MCC604 C5

l MEDIA RELATIONS: TYPES OF MEDIA, TECHNIQUE
CHAPTER 5
AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
Media Relation:
5
Types of Media,
Technique and
CHAPTER
What
Mediais Analysis
Ethics
LE AR NI NG OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain media and its importance;
2. Recognise types of media;
3. Elaborate the basic principles in media relations;
4. Examine techniques of media analysis.
1
MEDIA RELATIONS: TYPES OF MEDIA, TECHNIQUE
CHAPTER 5
AND MEDIA ANALYSIS l
INTRODUCTION
The media are more likely to create public when the information is negative. Thus, one of the
most critical areas within any corporate communication function is the media relations depart-
ment. This is because media campaigns to promote companies are most likely to reach active
publics who positively seek out any information about the organisation they are interested in.
In this chapter we look at the importance of:
Media.
Media list.
Roles of press agencies.
Media sectors.
Scope of media relations.
What is media analysis?
Reasons for media analysis.
Methodology for media analysis.
The process of evaluation and coding.
Structuring the media analysis.
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AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
5.1 Media and their Importance
In communication, media (Singular: Medium) are the storage and transmission tools used to
store and deliver information or data as shown in figure 5.1.
It is often referred to as synony-
AT HOME mous with mass media or news
media, but may refer to a single
medium used to communicate any
data for any purpose.
Mass media is a deceptively sim-

ple term encompassing a countless
array of institutions and individu-
Mass media
als who differ in purpose, scope,
MASS MEDIA
method, and cultural context. Mass
media include all forms of informa-
tion communicated to large groups
of people, from a handmade sign
GO
AT
to an international news network.

E-
W
There is no standard for how large

TH
O
RK
N-
the audience needs to be before

O
communication becomes mass

Figure 5.1: Media in communication - The storage and communication. There are also no
transmission tool constraints on the type of informa-
tion being presented.
Mass media is a term used to denote a section of the media specifically envisioned and de-
signed to reach a very large audience such as the population of a nation state. It was coined
in the 1920 with the advent of nationwide
radio networks, mass-circulation news-
papers and magasines, although mass
media (like books and manuscripts) were
present centuries before the term became
common. The concept of mass media is
complicated in some internet media as
now individuals have a means of potential
exposure on a scale comparable to what
was previously restricted to select group
of mass media producers. These internet
media can include television, personal
web pages, message boards, podcasts,
blogs and video hosting services as shown Figure 5.2: Media - Envisioned to reach large audience
in figure 5.2.
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Practitioners of corporate com-

munications used printed words,
spoken words, images and combi-
nation of all these communication
forms to achieve their objectives.
They use both controlled media
and uncontrolled media to com-
municate with their organisations
public. According to Cutlip, Cen-
ter and Broom (2000), controlled
Controlled media communication Uncontrolled media communication media include those in which prac-
titioners have the say over what is
Figure 5.3: Controlled and uncontrolled media communication with
public Source: http://www.nato.int/multi/photos/2004/m040422a.htm said, how it is said, when it is said,
and to some extent to whom it is
said, and uncontrolled media are those over which practitioners have no direct role in decision
making about media content as shown in figure 5.3
Mass communicated media saturate the industrialised world. The television in the living room,
the newspaper on the doorstep, the radio in the car, the computer at work, and the fliers in the
mailbox are just a few of the media channels daily delivering advertisements, news, opinion,
music, and other forms of mass communication as shown in figure 5.4
Because the media are so preva-

lent in industrialised countries,
they have a powerful impact on
how those populations view the
world. Nearly all of the news in
the United States comes from a
major network or newspaper. It is
only the most local and personal
events that are experienced first-
hand. Events in the larger commu-
nity, the state, the country, and the
rest of the world are experienced
through the eyes of a journalist.
Figure 5.4: Mass communicated media saturate the industrial world
Not only do the media report the
news, they create the news by deciding what to report. The top story of the day has to be
picked from the millions of things that happened that particular day. After something is deemed
newsworthy, there are decisions on how much time or space to give it, whom to interview, what
pictures to use, and how to frame it. Often considered by editors, but seldom discussed, is how
the biases and interests of management will impact these determinations. All of these decisions
add up to the audiences view of the world, and those who influence the decisions influence the
audience as shown in figure 5.5.
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AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
The media, therefore, have enor-

mous importance to conflict reso-
lution because they are the primary
and frequently only source of in-
formation regarding conflicts. If a
situation doesnt make the news, it
simply does not exist for most peo-
ple. When peaceful options such as
negotiation and other collaborative
problem-solving techniques are not
covered, or their successes are not
reported, they become invisible and
are not likely to be considered or
even understood as possible options
Figure 5.5: Media create the news by deciding what to report in the management of a conflict.
Without the media, most people would know little of events beyond their immediate neigh-
bourhood. The further one goes outside of ones circle of friends and family, the more time-
consuming and expensive it becomes to get information. Very few, if any, individuals have the
resources to stay independently informed of world events. With the news, however, all one has
to do is turn on a television or turn to the Internet. Even when it is biased or limited, it is a pic-
ture of what is happening around the world.
The more sources one compares, the more accurate the picture that can be put together. In addi-
tion to the media conglomerates, there are also a range of independent news outlets, though they
have a much smaller audience. Some of these provide an alternative view of events and often
strive to publish stories that cannot be found in the mainstream media. Technological advances
in many industrialised (primarily Western) countries make it possible to read papers and watch
broadcasts from around the globe. While language skills can be a barrier, it is possible to live
in the United States and watch Arab-language broadcasts from the Middle East, or to get on the
Internet and read scores of Chinese newspapers as is illustrated in figure 5.6. Having access to
these alternative voices limits the power of monopolies over information.
Another important benefit of a function-

ing mass news media is that information
can be relayed quickly in times of crisis.
Tornado and hurricane announcement
can give large populations advance
warning and allow them to take precau-
tions and move out of harms way. In a
country suffering war, a radio broadcast
outlining where the latest fighting is can
alert people to areas to avoid. In quieter
times, the media can publish other use- Figure 5.6: Limiting the power of monopolies over information
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CHAPTER 5
ful announcements, from traffic reports to how to avoid getting HIV. It is a stabilising and
civilising force and is illustrated in figure 5.7.
Along the same lines, the news

media allow elected and other of-
ficials to communicate with their
constituents. Frequently, the del-
egates at a negotiation will find
they understand each other much
better over the course of their dis-
cussions, but that understanding
will not reach the larger popula-
tions they represent without a
concerted communications effort.
Figure 5.7: Times of crisis
If constituents are not aware of
these new understandings (and
subsequent compromises) during the course of negotiations, they will almost certainly feel
cheated when a final agreement falls far short of their expectations. To achieve ratification,
delegates must justify the agreement by discussing it with and explaining it to their constituents
throughout the entire process and the media is often used for this purpose. Importance of media
are listed in figure 5.8.
Importance of Mass Media
Pervasiveness of Mass Media
Mass Media Informs
Mass Media Entertains
Mass Media Persuades
Mass Media Binds
Figure 5.8 Importance of mass media
SELF-CHECK
1. What are the benefits of mass media?
2. Give examples of primary mass media.
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AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
ACTIVITY
Along with a group of other people, discuss what products you used. Isolate and
identify the role that media played in your decision to purchase the product.
WEBSITE
1. http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/mass_communication/
2. http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/mass_communication/
5.2 Media Relations
Media relations is umbrella term used to refer to the means of mass communication such as
newspapers, radio, magazines, and the group of journalists, others who constitute the com-
munication industry and the profession. There are three broad groups of media as illustrated in
figure 5.9.
Broadcast Media Broad groups Print Media

