Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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http://thesecondprinciple.com/teaching-essentials/beyond-bloom-cognitive-
taxonomy-revised/
SPEAKING
Distinguished | Superior | Advanced | Intermediate | Novice
PREFACE
The ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines 2012Speaking describe five major levels of
proficiency: Distinguished, Superior, Advanced, Intermediate, and Novice. The
description of each major level is representative of a specific range of abilities. Together
these levels form a hierarchy in which each level subsumes all lower levels. The major
levels Advanced, Intermediate, and Novice are divided into High, Mid, and Low
sublevels.
The Guidelines describe the tasks that speakers can handle at each level, as well as
the content, context, accuracy, and discourse types associated with tasks at each level.
They also present the limits that speakers encounter when attempting to function at the
next higher major level.
DISTINGUISHED
Speakers at the Distinguished level are able to use language skillfully, and with
accuracy, efficiency, and effectiveness. They are educated and articulate users of the
language. They can reflect on a wide range of global issues and highly abstract
concepts in a culturally appropriate manner. Distinguished-level speakers can use
persuasive and hypothetical discourse for representational purposes, allowing them to
advocate a point of view that is not necessarily their own. They can tailor language to a
variety of audiences by adapting their speech and register in ways that are culturally
authentic.
Speakers at the Distinguished level produce highly sophisticated and tightly organized
extended discourse. At the same time, they can speak succinctly, often using cultural
and historical references to allow them to say less and mean more. At this level, oral
discourse typically resembles written discourse.
VIEW SAMPLE
SUPERIOR
Speakers at the Superior level are able to communicate with accuracy and fluency in
order to participate fully and effectively in conversations on a variety of topics in formal
and informal settings from both concrete and abstract perspectives. They discuss their
interests and special fields of competence, explain complex matters in detail, and
provide lengthy and coherent narrations, all with ease, fluency, and accuracy. They
present their opinions on a number of issues of interest to them, such as social and
political issues, and provide structured arguments to support these opinions. They are
able to construct and develop hypotheses to explore alternative possibilities.
When appropriate, these speakers use extended discourse without unnaturally lengthy
hesitation to make their point, even when engaged in abstract elaborations. Such
discourse, while coherent, may still be influenced by language patterns other than those
of the target language. Superior-level speakers employ a variety of interactive and
discourse strategies, such as turn-taking and separating main ideas from supporting
information through the use of syntactic, lexical, and phonetic devices.
Speakers at the Superior level demonstrate no pattern of error in the use of basic
structures, although they may make sporadic errors, particularly in low-frequency
structures and in complex high-frequency structures. Such errors, if they do occur, do
not distract the native interlocutor or interfere with communication.
VIEW SAMPLES
ADVANCED
Speakers at the Advanced level engage in conversation in a clearly participatory
manner in order to communicate information on autobiographical topics, as well as
topics of community, national, or international interest. The topics are handled
concretely by means of narration and description in the major time frames of past,
present, and future. These speakers can also deal with a social situation with an
unexpected complication. The language of Advanced-level speakers is abundant, the
oral paragraph being the measure of Advanced-level length and discourse. Advanced-
level speakers have sufficient control of basic structures and generic vocabulary to be
understood by native speakers of the language, including those unaccustomed to non-
native speech.
VIEW SAMPLES
ADVANCED HIGH
Speakers at the Advanced High sublevel perform all Advanced-level tasks with linguistic ease,
confidence, and competence. They are consistently able to explain in detail and narrate fully
and accurately in all time frames. In addition, Advanced High speakers handle the tasks
pertaining to the Superior level but cannot sustain performance at that level across a variety of
topics. They may provide a structured argument to support their opinions, and they may
construct hypotheses, but patterns of error appear. They can discuss some topics abstractly,
especially those relating to their particular interests and special fields of expertise, but in
general, they are more comfortable discussing a variety of topics concretely.
ADVANCED MID
Speakers at the Advanced Mid sublevel are able to handle with ease and confidence a large
number of communicative tasks. They participate actively in most informal and some formal
exchanges on a variety of concrete topics relating to work, school, home, and leisure activities,
as well as topics relating to events of current, public, and personal interest or individual
relevance.
Advanced Mid speakers demonstrate the ability to narrate and describe in the major time
frames of past, present, and future by providing a full account, with good control of aspect.
