the hidden life of

ancient
Egypt
decoding the secrets of a lost world

clare gibson
96 The Ancient Egyptian World

Throne from the Tomb of Tutankhamun

c.1370–52 bc (Eighteenth Dynasty, New Kingdom)

Gold, Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, Cairo, Egypt

A number of exquisitely made pieces of furniture were discovered in Tutankhamun’s tomb,

including this ornate throne, whose back—seen here—explicitly links it with the young pha-
raoh (and see pages 40 to 42 for another). Its gilded surfaces and colorful inlays of semiprecious
stones and glass attest to its preciousness even during the king’s lifetime, but perhaps of even
greater significance to us today is the languorous, relaxed style in which Tutankhamun and his
wife, Ankhesenamun, are depicted.
This style is in marked contrast to the rigid representations of most earlier and later pharaohs,
but is similar to portrayals of Pharaoh Akhenaten and his family. The erstwhile Amenhotep IV
was responsible for many revolutionary changes during the period of his kingship, most notably
the decree that the Aten, the divine sun disk, should be the only god worshiped in Egypt (and
the pharaoh accordingly changed his name to Akhenaten, or “Beneficial to the Aten”). Another
must have been concerned with how the royal person was depicted, but scholars can only specu-
late about the reasons why Akhenaten demanded these rather radical readjustments (radical,
that is, in the context of typically extremely formal Egyptian artistic convention). His brother
ruled briefly after Akhenaten’s death, followed by Tutankhamun, who was about eight when he
became pharaoh, and who died in his late teens. Tutankhamun was probably Akhenaten’s son by
his wife Kiya, and while Ankhesenamun had the same father, her mother was Nefertiti, making
the royal couple half-siblings.
Tutankhamun reversed Akhenaten’s religious reforms before his untimely death, return-
ing Egypt to polytheism, but certain details of the gilded throne—not least the central Aten
—suggest that it was made either when Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun were still called
Tutankhaten and Ankhesenpaaten (“Her Life is Aten”), in deference to their father’s wishes,
or when Egypt was still in a transitional, Akhenaten-influenced period. This naturalistically
rendered, intimate scene is also typical of the Amarna style established by Akhenaten (Amarna
equating to Akhetaten, “Horizon of the Aten,” the city founded by Akhenaten), as are the
rather feminine-looking proportions of Tutankhamun’s body.

See also Relief of Aten, Akhenaten and Nefertiti (pages 72 to 75).

The disk-and-bird and bee- The young king’s original

and-sedge hieroglyphs above birth name was Tutankhaten,
the two cartouches by the which means “The Living
seated figure indicate that Image of Aten,” before being
this is Tutankhamun, and that changed to Tutankhamun, or
the cartouches respectively “The Living Image of Amun,”
contain his nomen, or birth while his throne name can
name, and prenomen, or be translated as “Lord of the
throne name. Manifestations of Re” (see
also page 42 and page 65).
 The Ancient Egyptian World 97

Six uraei, each distinguished The crown would have been

by a sun disk, are adorned with six sun disks,
stationed protectively on had one not been lost, giving
Tutankhamun’s triple-atef this elaborate headdress
(or hemhem) crown. powerful solar connotations.
98 The Ancient Egyptian World

Although partially The Aten is defended by its

obscured, the
decorative pattern
that can be
seen beneath
Tutankhamun’s
seat and between
the chair legs is
based on the sema-
tawy symbol that
proclaims the “unity
of the two lands,” or the
unification of Upper and
Lower Egypt under the
pharaoh’s rule (see page
81). This symbol was often
included at the base of
royal or divine thrones in
Egyptian art (for another
example, see page 53).
The king’s right hand has
been depicted with the
thumb on the wrong side,
effectively giving him two left
hands. Egyptologists do not
believe that Tutankhamun’s
right hand was like this in life,
and, indeed, this anomaly is
not that unusual in portrayals
of ancient Egyptian pharaohs,
although it is not clear
why this was the case, or
whether it had any symbolic
significance. That said, it may
have had something to do
with the feminized, Amarna
style, and with the passive
part that the king plays in
this charming scene, for the
right hand was thought to
embody the active, masculine
principle, and the left hand,
the reverse.
Ankhesenamun’s crown
consists of a pair of ostrich
plumes, at the base of which
is a large solar disk. The tall
cow’s horns that enclose
this stately confection are
a symbolic link between
the queen and such great
mother goddesses as
Hathor and Isis.
The shape of the vessel (a
symbol of femininity) held
by Ankhesenamun echoes
that of the lotus flower to
the right of her left
shoulder. It seems
that the bowl contains
an unguent—sweetly
perfumed, no doubt
—and that the queen
is in the process of
tenderly anointing her
husband’s
skin with it.
own uraeus. The hands that
can be seen at the end of the
sun rays emanating from the
Aten symbolically bestow
sunshine, life, and divine
blessings upon the royal
couple below.
It is not clear exactly what the
ornamental object displayed
on a stand next to the queen
is, but it may be a flattened-
out jeweled collar similar to
the magnificent examples
worn by the king and queen.
It may also be significant
that its shape echoes that
of the shen ring, a symbol
of eternity and protection.
The inclusion of a lotus
here is probably a largely
symbolic touch, for the
lotus represented birth (and
resurrection), as well
as beauty.

