Alders, R.G. 2016. Peak food and our quest for an ethical and ecologically sustainable human diet.

Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium, Sydney, Australia, Volume 27, pp.9-13.

PEAK FOOD AND OUR QUEST FOR AN ETHICAL AND ECOLOGICALLY

SUSTAINABLE HUMAN DIET

R.G. ALDERS1
Summary

Crude analyses of sustainable global resource use suggest that the peak rate year for
commercial poultry production was reached in 2006 while projections indicate the need to
deliver optimal and sustainable diets for 9 billion people by 2050. In addition, despite
increases in agricultural production over the past two decades, malnutrition rates in have not
diminished significantly, with undernutrition remaining a significant problem in many
developing countries and overnutrition becoming a major issue globally. Consequently, the
past focus on increasing the quantity of food production is giving way to a focus on
producing quality food that is nutrient rich, bioavailable and affordable and that can
efficiently and sustainably meet the nutritional needs of individuals at every stage of life.
This paper discusses key challenges and potential solutions associated with i) increasing food
production (by providing diets tailored to individuals according to their life stages and
cuisines of sub-populations, producing nutritionally rich foods, increasing dietary diversity
and empowering women) and ii) decreasing food wastage (by decreasing post-harvest losses,
increasing the purchase of appropriate quantities of nutritious food, increasing food safety
and decreasing nutrient loss). It concludes that food producers and harvesters can play a key
role in enhancing human physical and mental health while at the same time making the health
of the planet more resilient.

I. INTRODUCTION

Humanity is at a crossroads as we seek to deliver optimal and sustainable diets for 9 billion
people by 2050 (Alders et al., 2016; FAO 2009). Crude analyses of global resource use have
suggested that peak poultry, i.e. the maximum resource appropriation rate for poultry, was
reached in 2006 (Seppelt et al., 2014). However, while certain production systems may have
peaked, food technology is not static and will play a crucial role in meeting food
requirements (Campbell, 2015). Moreover, it is important that our food systems can ensure
that people have access to affordable, nutritious foods at every stage of life (Glopan, 2014).
The mandate of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO),
established at the end of the Second World War, prioritises ensuring humanity's freedom
from hunger (FAO 1981). Farmers and agricultural researchers responded to this challenge
with huge increases in agricultural production since the 1950s. However, the focus has
generally been on the volume of food produced with the farm gate prices being determined
by weight, i.e. focussed on quantity rather than quality. Projections show that feeding a
world population of 9 billion people in 2050 would require raising overall food production by
some 70 percent between 2005/07 and 2050 (FAO, 2009). In addition to requiring increased
food production, we also require diets targeted to individual needs appropriate to the life
stages and the cuisines of sub-populations (Alders et al., 2016). Despite increases in
agricultural production over the past two decades, malnutrition rates have not diminished
significantly, with undernutrition remaining a significant problem in many developing
countries (Girard et al., 2012; Masset et al., 2012) and overnutrition becoming a major issue
globally (Glopan, 2014). These trends are reflected statistically with: 200 million children
under the age of five who are stunted or wasted due to undernutrition; two billion people

1
Faculty of Veterinary Science and Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney. robyn.alders@sydney.edu.au
 Alders, R.G. 2016. Peak food and our quest for an ethical and ecologically sustainable human diet.
Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium, Sydney, Australia, Volume 27, pp.9-13.

