CHAPTER 17

GASEOUS EXCHANGE
AND ITS CONTROL
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
LECTURE 1

Students should be able to:

Describe basic structure of haemoglobin and its

characteristics (as respiratory pigments)

Explain transport of carbon dioxide by

haemoglobin
Basic structure of haemoglobin
(respiratory pigment)
Basic structure of haemoglobin (respiratory pigment)

Haemoglobin molecule
Basic structure of haemoglobin

Hemoglobin is conjugated
protein in red blood cells
that is responsible for
oxygen and carbon
dioxide transport
Arranged in four polypeptide
chains: two chains and
two chains, each
attached to a haem
Each molecule has 4 haem
group
 Pairs of
polypeptide are
held together by
hydrogen
bonds
An iron (Fe II) atom
is bound in the center
of each haem ring

An oxygen molecule
can attach to the iron
atom in each haem
Each haem can bind one molecule of oxygen, therefore, one
haemoglobin (Hb) molecule binds up to four oxygen molecules
Hb + 4O2 Hb(O2)4
Oxyhemoglobin
 Characteristics of haemoglobin as respiratory
pigment

1. Hemoglobin has a remarkable property of

forming a weak chemical bond with oxygen
so the reaction is readily reversible
2. Haemoglobin combines with the oxygen to
form the unstable oxyhaemoglobin complex
3. When partial pressure of oxygen is high as in
lung capillaries, haemoglobin has a high affinity for
oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin
4. When partial pressure of oxygen is low as in
respiring tissues, the oxyhaemoglobin dissociates
and oxygen is liberated
5. When partial pressure of CO2 increases and pH
decreases there is a reduction of the affinity of
haemoglobin for oxygen
Why does the haemoglobin molecule have a high
affinity for oxygen?
When one of the four polypeptide chains receives
an oxygen molecule in the lungs, its structure is
altered in such a away that the remaining three
polypeptide chains accept the oxygen molecules
more readily
 Transport of carbon
dioxide by haemoglobin
Transportation of Carbon Dioxide in blood
CO2 transported in blood in 3 ways:

1. 7% CO2 dissolved in plasma forming carbonic acid

(H2CO3)

2. 23% CO2 enter the red blood

cells and combines with the
amino ends of haemoglobin
polypeptide chains forming
carbaminohaemoglobin (HbCO2)

3. 70% CO2 is transported in the

blood in the form of bicarbonate
ions (HCO3-)
 IN TISSUES

Carbon dioxide produced

by body tissues diffuses
into the interstitial fluid
and the plasma

Over 90% of the CO2

diffuses into the red blood
cells, leaving only 7% in
the plasma as dissolved
CO2

Some CO2 is picked up

and transported by
haemoglobin
Most of the CO2 enter the
red blood cells, where CO2
combines with water to
form carbonic acid (H2CO3)

The reaction is catalysed by

carbonic anhydrase
Carbonic acid dissociates, forming bicarbonate ions
(HCO3-) and hydrogen ions (H+)

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

 Formation of H+ during carbonic acid dissociation;
lowers pH level
stimulates oxyhaemoglobin to release oxygen
oxygen is released and diffused into tissue cells.
Hemoglobin binds most of the H+
from H2CO3 , preventing H+ from
acidifying the blood and thus
preventing Bohr shift

By accepting hydrogen ions, Hb acts

as a buffer molecule

Most HCO3- diffuse into the plasma

and are replaced by Cl- ions, and
this exchange is known as the
chloride shift

HCO3- is carried in the bloodstream

to the lungs
 IN LUNGS
In lungs, HCO3- diffuse from
the plasma into the red blood
cells, combining with H+
released from hemoglobin and
forming H2CO3

H2CO3 is converted back to

CO2 and water. CO2 is also
unloaded from hemoglobin

CO2 diffuses into the plasma

and the interstitial fluid
 CO2 diffuses into the
alveolar space, from
which it is expelled during
exhalation.

The reduction of CO2

concentration in the
plasma drives the
breakdownof H2CO3 into
CO2 and water in the red
blood cells
Transport of Carbon Transport of
dioxide by Hb at Carbon dioxide by
tissue Hb at lungs
 GAS EXCHANGE AT LUNG
Deoxygenated blood
O2 Oxygenated
blood

Alveolar wall
[O2]

Capillary

CO2 CO2

O2

[CO2]

Plasma Erythrocyte
PO2 = 100 mm Hg
PCO2 = 40 mm Hg
Alveoli in lung
Figure 44-9
Page 866
O2
CO2

Capillary
in tissue

Capillary
in lung

Cells in body
PO2 = 40 mm Hg
PCO2 = 46 mm Hg
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Lecture 2

