual boys and men think about sexual arousal and sex with

women. IAD is psychologically, physiologically, and socially detrimental for individuals with

this disorder; interpersonal attraction and the reality of sex with another person can be an

intimidating feat for a heterosexual man introduced to sex through online pornographys instant

gratification, endless novelty, and voyeuristic viewing tendencies.

10
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Pornography and Opposite Sex Relations

Heterosexual pornography promotes a variety of sexual scripts that overtly enforce the

adherence to societal gender roles. As stated, within online pornographic material, men are

overwhelmingly in the dominant position within the sexual scene, while women overwhelmingly

remain submissive. This common theme within online pornography depicts a womans

submission as desirable, as something to be achieved. When young heterosexual boys and men

begin watching online pornography before their first sexual encounter, they begin to internalize

the misogynistic sexuality perpetuated by the mainstream pornography industry (Dines, 2010).

Young boys and men exposed to online pornographic material also internalize the

idealized version of masculinity displayed within cybersex narratives. Within these narratives, to

be a real man, heterosexual boys must always be control of the sexual situation, always be

dominant over the woman, and constantly want sex with women (Hooks, 2004). This narrative

does not leave any room for intimacy, gentleness, or mutual love within a sexual or romantic

situation; pornography promotes the narrative that sex should always be the end goal for opposite

sex interaction, and if it is not, there is something wrong (with the male in the situation) (Hooks,

2004, p. 27).

A longitudinal study examining American students views on sexuality, and their own

sexual experiences examined 1,074 public school middle schools students. For males, exposure

to sexually explicit media when they were 12-14 years old was related to more permissive sexual

norms, more frequent sexual harassment (of women), and having had oral sex and sexual

intercourse by the time they were 14-16 years old (Brown & LEngle, p. 145). Earlier exposure

to pornographic material affected the way young men related to their female peers, both

interpersonally and within an educational setting.

11
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

In the study, the researchers measured sexual harassment perpetuation as a kind of early

form of sexual aggression. Within this study, self-reports of sexual harassment perpetuation rose

by 20% between the initial report (conducted at the average at of 13.3) and the follow up report

(average age of 15.6). These results suggest that exposure to sexually explicit media in early

adolescence may contribute to the normalization of sexual harassment behaviors within a social

context. Early adolescent exposure was related to more permissive sexual norms, as well as

conducting sexual intercourse at younger ages. Early adolescent exposure to internet

pornographic videos, a prominent type of sexually explicit material, contributes to the observed

phenomenon (Brown & LEngle, p. 147). Young men confirm and express their masculinity both

internally and externally by adhering to the scripts cybersex promotes: disrespecting women,

rejecting anything deemed as feminine, and having sex with females (Hooks, 2004).

The expression of masculinity through the domination of women has profound

consequences on the way men view sex and sexuality (Hooks, 2004). In 1985, Malamuth and

Check found that men exposed to violent pornography were more likely to perceive rape as

consensual sex (Malamuth & Check, 308). Although the medium in which pornography is

primarily displayed has shifted within the last thirty years, Malamuth and Checks research

remains relevant because the underlying connotations of pornographic material remain the same:

women should always be sexually available to men, even if they are unwilling participants

(Hooks, B., 2004).

The effects of pornography on enacted communication behaviors between men and

women was further examined in Mulac, Jansma, & Linz (2002). Three groups of men were

shown three different films: one was explicit and degrading to women, the second was explicit

but non-degrading, and the third was non-sexual (Mulac et. al., p. 311). The men then interacted

12
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

with women in pairs to complete a designated problem-solving challenges. The behavior of the

men who were exposed to a sexual film were coded as more dominant to their female partner;

they also displayed greater anxiety, more often ignored the intellectual contributions of their

partner, and touched their partner more, but looked at her face and body less (Mulac et al., p.

322). Behaviors associated with the communication of dominance were coded within this study

as other-directed eye gaze, proximity, touch, interruptions, and speaking time (Mulac et al., p.

313). In contrast, men who viewed the non-sexual film were more likely to display egalitarian

behavioral communication tendencies (Mulac et al., p. 323).

