Power station

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The Athlone Power Station in Cape Town, South Africa
Hydroelectric power station at Gabckovo Dam, Slovakia
A power station, also referred to as a power plant or powerhouse and sometimes g
enerating station or generating plant, is an industrial facility for the generat
ion of electric power. Most power stations contain one or more generators, a rot
ating machine that converts mechanical power into electrical power. The relative
motion between a magnetic field and a conductor creates an electrical current.
The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely. Most power stat
ions in the world burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas to genera
te electricity. Others use nuclear power, but there is an increasing use of clea
ner renewable sources such as solar, wind, wave and hydroelectric.
Contents
1 Terminology
2 History
3 Thermal power stations
3.1 Classification
3.1.1 By heat source
3.1.2 By prime mover
3.1.3 By duty
3.2 Cooling towers
3.3 Once-through cooling systems
4 Power from renewable energy
4.1 Hydroelectric power station
4.2 Solar
4.3 Wind
4.4 Marine
4.5 Osmosis
4.6 Biomass
5 Storage power stations
5.1 Pumped storage
6 Typical power output
7 Operations
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Terminology
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by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged a
nd removed. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
There is some debate within utility and engineering circles over whether a solar
array (whether roof or ground mounted), or wind farm, should be referred to as
a power station, or simply as a generator. The same ambiguity applies when talki
ng about, say, one reciprocating engine driving a 5 MW network-connected alterna
tor; many would prefer to call it a generator, not a power station but if the in
stallation comprised more than one alternator/engine, or if capacity were much l
arger than that, the term power station would be widely accepted.
History
In 1868 a hydro electric power station was designed and built by Lord Armstrong
at Cragside, England. It used water from lakes on his estate to power Siemens dy
namos. The electricity supplied power to lights, heating, produced hot water, ra
n an elevator as well as labor-saving devices and farm buildings.[1]
In the early 1870s Belgian inventor Znobe Gramme invented a generator powerful en
ough to produce power on a commercial scale for industry.[2]
In the autumn of 1882, a central station providing public power was built in God
alming, England. It was proposed after the town failed to reach an agreement on
the rate charged by the gas company, so the town council decided to use electric
ity. It used hydroelectric power for street lighting and household lighting. The
system was not a commercial success and the town reverted to gas.[3]
In 1882 a the world's first coal-fired public power station, the Edison Electric
Light Station, was built in London, a project of Thomas Edison organized by Edw
ard Johnson. A Babcock & Wilcox boiler powered a 125-horsepower steam engine tha
t drove a 27-ton generator. This supplied electricity to premises in the area th
at could be reached through the culverts of the viaduct without digging up the r
oad, which was the monopoly of the gas companies. The customers included the Cit
y Temple and the Old Bailey. Another important customer was the Telegraph Office
of the General Post Office, but this could not be reached though the culverts.
Johnson arranged for the supply cable to be run overhead, via Holborn Tavern and
Newgate.[4]
In September 1882 in New York, the Pearl Street Station was established by Ediso
n to provide electric lighting in the lower Manhattan Island area. The station r
an until destroyed by fire in 1890. The station used reciprocating steam engines
to turn direct-current generators. Because of the DC distribution, the service
area was small, limited by voltage drop in the feeders. The War of Currents even
tually resolved in favor of AC distribution and utilization, although some DC sy
stems persisted to the end of the 20th century. DC systems with a service radius
of a mile (kilometer) or so were necessarily smaller, less efficient of fuel co
nsumption, and more labor-intensive to operate than much larger central AC gener
ating stations.
AC systems used a wide range of frequencies depending on the type of load; light
ing load using higher frequencies, and traction systems and heavy motor load sys
tems preferring lower frequencies. The economics of central station generation i
mproved greatly when unified light and power systems, operating at a common freq
uency, were developed. The same generating plant that fed large industrial loads
during the day, could feed commuter railway systems during rush hour and then s
erve lighting load in the evening, thus improving the system load factor and red
ucing the cost of electrical energy overall. Many exceptions existed, generating
stations were dedicated to power or light by the choice of frequency, and rotat
ing frequency changers and rotating converters were particularly common to feed
electric railway systems from the general lighting and power network.
