What is Constructivism?

Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current
and past knowledge or experience. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences."
Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may
consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. This is also known as social constructivism. Social constructivists posit that
knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity about shared problems or tasks. Learning is seen as the
process by which individuals are introduced to a culture by more skilled members"(Driver et al., 1994) Constructivism itself has many
variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a
student's free exploration within a given framework or structure. The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover
principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in
self-directed learning, transformational learning, experiential learning, situated cognition, and reflective practice and religious practice.
What is Social Constructivism?
Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in
society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding (Derry, 1999; McMahon, 1997). This
perspective is closely associated with many contemporary theories, most notably the developmental
theories of Vygotsky and Bruner, and Bandura's social cognitive theory (Shunk, 2000).
Learning: Social constructivists view learning as a social process. It does not take place only within an
individual, nor is it a passive development of behaviors that are shaped by external forces (McMahon, 1997).
Meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities.
Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky) (1896-1934)
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is possibly the theory given the most credence at present. Vygotsky
believed the child’s culture and their interactions with others is significant in their overall development –
especially in relation to cognitive development.
In particular, Vygotsky views a child’s interactions with adults and more able peers as key to their overall
development. He believed that a child would internalise dialogues with others and use this information to
guide actions and acquisition of new skills on later occasions. From Vygotsky’s perspective learning is
dependent on support from adults.
Key to Vygotsky’s theory are the notions of private speech, scaffolding and the zone of proximal
development. Key ideas
 the child is viewed as an active seeker of knowledge;
 the child and environment interact together enabling cognitive development in a culturally adaptive
way;
 the mind is perceived to be socially constructed;
 the child is born with basic attentional, perceptual and memory capacities;
 development occurs as a direct result of contact with the environment;
 child as self communicator – leads to higher order thinking;
 language and thought develop independently, but eventually merge and interact.
Vygotsky's Three Principal Assumptions
Making Meaning
 The community plays a central role.
 The people around the student greatly affect the way he or she sees the world.
Tools for Cognitive Development
 The type and quality of these tools determine the pattern and rate of development.
 The tools may include: important adults to the student, culture, language.
The Zone of Proximal Development
 According to Vygotsky's theory, problem solving skills of tasks can be placed into three categories.
 These are as follows:
(a) those able to be performed independently by the student;
(b) those that cannot be performed even with help; and
(c) those that fall between the two extremes, the tasks that can be performed with help from others.
This is what Vygotsky called the Zone of Proximal Development (the ZPG) (What a lousy name!!)
Educational implications
- Child as an active participant in the learning process.
- Importance of individual difference.
- Assist children in discovery.

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- Teachers should guide learning through explanation, demonstration and verbal prompts.
- Tailor lessons to each child's zone of proximal development.
- Early childhood – promote teacher/child and child/child interactions.
- Promote fantasy play.
- Within the learning environment focus on literacy activities.
- Use prompts, reminders, increase independence, give information, use cooperative learning and reciprocal teaching strategies.
Jean Piaget and Cognitive development Theory
 Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a biologist but moved into the study of the development of children's understanding, through
observing them and talking and listening to them while they worked on exercises he set.
 Child psychologist Jean Piaget described the mechanism by which the mind processes new information. He said that a person
understands whatever information fits into his established view of the world. When information does not fit, the person must
reexamine and adjust his thinking to accommodate the new information. Piaget described four stages of cognitive development
and relates them to a person's ability to understand and assimilate new information.
 He proposed that children's thinking does not develop entirely smoothly: instead, there are certain points at which it "takes off"
and moves into completely new areas and capabilities. He saw these transitions as taking place at about 18 months, 7 years and
11 or 12 years. This has been taken to mean that before these ages children are not capable (no matter how bright) of
understanding things in certain ways, and has been used as the basis for scheduling the school curriculum.

Sensorimotor: (birth to about age 2) :-

During this stage, the child learns about himself and his environment through motor and reflex actions. Thought derives from
sensation and movement. The child learns that he is separate from his environment and that aspects of his environment -- his parents
or favorite toy -- continue to exist even though they may be outside the reach of his senses. Teaching for a child in this stage should
be geared to the sensorimotor system. You can modify behavior by using the senses: a frown, a stern or soothing voice -- all serve
as appropriate techniques.

Preoperational: (begins about the time the child starts to talk to about age 7) :-
Applying his new knowledge of language, the child begins to use symbols to represent objects. Early in this stage he also
personifies objects. He is now better able to think about things and events that aren't immediately present. Oriented to the present,
the child has difficulty conceptualizing time. His thinking is influenced by fantasy -- the way he'd like things to be -- and he
assumes that others see situations from his viewpoint. He takes in information and then changes it in his mind to fit his ideas.
Teaching must take into account the child's vivid fantasies and undeveloped sense of time. Using neutral words, body outlines and
equipment a child can touch gives him an active role in learning.

Concrete: (6/7- 11/12 years): -about first grade to early adolescence) :-

During this stage, accommodation increases. The child develops an ability to think abstractly and to make rational judgements about
concrete or observable phenomena, which in the past he needed to manipulate physically to understand. In teaching this child,
giving him the opportunity to ask questions and to explain things back to you allows him to mentally manipulate information.

Formal Operations: 11/12 years and up (adolescence)

This stage brings cognition to its final form. This person no longer requires concrete objects to make rational judgements. At his
point, he is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. Teaching for the adolescent may be wideranging because he'll be able
to consider many possibilities from several perspectives.
Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage Characterized by

Sensory-motor Differentiates self from objects

(Birth-2 yrs) Recognizes self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally: e.g. pulls a string to set
mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise
Achieves object permanence: realizes that things continue to exist even when no longer
present to the sense (pace Bishop Berkeley)

Pre-operational Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words
(2-7 years) Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others
Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red blocks regardless of
shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour

Concrete operational Can think logically about objects and events

(7-11 years) Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9)
Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series along a single
dimension such as size.

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Formal operational Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically
(11 years and up) Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems