Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Volume 7, Number 6
ISSN 1811-5209
Mine Wastes
Karen A. Hudson-Edwards, Heather E. Jamieson,
andBernd G. Lottermoser, Guest Editors
M
ine wastes are unwanted, currently uneconomic, solid and liquid
materials found at or near mine sites. Volumetrically they are one
of the worlds largest waste streams, and they often contain high
concentrations of elements and compounds that can have severe effects on nents, such as arsenic, lead and
ecosystems and humans. Multidisciplinary research on mine wastes focuses cyanide, in concentrations that
may pose serious hazards to
on understanding their character, stability, impact, remediation and reuse. ecosystem and human health. The
This research must continue if we are to understand and sustainably manage control and mitigation of acid
the immense quantities of historic, contemporary and future mine wastes, mine drainage (AMD) mine wastes
alone is considered to be one of
given the trend to exploit larger deposits of lower-grade ores.
the major environmental chal-
Keywords : mine wastes, tailings, metals, metalloids, radionuclides, lenges facing the mining industry
acid mine drainage, dust worldwide (International Network
for Acid Prevention 2011). The
INTRODUCTION estimated costs for total worldwide
Iconic treasures such as the gold funeral mask of King liability associated with the current and future remediation
Tutankhamen and the Koh-I-Noor Diamond would not of acid drainage are approximately US$100 billion
exist today without mining. Since the dawn of civilization, (Tremblay and Hogan 2001).
humans have exploited metals, coal, industrial minerals
and rocks for the production of goods, energy and building
materials. These mining activities have created great
wealth: the Chalcolithic (Copper) Age, for example, took
its name from the exploitation of copper ores and the
production of copper-based tools, and the Golden Age
of Spain in the 16th and 17th centuries was built on the
gold and silver extracted from mines in the Americas. The
importance of mining was recognized by Gregor Reisch in
1503 in his book Margarita Philosophica (The Philosophical
Pearl) in which he illustrated his section on natural objects
with a woodcut showing Mining for Metal (Fig. 1).
Tailings
dam
Flood of
tailings and
acidic water
Donana National Park (Fig. 5). In addition to acidity, they also contribute pulses
5 km
(c. 10 km downstream) of metals and metalloids when they dissolve during rainfall
or flood events.
Figure 4 SPOT satellite images taken before (left) and after
(right) the Aznalcllar tailings impoundment spill in
The uptake of toxins from mine wasteaffected soils and
southwestern Spain in April 1998. Following the spill, the rivers
downstream were covered with two million cubic metres of pyritic, waters can lead to their bioaccumulation and biomagnifica-
zinc-, lead-, arsenic-, copper-, thallium-, cadmium- and mercury- tion in terrestrial plants and aquatic algae. Plants and crops
bearing tailings and acidic water, which spread over 4286 ha and grown on contaminated soils often contain high concen-
formed a layer up to 4m thick (Grimalt et al. 1999). Image courtesy
trations of metals (Miller et al. 2004). Animals grazing on
of A urensa
alluvial soils often eat this plant material and sediment,
especially after flooding when fresh metal-rich sediment
high-flow events. Both processes have the potential to is deposited. This poses risks to their health and that of
contaminate groundwater and surface waters through humans who ingest their meat and milk. Some plants and
dissolution or desorption of contaminants from sediment animals, however, are able to survive and even thrive on
surfaces. Nagorski et al. (2003), for example, showed that contaminated soils. Such plants, known as metallophytes,
concentrations of arsenic, copper, iron, manganese and have developed mechanisms to tolerate high levels of
zinc in the water of a mining-impacted stream in Montana, metals and metalloids, by either excluding or incorporating
USA, were highest following spring runoff and short-term them into their biomass. Rapid invasion of abandoned and
storm events. The greater frequency and severity of floods rehabilitated mine sites by metal-excluding plants is benefi-
due to climate change may, in turn, contribute to increasing cial to their rehabilitation as it leads to the establishment
mobilization of riverborne mine wastes (Goudie 2006). of a green cover that protects wastes and waste repositories
from erosion and leaching.
Surface and subsurface mine waters used in the extraction
and disposal of mine wastes, which include mill and Fauna, too, can develop metal and metalloid tolerance in
process waters, are themselves considered mine wastes. At mining-affected sites: the earthworm Dendrodrilus rubidus,
well-managed mines sites, such mine waste water is stored which is native to the mining-contaminated soils at the
in settling ponds and used as recycle water in mill processes Coniston copper mine in northern England, was shown
and open pit and underground operations. At abandoned to tolerate higher soil copper and exhibit significantly less
or improperly managed sites, however, water is discharged change in weight than control worms (Arnold et al. 2008).
deliberately or inadvertently as a result of seepage, run-off Pathways of metals, metalloids and radionuclides from
or flooding, often spreading several kilometres from the mine waste to humans include the ingestion of polluted
source. In most countries, regulations prohibit the release drinking water, soil, and foodstuffs (if grown on contami-
to the environment of water that does not meet specific nated soils), and the inhalation and ingestion of polluted
water-quality standards. Perhaps the most famous example dust (Miller et al. 2004).