of Media
Digital Media
Figure 5.9: Media relations - Means of mass communication
The primary purpose of the media is communication. Events or information are interpreted and
reported to defined audience with the goal of educating, informing, entertaining and in some
cases protecting the audience. In many cases the media is a profit driven business, which must
sell its product- the information or news it reports. The media are driven by the need to pro-
duce a story that will sell to their audience.
Audiences are usually considered to be most interested in things that affect them directly or
that could affect them or those around them or potentially cause them harm. While some media
organisations aim to provide information and entertainment to the general community, there
are also those that cater for particular population groups. Multicultural media and indigenous
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media are two specific examples.
Multicultural and multilingual media serves the diversification of cultural and linguistics back-
ground of a country. Indigenous media- this serves the variety of indigenous media organisations
in a particular country. Broadcast media includes a commercial television network in central
as well as an extensive network of commercial and community radio stations. The broadcast
and print media target particular population groups such as youth or older people. Figure 5.10
shows examples of print and broadcast media. In addition, media organisations with a broader
general focus may also have sections or programs targeting particular groups.
Print and
Broadcast
media
Broadcasting News Paper Radio
Figure 5.10: Example of print and broadcast media
The messages need to be clear, concise and readily understood. Messages are important for two
main reasons. First of all, they are an essential part of attitude-forming process. If publics play
back to the originator of the message that the originator has initiated, it is a clear indication as
shown in figure 5.11.
The message has been received.
The message has been taken on board and is in some way being used.
May be just as a part of the thinking process, or it may permeate as far as

actions.
Figure 5.11: Messages are part of attitude forming process
The second reason, messages are important, is that they demonstrate the effectiveness of the
communication. They are an essential part of the evaluation process. If distinct messages are
utilized directly by the press, or if they are repeated in research such as attitude surveys, that
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AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
clearly shows the messages have been assimilated. It is quite a small step then to see what ac-
tions have been taken as a result of the communication (Gregory, 2000).
Whether they willingly admit it or not, in general corporate communications people and jour-
nalists are mutually dependent on one another. Corporate communications practitioners need
journalists as conduits for getting messages to various publics. Journalists need corporate com-
munications people as sources for story ideas, leads to authoritative spokespersons, and specific
information about stories in progress.
Thus, both can benefit from a positive working relationship. While having such positive work-
ing relationships with the mass media is important to corporate communications people, theyre
not important as ends in themselves. Theyre a means to the broader end of building meaningful
relationships with the organisations important publics who also happen to be part of the me-
dias audiences. Those audience members are the ultimate focus of the organisations attention;
the media are simply the means of reaching them.
ACTIVITY
Case Study:
Media relations do generate media coverage.
Although many journalists negligible the importance of corporate communica-

tions practitioners leads and claim that the news media come up with their own
story ideas, content analyses of major mass media seem to believe this. Re-
searchers consistently find that a high percentage of news stories originate from
corporate communications input.
One of the oldest but most-cited of these studies was published in 1973 by
Leon Sigal who reported that almost 60 percent of the editorial content of
the New York Times and Washington Post are generated by corporate com-
munications efforts.
A widely cited mid-1980s study of several leading newspapers reported by
the Columbia Journalism Review found that 45 percent of stories came ei-
ther verbatim from PR releases or with perfunctory additional reporting.
A 1999 national survey conducted by PR Week and cited in Wilcoxs Cor-
porate communications Writing and Media Techniques found that almost
60 percent of the responding journalists used news releases `all the time or
`often`. And, almost a third of the respondents also admitted that they had
come to rely more heavily on corporate communications sources for their
news stories than they had five years earlier.
Another survey reported by Wilcox was done Jericho Promotions of New
York. It involved more than 5000 questionnaires sent to journalists world-
wide. 38 percent of those responding said they got at least half of their
story ideas from corporate communications people. The percentage was
even higher among editors of lifestyle, entertainment, and health sections of
newspapers.
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Other smaller and more limited studies focusing on other media and con-
ducted at various times during the last two decades reported anywhere from
35 to 75 percent of the analysed medias editorial content came directly or
indirectly from corporate communications sources.
Questions:
1. Based on the above statement, why do you think the situation existed?
2. How to improve the relationship between practitioners and the media?
WEBSITE
http://www.nku.edu/~turney/prclass/readings/media_rel.html
5.3 Basic Principles in Media Relations
There are countless approaches and techniques that corporate communications practitioners can
use in working with the media. The five broad elements identified here are just one of many
equally valid ways of conceptualising and organising a wide range of media relations activi-
ties:
5.3.1 Respond to the Media
At the most basic level, being able to respond to the media means having someone who is acces-
sible to reporters in case they ever have questions about the organisation or its activities. It also
means that these accessible spokespersons have to be informed enough to be able to provide
prompt, accurate information and explanations that will satisfactorily answer those questions.
There are some organisations which, because of the nature of their business or the environment
in which they operate, need to have a corporate communications spokesperson on-call 24 hours
per day, seven days a week. They include medical centres where lives are at risk, airports and/
or places that deal with hazardous materials where an accident could have major consequences,
and correctional institutions and law enforcement agencies as shown in figure 5.12.
In contrast, there are other organisations which may be called upon to respond to the media less
than once a year and which have a very low probability of ever being called by the media. They
include small manufacturers, distributors and retailers of non-dangerous, staple household and
business products. For them, being accessible requires minimal preparation and effort, and the
extent of their media relations activity may be as little as periodically reminding the media of
their corporate communications persons name and phone number.
Most organisations fall somewhere in between. And, most organisations would prefer to have
more extensive and more favourable media coverage if not full blown media relations than they
now have. The first step should always be having well-prepared, knowledgeable people ready
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AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
and able to respond when the me-

dia call.
Even organisations which choose

to engage in no other media rela-
tions efforts should at least have
someone designated to respond
promptly to media inquiries to
avoid the possibility of being por-
trayed as non-responsive or secre-
tive by the media.
Figure 5.12: Organisations with corporate communications

spokesperson on-call 24/7
5.3.2 Issue Media Advisories and Alerts
In issuing a media alert or an advisory, an organisation isnt attempting to tell the story itself
or to write the story for the media. News releases are used for that. As the terms themselves
imply, their purpose is simply to alert editors
to something they may want to have their re-
porters cover. Whether or not its covered, or
how its covered is left entirely up to the edi-
tor.
For many organisations, especially for-profit

businesses, media alerts are a rarity. Some
corporate communications practitioners
never issue them. But, government public
information officers and corporate commu-
nications people working for charitable or
publicly-funded organisations do them all the
time. Examples of Government Public wel-
fare Information is given in figure 5.13.
In many cases, media alerts are a legal ne-