Narration and description tend to be combined and interwoven to relate relevant and supporting
facts in connected, paragraph-length discourse.
Advanced Mid speakers can handle successfully and with relative ease the linguistic challenges
presented by a complication or unexpected turn of events that occurs within the context of a
routine situation or communicative task with which they are otherwise familiar.
Communicative strategies such as circumlocution or rephrasing are often employed for this
purpose. The speech of Advanced Mid speakers performing Advanced-level tasks is marked by
substantial flow. Their vocabulary is fairly extensive although primarily generic in nature,
except in the case of a particular area of specialization or interest. Their discourse may still
reflect the oral paragraph structure of their own language rather than that of the target language.
Advanced Mid speakers contribute to conversations on a variety of familiar topics, dealt with
concretely, with much accuracy, clarity and precision, and they convey their intended message
without misrepresentation or confusion. They are readily understood by native speakers
unaccustomed to dealing with non-natives. When called on to perform functions or handle
topics associated with the Superior level, the quality and/or quantity of their speech will
generally decline.
ADVANCED LOW
Speakers at the Advanced Low sublevel are able to handle a variety of communicative tasks.
They are able to participate in most informal and some formal conversations on topics related
to school, home, and leisure activities. They can also speak about some topics related to
employment, current events, and matters of public and community interest.
Advanced Low speakers demonstrate the ability to narrate and describe in the major time
frames of past, present, and future in paragraph-length discourse with some control of aspect.
In these narrations and descriptions, Advanced Low speakers combine and link sentences into
connected discourse of paragraph length, although these narrations and descriptions tend to be
handled separately rather than interwoven. They can handle appropriately the essential
linguistic challenges presented by a complication or an unexpected turn of events.
Responses produced by Advanced Low speakers are typically not longer than a single
paragraph. The speakers dominant language may be evident in the use of false cognates, literal
translations, or the oral paragraph structure of that language. At times their discourse may be
minimal for the level, marked by an irregular flow, and containing noticeable self-correction.
More generally, the performance of Advanced Low speakers tends to be uneven.
Advanced Low speakers contribute to the conversation with sufficient accuracy, clarity, and
precision to convey their intended message without misrepresentation or confusion. Their
speech can be understood by native speakers unaccustomed to dealing with non-natives, even
though this may require some repetition or restatement. When attempting to perform functions
or handle topics associated with the Superior level, the linguistic quality and quantity of their
speech will deteriorate significantly.
INTERMEDIATE
Speakers at the Intermediate level are distinguished primarily by their ability to create
with the language when talking about familiar topics related to their daily life. They are
able to recombine learned material in order to express personal meaning. Intermediate-
level speakers can ask simple questions and can handle a straightforward survival
situation. They produce sentence-level language, ranging from discrete sentences to
strings of sentences, typically in present time. Intermediate-level speakers are
understood by interlocutors who are accustomed to dealing with non-native learners of
the language.
VIEW SAMPLES
INTERMEDIATE HIGH
Intermediate High speakers are able to converse with ease and confidence when dealing with the
routine tasks and social situations of the Intermediate level. They are able to handle successfully
uncomplicated tasks and social situations requiring an exchange of basic information related to
their work, school, recreation, particular interests, and areas of competence.
Intermediate High speakers can handle a substantial number of tasks associated with the
Advanced level, but they are unable to sustain performance of all of these tasks all of the time.
Intermediate High speakers can narrate and describe in all major time frames using connected
discourse of paragraph length, but not all the time. Typically, when Intermediate High speakers
attempt to perform Advanced-level tasks, their speech exhibits one or more features of
breakdown, such as the failure to carry out fully the narration or description in the appropriate
major time frame, an inability to maintain paragraph-length discourse, or a reduction in breadth
and appropriateness of vocabulary.
Intermediate Mid speakers tend to function reactively, for example, by responding to direct
questions or requests for information. However, they are capable of asking a variety of questions
when necessary to obtain simple information to satisfy basic needs, such as directions, prices,
and services. When called on to perform functions or handle topics at the Advanced level, they
provide some information but have difficulty linking ideas, manipulating time and aspect, and
using communicative strategies, such as circumlocution.