As described in Deborah Tannens classical communication research, patriarchal

masculinity requires certain enacted communication tendencies (1982). The men exposed to the

degrading explicit scene felt powerful due to the scenes confirmation of patriarchal masculinity,

and consequently enacted communication dominance behaviors with their female peers. Men

who viewed the explicit pornographic films were more likely to display high levels of anxiety,

shorter periods of eye contact, and a tendency to disregard their female partners contributions

(Mulac et al., p. 323). The men who watched degrading pornography failed to effectively

communicate with their female partner in order to successfully solve problems. The

communication tendencies displayed by the men who had been exposed to the sexual films are

not communication tendencies typically displayed within a respectful, equitable opposite sex

communication interaction. These men conducted communication behaviors differently because

of their exposure to the sexual films; mens viewing of stimuli that enhance their dominance and

controlling behavior affected their perspective on their female partner.

13
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Interpersonal Attraction

The process of interpersonal communication involves two people communicating both

verbally and nonverbally in the same setting; essentially, interpersonal communication is face-to-

face communication meant to create interpersonal ties between individuals. Interpersonal

attraction is an extension of interpersonal communication; people initially experience

interpersonal attraction through similarity (Newcome & Svehla, 1937; Sunnafrank, 1983), and

through the process of interpersonal communication, both parties develop a relationship with the

other.

Landmark research concerning the importance of physical attractiveness in dating

behavior was conducted by Walster, Aronson, Abrahams, & Rottman (1966). They evaluated 376

men and 376 women who purchased tickets to a Friday night dance during the first week of their

undergraduate college career at the University of Minnesota (Walster et al., p. 509). The

researchers hypothesized that an individual being evaluated would be more likely to partner up

with someone of relatively equal social position. However, the results contradicted their

predictions: they found that the only predictive component of the male partners liking for their

date was the womans level of physical attractiveness (Walster et al., p. 508).

Although there are significant ethical flaws within this study (researchers asked objective

bureaucrats to rate the physical attractiveness of participants on a scale from 1-8), it is important

for their conclusions. Men were shown to base the amount of interpersonal attraction they felt

towards a woman solely on her physical attractiveness, thereby ignoring her personality, and

excluding the possibility of conducting an interpersonal communication interaction with her.

Physical attractiveness was the trait shown to lead to further communication between sexes,

despite the presence of personality similarities between participants (Walster et. al., p. 510).

14
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Attitude similarity is one of the central mechanisms of interpersonal attraction; people

who hold similar beliefs or traits, and who express those beliefs or traits in similar ways are more

likely to form friendship and romantic relationship pairs (Newcome & Svehla, 1937, p. 184).

Smith, Byrne, and Fielding (1995) utilize the similarity-attraction paradigm within their own

research by arguing that individuals experience interpersonal attraction for people displaying

similar levels of conformity to hypertraditional gender roles.

The researchers found that men evaluated other men who were similar to themselves in

hypermasculinity levels more positively than men who scored lower on that scale. Men were

found to respond more positively to women who scored similarly on the scales measuring gender

hypertraditionality (Smith, Byrne, and Fielding, p. 167). These results indicate that people who

conform to traditional gender roles are viewed more positively by their peers; both men and

women are more likely to experience interpersonal attraction and enact interpersonal

communication with people who express gender in traditional ways. Further, Smith, Byrne, and

Fielding (1995) found that couples were similar to each other in the levels of hypertraditionality

they displayed, believed, and externally enacted. Men especiallyassumed their partners level

of hyperfemininity corresponded to their own level of hypermasculinity (Smith, Byrne, &

Fielding, p. 169). For the men in the stated study, their female partners conformity to

hyperfeminine ideals confirmed their own enactment of masculinity.

These results indicate that adherence to traditional societal gender roles plays a major

role in interpersonal attraction between men and women (Smith, Byrne, & Fielding, p. 169).

Patriarchal masculinity requires strict adherence to societal gender norms; men must constantly

confirm their own masculinity in order to be considered real men by others. Gender norms

within a patriarchal society denies men full access to their freedom of will (Hooks, 2004). Men

15
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

are unable to fully experience interpersonal attraction because of the patriarchal, hypertraditional

gender norms enforced within Western societies. Patriarchal hyperfemininity demands that

women mutate into what men are taught to want: submissive, hyperfeminine, and a tool of

masculine expression (Hooks, 2004). As stated, men experience interpersonal attraction towards

women based on physical appearance and similar hypertraditional gender conformity.

Interpersonal attraction becomes a way for men to confirm and enact their own gender identities

and their own conformity to hegemonic masculinity.