Ankhesenamun’s legs
are visible through the
almost transparent pleats
of her fine linen gown.
 The Ancient Egyptian World 99

Detail of the Second

Mummiform Coffin
of Tutankhamun
c.1370–52 bc (Eighteenth Dynasty,
New Kingdom)

Wood with sheet gold inlaid with

semiprecious stones, Museum of
Egyptian Antiquities, Cairo, Egypt

A lthough elements of this striking rep-

resentation of Pharaoh Tutankhamun
are symbolically concerned with his
death, the portrait of the king that stares
out at us from one of his coffins gives
us an excellent idea of what the ruler
of Egypt would have looked like in life,
that is, when arrayed in full ceremonial
finery. For in this upper-body section
of the coffin we can see many items
––such as the crook-and-flail scep-
ters and the nemes headdress––that
recur time and time again in images
of Egyptian pharaohs, but never in
depictions of ordinary mortals. And
while the king’s stiff pose can be partly
attributed to a coffin’s requirements and
limitations, this representation’s similarity to
equally formally posed portrayals of other pharaohs in nonfunerary contexts, along with the king’s finely
modeled, lifelike features, enable us to be reasonably certain that Tutankhamun would have looked much
like this while the focus of an ancient Egyptian sacred ritual. That said, even though this particular king died
in his late teens, his features will have been idealized, adding to the sense that we are looking at a royal fig-
urehead rather than an individual personality, an impression that is reinforced when we compare this image
with the more informal, throne-back portrayal of Tutankhamun and his wife (see pages 96 to 98).
This is the second of a nest of three coffins that was discovered inside the stone sarcophagus in
Tutankhamun’s tomb. All are mummiform, or anthropoid, in shape, in reference to the mummified
body of Osiris, the divine ruler of the underworld, and it is the dead pharaoh’s identification with the
god that explains his curved beard and his crossed and tightly swaddled arms. While this, the middle
coffin, and the larger one that enveloped it are made of wood covered in gold foil and inlaid with semi-
precious stones, glass, and faience, the coffin that it in turn enclosed is made of pure, hammered gold,
and it is this that came into direct contact with the young king’s mummified corpse, and with the golden
mask that covered his face.

See also Breastplate Depicting Osiris, God of the Afterworld (pages 58 to 61).
100 The Ancient Egyptian World
The pharaoh
is wearing
a nemes
headdress,
one of
the royal
headdresses. It was made of
striped, stiffened linen, the
ends being entwined at the
back to form a neat bulge.
The overall effect rather
resembled a lion’s mane.
A vulture’s head and
rearing cobra (uraeus) are
positioned side by side
above the king’s forehead,
gazing out at the viewer.
The vulture represents
the goddess Nekhbet, and
Upper Egypt, while the
uraeus is equated with the
goddess Wadjet, and Lower
Egypt. As well as being
the pharaoh’s personal
protectors, these “two
ladies” together symbolize
the unity of Egypt’s “two
lands.” (See also pages 58
to 61.)
False, strap-on
beards were
worn by living
pharaohs on
ceremonial
occasions.
The curved
end of the
plaited beard
that adorns
Tutankhamun’s
effigy signals
that he has
become a god
like Osiris.
The crook and
flail were
important
Eye makeup was worn by components of
the members of both sexes the Egyptian
in ancient Egypt. The lavish royal regalia.
layer of kohl outlining the
king’s eyes would therefore
not have been untypical,
ground green malachite
also being a popular eye-
enhancer. As well as looking
eye-catchingly attractive,
wearing makeup was
thought to protect the eyes
from potential damage
caused by both the sun’s
glare and ocular infections
(see also page 133).
Dating back to A pair of decorative,
the days when the outspread wings stretches
ancient Egyptians protectively from one of
were nomads who the king’s upper arms to
drove their cattle the other. The wings that
and other livestock adorn this coffin (some of
ahead of them, the which are out of sight in this
crook symbolized image) belong to Nekhbet
control and and Wadjet, who may in
rulership, turn be symbolically linked
while with the goddess Isis,
the flail who played a vital part
denoted in resurrecting her
There are a number power and husband Osiris
of reasons why gold authority. from the dead,
was used to encase the and their sister
pharaoh’s mummy. Firstly, Nephthys (see
its beauty, rarity, and pages 58 to
costliness reflected the 61).
king’s exalted status at the
pinnacle of the Egyptian
social structure. Secondly,
because it was considered
to be indestructible, its
practical and symbolic
use in the king’s burial
was appropriate, for the
pharaoh, it was believed,
would be reborn after death
and would then live on
for eternity. And, thirdly,
gold proclaimed the king’s
perceived divinity, for the
flesh of the sun god Re was
thought to consist of this
shining, golden metal.
The Ancient Egyptian World 101
104 The Ancient Egyptian World