Throughout the first few decades of the 20th century central stations became lar
ger, using higher steam pressures to provide greater efficiency, and relying on
interconnections of multiple generating stations to improve reliability and cost
. High-voltage AC transmission allowed hydroelectric power to be conveniently mo
ved from distant waterfalls to city markets. The advent of the steam turbine in
central station service, around 1906, allowed great expansion of generating capa
city. Generators were no longer limited by the power transmission of belts or th
e relatively slow speed of reciprocating engines, and could grow to enormous siz
es. For example, Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti planned what would have been the la
rgest reciprocating steam engine ever built for a proposed new central station,
but scrapped the plans when turbines became available in the necessary size. Bui
lding power systems out of central stations required combinations of engineering
skill and financial acumen in equal measure. Pioneers of central station genera
tion include George Westinghouse and Samuel Insull in the United States, Ferrant
i and Charles Hesterman Merz in UK, and many others.
Thermal power stations
Main article: Thermal power station
Rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power station
In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine that tr
ansforms thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy
. Most thermal power stations produce steam, so they are sometimes called steam
power stations. Not all thermal energy can be transformed into mechanical power,
according to the second law of thermodynamics; therefore, there is always heat
lost to the environment. If this loss is employed as useful heat, for industrial
processes or district heating, the power plant is referred to as a cogeneration
power plant or CHP (combined heat-and-power) plant. In countries where district
heating is common, there are dedicated heat plants called heat-only boiler stat
ions. An important class of power stations in the Middle East uses by-product he
at for the desalination of water.
The efficiency of a thermal power cycle is limited by the maximum working fluid
temperature produced. The efficiency is not directly a function of the fuel used
. For the same steam conditions, coal-, nuclear- and gas power plants all have t
he same theoretical efficiency. Overall, if a system is on constantly (base load
) it will be more efficient than one that is used intermittently (peak load). St
eam turbines generally operate at higher efficiency when operated at full capaci
ty.
Besides use of reject heat for process or district heating, one way to improve o
verall efficiency of a power plant is to combine two different thermodynamic cyc
les in a combined cycle plant. Most commonly, exhaust gases from a gas turbine a
re used to generate steam for a boiler and a steam turbine. The combination of a
"top" cycle and a "bottom" cycle produces higher overall efficiency than either
cycle can attain alone.
Classification
St. Clair Power Plant, a large coal-fired generating station in Michigan, United
States
Ikata Nuclear Power Plant, Japan
Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station, Iceland
By heat source
Fossil-fuel power stations may also use a steam turbine generator or in the
case of natural gas-fired plants may use a combustion turbine. A coal-fired powe
r station produces heat by burning coal in a steam boiler. The steam drives a st
eam turbine and generator that then produces electricity. The waste products of
combustion include ash, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide. Som
e of the gases can be removed from the waste stream to reduce pollution.
Nuclear power plants[5] use a nuclear reactor's heat that is transferred to
steam which then operates a steam turbine and generator. About 20 percent of ele
ctric generation in the USA is produced by nuclear power plants.
Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from hot underground rocks. Thes
e rocks are heated by the decay of radioactive material in the Earth's crust.
Biomass-fuelled power plants may be fuelled by waste from sugar cane, munici
pal solid waste, landfill methane, or other forms of biomass.
In integrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas is a low-cost, although
low-energy-density, fuel.
Waste heat from industrial processes is occasionally concentrated enough to
use for power generation, usually in a steam boiler and turbine.
Solar thermal electric plants use sunlight to boil water and produce steam w
hich turns the generator.
By prime mover
Steam turbine plants use the dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam t
o turn the blades of a turbine. Almost all large non-hydro plants use this syste
m. About 90 percent of all electric power produced in the world is through use o
f steam turbines.[6]
Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases (air and comb
ustion products) to directly operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled (and oil f
ueled) combustion turbine plants can start rapidly and so are used to supply "pe
ak" energy during periods of high demand, though at higher cost than base-loaded
plants. These may be comparatively small units, and sometimes completely unmann
ed, being remotely operated. This type was pioneered by the UK, Princetown[7] be
ing the world's first, commissioned in 1959.
Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a st
eam boiler and steam turbine which use the hot exhaust gas from the gas turbine
to produce electricity. This greatly increases the overall efficiency of the pla
nt, and many new baseload power plants are combined cycle plants fired by natura
l gas.