of mine waste water concerns the Ro Tinto (red river)
in southwestern Spain. There, long-term natural weath- RECYCLING, REUSE AND REHABILITATION
ering and at least 5000 years of mining of massive sulfide
OF MINE WASTES
orebodies have delivered both natural acid rock drainage
(NARD) and AMD to the river, giving it a characteristic The legacy of historic mine waste and the piles that accu-
red colour and high acidity (pH = ~1.72) extending some mulate today and will do in the future present both a
60 km downstream from the mining area (Lpez-Archilla problem and a benefit to society. To achieve sustainable
et al. 1993). The reason for the persistence of such low pH, growth, humankind ideally requires the products of
which is not seen in other AMD rivers, is due to factors mining to be extracted without negative environmental
such as the constant input of low-pH water from mine impact. Consequently, plans for the rehabilitation of mine
workings, waste dumps and waste-lined railway and road wastes are incorporated into plans for new extraction
bases, abundant pyrite-oxidizing microorganisms and the operations. This does not, however, address the issue of
dissolution of acid-producing secondary sulfate salts (e.g. historic wastes, which were often not disposed of securely.
Hudson-Edwards et al. 1999). The latter are common, if Remining or reprocessing of such wastes, especially those
ephemeral, products of the precipitation of AMD waters in which ore extraction was not as efficient as with modern
technologies, brings potential financial and waste-
References International Network for Acid Miller JR, Hudson-Edwards KA, Lechler
Prevention (2011) See www.inap.com. PJ, Preston D, Macklin MG (2004)
Arnold RE, Hodson ME, Langdon CJ au/index.htm Heavy metal contamination of water,
(2008) A Cu tolerant population of the soil and produce within riverine
earthworm Dendrodrilus rubidus Jakubick A, McKenna G (2003) communities of the Ro Pilcomayo
(Savigny, 1862) at Coniston Copper Stabilisation of tailings deposits: inter- basin, Bolivia. Science of the Total
Mines, Cumbria, UK. Environmental national experience. Mining and the Environment 320: 189-209
Pollution 152: 713-722 Environment III, Sudbury, Ontario,
Canada, 25-28 May, 2003, pp 1-9 Moore JN, Luoma SN (1990) Hazardous
Frstner U (1999) Introduction. In: Azcue wastes from large-scale metal extrac-
JM (ed) Environmental Impacts of Jambor JL, Blowes DW, Ritchie AIM (eds) tion. Environmental Science &
Mining Activities: Emphasis on (2003) Environmental Aspects of Mine Technology 24: 1278-1285
Mitigation and Remedial Measures. Wastes. Mineralogical Association of
Springer, Heidelberg, pp 1-3 Canada Short Course Volume 31, Nagorski SA, McKinnon TE, Moore JN
430pp (2003) Seasonal and storm-scale varia-
Fyfe WS (1981) The environmental crisis: tions in heavy metal concentrations of
Quantifying geosphere interactions. Jamieson HE (2011) Geochemistry and two mining-contaminated streams,
Science 213: 105-110 mineralogy of solid mine waste: Montana, USA. Journal de Physique IV
Essential knowledge for predicting envi- 107: 909-912
Gordon RB, Bertram M, Graedel TE ronmetal impact. Elements 7: 381-386
(2006) Metal stocks and sustainability. Nordstrom DK (2011) Mine waters: Acidic
Proceedings of the National Academy of Kasperski KL, Mikula RJ (2011) Waste to circumneutral. Elements 7: 393-398
Science 103: 1209-1214 streams of mined oil sands:
Characteristics and remediation. Plumlee GS, Morman SA (2011) Mine
Goudie AS (2006) Global warming and Elements 7: 387-392 wastes and human health. Elements 7:
fluvial geomorphology. Geomorphology 399-404
79: 384-394 Lewin J, Davies BE, Wolfenden PJ (1977)
Interactions between channel change Tremblay GA, Hogan CM (eds) (2001)
Griffiths SR, Smith GB, Donato DB, and historic mining sediments. In: Mine Environment Neutral Drainage
Gillespie CG (2009) Factors influencing Gregory KJ (ed) River Channel Changes. (MEND) Manual 5.4.2d: Prevention and
the risk of wildlife cyanide poisoning John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp Control. Canada Centre for Mineral and
on a tailings storage facility in the 353-367 Energy Technology, Natural Resources
Eastern Goldfields of Western Australia. Canada, Ottawa, 352 pp
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Lpez-Archilla AI, Marn I, Amils R
Safety 72: 1579-1586 (1993) Bioleaching and interrelated Turner JN, Brewer PA, Macklin MG (2008)
acidophilic microorganisms from Ro Fluvial-controlled metal and As mobili-
Grimalt JO, Ferrer M, Macpherson E Tinto, Spain. Geomicrobiology Journal sation, dispersal and storage on the Ro
(1999) The mine tailing accident in 11: 223-233 Guadiamar, SW Spain and its implica-
Aznalcllar. Science of the Total tions for long-term contaminant fluxes
Environment 242: 3-11 Lottermoser BG (2010) Mine Wastes: to the Doana wetlands. Science of the
Characterization, Treatment and Total Environment 394: 144-161
Guitart R, Sachana M, Caloni F, Croubels Environmental Impacts, Third Edition.