Intermediate Mid speakers are able to express personal meaning by creating with the language,
in part by combining and recombining known elements and conversational input to produce
responses typically consisting of sentences and strings of sentences. Their speech may contain
pauses, reformulations, and self-corrections as they search for adequate vocabulary and
appropriate language forms to express themselves. In spite of the limitations in their vocabulary
and/or pronunciation and/or grammar and/or syntax, Intermediate Mid speakers are generally
understood by sympathetic interlocutors accustomed to dealing with non-natives.
Overall, Intermediate Mid speakers are at ease when performing Intermediate-level tasks and do
so with significant quantity and quality of Intermediate-level language.
INTERMEDIATE LOW
Speakers at the Intermediate Low sublevel are able to handle successfully a limited number of
uncomplicated communicative tasks by creating with the language in straightforward social
situations. Conversation is restricted to some of the concrete exchanges and predictable topics
necessary for survival in the target-language culture. These topics relate to basic personal
information; for example, self and family, some daily activities and personal preferences, and
some immediate needs, such as ordering food and making simple purchases. At the Intermediate
Low sublevel, speakers are primarily reactive and struggle to answer direct questions or requests
for information. They are also able to ask a few appropriate questions. Intermediate Low
speakers manage to sustain the functions of the Intermediate level, although just barely.
Intermediate Low speakers express personal meaning by combining and recombining what they
know and what they hear from their interlocutors into short statements and discrete sentences.
Their responses are often filled with hesitancy and inaccuracies as they search for appropriate
linguistic forms and vocabulary while attempting to give form to the message. Their speech is
characterized by frequent pauses, ineffective reformulations and self-corrections. Their
pronunciation, vocabulary and syntax are strongly influenced by their first language. In spite of
frequent misunderstandings that may require repetition or rephrasing, Intermediate Low
speakers can generally be understood by sympathetic interlocutors, particularly by those
accustomed to dealing with non-natives.
NOVICE
Novice-level speakers can communicate short messages on highly predictable,
everyday topics that affect them directly. They do so primarily through the use of
isolated words and phrases that have been encountered, memorized, and recalled.
Novice-level speakers may be difficult to understand even by the most sympathetic
interlocutors accustomed to non-native speech.
VIEW SAMPLES
NOVICE HIGH
Speakers at the Novice High sublevel are able to handle a variety of tasks pertaining to the
Intermediate level, but are unable to sustain performance at that level. They are able to
manage successfully a number of uncomplicated communicative tasks in straightforward
social situations. Conversation is restricted to a few of the predict able topics necessary for
survival in the target language culture, such as basic personal information, basic objects, and
a limited number of activities, preferences, and immediate needs. Novice High speakers
respond to simple, direct questions or requests for information. They are also able to ask a
few formulaic questions.
Novice High speakers are able to express personal meaning by relying heavily on learned
phrases or recombinations of these and what they hear from their interlocutor. Their language
consists primarily of short and some times incomplete sentences in the present, and may be
hesitant or inaccurate. On the other hand, since their language often consists of expansions of
learned material and stock phrases, they may sometimes sound surprisingly fluent and
accurate. Pronunciation, vocabulary, and syntax may be strongly influenced by the first
language. Frequent misunderstandings may arise but, with repetition or rephrasing, Novice
High speakers can generally be understood by sympathetic interlocutors used to non-natives.
When called on to handle a variety of topics and perform functions pertaining to the
Intermediate level, a Novice High speaker can sometimes respond in intelligible sentences,
but will not be able to sustain sentence-level discourse.
NOVICE MID
Speakers at the Novice Mid sublevel communicate minimally by using a number of isolated
words and memorized phrases limited by the particular context in which the language has
been learned. When responding to direct questions, they may say only two or three words at a
time or give an occasional stock answer. They pause frequently as they search for simple
vocabulary or attempt to recycle their own and their interlocutors words. Novice Mid
speakers may be understood with difficulty even by sympathetic interlocutors accustomed to
dealing with non-natives. When called on to handle topics and perform functions associated
with the Intermediate level, they frequently resort to repetition, words from their native
language, or silence.