Figure 5.13: Government public
information related to welfare
cessity because sunshine laws that guarantee
public access to government records and open
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meetings laws at both the state and federal level require government agencies, commissions,
and board to post and/or publish public notices of their meetings and of decisions that affect
members of the public. Thus, a state or county welfare agency charged with providing financial
assistance to needy citizens or promoting abuse prevention, or a public works department that
is repairing or upgrading the citys infrastructure might issue a dozen or more media advisories
per month. Figure 5.14 shows Media Promoting Abuse prevention by reporting.
In some instances, the laws re-

quiring government programs to
publish/announce their activities
are so stringent that those agen-
cies have to purchase advertising
space to get their messages out if
the local media dont announce
the information as news. For
such government agencies and
the tax-payers who foot the bills
the number, quality, timeliness,
and effectiveness of their media
alerts is particularly important.
Figure 5.14: Media promoting abuse prevention
Non-profit organisations also make frequent use of media alerts as one of their tools for getting
reporters to attend and cover the special events and activities they sponsor.
In the case of an important event, a major fund-raising activity, for instance experienced corpo-
rate communications people wont rely solely on a mailed media alert to attract media cover-
age, they use follow-up phone calls, personal visits, and other gambits to insure the maximum
possible media attention. But, you can bet that they wont forget to issue a media alert as one
element in their persuasive campaign.
5.3.3 Visit, Network and Schmooze
Visiting the medias editorial and/or production offices and getting to know the people who
work there well enough to include them in your professional network is one of the best ways to
start building an organisations relationships with the media as shown in figure 5.15.
Corporate communications practitioners dont build relationships with the media person they
build them person by person with reporters, photographers, editors, publishers, news directors,
assignment directors, programmers, and station managers as shown in figure 5.16.
Beyond visiting the medias offices and talking with these folks on their turf, its also very
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AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
helpful to invite them to come

see your office and tour your
organisations facilities. Such
informative, yet casual interac-
tions help establish a common
ground for future contacts that
may deal with more specific
and more important issues.
Once an initial meeting and fa-

miliarisation are out of the way,
visits to the medias office are
usually quite rare. Most report-
ers and editors, even those who
Figure 5.15: Visit to the media office Way to build relation with media welcome a getting to know you
visit, do not encourage nor appreciate corporate communications people who frequently drop
in on them. In fact, theyre likely to be very suspicious of such activity.
Photographer
Figure 5.16: Media persons
5.3.4 Issue News and Feature Story Release
When an organisation issues a news release or a feature story release its putting its own story in
words and delivering it to the media in a format the media can make use of. The most common
form of release remains words on a page, although many of these pages are now electronically
transmitted by fax, modem, or wire service rather than being delivered as hard copy.
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Some practitioners also produce news releases on audio tape for radio stations audio news re-
leases (ANRs) or on videotape video news releases (VNRs) for television use. ANRs and VNRs
can be shipped to the media on a tape, or they can be transmitted electronically via telephone
line, wire service, or satellite transmission.
The ideal from a corporate communications perspective is for the media to use a release ex-
actly as submitted without changing anything. In that case, the organisation is telling its own
story in its own words instead of having a third party e.g., a reporter tell it from his or her per-
spective. But, that wont happen unless the corporate communications person who writes the
release is thoroughly knowledgeable about media style and values and reflects that in what and
how they write.
Whats more likely to happen, is that a news release which is perceived as newsworthy by the
media will be edited and/or rewritten in ways that turn it into the medias version of the story
rather than the corporate communications persons view of the story.
The media may cut some things out that are considered self-serving, old news, or unsupported
commentary. Sometimes, releases are simply trimmed to fit the space available or to make them
more consistent in terms of style.
An editor who feels the quotes used in the release are too stilted or self-serving but who doesnt
want to simply cut them out may call and talk directly to the executives who were quoted to see
if theyll express their ideas in other words.
The media may add additional information to make the story more complete or more relevant
to their audiences.
The reasons for Additional Information Given:

There may be more than one side to the story youre telling, and the media may want to
show the opposing sides.
If the story involves a particular industry, they may want comments from a variety of com-
petitors to provide a more complete scope and balance than theyve gotten just from your
organisation.
Whatever happens to releases once theyre issued is beyond the control of the corporate com-
munications person who releases them. These decisions are strictly the prerogative of the edi-
tors, news directors, and other media gatekeepers who very zealously guard them. Large or
small, local or national, the media control their own content, and corporate communications
practitioners cannot demand anything be included or excluded as editorial content.
So, much to the chagrin of corporate communications practitioners who write news releases,
many are simply discarded by the media.
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AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
5.3.5 Host News Conferences and Other Media Opportunities
Hosting news conferences and other media opportunities such as interviews with visiting dig-
nitaries or subject matter experts or tours of facilities can be very helpful and very effective in
gaining media attention and coverage. But, activities of this type will only work if the medias
needs are kept in mind and if whats being presented has substantive content that will be of
interest to the medias audiences as shown in figure 5.17.
Neither a news conference nor an interview opportunity unless its with the President,
the Pope, a head of state, or someone of comparable importance is newsworthy
in and of itself. It becomes newsworthy and worthwhile for the media only when
something new and important is going to be said.
Tours are of interest only if theyre rarely done or theres something new and
remarkable to see.
Figure 5.17: Criteria for media opportunity
News conferences Traditionalists and newspaper-minded folks persist in calling them press
conferences are the most popular and most standardized media opportunity. Some of their pop-
ularity is no doubt due to the popularity and glamour of televised presidential news conferences
which have inspired corporate executives and corporate communications practitioners alike
to see themselves glibly responding to every tough question thrown at them. Alas, most news
conferences arent as glamorous as the Presidents.
There are four steps in determining messages (Gregory, 2000) for the media is shown in figure
5.18
Steps in determining messages for the media
Step one is to take existing articulated perceptions. For example, it may be that your
organisations products are regarded as old-fashioned and this has been identified in
earlier research.
Step two is to define what shifts can be made in those perceptions. If, in fact, your
products have been substantially upgraded you need to say that loud and clear.
Step three is to identify elements on the basis of fact. You might be making major
investments in upgrading your plant. It could be that there has been a series of new
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technology initiatives. May be you have won an innovation award recently. There are
all facts that falsify the view that you products are old-fashioned.
Step four is to ensure that the messages are credible and deliverable through corporate
communications. It may be that advertising and direct mail should be enlisted to put
across a corporate communications message.
Figure 5.18: The four steps in determining messages for the media
The integrity of a message is affected by a whole host of things that determine whether it is
taken seriously or not:
1. Format: How is the message put across? Are there visual images that associated with it?
The care taken with the physical presentation of a corporate identity is a good example of
this. The appropriate words, even typeface, must be used to get across the impact of the
message. Bold, joking messages often use brash, elaborate type-faces; serious material uses
serif type-faces. A financial institute is probably not going to use cartoons to put across a
death benefit product.
2. Tone: Choice of language is very important. All messages need to have careful attention
paid to the mood, atmosphere or style that they are trying to portray. The mood might be
upbeat or somber. This point is carefully linked to the format issue.
3. Context: The context in which a message is seen is vital.
4. Timing: It is no use pumping out information about your special Hari Raya offer if Hari
Raya was last week.
5. Repetition: Obviously the more often a credible message is repeated, the more likely it is
to be hard and picked up.
SELF-CHECK
1. Elaborate some of basic principles in media relations.
2. What are the basic principles that affect the integrity of the message?
ACTIVITY
Along with a small group of your classmates, witness some of the public func-
tion at your organisation or your community. Write a news story about what you
saw and heard. Compare your stories with each other and discuss.
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AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
1. http://www.nku.edu/~turney/prclass/readings/media_rel.html
WEBSITE
2. http://www.nku.edu/~turney/prclass/readings/working1.html
5.4 Role of Press Agencies
Press agencies and press associations are organisations for the collection, transmission, and
distribution of news to newspapers, periodicals, television, radio and other journalistic and
mass communications media. These news-gathering organisations originated in a general used
to faster transmission of news, the invention of telegraphy in the mod-19th century provided
the means for this as well as the impetus for the modern development and extension of wire
services as shown in figure 5.19.
Role of Press Agencies
Collection of News Transmission of News Distibution of News
Figure 5.19: Role of press agencies
Present-day press agencies and associations vary in form. The best known operate as worldwide
news-reporting services, providing general news coverage. Others provide national or regional
coverage of routine or special news (stock market quotations are an example of the latter). Still
others offer specialised services, reporting news of particular interest to persons of a specific
religion or profession. Large newspapers, such as the New York Times, usually have their own
news-gathering networks and syndicate stories filed by their reporters; however, these papers
rarely on the international services for broader coverage. Straight news reports are still the
mainstay of most modern press agencies and associations, but service in some cases now also
includes transmission of news photographs and production of films for television news pro-
grams as shown in figure 5.20.
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The publication explored the role

