Tissues

Cells are organized into tissues.

Tongue
Tissue are organized into organs.

There are 5 types of tissues:

Epithelium
Connective Tissue
Muscle
Nerve
Lymphatics
Functions of epithelia are diverse:
Protection - skin/lining of hollow organs
Secretion - endocrine and exocrine cells
Sensation - olfactory epithelium
Contractility - myoepithelial cells
Absorption - intestinal absorptive cells
General Characteristics of Epithelia
Cells are close together (often touching).
Can be derived from endoderm, mesoderm and
ectoderm.
Produce a thin layer of extracellular matrix called the
basal lamina that remains closely associated with the
epithelial cells.
Some types can regenerate.
Some types are innervated.
Two morphological forms of epithelia:

Layers of cells that are avascular (lining of organs and

surface of skin)

Clumps of cells that are very vascular (endocrine and

exocrine cells)
 Epithelial Layers
Named according to the number of layers (viewed on edge):
- Simple means one layer of cells
- Stratified means more than one layer
- Pseudostratified means one layer that looks like many
layers because the nuclei are at different locations
Named according to the shape of the cells at the surface
- Squamous cells are flat
- Cuboidal cells are square
- Columnar cells are rectangles
- Transitional cells can change between spherical and
flattened (think about the bladder).
All layers are associated with a sheet of extracellular material called
the "basal lamina"
 Epithelial Layers
Simple squamous Capillaries
Simple cuboidal Thyroid
Simple columnar Intestine

Stratified squamous Skin

Basal lamina

Stratified columnar
Urethra

Stratified cuboidal Ducts of glands

Transitional Bladder

Trachea
Pseudostratified columnar
 Example of Simple Squamous
The inner lining of all blood vessels is made of simple squamous epithelium. Often called the
endothelium in this specialized location.

Shaped like a fried egg:

red blood
Surface Edge
cells
view view
Nucleus of endothelial cell

Cytoplasm of endothelial cell

Simple Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelium

Simple columnar

Simple cuboidal
 While cells can appear cuboidal or columnar in tissue
sections, most cuboidal and columnar cells are
actually polygonal.

4 6 Perimeters of
cells stained
with fluorescein-
Image kindly provided by Dr. Jeff Thomas, TTUHSC Labeled antibodies.
Another section showing polygonal cells
 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
(All cells touch the basal lamina but only some reach the lumen/free surface. Nuclei
appear stratified.)

Cytoplasm

Nucleus
Basal lamina
 Simple columnar
can appear
pseudostratified,
but pseudostratified
can never appear
simple.

Simple columnar

Simple cuboidal
 Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Squamous cells
at surface

Only the bottom layer touches the basal lamina

Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Transitional Epithelium
(thin when stretched)
Transitional
Epithelium
Surface specializations expand the classification:
Stratified squamous epithelium
nonkeratinized
keratinized

keratin
 Surface can also be modified
with microvilli and cilia
Microvilli
Cilia
 More Specializations:
Goblet cells (mucous secreting cells) can be found
among the layered epithelial cells.
 Epithelia are associated with basal laminae
1. Composed of extracellular matrix that is 20-100 nm thick
and is produced by epithelia, and a few other cell types
(muscle, Schwann cells, adipocytes).
2. Two major morphological subdivisions:
lamina densa - laminin, type IV collagen, fibronectin,
proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans.
lamina lucida - projections of transmembrane proteins
that are difficult to see with routine microscopy.

Epithelial cell layer Lamina lucida

Basal lamina
Lamina densa
Type VII collagen
Reticular lamina (type III collagen)
Microscopic appearance of basal laminae with the LM

Stains red/pink with PAS (binds carbohydrates)

Sometimes two adjacent layers of cells will each make

a basal lamina. When these two layers are fused it is
called a basement membrane.
Basal lamina stained pink with PAS
as viewed with the light microscope

basal laminae

epithelial cells
 Two basal laminae viewed with the
Transmission Electron micrograph (TEM)

Lamina lucida
Lamina densa

Reticular Epithelial cell layer

lamina
Basal laminae are sheets not ropes.

Basal
lamina
torn away
at this site
 Functions of the basal lamina (BL)
Provides a "home address" for the cells - Cells attach to the
BL by transmembrane proteins called integrins. The
integrins attach to laminin molecules in the BL.
Proteins, proteoglycans and GAGs can be specialized
depending upon location and give the BL a specific
function:
- filter (as in the kidney)
- induce cells to divide and/or migrate (especially in
embryo).
- cause cells to differentiate and become polarized.
Surrounds and compartmentalizes epithelia. Malignant cells
disrespect this boundary and migrate into the tissues below.
 Polarization of Epithelia
Domains - Epithelial cells are spatially oriented to accommodate their
function. Cell adhesion molecules, microvilli, cilia, hormone receptors,
and pumps for salts and nutrients are strategically located. The basal
lamina plays a role in inducing polarization (tells cell "which end is up").