NOVICE LOW
Speakers at the Novice Low sublevel have no real functional ability and, because of their
pronunciation, may be unintelligible. Given adequate time and familiar cues, they may be
able to exchange greetings, give their identity, and name a number of familiar objects from
their immediate environment. They are unable to perform functions or handle topics
pertaining to the Intermediate level, and cannot therefore participate in a true conversational
exchange.
https://www.actfl.org/publications/guidelines-and-manuals/actfl-proficiency-
guidelines-2012/english/speaking
ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines
by American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages
Originally published as: American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages.
1983. ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines. Revised 1985. Hastings-on-Hudson, NY: ACTFL
Materials Center.
In the public domain.
Summary
http://www-
01.sil.org/lingualinks/LANGUAGELEARNING/OtherResources/ACTFLProficiency
Guidelines/contents.htm
SPEAKING PROFICIENCY GUIDELINES
"Generic Characteristics of Each Level." As indicated above, the Guidelines define four
main levels of language proficiency: Novice, Intermediate, Advanced, and Superior. The
characteristics of each level for speaking are as follows.
"High Levels." When a learner fulfills most but not all of the basic characteristics of a
given level, he or she is assigned a rating immediately below the level in question, but
with the designation "High." Thus, a person who fulfills most but not all the requirements
of the Superior level is rated as Advanced High. Similarly, a person who exhibits most
but not all of the basic characteristics of the Advanced level may be rated as
Intermediate High, and a person who exhibits most but not all of the characteristics of
the Intermediate level may be rated Novice High. The Government scale refers to these
levels as "Plus" levels, and, by analogy, the l986 ACTFL Guidelines listed an Advanced
Plus level. However, in l989, the name of this level was changed to Advanced High in
order to be consistent with the High designation that can be obtained at the Novice and
Intermediate levels.
https://www.ericdigests.org/1992-2/actfl.htm
ACTFL
Proficien
cy
Guidelin
es -
Speaking
The ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines-Speaking (2012) have gained widespread
application as a metric against which to measure learners' functional
competency; that is, their ability to accomplish linguistic tasks representing
a variety of levels. Based on years of experience with oral testing in
governmental institutions and on the descriptions of language proficiency
used by Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR), the ACTFL Guidelines were
an adaptation intended for use in academia (college and university levels
particularly) in the United States. For this reason, the authors of
the Provisional Guidelines (1982) conflated the top levels (ILR 3-5),
expanded the descriptions of the lower levels (ILR 0-1), and defined
sublevels of competency according to the experience of language instructors
and researchers accustomed to beginning learners. Their efforts were
further modified and refined in the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines published in
1986.
For this reason, among others, the committee has broken with tradition by
presenting this version of the Speaking Guidelines in descending rather
than ascending order. This top-down approach has two advantages. First, it
emphasizes that the High levels are more closely related to the level above
than to the one below, and represents a considerable step towards
accomplishing the functions at the level above, not just excellence in the
functions of the level itself. Second, it allows for fewer negatives and less
redundancy in the descriptions when they refer, as they must, to the
inability of a speaker to function consistently at a higher level.
Acknowledgments
We would also like to thank the following committee members and reviewers
who generously gave of their time and expertise during the current revision
process: Lucia Caycedo Garner, Helen Hamlyn, Judith Liskin-Gasparro,
Arthur Mosher, Lizette Mujica Laughlin, Chantal Thompson, and Maureen
Weissenreider.
The Revision of the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines was supported by a grant from the
United States Department of Education International Research and Studies Program.
The ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines-Speaking (Revised 1999) may be used for non-
profit, educational purposes only, provided that they are reproduced in their entirety,
with no alterations, and with credit to ACTFL.
SUPERIOR
Speakers at the Superior level are able to communicate in the language with accuracy
and fluency in order to participate fully and effectively in conversations on a variety of
topics in formal and informal settings from both concrete and abstract perspectives.
They discuss their interests and special fields of competence, explain complex matters
in detail, and provide lengthy and coherent narrations, all with ease, fluency, and
accuracy. They explain their opinions on a number of topics of importance to them,
such as social and political issues, and provide structured argument to support their
opinions. They are able to construct and develop hypotheses to explore alternative
possibilities. When appropriate, they use extended discourse without unnaturally
lengthy hesitation to make their point, even when engaged in abstract elaborations.
Such discourse, while coherent, may still be influenced by the Superior speaker's own
language patterns, rather than those of the target language.