Internal combustion reciprocating engines are used to provide power for isol
ated communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospital
s, office buildings, industrial plants, and other critical facilities also use t
hem to provide backup power in case of a power outage. These are usually fuelled
by diesel oil, heavy oil, natural gas, and landfill gas.
Microturbines, Stirling engine and internal combustion reciprocating engines
are low-cost solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas, diges
ter gas from water treatment plants and waste gas from oil production.
By duty
Power plants that can be dispatched (scheduled) to provide energy to a system in
clude:
Base load power plants run nearly continually to provide that component of s
ystem load that doesn't vary during a day or week. Baseload plants can be highly
optimized for low fuel cost, but may not start or stop quickly during changes i
n system load. Examples of base-load plants would include large modern coal-fire
d and nuclear generating stations, or hydro plants with a predictable supply of
water.
Peaking power plants meet the daily peak load, which may only be for one or
two hours each day. While their incremental operating cost is always higher than
base load plants, they are required to ensure security of the system during loa
d peaks. Peaking plants include simple cycle gas turbines and sometimes reciproc
ating internal combustion engines, which can be started up rapidly when system p
eaks are predicted. Hydroelectric plants may also be designed for peaking use.
Load following power plants can economically follow the variations in the da
ily and weekly load, at lower cost than peaking plants and with more flexibility
than baseload plants.
Non-dispatchable plants include such sources as wind and solar energy; while the
ir long-term contribution to system energy supply is predictable, on a short-ter
m (daily or hourly) base their energy must be used as available since generation
cannot be deferred. Contractual arrangements ("take or pay") with independent p
ower producers or system interconnections to other networks may be effectively n
on-dispatchable.
Cooling towers
Main article: Cooling tower
Cooling towers showing evaporating water at Ratcliffe-on-Soar Power Station, Uni
ted Kingdom
"Camouflaged" natural draft wet cooling tower
All thermal power plants produce waste heat energy as a byproduct of the useful
electrical energy produced. The amount of waste heat energy equals or exceeds th
e amount of energy converted into useful electricity. Gas-fired power plants can
achieve as much as 65 percent conversion efficiency, while coal and oil plants
achieve around 30 to 49 percent. The waste heat produces a temperature rise in t
he atmosphere, which is small compared to that produced by greenhouse-gas emissi
ons from the same power plant. Natural draft wet cooling towers at many nuclear
power plants and large fossil fuel-fired power plants use large hyperboloid chim
ney-like structures (as seen in the image at the right) that release the waste h
eat to the ambient atmosphere by the evaporation of water.
However, the mechanical induced-draft or forced-draft wet cooling towers in many
large thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, fossil-fired power plants, pe
troleum refineries, petrochemical plants, geothermal, biomass and waste-to-energ
y plants use fans to provide air movement upward through downcoming water, and a
re not hyperboloid chimney-like structures. The induced or forced-draft cooling
towers are typically rectangular, box-like structures filled with a material tha
t enhances the mixing of the upflowing air and the downflowing water.[8][9]
In areas with restricted water use, a dry cooling tower or directly air-cooled r
adiators may be necessary, since the cost or environmental consequences of obtai
ning make-up water for evaporative cooling would be prohibitive. These coolers h
ave lower efficiency and higher energy consumption to drive fans, compared to a
typical wet, evaporative cooling tower.
Once-through cooling systems
Electric companies often prefer to use cooling water from the ocean, a lake, or
a river, or a cooling pond, instead of a cooling tower. This single pass or once
-through cooling system can save the cost of a cooling tower and may have lower
energy costs for pumping cooling water through the plant's heat exchangers. Howe
ver, the waste heat can cause thermal pollution as the water is discharged. Powe
r plants using natural bodies of water for cooling are designed with mechanisms
such as fish screens, to limit intake of organisms into the cooling machinery. T
hese screens are only partially effective and as a result billions of fish and o
ther aquatic organisms are killed by power plants each year.[10][11] For example
, the cooling system at the Indian Point Energy Center in New York kills over a
billion fish eggs and larvae annually.[12]
A further environmental impact is that aquatic organisms which adapt to the warm
er discharge water may be injured if the plant shuts down in cold weather.
Water consumption by power stations is a developing issue.[13]
In recent years, recycled wastewater, or grey water, has been used in cooling to
wers. The Calpine Riverside and the Calpine Fox power stations in Wisconsin as w
ell as the Calpine Mankato power station in Minnesota are among these facilities
.