S, Vandenbroucke V, Berny P (2010) Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 400 pp Walker SR, Parsons MB, Jamieson HE,
Animal poisoning in Europe. Part 3: Lanzirotti A (2009) Arsenic mineralogy
Wildlife. The Veterinary Journal 183: Lottermoser BG (2011) Recycling, reuse of near-surface tailings and soils: influ-
260-265 and rehabilitation of mine wastes. ences on arsenic mobility and bioacces-
Elements 7: 405-410 sibility in the Nova Scotia gold mining
Hudson-Edwards KA, Schell C, Macklin
MG (1999) Mineralogy and geochem- Macklin MG, Brewer PA, Hudson-Edwards districts. Canadian Mineralogist 47:
istry of alluvium contaminated by KA, Bird G, Coulthard TJ, Dennis IA, 533-556
metal mining in the Rio Tinto area, Lechler PJ, Miller JR, Turner JN (2006) WISE (2011) Chronology of major tailings
southwest Spain. Applied Geochemistry A geomorphological approach to the dam failures. World Information Service
14: 1015-1030 management of rivers contaminated by on Energy. Uranium Project, www.wise-
metal mining. Geomorphology 79: uranium.org/mdaf.html
InfoMine (2011) Mining information for 423-447
Kidd Creek, Ontario, Canada. See www.
infomine.com/minesite/minesite.
asp?site=kiddcreek
Acid generating potential the potential for the weath- Ore an aggregate of metallic or industrial minerals and
ering of mine waste to generate low-pH water; usually gangue minerals that is economically valuable
calculated from the sulfide and carbonate contents of
the rock Ore roasting a metallurgical process carried out to purify
metals extracted from sulfide ores, involving oxidation,
Acid mine drainage (AMD) the process whereby reduction, chlorination, sulfation and pyrohydrolysis
low-pH water (pH < 5.6) is formed from the mining- reactions at high temperatures
induced weathering of sulfide minerals. The term is also
used to describe the low-pH water itself. Physiologically based extraction test (PBET) a labo-
ratory leach test that models the release of toxicants from
Acidophiles archaea, bacteria and eukarya organisms various solid and liquid media (including mine wastes)
that thrive in low-pH water (pH < 5) in simulated gastric, gastrointestinal, lung, and other
body fluids
Calcination (or calcining) the thermal treatment of
ores at temperatures below their melting point to cause Pressure oxidation oxidative dissolution of sulfide
thermal decomposition or phase transitions, and thus minerals to remove sulfur and concentrate metals,
release the economic materials carried out at high pressures and temperatures
Chemolithoautotrophic bacteria bacteria that gain Processing chemicals chemicals that are added to
their carbon from CO2 and their energy from the oxida- crushed and sized ore to aid the separation of the sought-
tion of inorganic substrates (in mine wastes, usually after minerals/metals from gangue minerals and
minerals containing reduced forms of Fe and S) unwanted metals
Coal-mine drainage (CMD) the process whereby Recycling the practice whereby new valuable resource
low-pH mine water is formed from the oxidation of ingredients are extracted, or the waste is used as feed-
sulfide minerals in coal deposits. The term is also used stock, thus converting the entire mine waste into a new
to describe the low-pH water itself. valuable produc t or application w ith some
reprocessing
Efflorescent salts post-mining oxidation minerals
(mainly sulfates), commonly present as cements and Rehabilitation measures that alleviate environmental
crusts in wastes and at or near the wastes surfaces impacts during post-mining waste storage
Fines fine-grained particulates remaining after the Remediation the process of removing mine waste
crushing and processing of ores derived pollutants or contaminants completely from
water or soil, reducing their concentrations to comply
Flue ashes and dusts fine particulates formed during with regulatory requirements, or making them insoluble
the metallurgical smelting of ores or unavailable to biota
Gangue minerals valueless minerals intergrown with Reserve resources that can be economically and legally
ore minerals extracted now
Heap leaching the process in which metals are dissolved Resource naturally occurring concentrations of liquids,
from ores by leaching them with a solution. The ores are gases, or solids in or on the Earths crust in such form
crushed and usually heaped onto an impermeable base and amount that economic extraction of a commodity
known as a leach pad. is currently or potentially feasible
Hydroseeding a planting process using a slurry Reuse the process that involves the new use or application
containing seed and mulch to stabilize mine wastes of the total mine waste in its original form for an identi-
Industrial minerals rocks or minerals of economic fied purpose directly without any reprocessing
value, excluding metallic ores, mineral fuels and Settling pond a pond used to separate mine waste parti-
gemstones cles into different grain sizes using gravity and, in some
Mature fine tailings (MFT) a term used in oil sand cases, with the aid of a flocculant
mining for the material formed by the gradual settling Slag the vitreous product of flux addition during smelting,
of the minerals in fluid fine tailings over three to five consisting of metal silicates and oxides, and, in some
years until they reach a content of 30 to 40 wt% solids cases, sulfides and native metals
Metallurgical slag the non-metallic top layer that sepa- Smelting a metallurgical process carried out to extract
rates during the smelting of ores metal from ore. It involves heating and partial melting
Metallurgical wastes the residues of the leached or of the ore, and the addition of a chemical reducing agent
smelted ores whose grade is too low to allow further to remove oxygen and a flux to remove the gangue
treatment. These include the wastes from hydrometal- asslag.