Pornography and Interpersonal Attraction

As stated, the average person within the United States is exposed to online pornographic

material at twelve years old (UCLA, 2003); this exposure often occurs prior to the consumers

first kiss, or first sexual contact of any kind. The normalization of online pornography as a tool

for teenage masturbation encourages and enforces the notion that young men should conduct and

complete masturbation with the help of online pornography. When young heterosexual boys and

men masturbate to online pornography, the themes within the scenes they are viewing are

normalized within their opinions and mentality about sexuality and sex with women (Dines,

2010). In addition, the cybersex scenes young boys and men consume portray violence,

degradation, and dehumanization of women as something women want and something men

should desire. These scenes portray emotion, gentleness, and intimacy as sexual behaviors that

threaten mens own masculinity and therefore should be avoided (Hooks, 2004, p. 56).

Further, heterosexual boys and men have an elevated risk of developing internet

pornography addiction. As stated, behavioral addiction to pornography emerges when a

consumer gains greater levels of sexual pleasure from consuming pornographic content,

regardless of the amount of cybersex consumed (Brand et al., p. 375). Online pornography

16
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

reassures young boys and mens masculine identity, normalizes the misogynistic themes and

behaviors present within online pornographic scenes, and shapes the way they view sex and

sexual relationships (Dines, 2010). The consumption of online pornographic material influences

enacted interpersonal communication patterns. Research conducted by Mulac et al. (2002) found

that men who consumed video pornography were more likely to display dominant and

uncommunicative behaviors with their female peers in comparison with the control group.

Given these findings, there is a noticeable gap in research concerning the consumption of

online pornography in relation to opposite sex interpersonal attraction. This study aims to

examine this gap by exploring the following research question:

R1: Does the consumption of pornographic material change interpersonal communication

tendencies?

The present study aims to examine how the misogynistic themes within pornographic

material influence how young heterosexual men and boys experience, display, and enact

interpersonal attraction and communication dominance towards girls and women. Mainstream

online pornographic content is primarily produced by men for a male audience, and young men

and boys are the primary consumers of online pornography. For these reasons, this study found it

prudent to focus on the online pornography consumption habits of young heterosexual men and

boys in relation to how they experience interpersonal attraction and enact interpersonal

communication with women.

Methods

The researcher performed a thematic content analysis of the interpersonal attraction

behaviors discussed on the NoFap Reddit thread, an online support forum for people struggling

17
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

with IAD or sex addiction. NoFap Reddit users voluntarily seek peer support and addiction

recovery through the forum; therefore, they are representative of individuals struggling with

IAD, and of individuals experiencing a shift in interpersonal attraction tendencies due to online

pornography consumption.

Sample

The comments chosen were a minimum of twenty five words in length and were related

to one of the chosen variables. The researcher anonymously collected the data. The researcher

did not interact with Reddit members, and did not comment on Reddit posts. The reported texts

are not linked to specific Reddit users within the literature.

Mandated approval by the IRB board of Winona State University was not required prior

to the conduction of research; this study poses no threats to human subjects, as the commenters

will remain anonymous to the researcher and within the literature.

Thematic Analysis

Thematic content analysis was utilized in order to examine the interpersonal attraction

behaviors of young men who have been diagnosed with Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD) by a

medical professional, or have self-diagnosed themselves with IAD. According to Berelson,

content analysis is "a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative

description of the manifest content of communication" (Berelson, 1952, p. 4). This method can

be used to analyze the manifest or latent content of a particular communication phenomena. The

manifest content describes the characteristics of the content itself. The latent content describes

interpretations about the content that imply something about the nature of the communicators or

effects on communicators. The content analysis conducted was qualitative in nature; there is no

18
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

statistical significance proven within the given research, rather, a thematic analysis was

conducted in order to examine the interpersonal communication tendencies of men with IAD.

The themes examined within this content analysis included evidence of symptoms of

internet addiction disorder (IAD), evidence of interpersonal attraction tendencies of the sample

subjects, and evidence of communication dominance behavior. Common symptoms associated

with male adolescents diagnosed with IAD include a higher occurrence of ADHD symptoms,

depression, and hostility, as stated Yen, J. Y., Ko, C. H., Yen, C. F., Wu, H. Y., & Yang, M. J.

(2007). Within the same study, hostility was associated with Internet addiction only in male

subjects (Yen et al., 2007). Evidence of interpersonal attraction tendencies included testimonials

of the male subjects own dating rituals, romantic rituals, and the way they experience

interpersonal attraction to women, both before and after repeated exposure to online

pornographic material. Evidence of communication dominance behaviors enacted by the subjects

included increased other-directed eye gaze, proximity, touch, interruptions, and speaking time

(Mulac et al., p. 313).