ADVANCED HIGH
Speakers at the Advanced-High level perform all Advanced-level tasks with linguistic
ease, confidence and competence. They are able to consistently explain in detail and
narrate fully and accurately in all time frames. In addition, Advanced-High speakers
handle the tasks pertaining to the Superior level but cannot sustain performance at
that level across a variety of topics. They can provide a structured argument to
support their opinions, and they may construct hypotheses, but patterns of error
appear. They can discuss some topics abstractly, especially those relating to their
particular interests and special fields of expertise, but in general, they are more
comfortable discussing a variety of topics concretely.
ADVANCED MID
Speakers at the Advanced-Mid level are able to handle with ease and confidence a
large number of communicative tasks. They participate actively in most informal and
some formal exchanges on a variety of concrete topics relating to work, school, home,
and leisure activities, as well as to events of current, public, and personal interest or
individual relevance.
Advanced-Mid speakers demonstrate the ability to narrate and describe in all major
time frames (past, present, and future) by providing a full account, with good control
of aspect, as they adapt flexibly to the demands of the conversation. Narration and
description tend to be combined and interwoven to relate relevant and supporting
facts in connected, paragraph-length discourse.
Advanced-Mid speakers can handle successfully and with relative ease the linguistic
challenges presented by a complication or unexpected turn of events that occurs
within the context of a routine situation or communicative task with which they are
otherwise familiar. Communicative strategies such as circumlocution or rephrasing are
often employed for this purpose. The speech of Advanced-Mid speakers performing
Advanced-level tasks is marked by substantial flow. Their vocabulary is fairly
extensive although primarily generic in nature, except in the case of a particular area
of specialization or interest. Dominant language discourse structures tend to recede,
although discourse may still reflect the oral paragraph structure of their own language
rather than that of the target language.
ADVANCED LOW
Speakers at the Advanced-Low level are able to handle a variety of communicative
tasks, although somewhat haltingly at times. They participate actively in most
informal and a limited number of formal conversations on activities related to school,
home, and leisure activities and, to a lesser degree, those related to events of work,
current, public, and personal interest or individual relevance.
Advanced-Low speakers demonstrate the ability to narrate and describe in all major
time frames (past, present and future) in paragraph length discourse, but control of
aspect may be lacking at times. They can handle appropriately the linguistic
challenges presented by a complication or unexpected turn of events that occurs
within the context of a routine situation or communicative task with which they are
otherwise familiar, though at times their discourse may be minimal for the level and
strained. Communicative strategies such as rephrasing and circumlocution may be
employed in such instances. In their narrations and descriptions, they combine and
link sentences into connected discourse of paragraph length. When pressed for a fuller
account, they tend to grope and rely on minimal discourse. Their utterances are
typically not longer than a single paragraph. Structure of the dominant language is
still evident in the use of false cognates, literal translations, or the oral paragraph
structure of the speaker's own language rather than that of the target language.
INTERMEDIATE HIGH
Intermediate-High speakers are able to converse with ease and confidence when
dealing with most routine tasks and social situations of the Intermediate level. They
are able to handle successfully many uncomplicated tasks and social situations
requiring an exchange of basic information related to work, school, recreation,
particular interests and areas of competence, though hesitation and errors may be
evident.
Intermediate-High speakers handle the tasks pertaining to the Advanced level, but
they are unable to sustain performance at that level over a variety of topics. With
some consistency, speakers at the Intermediate High level narrate and describe in
major time frames using connected discourse of paragraph length. However, their
performance of these Advanced-level tasks will exhibit one or more features of
breakdown, such as the failure to maintain the narration or description semantically or
syntactically in the appropriate major time frame, the disintegration of connected
discourse, the misuse of cohesive devises, a reduction in breadth and appropriateness
of vocabulary, the failure to successfully circumlocute, or a significant amount of
hesitation.
INTERMEDIATE MID
Speakers at the Intermediate-Mid level are able to handle successfully a variety of
uncomplicated communicative tasks in straightforward social situations. Conversation
is generally limited to those predictable and concrete exchanges necessary for survival
in the target culture; these include personal information covering self, family, home,
daily activities, interests and personal preferences, as well as physical and social
needs, such as food, shopping, travel and lodging.