lurgy (e.g. cyanide leaching of gold ores), pyrometallurgy Tailings crushed rock and processing fluids (that may
(e.g. smelting of copper or zinc ores to break down their contain xanthate or cyanide) from a mill, washery or
host minerals and release the metals) and electrometal- concentrator resulting from the removal of the economic
lurgy (e.g. the use of electrolysis to liberate metals such metals, minerals, mineral fuels or coal from the mined
as aluminum). resource
Mine wastes solid, liquid or gaseous by-products of Waste rock rock material removed to access and mine
mining, mineral processing, and metallurgical extraction ore or coal
that are unwanted, have no current economic value and
accumulate at mine sites Zero waste the concept of total resource utilization,
where all the material mined is put to good use and no
Natural acid rock drainage (NARD) the process waste is generated
whereby natural low-pH water (pH < 5.6) is formed from
the weathering of sulfide minerals. The term is also used
to describe the low-pH water itself.
L
arge volumes of waste rock and mine tailings are stored at mine sites. geochemically equivalent to the
Predicting the environmental impact of these wastes requires an under- rock mined. Exposure of these
wastes to the atmosphere, the
standing of mineralwater interaction and the characterization of the hydrosphere and the action of
solid materials at the microscopic scale. The tendency of mine wastes to mic roorga nisms generates
produce acid or neutral drainage containing potentially toxic metals gener- drainage that may be acid and rich
in dissolved metals and sulfate. As
ally reflects the ratio of primary sulfide to carbonate minerals and the trace explained by Nordstrom (2011 this
element concentrations inherited from the ore deposit, as well as any ore issue), the chemistry of the
processing that may have created new compounds. Whether potentially toxic drainage is mainly the result of the
oxidation of iron sulfide minerals,
elements are released to surface water, groundwater, or bodily fluids (in the such as pyrite and pyrrhotite. This
case of ingestion or inhalation) depends on the host mineral and the possi- reaction generates acidity and
bility of sequestration by secondary minerals. sulfate and releases elements such
as Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb from sulfide
Keywords : mine tailings, secondary minerals, synchrotron microanalysis, minerals that are soluble in low-pH
acidbase accounting, bioaccessibility water. If sufficiently high amounts
of carbonate minerals are present,
INTRODUCTION the drainage may be neutralized, but some potentially toxic
Senior executives of mining companies have been heard elements, such as arsenic and selenium, may still be present
to say that their business is as much concerned with in relatively high concentration in these higher-pH waters.
moving and managing solid waste as it is with producing
The first important attribute inherited from the deposit
metals. The sheer volume of tailings and waste rock
that governs the chemical reactivity of mine wastes from
produced is astounding: on a per capita basis, North
metal mines is the balance between reactive, acid-gener-
Americans produce more than 10 times as much solid mine
ating sulfide minerals (notably pyrite and pyrrhotite) and
waste as household garbage. Despite opportunities to
acid-neutralizing minerals (primarily calcite and other
recycle and reuse this material (Lottermoser 2011 this
carbonate minerals such as dolomite). This balance is
issue), most of it is simply stored. Aside from the physical
evaluated using acidbase accounting methods (Jambor
issues associated with enormous piles of waste rock and
2003; Price 2009). These static tests have two parts: (1)
voluminous tailings in impoundments or filling lakes and
determination of the acid-producing potential (AP) based
streams, the chemical reactivity of some mine wastes,
on sulfide content (assumed to be pyrite), and (2) evalua-
specifically the release of potentially toxic and bioavailable
tion of the neutralization potential (NP) by titrating the
elements to natural waters and, if ingested, bodily fluids,
sample with acid, usually sulfuric. Those materials with
causes the greatest environmental damage. It is the
NP/AP < 1 are considered potentially acid-generating. In
geochemical and mineralogical character of solid mine
modern mining, hundreds of samples are tested, and the
waste that determines the nature of hazardous drainage
results are used to assess the risk that acid mine drainage
and harmful dust, the amount of contamination and, ulti-
might be produced from the wastes. Kinetic tests provide
mately, the risk to human and ecosystem health.
additional information on the rate of acid generation and
This article will show how the prediction of the risk associ- neutralizing processes; using humidity cells, crushed rock
ated with mine wastes, particularly whether they will is exposed to alternating dry and humid air over periods
produce acid, sulfate- and metal-rich drainage or, alterna- of weeks or months and then rinsed, and the drainage
tively, pH-neutral or even alkaline drainage with potentially produced is analyzed for pH, sulfate, and other solutes.
toxic elements, is rooted in their geochemical and mineral-
The second important attribute of mine wastes inherited
ogical composition. Examples of exciting new microana-
from the deposit is the trace element association, particu-
lytical techniques will illustrate how detailed mineralogical
larly the potentially toxic elements that are hosted in ore
analysis can provide key insights into the transformation
minerals or accompanying sulfides. The potential for the
of mine wastes through weathering and the implication of
leaching of such elements is evaluated using various types
these reactions for environmental damage.
of leaching experiments, including simple field tests
where samples are mixed with water and shaken for several
GEOCHEMISTRY OF MINE WASTE minutes and the solution is then decanted and analyzed
Since more than 90% of the material handled during most and multiyear field bin or column studies designed to
metal mining is discarded, mine wastes are, essentially, simulate mine wastes exposed to weathering conditions
(Price 2009).
* Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering
Queens University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
E-mail: jamieson@geol.queensu.ca
Secondary Minerals
Secondary minerals formed from the weathering of primary
sulfide minerals comprise a large group of mine waste
minerals. Selected examples of oxyhydroxides and sulfates
are given in Table 2, but secondary carbonates, sulfides,
silicates and oxides may also precipitate (Alpers et al. 1994;
Lottermoser 2010). Many of these minerals are fine grained
B and have a high capacity for adsorption of potentially toxic
metals. These precipitates can therefore limit the aqueous
concentration of such elements, although not necessarily
to concentrations that are low enough to meet water-
quality guidelines. Identification of these secondary
minerals provides information on the aqueous conditions
under which they form (pH, redox, metal and sulfate
concentrations). For example, under acid conditions galena
may oxidize to anglesite (PbSO4), whereas in a pH-neutral
environment the secondary mineral will be cerussite
(PbCO3). Spectacular examples of secondary minerals are
the Fe sulfate precipitates that occur underground at the
Richmond mine at Iron Mountain in northern California
(Nordstrom et al. 2000; Nordstrom 2011) and downstream
from the Rio Tinto mine workings in Spain (Hudson-
Edwards et al. 1999, 2011 this issue). In many other cases,
Figure 2 Reflected-light photomicrographs of (A) unaltered
CuZn ore from the Geco mine, Ontario, and secondary minerals occur as weathering rims on primary
(B)tailings from Geco exposed to the atmosphere for 3 years. minerals (Fig. 2 b ) or as poorly crystalline crusts and
Pyrrhotite has partially oxidized, while pyrite remains unreacted. cements. Even when present in minor amounts, these
Py= pyrite, Po = pyrrhotite, Sph = sphalerite, Cp = chalcopyrite. secondary minerals are very important in mineralwater
Source : Jamieson et al. (1995)
interaction, and characterizing them requires a combina-
tion of careful and novel analytical techniques.
1998), exhibits textural evidence of dissolution and a reac-
tion rim of Fe oxyhydroxide and sulfate. The adjacent pyrite Methods of Mineral Characterization
grain has less-evident oxidation, suggesting a slower rate Identification of the minerals associated with mine wastes
of reaction. The element of most concern in drainage from is key to understanding mineralwater reactions. Particle
the Geco deposit is Zn released from sphalerite, which also size, porosity, surface area, degree of crystallinity, and trace
appears to dissolve readily in tailings (Jamieson et al. 1995). element concentration are also important since these char-
acteristics may control the long-term stability of the
Primary Non-Sulfide Minerals minerals and their role in releasing potentially toxic
Carbonate minerals in ore deposits or their host rocks have elements to water and organisms. Selected examples of the
an important role in neutralizing acid drainage. In mine- techniques used to characterize mine waste minerals are
tailings impoundments, it has been observed that calcite given in Table 3. If significant quantities of a monominer-
is the most soluble carbonate and dissolves rapidly. alic sample can be collected, as in the case of the Richmond
Dolomite and ankerite dissolve more slowly (Jambor and mine Fe sulfate minerals, then bulk techniques, including
Blowes 1998) but can still provide neutralizing capacity. X-ray diffraction (XRD) or the partial or complete dissolu-
However, if Fe and Mn carbonate minerals dissolve under tion of the mineral samples followed by chemical analysis
oxidizing conditions, Fe 2+ and Mn 2+ can hydrolyze and of the resulting solution, can be used (e.g. Peterson 2003).
produce acid. More often, however, samples are mixtures. Conventional
techniques, particularly petrography (reflected and trans-
Silicate minerals may dissolve slowly in mine drainage and
mitted light), electron microprobe analysis, and scanning
are not usually effective in controlling pH (Jambor et al.
electron microscope imaging and analysis, can be very
2002). In some cases, however, soluble silicates may signifi-
helpful in identifying minerals and characterizing textures
cantly influence the composition of drainage. At the Ekati
(Jambor and Blowes 1998; Hudson-Edwards et al. 1999).
diamond mine, Northwest Territories, Canada, crushing
Figure 3 shows how element mapping and electron imaging
and washing of kimberlite during the diamond-removal
using an electron microprobe can characterize a primary
process produces alkaline, high-Mg discharge water due to
sulfide grain rimmed by a secondary mineral. Researchers
the rapid dissolution of serpentine and olivine (Rollo and
have recognized that many mineralwater interactions
Jamieson 2006). This also involves the trapping of atmo-
occur in microenvironments (Fig. 4) and require nanoscale
spheric CO2 and production of secondary carbonates, a
characterization (Hochella et al. 2005; Petrunic et al.
process that can balance the greenhouse gas emissions of
2009).
mining operations (Wilson et al. 2009; Lottermoser 2011).