Interpersonal attraction tendencies were operationally defined and coded within this study

as NoFap Reddit thread comments discussing the experience of physical, emotional, and sexual

attraction to women. Changing interpersonal attraction tendencies were coded and operationally

defined as NoFap Reddit thread comments discussing shifting views of women in relation the

consumption or addiction to online pornography. Symptoms of IAD were defined operationally

as the discussion of increased symptoms of ADHD, depression, and hostility within NoFap

Reddit blog comments. Themes within this category were coded and categorized separately as

increased symptoms of ADHD, increased symptoms of depression, and increased hostility.

19
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Results and Discussion

The NoFap Reddit discussion forum primarily functions as a support mechanism for men

or boys who are struggling with sex addiction, pornography addiction, and masturbation

addiction. A total of one-hundred and twenty-three comments on the NoFap Reddit thread were

randomly open-coded for the purpose of this study. One-hundred and one of the open coded

comments were categorized within the stated coding scheme; these comments are attached in

Appendix 2. Although comments were coded into all four of the outlined thematic categories, 97

of the collected comments were coded within the thematic categories of changing interpersonal

attraction tendencies, and symptoms of IAD. Comments were coded in one or more categories;

this was dependent on the contextual relation to the stated categories.

Loss of interest in sex

The reality of sex with another person can be an intimidating feat for a heterosexual man

introduced to sex through online pornographys instant gratification, endless novelty, and

voyeuristic viewing tendencies. The loss of interest in sex with another person was a prominent

theme within the collected comments; sex with another person becomes less appealing when

online pornography consumers can obtain immediate sexual reward through the consumption of

online pornography videos (Negash, et al., 2016, p. 696). Commenters discussed their lack of

desire for real sex, usually with a sense of nostalgia. I used to be confident and desire sex.

Now a days [sic] I just dont want real life sex no more. All of the commenters were unhappy

with their lack of desire for real sex, and wanted to gain back their former sexual urges. Another

commenter, developed symptoms from it [porn addiction] including feeling emotionally numb,

lack of interest in meeting real girls, and social anxiety. Internet pornography addiction shares

similar neurobiological structural abnormalities with other addictive disorders (Hou et al., p.4);

20
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

commenters experienced a loss of interest in real sex because the circumstances in which

consumers watch online pornography do not resemble interpersonal sexual situations. The

repeated dopamine surges that consumers experience when watching online pornography cannot

be recreated within the reality of sex with another person.

Another prominent theme concerning the loss of interest in real sex was the discourse

surrounding porn-induced erectile dysfunction (ED). This was not an expected variable but many

of the commenters that discussed a loss of interest in sex specifically discussed their struggles

with porn-induced ED. Im [sic] 26 years old and I have porn induced ED. So my relationship

with my girlfriend is suffering, and is on the verge of utter ruin. Loss of interest in sex was often

connected with a decreased sense of relationship satisfaction for the commenters. Another

member of the NoFap Reddit forum attested to his desire to ask a girl at his gym outbut Im

afraid to, because of the ED and the anxiety I developed because of porn. Anger was a notable

emotion within this particular thematic category. Im 23 I shouldnt have problems sustaining

an erection, nor should I need constant stimulation to stay erect. Another commenter stated:

Porn induced Ed has ruined my relationships with the past 3 girls Ive been with and honestly

Im just mad at myself. Rhetorical expressions of anger and frustration were prevalent within

the stated thematic category.

Although there is no literature directly linking ED in young men to the consumption of

pornography, a 2016 interdisciplinary review conducted by Park et al. suggests that terminating

the use of pornography can help alleviate the symptoms of ED (Park, et al., 2016). The same

study also discussed the increased prevalence of ED in men under 40 years of age. The 2001

2002 rates for older men 4080 were about 13% in Europe (Nicolosi et al., 2004). By 2011, ED

rates in young Europeans, 1840, ranged from 14%28% (Landripet, & tulhofer, 2015).

21
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Loss of communication skills

Patriarchal masculinity requires strict adherence to societal gender norms; men must

constantly confirm their own masculinity in order to be considered real men by others. Within

pornographic narratives, to be a real man heterosexual boys must always be control of the

sexual situation, always be dominant over the woman, and constantly want sex with women

(Hooks, B., 2004). One comment coded into this thematic category specifically discussed the

enactment of masculinity through sex. I would sometimes hook up with people but I didnt have

a meaningful relationship with anyone and I was so frustrated as to why. Then I realized, after

being unable to hook up with a girl I sort of liked that porn might be an issue as to why I couldnt

move forward and found myself so desensitized to women. The commenter testifies that the

enactment of masculinity through casual sex was a coping mechanism for him after a breakup;

his exposure to pornography exacerbated his loss of communication skills, and his

desensitization to women.