suffering physical and cognitive effects resulting from a lack of essential vitamins and
minerals in their diets; and 1.4 billion people who are overweight or obese (Glopan, 2014).
Nationally, the 2011-12 Australian Health Survey (AHS) nutrient intake data
demonstrated significant nutrition-related issues, for example: (i) 62.8% of Australians aged
18 years and over were overweight or obese, (with 35.3% overweight and 27.5% obese); and
(ii) one in eight Australians over the age of two years had an inadequate daily intake of iron
(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2015). Women in particular had poor intakes of iron with
23% not meeting requirements compared to only 3% of men, and the prevalence was highest
amongst women of reproductive age (14-50 years). These nutritionally-related health
conditions have an impact on food requirements both now and into the future. This is tackled
in the Sustainable Development Goal #2 which aims to end hunger, achieve food security and
improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture (United Nations, 2015). Nutrition-
sensitive food value chains (Hawkes and Ruel, 2012) will be vital to achieving this goal as
will adopting an Ecohealth framework (Rapport and Singh, 2006). EcoHealth can be defined
as the recognition that health and well-being are the result of complex and dynamic
interactions between determinants, and between people, social and economic conditions, and
ecosystems (Charron, 2012).
In addition to providing nutrition for humans, our food systems currently provide
nutrition for companion and intensively raised farm animals. As human population increases
the number of companion animals has tended to increase, and pet food has changed in
parallel with the changing roles of these animals in human society (Swanson et al., 2013).
With increasing pressure on agricultural production, assessing the competing needs of
humans, animals and the environment becomes increasingly important.
Of the multitude of challenges facing our food systems, this paper specifically
highlights key challenges and solutions to this through increased food production and
decreased food wastage.

II. KEY CHALLENGES AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS

Increasing the sustainable production of nutritious and safe food

As noted above, human population is set to reach 9 billion by 2050 and 11 billion by 2100.
This increase will be accompanied by increasing urbanisation, an increasing middle class and
aging population together with a smaller rural labour force and more feedstocks for a
potentially huge bioenergy market (FAO, 2009). Challenges and possible solutions to
increasing the sustainable production of nutritious and safe food include:
(i) Providing diets tailored to individuals according to the life stages and cuisines of
sub-populations - future food production will need to specifically target the nutritional
requirements of individuals according to their age, gender and reproductive status while also
employing efficient technologies. This is a major commercial opportunity that should inspire
public-private partnerships. Urban food production will need to complement that produced
by farmers in agricultural areas (Alders et al., 2016).
(ii) Producing nutritionally rich foods accessing sufficient calories is important, but
calories alone are not enough to optimize epigenetic programming (Kaput, 2010); the proper
balance of micronutrients is also essential for both short- and long-term health. This has
become clear, as obesity and related health concerns are becoming significant issues in
individuals and communities adopting western diets (Alders et al., 2016). Therefore, instead
of focussing solely on volume or weight, it will be important for food producers to
increasingly take the naturally nutrient-rich (NNR) score (which assesses the contribution a
food makes to the nutrient intake of a 2000 calorie [8360 kJ] daily diet and includes 14 key
 Alders, R.G. 2016. Peak food and our quest for an ethical and ecologically sustainable human diet.
Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium, Sydney, Australia, Volume 27, pp.9-13.

macronutrients; Markovic and Natoli, 2009) into account to produce whole foods that provide
the highest nutrient-to-kilojoule ratio.
Where animal source food (ASF) is concerned, it should ideally mimic the naturally
lean wild meat consumed by humans over thousands of year (Wang et al., 2009). As the
human gene line separated from the great apes about 57 million years ago, the human
genome is largely ancient with our physiology and genomics remaining adapted to wild
foods. Wild meats are naturally lean. Wang et al. (2009) report a substantial increase in the
amount of non-essential fats and a loss of essential fats derived from contemporary animal
husbandry, including poultry meat, a trend which needs to be reversed.
As we move into the future, food production programs will need to: explicitly
incorporate nutrition objectives and indicators; collaborate and coordinate with other sectors
(health, environment, social protection, labour, water, sanitation, education and energy); and
maintain or improve the natural resource base (water, soil, air, climate, biodiversity; Ruel,
2013). While in vitro meat (Edelman et al., 2005) may provide a source of protein, it does
not currently offer the full range of bioavailable nutrients (e.g. calcium) provided by
traditional animal source food and so is unlikely to completely replace all animal production
systems in the foreseeable future.
(iii) Promoting dietary diversity Neglected or underutilized crops have the potential
to play a number of roles in the improvement of food security that include being: (a) a way to
reduce the risk of over-reliance on very limited numbers of major crops; (b) a way to increase
sustainability of agriculture through a reduction in inputs, such as fossil fuel-derived nitrogen
fertilizers and fuel for agriculture, given the risks of the carbon footprint of agriculture on
climate change and the transition to a post peak-oil world; (c) a contribution to food quality;
and (d) a way to preserve and celebrate cultural and dietary diversity (Mayes et al., 2011).
With respect to ASF, dietary diversity can be promoted through the consumption of
all edible parts of the carcass, including offal. Offal such as liver, provide an excellent source
of bioavailable micronutrients such as haem iron (de Bruyn et al., 2015).
(iv) Empowering women - ensuring access to productive resources, income
opportunities, extension services and information (Ruel, 2013). Improving womens access
to inputs and services has the potential to increase womens output to the same level as that
of men, implying an improvement of 2.5-4% of total agricultural output (FAO, 2014).
Improving women and childrens access to a balanced diet, especially during the crucial
period from conception until children reach 2 years of age will reduce stunting and, therefore,
improve life-long health and productivity (Glopan, 2014).