of the media as a watchdog of gov-
ernment and the corporate sector,
the medias power to influence
markets, its usefulness as a trans-
mitter of new ideas and informa-
tion. Financially stable media was
essential to good governance and
that efforts to strengthen the busi-
ness environment in which inde-
pendent media could thrive had
an impact on their success.
Figure 5.20: Large newspapers have their
The major news agencies generally
own news gathering network
prepare hard news stories and fea-
tures articles that can be used by other news organisations with little or no modification and then
sell them to other news organisations. They provide these articles in bulk electronically through
wire services (originally used telegraphy, today they frequently use the Internet). Corporations,
individuals, analysts and intelligence agencies may also subscribe.
Internet-based alter-
native news agencies
as a component of the
larger alternative me-
dia emphasise a non-
corporate view that is
independent of the pres-
sures of corporate me-
dia, business media and
government-generated
news and releases. Al-
ternative news agencies
are shown in the figure
5.21
Figure 5.21: Alternative news agencies - A component of alternative media
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AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
5.5 Media Sectors
Media plays an important role

in our daily lives. Contemporary
research has found that media
remain central to most peoples
lives next to sleep and work; our
next most time-consuming activ-
ity is attending to media (Barr,
2000, 92). In fact, some research
indicates that the influence of
mass media may be increasing in-
stead of declining, with the break-
down of the nuclear family, lo-
cal communities and religion in
Figure 5.22: Providing information taken over by many societies-social institutions
forms of communication
that previously guided individuals
in forming opinions and viewpoints but are less influential in many modern Western countries.
Today, the role providing the information and images that create social awareness, attitudes
and identity have been increasingly taken over by forms of communication and entertainment
(Chaney, 1994, 58) as shown in figure 5.22.
In the commercial world, leading mass media coverage has been shown to significantly affect
stock prices, lead to corporate collapses, causes falls in sales, result in the resignation of senior
office-holders, even bring down the Presidents. On a less dramatic everyday level, mass me-
dia help shape brands and reputations, inform (or misinform) consumers about products, raise
issues in public debate, and influence governments to change policy, regulate or legislate in
certain areas.
Understanding mass media content and its likely impacts and effects, is therefore vitally impor-
tant for companies and organisations of all types and for individuals in public positions.
The media sector can be defined as comprising the creation, modification, transfer and distribu-
tion of media content for the purpose of mass consumption as shown in figure 5.23, where:
Media content comprises art, reports of facts, and expressions of ideas or opinions
in a form that allows these to be consumed independently (in time or in place)
from their creation.
Mass consumption requires that the creation, modification, transfer or distribution

is undertaken without knowledge of the specific identity of the people to whom the
content is to be made available.
Figure 5.23: Media sector - A definition
19
CHAPTER 5
The meaning of each of these definitions is best understood by identifying what they exclude.
The media sector involves separation between creation and consumption for example theatrical
or musical performances, or political speeches, are not media content by themselves: there is
no de-coupling of creation and consumption. The performance is necessarily consumed as
it being created. In contrast to such performances, the media sector involves a process through
which, first, the fruits of human creativity are converted to media content and, second, this
media content is distributed to, and consumed by, an audience unconnected to its original cre-
ation.
The essence of the media sector is the separation between creation and distribution, reflect-
ing the use of the term medium to describe a means of communication. Thus, a broadcast
(whether live or not) or a recording of the performance or speech, which can be consumed
independently of the speech or performance itself, would be media content. The speech script
or musical score used by the performer is potentially media content, as it is capable of mass
consumption; but its creation or distribution only forms part of the media sector where this is
undertaken for the purpose of mass consumption. Speech writing exclusively for the speakers
use, with no prospect of any other distribution, is not a media activity.
The requirement that media be for mass consumption excludes various social and commercial
exchanges where, to the extent that content is created, the audience, reader or recipient is a spe-
cific individual or a closed group. The supply of voice telephony services allows the transmis-
sion of audio content from one person to another, but falls outside the media sector due to the
private nature of the communication.
Knowing about the media, how to work with each medium, produce content for each, meet the
deadlines, adhere to specific styles requirements, and appeal to each mediums audience is a
major part of many practitioners jobs (Cutlip, Centre & Broom, 2000).
According to Cutlip, Centre & Broom (2000), guidelines for good media relations these guide-
lines are illustrated in figure 5.24:
Guidelines for Good Media Relations
Shoot squarely:
It is not just politically correct to counsel that honesty is the best policy in dealing with
the press; it is good business and good common sense. Journalists point out that good
and bad news tend to even out over time, so if practitioners are honest with bad news,
then they are more likely to be trusted with good news.
Give service:
The quickest way to gain the cooperation of journalists is to provide them with newsworthy,
interesting, and timely stories and pictures that they want when they want them and in
a form they can readily use.
Do not beg or carp:
Nothing irritates journalists and their editors and news editors more than the practitioner
who begs to have stories used or complaints about story treatment. If information is not
20
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AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
sufficiently newsworthy on its own merit to attract their interest, no amount of begging
and carping can change the quality of that information.
Do not ask for kills:
Practitioners have no right to ask the press to suppress or kill a story. There are occasions
when it is perfectly legitimate to request a delay in publication or to explain to the press
any part of the story that might be damaging to the public interest.
Do not flood the media:
Do not flood the media. The best advice includes the following (1) stick to what journalists
will consider news, (2) keep media mailing list current, and (3) send to only one-the
most appropriate-journalist at each news medium.
Figure 5.24: Guidelines for good media relations

Cutlip, Centre and Broom (2000) also provide guidelines for working with the press are shown
in figure 5.25.
Talk from the viewpoint of the publics interest, not the organisations.
Make the news easy to read and use. Use a short, punchy headline to attract
attention and give potential users an indication of the topic.
If you do not want some statement quoted, do not make it.
State the most important fact at the beginning.
Do not argue with a reporter or lose your cool.
If a question contains offensive language or simply words you do not like, do not
repeat them even to deny them.
If the reporter asks a direct question, give an equally direct answer.
If spokesperson does not know the answer to a question, they should simply say I
dont know, but Ill get the answer for you.
Tell the truth, even if it hurts.
Do not call a press conference unless you have what reporters consider news.
Figure 5.25: Guidelines for working with the press