Intermediate-Mid speakers tend to function reactively, for example, by responding
to direct questions or requests for information. However, they are capable of asking
a variety of questions when necessary to obtain simple information to satisfy basic
needs, such as directions, prices and services. When called on to perform functions or
handle topics at the Advanced level, they provide some information but have difficulty
linking ideas, manipulating time and aspect, and using communicative strategies,
such as circumlocution.
Intermediate-Mid speakers are able to express personal meaning by creating with the
language, in part by combining and recombining known elements and conversational
input to make utterances of sentence length and some strings of sentences. Their
speech may contain pauses, reformulations and self-corrections as they search for
adequate vocabulary and appropriate language forms to express themselves.
Because of inaccuracies in their vocabulary and/or pronunciation and/or grammar
and/or syntax, misunderstandings can occur, but Intermediate-Mid speakers are
generally understood by sympathetic interlocutors accustomed to dealing with non-
natives.
INTERMEDIATE LOW
Speakers at the Intermediate-Low level are able to handle successfully a limited
number of uncomplicated communicative tasks by creating with the language in
straightforward social situations. Conversation is restricted to some of the concrete
exchanges and predictable topics necessary for survival in the target language
culture. These topics relate to basic personal information covering, for example, self
and family, some daily activities and personal preferences, as well as to some
immediate needs, such as ordering food and making simple purchases. At the
Intermediate-Low level, speakers are primarily reactive and struggle to answer
direct questions or requests for information, but they are also able to ask a few
appropriate questions.
NOVICE HIGH
Speakers at the Novice-High level are able to handle a variety of tasks pertaining to
the Intermediate level, but are unable to sustain performance at that level. They are
able to manage successfully a number of uncomplicated communicative tasks in
straightforward social situations. Conversation is restricted to a few of the
predictable topics necessary for survival in the target language culture, such as
basic personal information, basic objects and a limited number of activities,
preferences and immediate needs. Novice-High speakers respond to simple, direct
questions or requests for information; they are able to ask only a very few formulaic
questions when asked to do so.
NOVICE MID
Speakers at the Novice-Mid level communicate minimally and with difficulty by using a
number of isolated words and memorized phrases limited by the particular context in
which the language has been learned. When responding to direct questions, they may
utter only two or three words at a time or an occasional stock answer. They pause
frequently as they search for simple vocabulary or attempt to recycle their own and
their interlocutor'?s words. Because of hesitations, lack of vocabulary, inaccuracy, or
failure to respond appropriately, Novice-Mid speakers may be understood with great
difficulty even by sympathetic interlocutors accustomed to dealing with non-natives.
When called on to handle topics by performing functions associated with the
Intermediate level, they frequently resort to repetition, words from their native
language, or silence.
NOVICE LOW
Speakers at the Novice-Low level have no real functional ability and, because of their
pronunciation, they may be unintelligible. Given adequate time and familiar cues, they
may be able to exchange greetings, give their identity, and name a number of familiar
objects from their immediate environment. They are unable to perform functions or
handle topics pertaining to the Intermediate level, and cannot therefore participate in
a true conversational exchange.
http://www.actfltraining.org/actfl_posting.cfm?recno=11
1. Historical overview of the development of the notion of
"communicative competence".
1.1. the model development
Hymes (1972)
"Communicative Competence"
It can be said that these four represent the four aspects of language
user's knowledge and ability. by Munby (1981)
1. grammatical
2. psycholinguistic
3. sociocultural
4. de facto
Halliday (1971,72)
Macro-functions
1. ideational
2. manipulative
3. heuristic
4. imaginative
Widdowson (1978)
(take note)
Munby (1978)
1. linguistic encoding
2. sociocultural orientation
1. grammatical competence
2. discourse competence
3. sociolinguistic competence
4. strategic competence
Savignon (1983)
interactional approach
Bachman (1990)
tree model of CC
1. Language Competence
a. Organizational Competence
+ cohesion/coherence
+ conversational analysis
Grice (1975), Sinclair and Coulthard (1975), Hatch (1978), Hatch and
Long (1980), Richards and Schmidt (1983)
b. Pragmatic Competence
(i) illocutionary competence
+ speech acts
+ language functions
2. Strategic Competence
pointing out that Canale and Swain's and Canale's model did not
describe the mechanisms by which strategic competence operates.