Power from renewable energy
Power stations can also generate electrical energy from renewable energy sources
.
Hydroelectric power station
Main article: Hydroelectricity
Three Gorges Dam, Hubei, China
In a hydroelectric power station water flows though turbines using hydropower to
generate hydroelectricity. Power is captured from the gravitational force of wa
ter falling through penstocks to water turbines connected to generators. The amo
unt of power available is a combination of height and flow. A wide range of Dams
may be built to raise the water level, and create a lake for storing water. Hyd
ropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32
percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity pro
ducer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 per
cent of domestic electricity use.
Solar
Main article: Solar power
Nellis Solar Power Plant in Nevada, United States
Solar energy can be turned into electricity either directly in solar cells, or i
n a concentrating solar power plant by focusing the light to run a heat engine.
A solar photovoltaic power plant converts sunlight into direct current electrici
ty using the photoelectric effect. Inverters change the direct current into alte
rnating current for connection to the electrical grid. This type of plant does n
ot use rotating machines for energy conversion.
Solar thermal power plants are another type of solar power plant. They use eithe
r parabolic troughs or heliostats to direct sunlight onto a pipe containing a he
at transfer fluid, such as oil. The heated oil is then used to boil water into s
team, which turns a turbine that drives an electrical generator. The central tow
er type of solar thermal power plant uses hundreds or thousands of mirrors, depe
nding on size, to direct sunlight onto a receiver on top of a tower. Again, the
heat is used to produce steam to turn turbines that drive electrical generators.
Wind
Main article: Wind power
Wind turbines in Texas, United States
Wind turbines can be used to generate electricity in areas with strong, steady w
inds, sometimes offshore. Many different designs have been used in the past, but
almost all modern turbines being produced today use a three-bladed, upwind desi
gn. Grid-connected wind turbines now being built are much larger than the units
installed during the 1970s. They thus produce power more cheaply and reliably th
an earlier models. With larger turbines (on the order of one megawatt), the blad
es move more slowly than older, smaller, units, which makes them less visually d
istracting and safer for birds.
Marine
Main article: Marine energy
Marine energy or marine power (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy or oce
an power) refers to the energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity, and ocea
n temperature differences. The movement of water in the world s oceans creates a v
ast store of kinetic energy, or energy in motion. This energy can be harnessed t
o generate electricity to power homes, transport and industries.
The term marine energy encompasses both wave power power from surface waves, and
tidal power obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. O
ffshore wind power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from
the wind, even if the wind turbines are placed over water.
The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most
concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substant
ial amount of new renewable energy around the world.[14]
Osmosis
Osmotic Power Prototype at Tofte (Hurum), Norway
Main article: Osmotic power
Salinity gradient energy is called pressure-retarded osmosis. In this method, se
awater is pumped into a pressure chamber that is at a pressure lower than the di
fference between the pressures of saline water and fresh water. Freshwater is al
so pumped into the pressure chamber through a membrane, which increases both the
volume and pressure of the chamber. As the pressure differences are compensated
, a turbine is spun creating energy. This method is being specifically studied b
y the Norwegian utility Statkraft, which has calculated that up to 25 TWh/yr wou
ld be available from this process in Norway. Statkraft has built the world's fir
st prototype osmotic power plant on the Oslo fiord which was opened on November
24, 2009.
Biomass
Metz biomass power station
Biomass energy can be produced from combustion of waste green material to heat w
ater into steam and drive a steam turbine. Bioenergy can also be processed throu
gh a range of temperatures and pressures in gasification, pyrolysis or torrefact
ion reactions. Depending on the desired end product, these reactions create more
energy-dense products (syngas, wood pellets, biocoal) that can then be fed into
an accompanying engine to produce electricity at a much lower emission rate whe
n compared with open burning.
Storage power stations
Main article: Energy storage
It is possible to store energy and produce the electricity at a later time like
in Pumped-storage hydroelectricity, Thermal energy storage, Flywheel energy stor
age, Battery storage power station and so on.