Decreasing food wastage

FAO (2103) estimates that each year, approximately one-third of all food produced for
human consumption in the world is lost or wasted. A 2009 study found that NSW
households spent $2.5 billion on food that was not consumed (DSEWPaC, 2011). This food
wastage represents a missed opportunity to improve global food security and also to mitigate
environmental impacts and resources use from food chains. Again, challenges and possible
solutions associated with mitigating food wastage include:
(i) Decreasing post-harvest losses improving access to and reliability of cold storage
facilities will reduce losses of poultry meat globally. For example, the shelf life of eggs can
be augmented in many locations by expanding the use of coating them in vegetable oil
(McGregor,2015).
(ii) Increasing the purchase of appropriate quantities of nutritious food increasing
awareness of the importance of purchasing less but more nutritious food will significantly
reduce food wastage (Alders et al., 2016).
 Alders, R.G. 2016. Peak food and our quest for an ethical and ecologically sustainable human diet.
Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium, Sydney, Australia, Volume 27, pp.9-13.

(iii) Increasing food safety disease emergence has paralleled the intensification of
livestock production with diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy and highly
pathogenic avian influenza, leading to the disposal of huge numbers of carcasses. Intensive
animal production systems are already responding to concerns about antimicrobial resistance
through research into a range of alternative growth promotants (Verstegen and Williams,
2002). Investigations into the molecular basis of genetic resistance to disease (Zekarias,
2002) may also contribute to enhanced food safety in addition to overcoming the lack of
genetic diversity amongst commercial chicken breeds.
(iv) Decreasing nutrient loss - nutrients are essential to life and yet modern food
production and processing systems are causing huge nutrient losses (Cribb, 2010). Annual
nutrient losses through soil erosion are thought to exceed all the nutrients applied as fertilizer
across the globe. Producing fertiliser from heat-treated urban human waste has the potential
to contribute to improved nutrient cycling.
(v) Integrating supply chain and consumer technologies - the possibility of the wired
home and the internet of things means a product can potentially be ordered, tracked and
monitored through its entire lifespan, from production to plate. Home refrigerators
themselves may monitor and optimise food usage for their owners: keeping track of food
expiry dates and quantities, reordering food on a the just in time logistics principle, linking
directly to automated supermarket supply chains to ensure an optimal distribution network
from farm to consumer (D. Stellmach, pers.comm, 7 January, 2016).

III. CONCLUSIONS

It will be essential for the agriculture, health, education and infrastructure sectors to work
together closely to ensure that food can be produced and utilised efficiently and effectively.
An awareness of the importance of the nutrient density and bioavailability of foods will help
people wanting to maintain a nutritionally sound diet and healthy body weight. Food
producers and harvesters can contribute to enhanced physical and mental health and in the
process make the health of the planet more resilient (Alders et al., 2016).
Adequately and sustainably nourishing 9 billion people by 2050 will involve direct
action from all levels of production from the soil to the plate. An Ecohealth approach to the
production of sustainable, nutritious and safe food delivered with minimal waste has the
potential to promote human, animal and environmental health. As governments worldwide
grapple with unsustainable health budgets, nutrition-sensitive agriculture and value chains,
bolstered by more effective policy frameworks, can help to stop malnutrition and ensure that
the food produced delivers maximum benefits.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: I would like to thank the organisers for the invitation to speak at
this symposium and the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research for
supporting my food and nutrition security research over many years.

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