Commenters also spoke on how PM [porn and masturbation] ruins social abilities, how

some [have] been choosing fapping over family, friends, and my partner, how others realized

they need to nut up and face [the] anxiety and emotions without resorting to porn as a crutch. A

prominent theme within the comments concerning the loss of communication skills was the use

of pornography as a coping mechanism; masturbation to pornography becomes a form of stress

relief, as well as an outlet for men to enact masculinity.

The loss of communication skills, especially with the opposite sex, was a major theme

within the coded comments. The majority of the comments pertaining to this thematic element

discussed partners and girlfriends disapproval of the commenters pornography habit;

commenters testified that relationships, especially romantic relationships, were negatively

22
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

affected by their pornography consumption. One commenter stated: My usage from over the

years still ended up affecting our relationship how the porn had twisted my perception and

expectations of what a woman should do, and how sex should be. Online pornography twists

the consumers perceptions of the reality of sex, and therefore affects the consumers relational

communication skills. Another commented: Lost my girl due to my insecurities because porn

fucked with my emotions. Multiple comments expressed anxiety about how their partner would

react to their porn addiction: I am embarrassed and ashamed to bring this up to her. I am

worried she will think I am disgusting and repulsive. Within patriarchal societies, men are

taught to never be perceived as emotionally weak; the shame that male pornography addicts feel

negatively effects their enacted communication skills.

Objectification

As Smith, Byrne, and Fielding (1995) discuss, adherence to traditional societal gender

roles plays a major role in interpersonal attraction, and therefore, interpersonal communication

between men and women (p. 169). Online pornography normalizes specific standards of sexual

attractiveness; in this way, pornography manipulates interpersonal attraction and interpersonal

communication patterns as an extension of initial attraction (Walster et al., p. 508). Within the

collected comments, a common theme was the objectification of women. One NoFap commenter

stated: All day my thoughts are just filled with sex, either from real girls or pornIm tired of

looking at girls all the time and just thinking about fucking them. Another forum visitor

expressed shame: I cant even look at women in the same light as menI go straight to porn

mode. The collected comments displayed how repeated exposure to pornography effected the

interpersonal attraction tendencies of pornography consumers; multiple men testified about

fantasizing about every girl [they] encountered and want to encounter.

23
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

This theme within the collected data supports previous research conducted by Mulac,

Jansma, and Linz in 2002; their study concluded that the behavior of the men who were exposed

to a sexual film was more dominant to their female partner, and displayed more dominant

communication tendencies (Mulac et al., p. 322). The normalization of female subordination

within pornographic media contributes to the objectification of women in the public arena.

Increased symptoms of ADHD and Depression

The most striking theme identified within the collected comments were the descriptions

of the symptoms of IAD. The global symptom severity of internet pornography addictionas

well as interpersonal sensitivity, depression, paranoid thinking, and psychoticism, were

correlated with the Internet Addiction Test score (Brand et al., p. 375). Increased symptoms of

ADHD, depression, and anxiety are the most common symptoms of IAD, and multiple

interdisciplinary studies have shown that IAD results in impaired individual psychological well-

being, academic failure and reduced work performance among adolescents (Flisher, 2010;

Scherer, 1997; Young, 1998). Within the collected data, the consumption of pornography was

discussed as a coping mechanism for depression, anxiety, or personal insecurities. Repeated

exposure to pornographic materials, combined with repeated orgasmic pleasure under the same

specific circumstances, can transform a coping mechanism into a behavioral addiction (Negash,

et al., 2016, p. 696).

Increased symptoms of depression and anxiety were the most common comments within

this theme. [Porn] rewires the brain so that you crave porn and fapping. So, I have in the past 4

years have thought Ive been Depressed, bipolar, etc and Im just now realizing that Im addicted

to porn. Suicidal tendencies were also described within a portion of the data concerning

increased symptoms of depression. Im just broken.this is life I carved out is great but this

24
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

addiction has just destroyed me.life is brutal guys. The majority of commenters on the NoFap

threat are recovering addicts, and many discussed their experiences in the past tense. So because

I kept watching porn for hours everyday [sic]. I became lazy, sensitive, depressed, worried,

dumb, shy, and Sick [sic]. The majority of the comments expressed a desire for IAD to be taken

seriously: I barely survived. Feel depressed for having no pleasure. Man I wish there was a

rehab for this.