Students should be able to:

Describe the oxygen dissociation curve of

haemoglobin

Compare oxygen dissociation curves of

haemoglobin and myoglobin

Explain Bohr effect due to partial pressure of CO2

 Oxygen dissociation curves of haemoglobin
Oxygen dissociation curves show the relationship between the
degree of haemoglobin saturation with oxygen at different
values of partial pressure of oxygen

an S-shaped curve is obtained due to the way that Hb binds to O2

When the partial pressure of oxygen is high as in
lung capillaries, hemoglobin has a high
affinity for oxygen to form oxyhemoglobin

Partial pressure O2 high oxyhemoglobin high

When the partial pressure of oxygen is low as in
respiring tissues, the oxyhemoglobin
dissociates and oxygen is liberated
After the binding of the first O2 molecule, the binding of the rest
would be easier

Conversely, when one molecule of O2 dissociates

from the oxyhemoglobin, the release of the other molecules of
O2 would be easier
At a partial pressure of zero, no O2 is attached to
the Hb molecule

This is due to the ability of Hb to release O2 easily

when the partial pressure of O2 is low
At an O2 partial pressure of approximately 30mm Hg, 50 % of
the Hb is present as HbO2

The high affinity Hb to O2 at partial pressure of 73 mm Hg, Hb

is completely saturated with O2. This point is called loading
tension

At higher partial pressures of O2, further uptake of O2 can

occur, but 100% saturation of Hb is rarely achieved
Oxygen dissociation curves of
hemoglobin and myoglobin in
comparison

Myoglobin is a single chain protein

containing only one haem group,
which serve to bind an oxygen
molecule

Myoglobin molecule is widely

distributed in animals and is
particularly common in skeletal
muscle tissues of mammals
Higher affinity towards oxygen compare to
hemoglobin

Myoglobin binds strongly to oxygen to form

oxymyoglobinwhich is more stable than
oxyhemoglobin
Myoglobin + Oxygen Oxymyoglobin

Myoglobin acts as an oxygen store in the muscles

Even at relatively low partial pressures, it still tend to bind with

O2

During low partial pressure of oxygen (e.g. Strenous exercise,

when the available oxygen supplied by hemoglobin is used
up) oxymyoglobin dissociates and oxygen is released
 At high or moderately high partial pressure of oxygen, most
oxygen is still strongly bound to the myoglobin

Only when the partial pressure is very low does myoglobin

release O2
 The oxygen dissociation curve for myoglobin shows
that it is at the left compared to oxygen dissociation
curve of haemoglobin

the myoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve is

hyperbolic rather than sigmoidal
Effect of partial pressure of carbon
dioxide towards
Oxygen dissociation (Bohrs effect)
pH at body tissues affected by
the partial pressure of CO2 and the
accumulation of CO2 lowers the
pH

once blood has travelled to the

body tissues, O2 is released

this is due to the drop in the

partial pressure of the O2 and a
rise in the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide in respiring cells
A rise in the partial pressure of the
carbon dioxide lowers the affinity
of Hb for O2, the dissociation of
oxyhemoglobin increases and
oxygen is released to respiring
tissues

This is called the Bohr effect or the

Bohr shift

The oxygen dissociation curve

shifts to the right and is known as
Bohr effect
Bohr effect
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
LECTURE 3

Students should be able to:

Explain the role of chemoreceptors in controlling the rate of

breathing

Explain the regulation of the stomatal opening and closing

based on starch-sugars hypothesis
 Chemoreceptors
Cerebrospinal
fluid

Breathing Pons
Carotid bodies
control Medulla
centers oblongata
External
intercostal
muscle Aortic
bodies

Internal
intercostal
muscle
Diaphragm
Central Respiratory Centre
Control of breathing
Breathing occurs in 2 stages:
1. Inspiration-process in which air is actively
inhaled into the lungs

2. Expiration-process in which air is exhaled

from the lungs
Our breathing can be controlled under
voluntarily or involuntarily
If it is under controlled voluntarily-means
that a person has the ability to hold the
breath.
Examples: during singing, speech,
sneezing and coughing
Non conscious of our breathing is under
controlled involuntarily
Respiratory centre consists of a group of
special nerve cells in the medulla oblongata
of a brain

At the respiratory centre, there are inspiratory

centre and expiratory centre.
 The inspiratory centre is located at the ventral
(lower) portion of the respiration centre-increase
the rate and depth of inspiration

The expiratory centre located at the dorsal (top)

and lateral (side) portions of the respiration
centre- inhibit inspiration and stimulate
expiration
Inspiratory centre :
There are internal intercostal nerve goes to external
intercostal muscles to stimulate inspiration