The availability of powerful X-ray beams generated at
Compounds Produced by Ore Processing synchrotron facilities has produced a new family of tech-
On-site processing (such as ore roasting, heap leaching and niques that are very useful for characterizing mine waste
pressure oxidation) may produce new solid compounds minerals. Synchrotron-based X-ray absorption spectros-
that are part of mine wastes. In some cases, this involves copy (XAS) can be used to identify the minerals hosting
converting sulfide minerals to oxides, thus reducing the potentially toxic elements such as Pb (Cotter-Howells et
al. 1994) and As (Foster et al. 1998; Hudson-Edwards et al. mineral crystals formed by high-temperature geological
2005). These techniques are called X-ray absorption near processes since the large individual crystals are unlikely to
edge spectroscopy (XANES) or extended X-ray absorption diffract using the microfocused monochromatic X-ray
fine structure (EXAFS), depending on which part of the beam. Thus the method eliminates patterns from quartz,
absorption spectrum is used. If a microfocused synchrotron feldspar, and other abundant minerals that tend to domi-
beam is used, near-simultaneous analysis using micro-XAS, nant mine waste, enhancing the ability to discern metal-
micro-XRF (which uses the X-ray fluorescence signal to bearing minerals of interest.
provide information on elemental composition) and micro-
Rarely is one method adequate to thoroughly characterize
XRD (X-ray diffraction) can be accomplished (Walker et
the minerals in mine waste, especially as multiple hosts
al. 2005, 2009). Figure 5 shows an example of synchrotron-
are to be expected, and most researchers use a combination
based micro-XRD, which is similar to conventional XRD
of techniques to characterize mine waste minerals and
in that the unknown pattern can be compared with thou-
coexisting water (e.g. Hudson-Edwards et al. 2005; Fawcett
sands of reference mineral patterns; however, micro-XRD
and Jamieson 2011). Identification of contaminant-hosting
has the special advantage that a microfocused synchrotron
grains is not possible with conventional tools. This last
beam can collect information from individual grains or
point is an important consideration for risk assessors in
alteration rims of minerals that are present in low abun-
situations where the potential hazard associated with mine
dance and would not be apparent in a bulk XRD pattern.
waste depends on the mineral host, as explained in the
Moreover, the powerful synchrotron beam tends to produce
following example.
diffraction from microcrystalline and nearly amorphous
materials, typical of secondary minerals in mine wastes.
In fact, micro-XRD tends not to work well for coarser
GEOCHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL
CONTROLS ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL
ANDHEALTH IMPACT OF MINE WASTE:
ANEXAMPLE
Abandoned gold-mine tailings from several sites in Nova
Scotia, Canada, contain high concentrations of As, a result
of mining and processing arsenopyrite-rich ore from 1860
to 1945. Many of these tailings are now located close to
residential areas, and they are publicly accessible and used
A B
Figure 3 Element maps for S, Ca, As, Si, and Fe and a backscat- (A) TEM image of sphalerite with a bright Cu-rich
tered-electron image of a grain of arsenopyrite found
Figure 4 zone visible along the outer margin. (B)STEMEDS
in gold mine tailings; the grain has partially oxidized and is data collected along the path shown in (A) using a nominal probe
surrounded by a rim of secondary CaFe arsenate. Source : Corriveau size of 5nm and showing concentrations in mol%. Source : Petrunic
et al . (2011) et al . 2009, reprinted with permission
REFERENCES metal mining in the Rio Tinto area, Nordstrom DK, Alpers CN, Ptacek CJ,
southwest Spain. Applied Geochemistry Blowes DW (2000) Negative pH and
Alpers CN, Blowes DW, Nordstrom DK, 14: 1015-1030 extremely acidic mine waters from Iron
Jambor JL (1994) Secondary minerals Mountain, California. Environmental
and acid mine-water chemistry. In: Hudson-Edwards KA, Jamieson HE, Science & Technology 34: 254-258
Jambor JL, Blowes DW (eds) Charnock JM, Macklin MG (2005)
Environmental Geochemistry of Mine Arsenic speciation in waters and sedi- Peterson RC (2003) The relationship
Wastes. Mineralogical Association of ment of ephemeral floodplain pools, between Cu content and distortion in
Canada Short Course Volume 22: Rios AgrioGuadiamar, Aznalcollar, the atomic structure of melanterite
247-270 Spain. Chemical Geology 219: 175-192 from the Richmond mine, Iron
Mountain, California. Canadian
Corriveau MC, Jamieson HE, Parsons MB, Hudson-Edwards KA, Jamieson HE, Mineralogist 41: 937-949
Hall GEM (2011) Mineralogical charac- Lottermoser BG (2011) Mine wastes:
terization of arsenic in gold mine tail- Past, present, future. Elements 7: Petrunic B, Al TA, Weaver L, Hall D
ings from three sites in Nova Scotia. 375-380 (2009) Identification and characteriza-
Geochemistry: Exploration, tion of secondary minerals formed in
Environment, Analysis 11: 179-192 Jambor JL (2003) Mine-waste mineralogy tungsten mine tailings using transmis-
and mineralogical perspectives of acid- sion electron microscopy. Applied
Cotter-Howells JD, Champness PE, base accounting. In: Jambor JL, Blowes Geochemistry 24: 2222-2233