Anxiety was another prominent theme within the collected data; personal insecurity was

often cited as the catalyst that allowed an addiction to develop, while anxiety was mentioned

almost exclusively as a symptom of addiction. Day 7, high anxiety, seems like my brain is

rewiring itself. Within the collected data, many of the commenters spoke to beginning to

masturbate and consume pornography during early adolescence. Ive been an addict for years

now and Im only 21. Im [sic] sick of it. It makes me feel like a shitty person all the time and my

dick barely works. The underlying narrative throughout the data, identified within the

symptoms of IAD theme, is using masturbation and pornography consumption as a coping

mechanism for underlying issues: Being someone who regularly used sex as a means of coping

with uneasy feelings its really odd to be having guilt free sex with my wife while maintaining a

desire to not use sex as a means of coping. Learning how to be a healthy sexual being over here.

Many others discussed how [they] would [masturbate] because [they were] lonely and felt

empty. The expression of male emotions is perceived as weak within patriarchal societies;

pornography has become an outlet for men and boys to cope with their underlying insecurities

within the confines of masculinity.

25
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

The objective of this study was to contribute to the discourse surrounding internet

addiction disorder (IAD), as well as to examine the societal ramifications of pornography

consumption and its effect on interpersonal communication between men and women. This study

had multiple weaknesses, the first being the small sample size, and the qualitative nature of the

analysis; the results of this study are not statistically significant. This study solely focused on

male experiences with IAD, because men are the primary consumers of online pornographic

material (UCLA, 2004); female experiences with IAD are excluded, and may be entirely

different than their male counterparts. Since the data was collected on an online support forum

for people struggling with IAD, the respondents may have had comparable addiction experiences

due to similar socioeconomic status. The results of this study are not universally applicable, but

this study does contribute to the discussion of internet pornography addiction and its influence on

human behavior.

I suggest the replication of this study in the form of in-depth qualitative interviews in

order to gain a deeper, more significant understanding of the people who are addicted to

pornography and how their addiction effects the individual enactment of interpersonal attraction.

Qualitative interviews will allow the researcher to seek a more representative sample, and will

allow them to gain a deeper understanding of the chosen population.

Conclusion

Sex with another person becomes less appealing when online pornography consumers

can obtain immediate sexual reward through the consumption of online pornography videos

(Negash, et al., 2016, p. 696). For people living with IAD, the reality of sex becomes less

26
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

appealing as their addiction worsens (Hou et al., 2012). The comments coded within this

thematic category reflected the outcomes of previous research; the testimonials of NoFap Reddit

users discussed a lack of desire to have sex with other people, an inability to become aroused

without pornography, and the prevalence of porn-induced erectile dysfunction within the IAD

community.

A prominent theme within the comments concerning the loss of communication skills

was the use of pornography as a coping mechanism; masturbation to pornography becomes a

form of stress relief, as well as an outlet for men to enact masculinity. Another theme identified

within the data was the shame associated with being a pornography addict, and the NoFap Reddit

users inability to communicate their feelings about their experiences to their friends or romantic

partners. Commenters expressed embarrassment and shame when discussing their addiction;

many viewed their dependency on pornography, sex, or masturbation as a weakness. This

perception of addiction as a physical and mental weakness contributed to the loss of

communication skills that the commenters experienced.

Online pornography manipulates interpersonal attraction and interpersonal

communication patterns as an extension of initial attraction (Walster et al., p. 508) by portraying

hyperfeminine women as the epitome of sexual desire. The thematic category concerning the

objectification of women supports previous research conducted by Mulac, Jansma, and Linz in

2002. However, there is a distinct difference between the two studies: the study conducted by

Mulac, Jansma, and Linz (2002) observed men interacting with women directly after they

viewed a pornographic video, while the comments collected within this study are self-

testimonials of men living with IAD. These two studies are comparable, but the comments on the

27
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

NoFap Reddit forum express a desire to cease individual objectification of women, and move

towards a healthier form of interpersonal attraction and sexual desire.