Pumped storage
Main article: Pumped-storage hydroelectricity
The worlds largest form of storage for excess electricity, pumped-storage is a r
eversible hydroelectric plant. They are a net consumer of energy but provide sto
rage for any source of electricity, effectively smoothing peaks and troughs in e
lectricity supply and demand. Pumped storage plants typically use "spare" electr
icity during off peak periods to pump water from a lower reservoir to an upper r
eservoir. Because the pumping takes place "off peak", electricity is less valuab
le than at peak times. This less valuable "spare" electricity comes from uncontr
olled wind power and base load power plants such as coal, nuclear and geothermal
, which still produce power at night even though demand is very low. During dayt
ime peak demand, when electricity prices are high, the storage is used for peaki
ng power, where water in the upper reservoir is allowed to flow back to a lower
reservoir through a turbine and generator. Unlike coal power stations, which can
take more than 12 hours to start up from cold, a hydroelectric generator can be
brought into service in a few minutes, ideal to meet a peak load demand. Two su
bstantial pumped storage schemes are in South Africa, Palmiet Pumped Storage Sch
eme and another in the Drakensberg, Ingula Pumped Storage Scheme.
Typical power output
See also: List of largest power stations in the world
Ambox current red.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect
recent events or newly available information. (June 2016)
The power generated by a power station is measured in multiples of the watt, typ
ically megawatts (106 watts) or gigawatts (109 watts). Power stations vary great
ly in capacity depending on the type of power plant and on historical, geographi
cal and economic factors. The following examples offer a sense of the scale.
Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the USA. As of
2011, the Roscoe Wind Farm is the second largest onshore wind farm in the world
, producing 781.5 MW of power, followed by the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center (
735.5 MW). As of July 2013, the London Array in United Kingdom is the largest of
fshore wind farm in the world at 630 MW, followed by Thanet Offshore Wind Projec
t in United Kingdom at 300 MW.
As of 2015, the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are led by L
ongyangxia Dam Solar Park in China, rated at 850 megawatts.
Solar thermal power stations in the U.S. have the following output:
The country's largest solar facility at Kramer Junction has an output of 354
MW
The Blythe Solar Power Project planned production is estimated at 485 MW
The Koeberg Nuclear Power Station, South Africa
Large coal-fired, nuclear, and hydroelectric power stations can generate hundred
s of megawatts to multiple gigawatts. Some examples:
The Koeberg Nuclear Power Station in South Africa has a rated capacity of 18
60 megawatts.
The coal-fired Ratcliffe-on-Soar Power Station in the UK has a rated capacit
y of 2 gigawatts.
The Aswan Dam hydro-electric plant in Egypt has a capacity of 2.1 gigawatts.
The Three Gorges Dam hydro-electric plant in China has a capacity of 22.5 gi
gawatts.
Gas turbine power plants can generate tens to hundreds of megawatts. Some exampl
es:
The Indian Queens simple-cycle, or open cycle gas turbine (OCGT), peaking po
wer station in Cornwall UK, with a single gas turbine is rated 140 megawatts.
The Medway Power Station, a combined-cycle gas turbine (CCGT) power station
in Kent, UK with two gas turbines and one steam turbine, is rated 700 megawatts.
[15]
The rated capacity of a power station is nearly the maximum electrical power tha
t that power station can produce. Some power plants are run at almost exactly th
eir rated capacity all the time, as a non-load-following base load power plant,
except at times of scheduled or unscheduled maintenance.
However, many power plants usually produce much less power than their rated capa
city.
In some cases a power plant produces much less power than its rated capacity bec
ause it uses an intermittent energy source. Operators try to pull maximum availa
ble power from such power plants, because their marginal cost is practically zer
o, but the available power varies widely in particular, it may be zero during heav
y storms at night.
In some cases operators deliberately produce less power for economic reasons. Th
e cost of fuel to run a load following power plant may be relatively high, and t
he cost of fuel to run a peaking power plant is even higher they have relatively h
igh marginal costs. Operators keep power plants turned off ("operational reserve
") or running at minimum fuel consumption[citation needed] ("spinning reserve")
most of the time. Operators feed more fuel into load following power plants only
when the demand rises above what lower-cost plants (i.e., intermittent and base
load plants) can produce, and then feed more fuel into peaking power plants onl
y when the demand rises faster than the load following power plants can follow.
