ARC

ARC is one way to describe three possible stages of a class. It stands for Authentic Use,
Restricted Use and Clarification and Focus.

Example
ARC could be used to describe the staging of a grammar presentation lesson which starts with
an explanation of rules. Here it would have a different order: CRA.

In the classroom
Authentic use might be a conversation stage that is designed to include the language that
learners should practise; restricted use could be a gap-fill exercise on the language, and
clarification and focus an explanation of rules on the board.

Accuracy

Accuracy refers to how correct learners' use of the language system is, including their use of
grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary. Accuracy is often compared to fluency when we talk
about a learner's level of speaking or writing.

Example
A learner might be fluent (make their meaning clear) but not accurate (make a lot of
mistakes).

In the classroom
Language manipulation activities can help develop accuracy. These include controlled
practice, drills, the study and application of grammar rules, and activities that help students
to 'notice' their own mistakes.

Achievement test

An achievement test evaluates a learner's understanding of a specific course or study

programme. It can be compared with proficiency tests, which measure a learner's level of
language, diagnostic tests, which identify areas learners need to work on, and a prognostic
test, which tries to predict a learner's ability to complete a course or take an exam.

Example
The learners have finished units 1 - 4 of a coursebook and the teacher now gives them an
achievement test based on what they have seen in these units. The test is taken from the
teacher's book.

In the classroom
Achievement tests can have many additional functions aside from evaluation. Learners can for
example develop an action plan for further study based on the results of an achievement test.

1
Acquisition

Acquisition is the way we learn our first language, i.e. through being involved in real
communication, and without formal teaching. As we learn, we hypothesise rules, and use
these to communicate until we notice that the rule is different, or has exceptions. This leads
to classic early mistakes such as 'I seed' and 'I buyed'. Language learning programmes that
immerse learners in the target language aim to create the conditions for acquisition to
happen in second language learning. In a communicative classroom, opportunities for natural
acquisition are often provided alongside opportunities for formal learning, to make the most of
both ways of learning.

Example
A learner can acquire language by living in a country where the language they want to speak
is used. They do this without formal training and by being in contact with it and needing to
use it.

In the classroom
Learners can be encouraged to acquire language by exposure to authentic spoken or written
language and authentic communicative tasks, such as watching TV in order to summarise
what they understand, rather than to analyse the language they hear in depth.

Action research

Action research is a development tool for a teacher that involves observing or gathering other
data about a class through interviews, case studies, and questionnaires. A teacher can
establish a cycle of identifying problems, planning changes in response, implementing
changes and gathering and analysing data to evaluate the implementation. Action research
can be used to help general development or to resolve specific problems with teaching or
learners.

Example
A teacher has problems with giving feedback to learners on speaking problems and decides to
record their classes. They then analyse the recordings to identify more effective ways of
correction. They implement changes based on this, and collect data to analyse whether
feedback is now more useful to learners.

In the classroom
Peer observations, learner and teacher diaries, audio and video recordings, case studies,
questionnaires and interviews with learners are all methods that can be used to gather data
for action research.

Adverbial clause

An adverbial clause tells us more about a main clause, in the same way as an adverb tells us
more about a verb.

Example
He went there because he wanted revenge.

2
In the classroom
The conjunctions that link adverbial clauses and other parts of the sentence are often a focus
of work in this area. Learners can practise these by linking parts of sentences using the
correct conjunctions, or by finishing sentence starters appropriately.

Affective factors

Affective factors are emotional factors which influence learning. They can have a negative or
positive effect. Negative affective factors are called affective filters and are an important idea
in theories about second language acquisition.

Example
A learner's attitude to English, to the teacher, to other learners in the group and to herself are
all affective factors and have impact on how well she learns.

In the classroom
Affective factors may be as important for successful language learning, if not more so, than
ability to learn. Teachers can reduce negative factors and develop positive ones by doing
activities to build a positive group dynamic, by including students in deciding aspects of the
course and choosing activities that are motivating for the age and interests of the learners.

Affective strategies

Affective strategies are learning strategies concerned with managing emotions, both negative
and positive. The relationship between affective strategies and learning is not clear, but a
positive affective environment helps learning in general.

Example
Lowering anxiety levels with relaxation techniques is one kind of affective strategy.

In the classroom
The teacher can play an active role in developing and exploiting affective strategies by
building a generally positive atmosphere in the class. This can happen by encouraging and
counselling learners, by helping them identify achievable aims and work towards autonomous
learning, through personalising activities, and through pair and group work.

Affixes

Affixes are groups of letters that are added to the beginning or the end of words to make new
words. Prefixes go at the beginning of words and often change meaning, whilst suffixes go at
the end of words and often change the kind of word (e.g. from verb to noun, or noun to
adjective etc.).