Symptoms of anxiety and depression stemming from the NoFap Reddit users sex

addiction, pornography addiction, and masturbation addiction was the fourth theme identified

within the collected data. The data collected was consistent with the existing research regarding

the symptoms of IAD (Brand et al., 2011, p. 375). Depression and anxiety are widespread within

this online community; suicidal thoughts and tendencies were also identified within the coded

comments. It remains unclear whether depression and anxiety cause people to begin using

pornography, or use of pornography causes increased symptoms of depression and anxiety. An

important component of this thematic category was the consumption of pornography as a coping

mechanism for personal insecurities, and emotional sensitivities.

Based on the collected data, and subsequent thematic analysis, I conclude that the

consumption of online pornographic material changes a persons interpersonal attraction

tendencies, and therefore alters the enactment of interpersonal communication patters; this

change cannot be measured statistically, but the examined evidence suggests legitimate

influence. The conduction of further research is necessary in order to examine the connection

between patriarchal gender roles, and the why men initially begin consuming pornography.

28
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Appendix A: Thematic Coding Categories

Interpersonal attraction tendencies (1)

1a. Physical/sexual attraction (for example: I was attracted to her, she was attractive, she
was hot, etc.)
1b. Emotional attraction (for example: I had feelings for her, I wanted to get to know her, I
was in love with her, etc.
Changing interpersonal attraction tendencies (2)
2a. Loss of interest in sex (for example: I wanted to watch porn instead of have sex, I didnt
want to have sex with my girlfriend anymore, I didnt want to kiss my wife anymore, etc.)
2b. Loss of interest in women (for example: I didnt notice the women around me, I stopped
caring about dating, I stopped caring about my relationship, etc.)
2c. Loss of communication skills (for example: I cant talk to my wife about this, I didnt
know how to talk to my girlfriend, I couldnt tell when she was upset with me, I couldnt tell
when she was sad, etc.)
2d. Objectification (for example: I started thinking of women as sexual objects, I wanted a
sex toy rather than a partner, I dont care about my partner anymore, only pornography, etc.)
Symptoms of IAD (3)
3a. Increased symptoms of ADHD (for example: Im more distracted, I have difficulty
concentrating on my work, I can only concentrate on pornography, etc.)
3b. Increased symptoms of depression (for example: My usual interests no longer interest me,
I am sleeping more and eating less, I am only happy when I am watching pornography, etc.
3c. Increased symptoms of hostility (for example: I was angry at my girlfriend for not
performing sex acts I saw in pornography, I get frustrated easily, I have less patience and get
angry very easily, etc.)
Increased Communication Dominance Behaviors (4)
4a. Other-directed eye gaze (for example: subjects reporting they could not look their partners in
the eye, etc.)
4b. Proximity (for example: struggling to understanding boundaries of women in their everyday
lives, disrespecting their partners boundaries, etc.)
4c. Touch (for example: touching their partners without their consent, touching women without
their consent, etc.)
4d. Interruptions (for example: disrespecting the opinions of their partners, interrupting their
partners when they spoke, etc.)

29
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

References

Berelson, B. (1952). Content analysis in communication research. New York, NY, US: Free

Press.

Brand, M., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., Schchtle, U., Schler, T., & Altsttter-Gleich, C. (2011).

Watching pornographic pictures on the Internet: Role of sexual arousal ratings and

psychologicalpsychiatric symptoms for using Internet sex sites excessively.

Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14(6), 371-377.

Bridges, A. J., Wosnitzer, R., Scharrer, E., Sun, C., & Liberman, R. (2010). Aggression and

sexual behavior in best-selling pornography videos: A content analysis update. Violence

against Women, 16(10), 1065-1085.

Brown, J. D., & L'Engle, K. L. (2009). X-rated sexual attitudes and behaviors associated with US

early adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit media. Communication Research, 36(1),

129-151.

Carroll, J. S., Padilla-Walker, L. M., Nelson, L. J., Olson, C. D., Barry, C. M., & Madsen, S. D.

(2008). Generation XXX pornography acceptance and use among emerging adults.

Journal of adolescent research, 23(1), 6-30.

Cooper, A. (1998). Sexuality and the Internet: Surfing into the new millennium.

CyberPsychology & Behavior, 1(2), 187-193.

Dines, G. (2010). Pornland: How porn has hijacked our sexuality. Beacon Press.

Flisher, C. (2010). Getting plugged in: an overview of internet addiction. Journal of Paediatrics

and Child Health, 46(10), 557-559.

Garlick, S. (2010). Taking control of sex? Hegemonic masculinity, technology, and internet

pornography. Men and Masculinities, 12(5), 597-614.