These suggestions can help practitioners build and maintain good relationships with the report-
ers. In fact, the practitioner-journalist relationship is an adversarial relationship. Media training
designed to help executive deal directly with the press is a responsibility of the corporate com-
munications and corporate communication departments and an essential investment in main-
taining good media relations.
SELF-CHECK
1. What are some of basic guidelines in building media relations suggested by
Cutlip, Centre and Broom (2000)?
21
CHAPTER 5
5.6 What is Media Analysis?
Media analysis is a method of assessing, in qualitative and quantitative form, the effect of me-
dia coverage on an organisation. For every corporate communications/communication function
to justify itself, it must set objectives in such a way that progress in fulfilling the objectives can
be measured. Devising such measurements is often difficult (for example in advertising) but, in
the field of editorial media coverage, the problems are acute. A sample Media Analysis is shown
in figure 5.26.
100%
100% coverage based on
Detail Analysis - Level of each daily papers, business papers,
Analytical
Information Unit (Statement) IV- News, newsgroup, special

interest media
SKILLS REQUIRED
Relational and conceptual

Profile Analysis Statement Level analysis - rich in context
scientific and reliable.
70%
Article Level Analysis
Mechnical
Word Frequency (Mechanical)

Purely conceptual
Clipping Summary analysis
Daily Clippings
Operational Strategic
CLIENT VALUE
Measuring Media Realty and Ensuring Successful use of Resources
Figure 5.26: Media analysis - A qualitative cum quantitative assessment
Media analyses can be used to identify messages, examine how those messages are framed, and
see how existing coverage of an issue could be improved. These analyses entail systematically
taking a slice of media coverage from a set time-frame, often in the top daily newspapers,
magazines and broadcast news outlets. The coverage can be classified and analyzed to identify
communication opportunities for nonprofits and foundations, and strategic recommendations
can be drawn to help them effectively disseminate their messages.
Harold Lasswell summarised media analysis as Who say what to whom, why, to what extent,
and with what effects (Shoemaker and Reese, 1996, 12). Meanwhile, Ole Holsti suggested a
broad definition for media analysis as any technique for making inferences by objectively and
systematically identifying specified characteristics of messages.
Some elements in media analysis such as media content analysis, evaluative assertive analysis,
frame analysis, discourse analysis, become an important tool in the measurement of success in
media relations programs and the assessment of media profiles. Media coverage is a major and
sometimes dominant factor in determining the well-being of an organisation. Every organisa-
22
CHAPTER 5
AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
tions needs to know how the media are affecting the attitudes and behaviour of its public.Ele-
ments in media analysis are given in figure 5.27.
Elements in Media Analysis
Media Content Discourse Evaluative

Analysis Frame Analysis Analysis Assertive Analysis
Important Tools
Media Relations Assessment of

Programs Media Profile
Figure 5.27: Elements in media analysis
While a communications firm or a media expert can offer in-depth analysis of news coverage
on a particular issue or group, if the suggestions below are followed, an analysis can be done
in-house by foundations or non-profits, even those without a media background.
WEBSITE
http://www.mediaevaluationproject.org/WorkingPaper2.pdf
5.7 The Reasons for Media Analysis
Media analysis can provide organisations with the same quality of research based on data for
planning, budgeting and decision-taking as that enjoyed by other business specialties. It can
help to educate commercial organisations and governments to what will enhance and what
will tarnish their good name. It can help you to focus limited resources to achieve maximum
effect.
23
CHAPTER 5
Recognising the evident impact of media coverage on the image of any country with a high
media profile, most embassies already make an effort to track media coverage of their country.
It is difficult, however, for those without an intimate knowledge of local media to make reliable
judgments about the reach and effect of coverage. It is still more difficult to determine the ap-
propriate response.
While monitoring tells us, who is saying what and where (outputs), only media analysis can
identify likely audience impact and effect (outcomes), the ultimate result and most important
aspect of media communication. Furthermore, only analysis can draw inferences as to produc-
ers intent, interests and biases which provide valuable strategic insight for planning media
relations and communication campaigns. The three key uses which define the important role of
media analysis in a commercial context are shown in figure 5.28.
Descriptive-describing what has appeared whom it has reached and what it said
about which issues, basic media analysis.
Inferential-what can be inferred about those who said and those it is said about,
such as identifying biases and dispositions, particular interests, etc.
Predictive-what effect it is likely to have on awareness and opinion.
Figure 5.28: Role of media analysis
Another important point about the role of media analysis is that it can and, ideally should not
only be used to study an organisations own media coverage. As well as identifying what mes-
sages and information a client organisation is getting into the media and via the media to target
audiences, media analysis can also identify issues reported in and often placed on the public
agenda by the media, as well as what other sources such as competitors and organisations are
saying and doing.
The mass media provide a window on the marketplace and on society to gain strategic insights,
as well as a channel of communication to understand, manage, and evaluate. Understanding of
likely impact and effects of mass media information is best understood by analyzing a client or-
ganisations coverage as well as that of other key sources (competitors, analysts, NGOs such as
environmental and consumer groups, etc) and that of relevant issues, such as a combination of
all this information reaches the public and shapes awareness and attitudes and potentially influ-
ences behaviour. Some of the reasons for conducting media analysis as shown in figure 5.29.
Measurement of success in Corporate communications and marketing.
Early warning system for reputation risk.
Tracking media effects on share price.
Commercial purposes: encouraging donations, tourism, foreign investments,
24
CHAPTER 5
AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
sales and product awareness, improving consumer perception about the company,
undertaking a successful IPO, etc.
Improving media quality and reporting standards.
Increasing citations and as a result, sales.
Identifying the impact of the media.
Testing hypotheses and theories on media effects.
Agenda setting research.
Figure 5.29: Reasons for conducting media analysis
A typical media analysis can answer the following questions:
1. How do the media frame public discussion of an issue (by repeating various story
elements, using common metaphors, quoting similar people, etc.)?
2. Who are the main spokespeople on a particular topic, and how are they being quoted?
Are they mainly advocates, policymakers, academic experts, etc.?
3. How often are various spokespeople quoted and in what context?
4. What topics are being covered, and what topics are being ignored?
5. Which outlets are covering or ignoring an issue or organisation that they should be
covering?
6. Is there a time of year when an issue or organisation is more likely to be covered than
others?
7. Is a topic or organisation front-page news, and if not, where in the paper is that topic or
organisation covered?
8. Which reporters are writing on this issue/organisation?
9. What messages are being used?
5.7.1 What can be Measured?
Media analysis has become an increasingly important tool since the 1980s to measure the fac-
tors success in corporate communications (especially media relations programs) and assess-
ment of media profiles.
In both these cases, media analysis becomes an element of media evaluation as well. In analyses
of this type, media analysis is usually combined with media data (like number of viewers and
listeners, readership, circulation and frequency of publication). It can be used to predict trends
25
CHAPTER 5
as shown in figure 5.30.