Apical Domain amino acid

Lateral Domain
Na

K
Basal Domain
Epithelial cells can also be organized into
clumps of cells that are highly vascular
1. Exocrine glands
2. Endocrine glands

Layered epithelia Endocrine and exocrine

are avascular epithelia are highly vascular.

Basal lamina

blood vessel
 Exocrine Glands
1. Glands can be single-celled or comprised of many cells.
2. Are associated with a basal lamina.
3. Are very vascular.
4. Produce a wide variety of secretory products (enzymes,
mucus, saliva, sweat, milk, etc.)
Single cell

wall of organ
(e.g. trachea) Many cells
5. Exocrine glands secrete by one of three general modes:
merocrine - merely the secretion is released
apocrine - a part of the cell membrane packages secretion
holocrine - whole cell becomes part of the secretion
Holocrine
(sebaceous glands of skin)

Merocrine Apocrine
(sweat glands) (lipid portion of milk)

cell death
 Single-cell Exocrine Gland (Goblet cell)
Goblet cell - A mucus-secreting cell found primarily in the epithelial
lining of the respiratory and digestive systems. The mucus protects the
epithelial layer. The mucin expands 500-fold in the presence of water in
less than a second. Secretion can be stimulated by pollutants in air, cold
viruses, the autonomic nervous system, and immune factors.

Goblet cells

epithelial layer

connective tissue
 Goblet Cells (LM)

Goblet cells
(toluidine-blue Goblet cells
stained) (PAS stained)

Goblet cells
(H & E stained)

Images from Dr. Richard Bowen

Multicellular Exocrine Glands (pancreas, salivary glands, etc.)
Comprised of a duct(s) that lead to an epithelial surface, and groups of
secretory cells organized into one or more acini (also called alveoli).

Stratified
squamous
epithelium
ducts

acini

acinus
Illustrates a duct coming to the surface
Cells of the ducts are different from cells of the acinus,
and can have functional and pathological importance.

Duct cell often

becomes malignant in
Na+ mammary gland
Some ducts
transport salts Secretory
product Acinar cell becomes
malignant in prostate.
Connections between ducts and acini
Connections between ducts and acini
The staining characteristics and nuclear shape and location
usually indicate if the secretions from the acini are watery
or viscous (mucus).

mucus

watery
Sometimes the acini contain both serous and mucous cells. After
fixation, the mucus swells and the serous cells get squeezed out of the
acini forming demilunes (artifacts).
Serous
demilunes
Fixation

Well fixed - no demilunes

Endocrine glands - Groups of epithelial cells that secrete
hormones into the blood stream without a duct system.

- adrenal
- gonads
- thyroid
- parathyroid
- pituitary

Paracrine cells - Epithelial cells that secrete their product

into the intercellular space where it influences neighboring
cells. Can also be a contact-mediated influence by way of cell
surface molecules.
 Epithelial cell renewal

1. Stem cells are found in all layered epithelia providing

regenerative ability. Exocrine and endocrine glands have a
more restricted ability to regenerate with some completely
lacking this ability.

2. Renewal rates vary depending upon the location:

Small intestine - cells live 5 days.

Skin - 28 days.
Epithelial cells can change structure and function to
adapt to a changing local environment. This is called
metaplasia. Example:

Effects of smoking on the trachea:

Metaplasia

stratified squamous with patches

pseudostratified with cilia of ciliated cells and hyperactive
and goblet cells goblet cells
Not all cells are easily categorized according
to tissue-type. Two such cell types that are
commonly described with epithelia are:

DNES cells
Myoepithelial cells
Diffuse Neuroendocrine System (DNES)

1. Secrete peptide hormones or biogenic amines (serotonin).

2. Paracrine cells
3. Primarily in gut and respiratory epithelia
4. Other names (don't memorize):
Argentaffin/argyrophil cells because they stain with
silver salts. (Silver: Latin - argentum; Greek argyros)
Enteroendocrine cells when located in the gut
APUD cells because they take up and decarboxylate
amine precursors (Amine Precursor Uptake and
Decarboxylation). Example: tryptophan converted to
serotonin.
Myoepithelial cells
1. Surround some acini (e.g. mammary gland) helping to expel
products.
2. Located between the basal lamina and the epithelial cells.
3. Cell markers often absent during malignancy.

Image generously provided by Dr. David King

Epithelial Cancer
1. Carcinoma is a general term for cancers of epithelial
origin.
2. Epithelial tumors can often be identified by the presence of
cytokeratins.
3. Cancer in children is rarely of epithelial origin while 90%
of tumors in individuals over 45 are epithelial derived.