30
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Hooks, B. (2004). The will to change: Men, masculinity, and love. Washington Square Press.

Hou, H., Jia, S., Hu, S., Fan, R., Sun, W., Sun, T., & Zhang, H. (2012). Reduced striatal

dopamine transporters in people with internet addiction disorder. BioMed Research

International, 2012, 1-5.

Koukounas, E., & Over, R. (2001). Habituation of male sexual arousal: Effects of attentional

focus. Biological Psychology, 58(1), 49-64.

Landripet, I., & tulhofer, A. (2015). Is pornography use associated with sexual difficulties and

dysfunctions among younger heterosexual men? The journal of sexual medicine, 12(5),

p. 1136-1139.

Malamuth, N. M., & Check, J. V. (1985). The effects of aggressive pornography on beliefs in fF

rape myths: Individual differences. Journal of Research in Personality, 19(3), 299-320.

McKee, A. (2005). The objectification of women in mainstream pornographic videos in

Australia. Journal of Sex Research, 42(4), 277-290.

Mulac, A., Jansma, L., & Linz, D. (2002). Men's behavior toward women after viewing sexually-

explicit films: Degradation makes a difference. Communication Monographs, 69(4), 311-

328.

Murnen, S. K., & Byrne, D. (1991). Hyperfemininity: Measurement and initial validation of the

construct. The Journal of Sex Research, 28(3), 479-489.

Negash, S., Sheppard, N. V. N., Lambert, N. M., & Fincham, F. D. (2016). Trading later

rewards for current pleasure: Pornography consumption and delay discounting. The

Journal of Sex Research, 53(6), 689-700.

31
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Nicolosi, A., Laumann, E. O., Glasser, D. B., Moreira, E. D., Paik, A., & Gingell, C. (2004).

Sexual behavior and sexual dysfunctions after age 40: the global study of sexual attitudes

and behaviors. Urology, 64(5), 991-997.

Park, B. Y., Wilson, G., Berger, J., Christman, M., Reina, B., Bishop, F. & Doan, A. P. (2016). Is

Internet pornography causing sexual dysfunctions? A review with clinical reports.

Behavioral Sciences, 6(3), 17.

Peters, E. M., Morrison, T., McDermott, D. T., Bishop, C. J., & Kiss, M. (2014). Age is in the

eye of the beholder: Examining the cues employed to construct the illusion of youth in

teen pornography. Sexuality & Culture, 18(3), 527-546.

PornHub Insights. (2016). Pornhubs 2015 year in review. Retrieved from

http://www.pornhub.com/insights/pornhub-2015-year-in-review.

Schauer, T. (2005). Womens porno: The heterosexual female gaze in porn sites for women.

Sexuality and Culture, 9(2), 42-64.

Scherer, K. (1997). College life on-line: Healthy and unhealthy internet use. Journal of College

Student Development, 38, 655-665.

Smith, E. R., Byrne, D., & Fielding, P. J. (1995). Interpersonal attraction as a function of

extreme gender role adherence. Personal Relationships, 2(2), 161-172.

Stack, M., Steven, R., Wasserman, I., & Kern, R. (2004). Adult social bonds and use of internet

pornography. Social science quarterly, 85(1), 75-88.

Sunnafrank, M. (1983). Attitude similarity and interpersonal attraction in communication

processes: In pursuit of an ephemeral influence. Communications Monographs, 50(4),

273-284.

Tannen, D. (1982). Oral and literate strategies in spoken and written narratives. Language, 1-21.

32
PORNOGRAPHY AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

UCLA Center for Communication Policy. (2003). UCLA internet report-year three. UCLA

Center for Communication Policy.

Walster, E., Aronson, V., Abrahams, D., & Rottman, L. (1966). Importance of physical

attractiveness in dating behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 4(5), 508.

Ybarra, M. L., Mitchell, K. J., Wolak, J., & Finkelhor, D. (2006). Examining characteristics and

associated distress related to internet harassment: Findings from the second youth

internet safety survey. Pediatrics, 118(4), e1169-e1177.

Yen, J. Y., Ko, C. H., Yen, C. F., Wu, H. Y., & Yang, M. J. (2007). The comorbid psychiatric

symptoms of internet addiction: Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),

depression, social phobia, and hostility. Journal of adolescent health, 41(1), 93-98.

Young, K. S. (1998). Internet addiction: The emergence of a new clinical disorder.

CyberPsychology & Behavior, 1(3), 237-244.

33