Nefertari Playing Senet

c.1297–1185 bc (Nineteenth Dynasty, New Kingdom)

Detail of a wall painting from the tomb of Queen Nefertari, Valley of the Queens, Thebes, Egypt

T he hieroglyphic inscription to the right of the elegant lady in this detail informs us that she is “Osiris
the Great Royal Wife, Mistress of the Two Lands Nefertari, justified before Osiris the great god.”
The scene is painted on a wall of her tomb, Nefertari’s name being linked with that of Osiris in a phrase
hopefully implying that the wife of Pharaoh Ramesses II had passed muster in the god’s hall of judgment
to become one with Osiris in the next world. Like many tomb paintings, the vignette shown here may ulti-
mately be concerned with ensuring that Nefertari lived on after death, but in the process it also gives us a
fascinating insight into how this New Kingdom Egyptian queen looked and lived during her lifetime.
Nefertari is depicted apparently at leisure, playing senet, the most popular board game in ancient Egypt.
In many respects, senet resembled the game of checkers that we still play today, with two players vying
with one another to be the first to advance one of their five or seven pieces from one end to the other
across a checkerboard (in senet’s case, a long, rectangular one comprising three rows of ten squares).
Senet seems to have been similar to snakes and ladders, too, in that the throwing of knucklebones or
sticks—the ancient Egyptian equivalent of dice—determined how many squares could be crossed at
a time, with certain squares incorporating elements of good or bad luck. That Nefertari is apparently
without an opponent, the links between the scenes in her tomb and Chapter 17 of the Book of the Dead
(in which senet is mentioned), that the word senet means “passing,” and the common inclusion of senet
boards and pieces in ancient Egyptian tombs together make a compelling case for the game also having
profound symbolic significance in representing the passage of the deceased through the underworld, the
prize for reaching the “other side” being immortality.

See also The Gods Osiris and Atum (pages 52 to 55).

A golden vulture appears And she certainly presents

to cover Nefertari’s head
with its body. The bird
represents Mut, a goddess
of motherhood who was
worshiped in Thebes as the
wife of the creator god Amun
and the mother of Khons (or
Khonsu), a moon god.
This headdress—which
supports a pair of tall plumes
and a sun disk in portrayals
of Nefertari elsewhere in
her tomb (see, for example,
pages 66 to 68)—therefore
explicitly links the queen
with Mut and the principle
of divine motherhood, and
consequently also with the
goddesses Nekhbet (see
pages 58 to 61) and Isis.
Although it is important
to remember that ancient
Egyptians were presented
as idealized versions of
their actual selves in tomb
portraits, the honors that
her husband showered upon
his favorite wife—including
a temple dedicated to her
in Abu Simbel—lead us to
believe that Nefertari must
have been a spectacularly
beautiful woman.
an attractive sight here,
with her svelte, long-legged
figure being visible through
the transparent folds of
her pleated gown, and her
luxurious golden adornments
drawing attention to her
black hair and smooth skin.
The staff that
Nefertari holds
in her right
hand is a sekhem
scepter. This
symbolizes her
authority and
importance as a
queen of Egypt
(sekhem means
“might” or “power”).
The pattern that decorates
the side of Nefertari’s throne
is reminiscent of the serekh,
or palace, hieroglyph,
signaling that this is a royal
seat (see also page 42).
Ancient Egyptian inscriptions
should be read from top to
bottom, and from either the
left or the right, depending
on the direction in
which the hieroglyphic
figures are pointing.
In this case, they The vulture
are facing toward hieroglyph in
the right, which the cartouche
means that this (shenu)
eye (the first of proclaiming the
three hieroglyphs queen’s name
representing and epithet—
“Osiris”) is the “Nefertari,
starting point. Beloved of Mut”—
emphasizes the special
Nefertari’s hand hovers connection that was believed
over the senet board as she to exist between Nefertari That the birdlike figure on
considers her next move in and Mut. The suggestion the right is Nefertari’s ba (or
her quest to pass over safely that the queen’s excellent the spiritual essence of her
into the afterlife. It may be qualities as a mother had personality that has been
that certain gods are on her earned her Mut’s affection liberated by death from
side, and that her opponents may also be inferred, not her body, see page 44) is
are the demons that make the least because the vulture confirmed by their identical
underworld such a perilous hieroglyph forms the basis facial features and by the
place. of words that spell out both vulture-skin crown that the
“Mut” and “mother.” ba is wearing.