Operations
Control room of a power plant
The term Power station is generally limited to those able to be despatched by a
system operator (i.e. the system operator can, by one means or another, alter th
e planned output of the generating facility).[16][17][18]
The power station operator has several duties in the electricity-generating faci
lity. Operators are responsible for the safety of the work crews that frequently
do repairs on the mechanical and electrical equipment. They maintain the equipm
ent with periodic inspections and log temperatures, pressures and other importan
t information at regular intervals. Operators are responsible for starting and s
topping the generators depending on need. They are able to synchronize and adjus
t the voltage output of the added generation with the running electrical system,
without upsetting the system. They must know the electrical and mechanical syst
ems in order to troubleshoot solve/fix problems in the facility and add to the r
eliability of the facility. Operators must be able to respond to an emergency an
d know the procedures in place to deal with it.
See also
iconEnergy portal
Cogeneration
Cooling tower
Cost of electricity by source
District heating
Electricity generation
Environmental impact of electricity generation
Flue-gas stack
Fossil-fuel power station
Geothermal electricity
Grid-tied electrical system mini-power plants
List of largest power stations in the world
List of power stations
List of thermal power station failures
Plant efficiency
Unit commitment problem
Virtual power plant
References
"Hydro-electricity restored to historic Northumberland home". BBC News.
Thomspon, Sylvanus P. (1888), Dynamo-electric machinery: a manual for students o
f electrotechnics. London: E. & F.N. Spon. p. 140.
McNeil, Ian (1996). An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology ([New ed.]. ed
.). London: Routledge. p. 369. ISBN 978-0-415-14792-7.
Jack Harris (14 January 1982), "The electricity of Holborn", New Scientist
Nuclear Power Plants Information, by International Atomic Energy Agency
Wiser, Wendell H. (2000). Energy resources: occurrence, production, conversion,
use. Birkhuser. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-387-98744-6.
SWEB's Pocket Power Stations
J.C. Hensley (Editor) (2006). Cooling Tower Fundamentals (2nd ed.). SPX Cooling
Technologies.
Beychok, Milton R. (1967). Aqueous Wastes from Petroleum and Petrochemical Plant
s (4th ed.). John Wiley and Sons. LCCN 67019834. (Includes cooling tower materia
l balance for evaporation emissions and blowdown effluents. Available in many un
iversity libraries)
Riverkeeper, Inc. v. U.S. EPA, 358 F.3d 174, 181 (2d Cir. 2004) ( A single power p
lant might impinge a million adult fish in just a three-week period, or entrain
some 3 to 4 billion smaller fish and shellfish in a year, destabilizing wildlife
populations in the surrounding ecosystem. ).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (May 2014). "Final Regulati
ons to Establish Requirements for Cooling Water Intake Structures at Existing Fa
cilities." Fact sheet. Document no. EPA-821-F-14-001.
McGeehan, Patrick (2015-05-12). "Fire Prompts Renewed Calls to Close the Indian
Point Nuclear Plant". New York Times.
American Association for the Advancement of Science. AAAS Annual Meeting 17 - 21
Feb 2011, Washington DC. "Sustainable or Not? Impacts and Uncertainties of Low-
Carbon Energy Technologies on Water." Dr Evangelos Tzimas, European Commission,
JRC Institute for Energy, Petten, Netherlands.
Carbon Trust, Future Marine Energy. Results of the Marine Energy Challenge: Cost
competitiveness and growth of wave and tidal stream energy, January 2006
CCGT Plants in South England, by Power Plants Around the World
British Electricity International (1991). Modern Power Station Practice: incorpo
rating modern power system practice (3rd Edition (12 volume set) ed.). Pergamon.
ISBN 0-08-040510-X.
Babcock & Wilcox Co. (2005). Steam: Its Generation and Use (41st ed.). ISBN 0-96
34570-0-4.
Thomas C. Elliott, Kao Chen, Robert Swanekamp (coauthors) (1997). Standard H
andbook of Powerplant Engineering (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07
-019435-1.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Power plants.
Identification System for Power Stations (KKS)
Power station diagram
Largest Power Plants in the World
Power Plant Operators, Distributors, and Dispatchers (Occupational Outlook H
andbook)
Database of carbon emissions of power plants worldwide (Carbon Monitoring Fo
r Action: CARMA)
Power Plants in Iceland, Photogallery by islandsmyndir.is Iceland uses geoth
ermal and hydroelectric energy.
[hide]
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