Charnocky JMY, Pattrick RAD (1994) DW, Ritchie AIM (eds) Environmental
Identification of pyromorphite in mine- Aspects of Mine Wastes. Mineralogical Plumlee GS, Morman SA (2011) Mine
waste contaminated soils by ATEM and Association of Canada Short Course wastes and human health. Elements
EXAFS. European Journal of Soil Science Volume 31: 117-146 7:399-404
45: 393-402
Jambor JL, Blowes DW (1998) Theory and Price WA (2009) Prediction manual for
DeSisto SL, Jamieson HE, Parsons MB application of mineralogy in environ- drainage chemistry from sulfidic
(2011) Influence of hardpan layers on mental studies of sulfide-bearing mine geological materials. MEND (Mine
arsenic mobility in historical gold mine wastes. In: Cabri LJ, Vaughan DJ (eds) Environment Neutral Drainage) Report
tailings. Applied Geochemistry 26: Modern Approaches of Ore and 1.20.1, Natural Resources Canada,
2004-2018 Environmental Mineralogy. 579pp
Mineralogical Association of Canada
Fawcett SE, Jamieson HE (2011) The Short Course Volume 27: 367-401 Rollo HA, Jamieson HE (2006) Interaction
distinction between ore processing and of diamond mine waste and surface
post-depositional transformation on the Jambor JL, Dutrizac JE, Groat LA, water in the Canadian Arctic. Applied
speciation of arsenic and antimony in Raudsepp M (2002) Static tests of Geochemistry 21: 1522-1538
mine waste and sediment. Chemical neutralization potentials of silicate and
Geology 283: 109-118 aluminosilicate minerals. Seal RR II, Hammarstrom JM (2003)
Environmental Geology 43: 1-17 Geoenvironmental ore deposit models
Foster AL, Brown GE Jr, Tingle TN, Parks of mineral deposits: Examples from
GA (1998) Quantitative arsenic specia- Jambor JL, Martin AJ, Gerits J (2009) The massive sulfide and gold deposits. In:
tion in mine tailings using X-ray post-depositional accumulation of Jambor JL, Blowes DW, Ritchie AIM
absorption spectroscopy. American metal-rich cyanide phases in submerged (eds) Environmental Aspects of Mine
Mineralogist 83: 553-568 tailings deposits. Applied Geochemistry Wastes. Mineralogical Association of
24: 2256-2265 Canada Short Course Volume 31: 11-50
Grosbois C, Courtin-Nomade A, Robin E,
Bril H, Tamura N, Schfer J, Blanc G Jamieson HE, Shaw SC, Clark AH (1995) Walker SR, Jamieson HE, Lanzirotti A,
(2011) Fate of arsenic-bearing phases Mineralogical factors controlling metal Andrade CF, Hall GEM (2005) The
during the suspended transport in a release from tailings at Geco, speciation of arsenic in iron oxides in
gold mining district (Isle river Basin, Manitouwadge, Ontario. In: Hynes TP, mine wastes from the Giant gold mine,
France). Science of the Total Blanchette MC (eds) Sudbury 95 N.W.T.: Application of synchrotron
Environment 409: 4986-4999 Mining and the Environment 1: micro-XRD and micro-XANES at the
405-413 grain scale. Canadian Mineralogist 43:
Hayes SM, White SA, Thompson TL, 1205-1224
Maier RM, Chorover J (2009) Changes Lottermoser BG (2010) Mine Wastes:
in lead and zinc lability during weath- Characterization, Treatment and Walker SR, Parsons MB, Jamieson HE,
ering-induced acidification of desert Environmental Impacts, 3rd Edition. Lanzirotti A (2009) Arsenic mineralogy
mine tailings: Coupling chemical and Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 400 pp of near-surface tailings and soils:
micro-scale analyses. Applied Influences on arsenic mobility and
Geochemistry 24: 2234-2245 Lottermoser BG (2011) Recycling, reuse bioaccessibility in the Nova Scotia gold
and rehabilitation of mine wastes. mining districts. Canadian Mineralogist
Hochella MF Jr, Moore JN, Putnis CV, Elements 7: 405-410 47: 533-556
Putnis A, Kasama T, Eberl DD (2005)
Direct observation of heavy metal- Meunier L, Walker SR, Wragg J, Parsons Wilson SA, Raudsepp M, Dipple GM
mineral association from the Clark Fork MB, Koch I, Jamieson HE, Reimer KJ (2009) Quantifying carbon fixation in
River Superfund Complex: Implications (2010) Effects of soil composition and trace minerals from processed kimber-
for metal transport and bioavailability. mineralogy on the bioaccessibility of lite: A comparative study of quantitative
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 69: arsenic from tailings and soil in gold methods using X-ray powder diffraction
1651-1663 mine districts of Nova Scotia. data with applications to the Diavik
Environmental Science & Technology Diamond Mine, Northwest Territories,
Hudson-Edwards KA, Schell C, Macklin 44: 26672674 Canada. Applied Geochemistry 24:
MG (1999) Mineralogy and geochem- 2312-2331
istry of alluvium contaminated by Nordstrom DK (2011) Mine waters: Acidic
to circumneutral. Elements 7: 393-398
A
cid mine waters, often containing toxic concentrations of Fe, Al, Cu,
Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni, Co, and Cr, can be produced from the mining of coal
and metallic deposits. Values of pH for acid mine waters can range
from 3.5 to 5, but even circumneutral (pH 7) mine waters can have high
concentrations of As, Sb, Mo, U, and F. When mine waters are discharged into
streams, lakes, and the oceans, serious degradation of water quality and
injury to aquatic life can ensue, especially when tailings impoundments break
suddenly. The main acid-producing process is the exposure of pyrite to air
and water, which promotes oxidative dissolution, a reaction catalyzed by