What can be Measured?
The methodology adopted in me-
dia analysis should be quantitative
and qualitative valid and reliable
that requires a systematic and
scientific approach. The analysis
should go beyond collecting and
counting the number of media
articles (media monitoring) and
may include identification of the
following factors as shown in fig-
ure 5.31.
Figure 5.30: Analysis combined with data predicts trends
The audience reached by media coverage (circulation or audience size sometimes

called impressions or opportunities to see.
Issues discussed and reported and their relative importance to the client
organisation.
The share of voice of various organisations or spokes persons.
The number of mentions of particular issues or messages.
Positioning of content such as key messages, eg.: headline, prominent mention,

passing mention.
Placement of articles eg. front page, early pages, middle of paper or edition, at the
back.
Images such as photos, illustrations, charts, cartoons, etc.
Figure 5.31: Factors identified for media analysis
5.7.2 Methodology in Media Analysis
1. The first step in crafting a media analysis methodology is to develop search terms.
2. Once search terms are determined, the next step is to develop a list of news outlets which
will be the focus of the sample. For example the top 10 daily newspapers in the country,
three national news magazines, six national broadcast outlets, two wire services, and one
Internet news source are often used, since they reach a large segment of the population.
3. Media analyses examine articles from a set time-frame, usually about six months. For
example, the philanthropy media analysis examined stories from July 2002 to January
2003, and the low-wage worker analysis looked at stories from Feb 1, 2001 through July
31, 2001.
26
CHAPTER 5
AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
4. To obtain the articles, the appropriate search terms are entered into electronic databases,
usually Dow Jones/Factiva and the Lexis Nexis search engine. (More information on
these databases can be found at www.factiva.com and www.nexis.com). Both charge fees
for users, but another database which is useful for searching for recent articles and is free
of charge is Google News at www.news.google.com as shown in figure 5.32.
Figure 5.32: Steps in media analysis
Even with the right search terms, sometimes the stories dont match what one is looking for.
Sometimes words may be included in articles that are mentioned in passing, but are not rel-
evant. When this happens, the irrelevant articles must be discarded. A manageable sample for
a typical media analysis is between 100 and 200 stories. If one still has too many articles for
a manageable sample even after sifting through them to discard what is irrelevant, the sample
must be narrowed by randomly selecting articles. So, if 300 articles on a topic are identified, a
sample is drawn to achieve a manageable number for careful scrutiny. Typically every second
or third story would be randomly chosen for analysis. This sampling technique increases the
accuracy of the findings.
5.7.3 The Analytical Process of the Media Analysis
Once the sample is drawn, articles are read closely. First, stories are classified by type - opinion,
news, or feature.
Opinion pieces can be letters to the editor, op-eds, columns or editorials.
News pieces are straightforward articles which report on the latest events in the world.
Feature stories are usually more in-depth pieces, sometimes lighter pieces, and often profile
stories.
In addition to analysing the type of story, it is important to take note of where each story ran
27
CHAPTER 5
in the newspaper or magazine. Observe if a

story ran on the front page, the national, in-
ternational, business, or metro section, or if
it was published in the lifestyles, arts, sports,
or a special section. Editors make important
decisions regarding where to place each story,
and these decisions should be noted for each
article. Both the Lexis-Nexis and Factiva da-
International News Provider tabases include this information. Wire stories,
TV broadcasts, and Internet stories are clas-
sified based on the scope or reach of the out-
let. For example, a story on the CBS Evening
News would be classified as national news; a
story on the BBC (if that were included in the
sample) would be classified as international
news. A news special would be classified in
the special section category as shown in fig-
ure 5.33.
National News Provider
Figure 5.33: Stories are classified by categories
It is also important to analyze when stories

ran. Coverage of certain issues is tied to the
calendar. For example, in an analysis on sto-
ries related to philanthropy, it was noted that
the incidence of stories on charitable giving
or philanthropy spiked during the holiday
season (November through January) when
people turn their attention to food drives and
giving thanks for the basics. As a result, the
strategic recommendation for nonprofits and
foundations was to approach the media dur-
ing this time of year.
Figure 5.34: A Fundraising campaign
In addition to looking at story type, timing
and placement within the newspaper, one should also look at story topics. Topics show how an
issue is being covered and what opportunities there are for linking the mission and interests of
a nonprofit group to current coverage on that issue. For the analysis on stories related to philan-
thropy, news pieces fell into topical categories such as individual contribution, major donor, or
fundraising campaign, trends in charitable giving, charitable giving tips and fraud as shown in
figure 5.34.
Given this information, a foundation or nonprofit organisation might want to develop materials
that elaborate on often-used story topics, for example a list of the Top 10 Tips for Charitable
28
CHAPTER 5
AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
Giving. Another approach would be to put fraud stories in perspective for the press by pointing
out the number of fraud cases in relation to the huge numbers of Americans who make sound
investments in the nations future through their charitable contributions. Still another approach
would be to make it a priority to expand the topic areas in which philanthropy is covered by
offering alternative ideas to reporters.Thus a media analysis when completed should be able to
as shown in figure 5.35:
If there was a time of year in which stories on the issue were more likely to be
written.
The extent of media coverage of the key issues.
How those issues were being framed which messages were being communicated
through the media coverage and which are being missed.
Where in the newspaper the issues were most likely to be covered.
Which reporters and outlets were covering the issues.
Figure 5.35: Issues covered in media analysis
WEBSITE
5.8 The Process of Evaluation and Coding
Basically, the methods of evaluation for media analysis used by the researchers are as follows:
5.8.1 Content Analysis
Content analysis is a systematic method used to turn items (mainly texts into content categories.
This method (more usually intended to inform quantitative research) follows explicit rules of
coding and enables large quantities of data to be categorised with relative ease. Content analysis
offers a quick, broad overview of data sets, and as such can be used to support and be corrobo-
rated by other more detailed methods of textual analysis.
5.8.2 Evaluative Assertion Analysis
This approach based on work in the 1950s by the psycholinguist Charles Osgood attempts to
map texts and their object referents by reducing them to fairly unequivocal evaluative state-
ments.
29
CHAPTER 5
5.8.3 Spokesperson Analysis
Whoever is quoted about a particular is-

sue within a news story has increased
impact on how that issue is portrayed
to the public. Usually spokespeople fall
into the following categories, although
categories vary depending on the fo-
cus of the analysis: advocates, business
leaders/professionals, public/govern-
ment officials, members of the general
public, and academics. One should tally
which groups are quoted most often,
along with how many people in each
group are quoted, and create a chart to
help analyse why some groups are quot- Figure 5.36: Categories of spoke persons
ed more than others.
In the analysis on philanthropy, nonprofit staff members were quoted most often, followed by
the general public. Religious leaders and journalists were quoted least often. This is odd, since
by far the bulk of charitable gifts are made to religious institutions. This finding implies that
there are opportunities for religious leaders to become sources of information to journalists
about charitable giving, if only they would pursue those opportunities more aggressively as
shown in figure 5.36.
5.8.4 Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis examines how the social world is constituted through discourse. Within Dis-
course Analysis there are various distinct traditions including conversation analysis and ethno
methodology; sociolinguistics, discursive psychology, critical method used for the process of
evaluation would be explained here in detailed namely the Framing Analysis as shown in figure
5.37.
Discourse
Analysis
Conversation Ethno Sociolinguistics Discursive Critical Method