Phrenic nerve goes to diaphragm to stimulate

inspiration

Muscles of inspiration (diaphragm and external

intercostal muscles) contract and inspiration
occurs
Expiratory centre :
Internal intercostal nerve to internal intercostal
muscles to stimulate expiration and occurs
expiration
Tbronchial tree is connected to the
brain(expiratory centre) by the vagus nerve

Inspiration inflates the lungs, and as they

inflate, stretch receptors in the bronchial tree
are stimulated to send more and more nerve
impulses through the expiratory centre
 This temporarily inhibits the inspiratory centre
and inspiration and thus occur expiration

After this has occurred, the bronchial tree is no

longer stretched and the stretch receptors no
longer stimulated

Therefore the expiratory centre becomes

inactive and inspiration can begin again
 The main stimulus that controls the
breathing rate is the concentration of CO2
in blood

How does the concentration of CO2 in

blood could control the breathing
rates??????
 When CO2 levels increase chemoreceptors in the
carotid and aortic bodies of the blood system
stimulated and they send impulses to the inspiratory
centre

The inspiratory centre sends out impulses

to:
a. external intercostal muscle that causes the
contraction of the muscle
b. diaphragm via phrenic nerves that causes
the contraction the diaphragm

which results in increased air pressure in the lungs

during inhalation
The expanded walls of the lungs stimulate
the stretch receptors, which communicate
with the breathing centre through the
vagus nerve

They thus switch off the inspiratory centre

and switch on the expiratory centre, which
relaxes the muscles, thus causing
exhalation and decrease in air pressure in
the lungs
 The stretch reseptors are then no longer
stimulated and stop their action, so that
the whole cycle can begin again
Control of breathing
Control of breathing
Control of breathing
 Summary of Control of Breathing
The1control center in the
medulla sets the basic
rhythm, and a control center
in the pons moderates it,
smoothing out the
transitions between
inhalations and exhalations.
Nerve
2 impulses trigger
muscle contraction. Nerves
from a breathing control center
in the medulla oblongata of the
brain transmit impulses to the
diaphragm and rib muscles,
stimulating them to contract
and causing inhalation.
In a 3person at rest, these
nerve impulses result in
about 10 to 14 inhalations
per minute. Between
inhalations, the muscles
relax and the person exhales.
Cerebrospinal
fluid
The medullas control center
also helps regulate blood CO2 level.
Sensors in the medulla detect changes
in
4 the pH (reflecting CO2 concentration)
of the blood and cerebrospinal fluid
bathing the surface of the brain.
Nerve impulses relay changes in
5
CO2 and O2 concentrations. Other
Pons
sensors in the walls of the aorta
and carotid arteries in the neck
Breathing
control detect changes in blood pH and
centers transmit nerve impulses to the medulla.
Medulla
In response, the medullas breathing
oblongata
control center alters the rate and
depth of breathing, increasing both
to dispose of excess CO2 or decreasing
both if CO2 levels are depressed.
Carotid
arteries
Aorta
6 The sensors in the aorta and
carotid arteries also detect changes
in O2 levels in the blood and signal
Diaphragm
the medulla to increase the breathing
Rib muscles
rate when levels become very low.
 Functions of stoma
Regulates the loss of water through transpiration in plants
Important ways for plants to cool off and regulating
temperature of plants

Enables exchange of gas between leaves and

atmosphere

Guard cells of stoma contain chloroplast and able to

photosynthesis
 Structure of guard cells
The outer wall of guard cells is thinner
and more elastic than the inner wall

When the cells become turgid and their

volume increases, the change affects
mainly the outer walls rather than the
inner walls
Inner wall Outer
The size of stoma is adjusted by the wall

turgidity of the guard cells

Regulation of stomatal opening and closing
Due to the guard cell turgidity
2 mechanism:
starch-sugar hypothesis
potassium ion hypothesis of the guard cell

Stoma open Stoma close

 DURING THE
DAY Starch-sugar hypothesis DURING THE
NIGHT
photosynthesis occurs no photosynthesis
concentration of carbon
concentration of carbon dioxide dioxide increase
decrease
pH rises (high pH) drop in pH (low pH)
Starch convert into glucose-1-phosphate
glucose-1-phosphate (sugar- convert into starch (starch
insoluble in water)
soluble in water)
water potential of guard
water potential of the guard cells cell increases
decreases
water flow out from guard
water flow from subsidiary cells cell to the subsidiary
cells by osmosis
into the guard cells by osmosis
Guard cells flaccid/less turgid
guard cells become turgid stomata closes

stomata open
(i) Starch-sugar hypothesis