(1) assessment
(2) planning
(3) execution
3. Psychophysiological Mechanisms
channel --- visual/auditory
2. Model Assessment
CC model revised
1. Grammatical Competence
2. Discourse Competence
cohesion/coherence
Gricean maxims
conversational competence
speech acts
3. Sociolinguistic Competence
language function
interactional patterns
speech acts
4. Strategic Competence
1. assessment
5. Psychophysiological Mechanisms
4 skills
(example 1) "pronunciation"
a. Grammatical Competence
Chomsky (1965)
Prabhu (1983)
b. Discourse Competence
pragmatic elements
2. Gricean maxims
5. Pragmatic Failure & Transfer (Thomas 1983, Beebe et. al. 1985)
c. Sociolinguistic Competence
Speech Acts (Brown & Levinson 1978, Austin 1962, Wolfson 1981,
Holmes and Brown 1987)
Pragmatic Failure & Transfer (Thomas 1983, Beebe et. al. 1985)
d. Strategic Competence
Tarone (1981)
Bachman (1990)
e. Psychophysiological Mechanisms
Bachman (1990)
Arguments:
1. Some studies and theories do not neatly fit into one component of
CC and overlap several components. For instance, interactional
competence, in Kramsch's term, cannot be categorized as a part of
sociolinguistic competence. ("interactional competence" is related to
research on group work done by Long & Porter 1985, Pica & Doughty
1985, Varonis & Gass 1985)
McGroarty (1984)
ESP
Grice (1975)
Cooperative Principles
Conversational Maxims
1. relation
2. quantity
3. quality
4. manner
defined by whether the speaker have had the chance to plan what is
to be said before uttering discourse.
Hatch (1978)
Hatch (1992)
Austin (1962)
locutionary/illocutionary/perlocutionary acts
Searle (1969)
Hatch (1983)
this study shows that many speech acts, small structured speech
events reflect fundamental cultural values.
Ranney (1992)
claims that learning forms for speech acts and politeness is only part
of acquiring sociolinguistic competence. Too much emphasis on
teaching conventional speech act and politeness forms may mislead
learners into thinking that politeness may always be conveyed by
using conventional forms.
3. Interactional Competence
Schmidt (1983)
Kramsch (1986)
4. Cross-cultural considerations
Thomas (1983)
"pragmatic failure"---"the inability to understand what is meant by
what is said."
Her most indirect forms were taken as directives by her Greek host
family.
Wolfson (1981)
1. Background
b is dominant.
3. Principles
a. use > usage
e. learner-centered, experience-centered
Problems of CLT
SLA
http://www.ne.jp/asahi/kurazumi/peon/ccmodel.html
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thermodynamics problem where you have an object that is so hot that it glows
inside. A small hole allows the light to escape, and it can be studied. The
problem is that in the 1800s, experiments and theories in this area didnt
match up.
A hot object radiates heat in the form of light (hot coals in a fire or the metal
rings on electric stoves are both good examples of this). If this object were
open inside, like an oven or a metal box, the heat would bounce around
inside.
This sort of object was called a blackbody because the object itself doesnt
reflect light, only radiates heat and throughout the 1800s, various
theoretical work in thermodynamics had examined the way heat behaved
inside a blackbody.
Now assume that theres a small opening like a window in the oven,
through which light can escape. Studying this light reveals information about
the heat energy within the blackbody.
The result is that as the wavelength of light gets very small (the ultraviolet
range of electromagnetic energy), the intensity is supposed to increase
dramatically, approaching infinity.
Plancks insight came when he looked at the data and tried to figure out what
was going on. Clearly, the long wavelength predictions were close to matching
with experiment, but the short wavelength light was not. The theory was over-
predicting the amount of light that would be produced at short wavelengths, so
he needed a way to limit this short wavelength.
Knowing some things about waves, Planck knew that the wavelength and
frequency were inversely related. So if youre talking about waves with short
wavelength, youre also talking about waves with high frequency. All he had to
do was find a way to lower the amount of radiation at high frequencies.
Planck reworked the equations, assuming that the atoms could only emit or
absorb energy in finite quantities. The energy and frequency were related by a
proportion called Plancks constant. Physicists use the variable h to represent
Plancks constant in his resulting physics equations.
http://www.dummies.com/education/science/physics/string-theory-and-quantum-
physics/