Analysis Methodology Psychology for Evalution
Figure 5.37: Traditions in discourse analysis
30
CHAPTER 5
AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
5.8.5 Framing Analysis
It is also important to determine how stories are framed. Frames reflect a specific viewpoint or
mindset. An analysis of how a story is framed involves looking at a storys content and seeing
how reporters connect its topic to the archetypal stories that already exist within peoples minds.
There are, for example, some classic archetypal story frames, such as the self-made man story
and the hero takes a fall story. These story frames carry with them strong associations that can
be negative or positive, and their use tends to activate those associations in the minds of readers
and viewers. For instance, the self-made man frame carries with it the positive associations
of hard work and deserved success. On the opposite end of the spectrum, the hero takes a fall
story can carry with it negative associations such as he behaved badly, made mistakes or was
never who he claimed to be.
By identifying frames, one can determine some of the underlying messages that the media are
inadvertently sending. In the analysis on low-wage workers, some of the frames included:
Government incompetence - These stories were framed with the idea that government agen-
cies and programs are inadequately addressing the needs of low-wage workers, or even that
government is causing problems for this group. Government officials may have tried to reform
programs designed to help low-wage workers, but poor planning and implementation have ac-
tually made things worse. In using this frame, reporters sometimes referred to a tangled web of
bureaucracy, which often blocked access to services and benefits.
Rock and a hard place - The notion that low-wage workers are often trapped between a rock
and a hard place was a popular frame used by reporters. The underlying theme was the preva-
lence of unintended social consequences from reform efforts such as TANF, which have placed
low-wage workers in a bind. The focus of this frame was not actual policy efforts, but the effect
of those efforts on low-wage workers themselves.
The economic ladder - The underlying theme here is the allusion itself: our economic system
is a ladder, with lower wage people at the bottom and higher wage people near the top. This
allusion suggests, of course, the traditional notion that still resonates with many Americans:
that hard work and toil has a lot to do with how high you climb on the ladder, and through hard
work, you, too, can make it to the top. Use of the ladder image also implies that there will al-
ways be some people at the bottom and thats just the way it is.
Falling behind - The idea that low-wage workers are somehow falling behind the rest of so-
ciety in terms of economic and social gains was another common frame, similar in nature to the
economic ladder frame. There was a sense in stories framed this way that the world is rapidly
moving forward and wont slow down for those who cannot keep up the pace. The assumption
here is that some people fall behind due to their own individual faults; seldom considered is that
they might be falling behind because of systemic faults.
31
CHAPTER 5
Welfare myth - These stories were framed with long-standing myths about welfare and people
on public assistance. The myths revolve around three separate, but related themes: the notion
that people on public assistance are freeloaders, the concept of welfare as prison, and the idea
of the undeserving or unappreciative individual.
More than one frame can appear in the same story, and although most stories have frames, not
every one does as shown in figure 5.38.
Types of Frames
Government incompetence:
These stories were framed with the idea that government agencies and programs are
inadequately addressing the needs of low-wage workers, or even that government is
causing problems for this group. Government officials may have
tried to reform programs designed to help low-wage workers, but poor planning and
implementation have actually made things worse. In using this frame, reporters
sometimes referred to a tangled web of bureaucracy, which often blocked access to
services and benefits.
Rock and a hard place:

The notion that low-wage workers are often trapped between a rock and a hard place
was a popular frame used by reporters. The underlying theme was the prevalence of
unintended social consequences from reform efforts such as TANF, which have placed
low- wage workers in a bind. The focus of this frame was not actual policy efforts, but
the effect of those efforts on low-wage workers themselves.
The economic ladder:

The underlying theme here is the allusion itself: our economic system is a ladder, with
lower wage people at the bottom and higher wage people near the top. This allusion
suggests, of course, the traditional notion that still resonates with many Americans: that
hard work and toil has a lot to do with how high you climb on the ladder, and through
hard work, you, too, can make it to the top. Use of the ladder image also implies that
there will always be some people at the bottom and thats just the way it is.sufficiently
newsworthy on its own merit to attract their interest, no amount of begging and carping
can change the quality of that information.
Falling behind:
The idea that low-wage workers are somehow falling behind the rest of society in
terms of economic and social gains was another common frame, similar in nature to the
economic ladder frame. There was a sense in stories framed this way that the world is
rapidly moving forward and wont slow down for those who cannot keep up the pace.
The assumption here is that some people fall behind due to their own individual faults;
seldom considered is that they might be falling behind because of systemic faults.
Welfare myth:
These stories were framed with long-standing myths about welfare and people on public
32
CHAPTER 5
AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
assistance. The myths revolve around three separate, but related themes: the notion
that people on public assistance are freeloaders, the concept of welfare as prison, and
the idea of the undeserving or unappreciative individual.
Figure 5.38: Types of story frames
ACTIVITY
To learn more about frames, an excellent resource is an essay by George Lakoff,
a University of California Professor of Linguistics, called imple Framing
SELF-CHECK
1. How to develop a search theme?
2. What are the basic of Process of evaluation and coding?
5.8.6 Structuring the Media Analysis
When writing the analysis, begin with an executive summary that includes an introduction,
the purpose of the analysis, and its major findings. The executive summary is followed by the
methodology, the topic analysis, the framing analysis, the spokesperson analysis, and conclu-
sions and recommendations. Appendices for a list of reporters and article citations should also
be included.
5.8.7 Comparative Analysis
Sometimes it can be very informative to compare media coverage from one year to the next.
For example, in the media analysis on philanthropy, to examine how coverage of philanthropy
changed over five years, one set of philanthropy-related stories - which was published between
July 1997 and January 1998 - was compared to another set of philanthropy-related stories from
a comparable six-month period in 2002-2003. Comparisons were made to see if story topics
varied between the time periods, if reporters were quoting the same types of people in 2002-
2003 that they were quoting in 1997-1998, and if the type of articles or the outlets covering phi-
lanthropy were significantly different between the two time periods as shown in figure 5.39.
Findings indicated that the truth about philanthropy has been sidelined over the past five years.
Between sample periods, there was a huge decline in coverage of individual contributions,
major donors, or fundraising campaigns. There was also a decline in coverage of corporate
philanthropy, probably due to the sluggish economy. These stories were mostly positive in their
tone, and likely left readers with a favourable view of major donors and nonprofit groups. A key
33
CHAPTER 5
FIGURE 2: Relative distribution of philanthropic activity FIGURE 1: Relative distribution of philanthropic activity
discussed in news media coverage, (1997-1998) (2002-2003) discussed in news media coverage, (1997-1998) (2002-2003)
30% 25%
Percentage of Stories
25% 20%
15%
Percentage of Stories
20%
10%
15% 5%
10% 0%
l
e
es
re
gy
al
l
y
t
ca
re
ba
f
en
en
rit
ic
nc
tio
io
lic
ie
du
ltu
lu
fa
lo
Lo
st
lo
at
l
5%
nm
pe
m
na
Po
Re
lu
Va
no
vi
el
Ju
Cu
G
uc
er
so
os
er
di
ro
ch
et
Ed
w
In
Re
ov
ity
Pr
vi
lth
Te
po
rg
En
G
tiv
et
t
ea
Ta
Em
e
ic
rg
ea
nc
nfl
Ta
ie
Cr
0%
Co
Sc
Mechanism Rationale Praise Criticism
Note: Stories may include multiple implementation components.
Figure 5.39: Comparison of a Pair of Philanthropy Related Stories
finding was that this decline in coverage of good works by individuals and companies was an
alarming trend that foundations and nonprofit groups should address promptly.
5.8.8 Coding
The creation of coding frames is intrinsically related to a creative approach to variables that
exert an influence over textual content. To give an example in the political analysis, these vari-
ables could be the political scandals, the impact of public opinion pools, and sudden events in
internal politics, inflation etc.
Nunendorf (2002) suggests that when human coders are used in content analysis, reliability
translates to inter-coder reliability of the amount of agreement or correspondence among two
or more coders. Both quantitative and qualitative analysis should be conducted using system-
atic coding (i.e. categorisation and classification) based on key words and key data such as
positioning 9ed. Page number), length/size etc-not conducted subjectively based on personal
interpretation.
Analyst undertaking media analysis should be trained in content analysis methodology and re-
search procedures generally, including at least basic statistics areas such as semiotics. Intensive
training is one of the ways that systematic coding is achieved and subjectivity is minimised.
Subjectivity is further minimised and reliability and consistency achieved by providing written
Coding Guidelines to all analysts working on the analysis.
Organisations undertaking media analyses should keep tally spreadsheets for each major area
to be examined. In other words, you might have one spreadsheet for the spokespeople quoted
in your articles, another for the types of stories, another for the frames, etc. Keep in mind that
these projects are quite time-consuming since the analysis must examine articles in many dif-
ferent ways; one cannot just passively skim the articles as a typical reader might.
The final report should provide a good idea of what opportunities are available to a particular
34
CHAPTER 5
AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
nonprofit group or individual spokesperson, where reporters are writing about the organisa-
tions key issues and what the best angles for coverage might be. The finished media analysis
should show the extent of media coverage of the key issues; how those issues are being framed;
which messages are being communicated through the media coverage and which are being
missed; which spokespeople are identified and quoted in the stories; if there is a time of year
in which stories on the issue are more likely to be written; where in the newspaper the issues
are most likely to be covered; and which reporters and outlets are covering the issues. Findings
from the media analysis will help nonprofit organisations craft more effective media strategies
and address challenges to getting their messages across to target audiences.
WEBSITE
1. http://www.mediaevaluationproject.org/WorkingPaper2.pdf
2. http://www.rockridgeinstitute.org/perspectives/simple_framing
SUMMARY
1. In communication, media are the storage and transmission tools used to store and
deliver information or data. Because the media are so prevalent in industrialised coun-
tries, they have a powerful impact on how those populations view the world. They are
the primary and frequently only source of information regarding conflicts. Another
important benefit of a functioning mass news media is that information can be relayed
quickly in times of crisis.
2. Media relations is umbrella term used to refer to the means of mass communication
such as newspapers, radio, magazines, and the group of journalists, others who consti-
tute the communication industry and the profession.
3. Basic principles in media relations are organising a wide range of media relations
activities, Respond to the media, Issue media advisories and alerts, Visit, network and
schmooze,. Issue news and feature story release, Host news conferences and other
media opportunities.
4. Present-day press agencies and associations vary in form. The best known operate as
worldwide news-reporting services, providing general news coverage. Others provide
national or regional coverage of routine or special news some others offer specialised
services.
5. The media sector can be defined as comprising the creation, modification, transfer and
distribution of media content for the purpose of mass consumption. Guidelines for
good media relations involves, Shoot squarely, Give service, Do not beg or carp, Do
not ask for kills and do not flood the media.
35
CHAPTER 5
6. Media analysis is a method of assessing, in qualitative and quantitative form, the effect
of media coverage on an organisation.
7. The Reasons for Media Analysis,What can be measured, Methodology in media analysis
and the analytical process of the media analysis are discussed.
8. Basically, the methods of evaluation for media analysis used by the researchers are as
follows:Content analysis, Evaluative Assertion Analysis, Spokesperson Analysis, Dis-
course Analysis, Framing Analysis, Structuring the Media Analysis and Comparative
Analysis.
9. The creation of coding frames is intrinsically related to a creative approach to variables

that exert an influence over textual content.
glossary
Discursive - Proceeding to a conclusion by reason or argument

rather than intuition.
Pervasiveness - The quality of filling or spreading throughout.
philanthropy - Voluntary promotion of human welfare.
psycholinguist - A person who studies the psychological basis of hu-

man language.
Ratification - Confirmation.
Schmooze - As informal conversation.
Sociolinguistics - Study of language in relation to its Sociocultural con-

text.
Zealously - With active interest and enthusiasm.
36
CHAPTER 5
AND MEDIA ANALYSIS
reference
Books
Schaffert, Richard, W. (1992). The Medias Influence on the Publics Perception of

Terrorism and the Question of Media Responsibility. Media Coverage and Political
Terrorists (61-79). New York: Praeger Publishers.
Kohut, Andrew. (May/June 2002). Self-Censorship: Counting the Ways. Columbia

Journalism Review.
Sanders, Edmund. (Oct. 2, 2002). Results of FCCs Media Studies Are Released. Los
Angeles Times.
Laws, David. (1999). Representation of Stakeholding Interests.The Consensus Build-

ing Handbook. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Carruthers, Susan L. (2000). The Media at War. (206) New York: St. Martins Press.
Strobel, Warren. (1996). Managing Global Chaos: Sources and Responses to Interna-
tional Conflict (366) Washington, D.C. United States Institute of Peace Press.
Carruthers, Susan L. (2000). The Media at War. (Track Two. Vol. 7, No. 4) New York:
St. Martins Press.
Web Links
http://www.cjr.org/year/00/2/censorship.asp
http://www.mediachannel.org/ownership/chart.shtml
http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/202977141.html?did=202977141&FMT=AB S
&FMTS=FT&desc=California%3b+Results+of+FCC%27s+Media+Studies+Are+Re
leased
http://www.cjr.org/year/00/2/censorship.asp
http://ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za/archive/two/7_4/p21_endofwar.html
37
CHAPTER 5
multiple choice questions
1. People can get the news of events happening at far off places quickly_____________.
A. from their circle of friends
B. from their relatives
C. from the media
2. An example of audience research is __________.

A. opinion pool
B. coding
C. content analysis
3. Why is a media research conducted?

A. To understand the impact of the media.
B. To carryout a post mortem on reputation risk.
C. To probe into sales decline.
4. Media research __________.

A. avoids response generation
B. gives unreliable results
C. avoids analysing competitors
38

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l MEDIA RELATIONS: TYPES OF MEDIA, TECHNIQUE

1. Explain media and its importance;

2. Recognise types of media;

3. Elaborate the basic principles in media relations;

4. Examine techniques of media analysis.

In this chapter we look at the importance of:

Roles of press agencies.

Scope of media relations.

What is media analysis?

Reasons for media analysis.

Methodology for media analysis.

The process of evaluation and coding.

Structuring the media analysis.

5.1 Media and their Importance

Mass media is a deceptively sim-

to an international news network.

There is no standard for how large

the audience needs to be before

communication becomes mass

Practitioners of corporate com-

Because the media are so preva-

The media, therefore, have enor-

Another important benefit of a function-

Along the same lines, the news

Importance of Mass Media

Pervasiveness of Mass Media

Mass Media Informs

Mass Media Entertains

Mass Media Persuades

Mass Media Binds

Figure 5.8 Importance of mass media

5.2 Media Relations

Broadcast Media Broad groups Print Media

Figure 5.9: Media relations - Means of mass communication

media are two specific examples.

Broadcasting News Paper Radio

Figure 5.10: Example of print and broadcast media

The message has been received.

May be just as a part of the thinking process, or it may permeate as far as

Figure 5.11: Messages are part of attitude forming process

Although many journalists negligible the importance of corporate communica-

5.3 Basic Principles in Media Relations

5.3.1 Respond to the Media

and able to respond when the me-

Even organisations which choose

Figure 5.12: Organisations with corporate communications

5.3.2 Issue Media Advisories and Alerts

For many organisations, especially for-profit

In many cases, media alerts are a legal ne-

In some instances, the laws re-

5.3.3 Visit, Network and Schmooze

helpful to invite them to come

Once an initial meeting and fa-

Figure 5.16: Media persons

5.3.4 Issue News and Feature Story Release

The reasons for Additional Information Given:

5.3.5 Host News Conferences and Other Media Opportunities

Figure 5.17: Criteria for media opportunity

Steps in determining messages for the media

3. Context: The context in which a message is seen is vital.

5.4 Role of Press Agencies

Role of Press Agencies