GENERATION OF ACID
microbes. Current and future mining should plan for the prevention and MINE WATERS
remediation of these contaminant discharges by the application of hydro- The chemistry and microbiology
geochemical principles and available technologies, which might include behind sulfide mineral oxidation
remining and recycling of waste materials. and the formation of AMD are
rather complicated and still the
Keywords : mine water, dissolved metals, water quality, water contaminants, subject of research. The most
pyrite oxidation commonly written reaction is the
oxidation of pyrite by oxygen from
INTRODUCTION the air in the presence of water:
15/
There is no doubt that ancient civilizations were aware FeS2 + 4 O2 + 7/2H2O Fe(OH) 3(s) + 2H2 SO4 . (1)
that acid mine drainage (AMD) is toxic and results from
pyrite oxidation. These people even utilized some of the Some form of hydrous ferric oxide (HFO) is precipitated
soluble efflorescent salts that form during the evaporation and is represented ideally here as ferric hydroxide. Reaction
of AMD for dyes, inks, and paper preparation (Theophrastus, 1 is a composite of two half-cell reactions, one for pyrite
3rd century BCE; Caley and Richards 1956). Many names oxidation and the other for oxygen reduction:
given by the Greeks and Romans were used for centuries FeS2 Fe3+ + 2S6+ (in sulfate) + 15e- , (2)
afterward. Oil of vitriol was the ancient name for sulfuric
15/
acid, which could be made by heating melanterite 4 O2 + 15e - 15/
2 O2- (in sulfate) . (3)
(FeSO 4 7H 2 O, also known as iron vitriol or green
However, reactions 1, 2, and 3 oversimplify the process
vitriol), an efflorescent salt formed from pyrite
because we know that (1) iron-oxidizing bacteria and
oxidation.
archaea are important catalysts in this reaction (Nordstrom
Mine drainage is not only acidic (pH 05) but can be and Southam 1997), (2) chemical reactions do not transfer
circumneutral (pH 68) or even strongly basic (pH 812). more than one electron (or possibly two) at a time, (3)
It can be radioactive, corrosive, and highly toxic. Because aqueous Fe3+ is a more powerful oxidant (lower activation
extraction of valuable minerals is from mineralized rock, energy) than oxygen, (4) pyrite oxidizes to an acid ferrous
the surface waters and groundwaters around mines are also sulfate solution before Fe2+ (aq) oxidizes and precipitates an
mineralized and unfit for most purposes unless treated. HFO, and (5) pure Fe(OH) 3(s) can be made in the laboratory
Although the hydrogeochemical and microbiological but does not occur in the environment. The HFO precipi-
processes that control the chemistry of mine waters are tate that forms in AMD is a mixture of iron-bearing
complex, research has greatly increased our understanding minerals that may include ferrihydrite, schwertmannite,
of them, thereby benefiting remediation. This paper microcrystalline goethite, and lepidocrocite. Hence, reac-
outlines some of these processes, including the microbi- tion 1 is written in the alternative form:
ology that catalyzes these reactions, the chemistry of mine
FeS2 + 14Fe3+ + 8H2O 15Fe2+ + 2SO42- + 16H + , (4)
waters, the environmental consequences of accidental
releases from mine sites, the formation of efflorescent salts, with Fe3+ regenerated from Fe2+ by iron-oxidizing bacteria
and the fluvial transport of metals and sulfate to the ocean. and archaea such as Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, which
oxidizes both Fe2+ and reduced sulfur species (thiosulfate
and sulfur), and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans, which oxidizes
only Fe2+. Without Fe-oxidizing bacteria, pyrite oxidation
* U.S. Geological Survey, 3215 Marine Street, Boulder, would stop because the abiotic oxidation of Fe2+ at low pH
CO 80303, USA
E-mail: dkn@usgs.gov
Table 1 Chemical analyses (in mg/L) of a range of mine waters with pH 2.5 to 11.74
compared to average world river water
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Underground
Leviathan Straight Creek Cameron Mine Average World
Iron Mountain CMD, Vryheid Mine water from
Mine AMD, NARD, CMD, River Watere
AMD, Californiaa Formation, Lovozero Massifg
Californiab New Mexicoc Pennsylvaniad (natural)
South Africa f
T (C) 42 14 10.9 13.6 n.d. n.d. n.d.
pH 2.5 1.85 2.98 4.0 n.d. 9.03 11.74
Specific
conductance n.d. 12,900 2920 389 n.d. 2070 n.d.
(S/cm)
The sample with the highest pH, 11.74, is from a deep mine
in the Lovozero massif in the Kola Peninsula of Russia
(Kraynov et al. 1969). This same water sample had SiO2
concentrations of 900013,000 mg/L and F concentrations
of 11,000 mg/L. The main source of F is interpreted to be
from the dissolution of the highly soluble mineral villiau-
mite (NaF). Many examples of circumneutral mine drainage
have been reported. Uranium mill tailings near Riverton,
Wyoming, USA, produced a groundwater plume with a pH
of 6.8 and containing more than 2 mg/L dissolved U
(White et al. 1984). Circumneutral discharge waters from
the Endako Mine in British Columbia, Canada, contain up
to 30 mg/L dissolved Mo (B.C. provincial Ministry of
Energy and Mines, written communication 2010). These
are but a few extreme examples; many more exist world-
wide and many are not adequately documented because
of the proprietary nature of mining activities and the lack
of enforcement.