Example
'Substandard' and 'pre-cooked' are examples of prefixes, 'hopefully' and 'happiness' are
examples of suffixes.

3
In the classroom
It is very important to teach affixation as it helps learners guess the meaning of new words
they find, and construct new forms successfully. Word guessing games can help develop
awareness.

Affricative

Affricatives are consonant sounds made up of a stop, like /t/, immediately followed by a
fricative, like /s/.

Example
The /t/and /d/ consonant sounds are affricatives.

In the classroom
The affricative sounds in English are common in other languages and relatively easy to
produce for many learners.

Aims

Aims are what teachers (and learners) want to achieve in a lesson or a course. Activity in a
class is planned in order to achieve these aims.

Example
A lesson aim could be for the learners to demonstrate that they understand the form or use of
the passive better, or to have practised intensive reading. A course aim could be to improve
the report writing skills of a group of business students.

In the classroom
Aims on lesson plans often describe what the teacher wants learners to be able to do by the
end of a lesson, or what they will have done during it. Teachers can tell learners their lesson
aims, or involve learners in setting them. This can help create a sense of purpose and
progress.

Allomorph

Allomorphs are different forms of the same morpheme, or basic unit of meaning. These can be
different pronunciations or different spellings.

Example
There are three allomorphs of the morpheme -s in English. Compare the sound of the -s in
cats', dogs' and foxes'.

In the classroom
Certain allomorphs are difficult for learners to produce correctly, for example the allomorphs
of the -ed regular past morpheme, which learners often do not produce correctly until higher

4
levels. Recognition activities such as sorting words into groups according to pronunciation are
useful to raise awareness.

Allophone

Allophones are phonetic variations - different pronunciations - of the same phoneme. Using a
different allophone does not change meaning.

Example
The /l/ sound is pronounced differently in love' and in wool'. These two words contain
allophones of the phoneme /l/.

In the classroom
It is important to be aware of what allophones and phonemes exist in other languages, as
these can cause problems when learning the sounds of English. For example, the /b/ and /v/
phonemes in English are only allophones in Spanish and Spanish learners often have difficulty
recognizing the difference. Discrimination activities on minimal pairs of words, distinguished
only by the phonemes concerned, can help with this.

Alveolar consonants

Alveolar consonants are consonant sounds that are produced with the tongue close to or
touching the ridge behind the teeth on the roof of the mouth. The name comes from alveoli -
the sockets of the teeth.

Example
The consonant sounds /t/, /n/ and /d/ are all alveolar consonants.

In the classroom
Alveolar consonants exist in many languages, including Spanish, Italian, French and German.
Learners can practise these in minimal pairs such as tent' and dent'.

Anaphoric reference

Anaphoric reference means that a word in a text refers back to other ideas in the text for its
meaning. It can be compared with cataphoric reference, which means a word refers to ideas
later in the text.

5
 Example
I went out with Jo on Sunday. She looked awful.' She` clearly refers to Jo, there is no need to
repeat her name.

In the classroom
Asking learners to identify what or who the pronouns in a text refer to is one way to raise
awareness. They can then practise this by using pronouns to replace words themselves.
Comparing texts with well managed referencing to ones with poorly managed referencing can
help students develop an idea of effective referencing even at low levels.

Anchoring

Anchoring is a technique used to manage emotional states in Neuro-Linguistic Programming.

It involves setting up an association with a desired mental state such as happiness or calm by
creating an anchor stimuli to that state. Anchoring is one of various NLP techniques which
have applications not only in terms of managing thinking and feeling but also as classroom
activities to support other learning aims.

Example
Hearing a song and remembering a sad experience, or smelling a particular food and recalling
a time in childhood, are both examples of anchors.

In the classroom
Anchoring can be used to reduce affective factors such as stress. Learners - and teachers in
stressful situations such as exams or observations - can be encouraged to make associations
with a previous, happier experience that they have created an anchor to.

Antonym

An antonym is a word which means the opposite to another word.

Example
'Sad' is an antonym of happy'.

In the classroom
Antonyms are an interesting way for learners to explore the meaning of words, for example
when there are various antonyms for a word with multiple meanings, such as rich' or hard'.
This can be done through activities such as mini-presentations of all the antonyms of a word,
or by matching pairs.

Applied linguistics

6
Applied linguistics is a field of study that looks at how linguistics can help understand real-life
problems in areas such as psychology, sociology and education. It can be compared with
theoretical linguistics, which looks at areas such as morphology, phonology and lexis. Areas of
applied linguistics of interest to teachers of languages include language acquisition, corpus
studies and sociolinguistics.

For example
Linguistic anthropology is a field of applied linguistics that links analysis of linguistics and
socio-cultural issues.

In the classroom
Studies in applied linguistics which inform the ELT classroom include bilingualism,
conversation and discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, language assessment and language
teaching itself.

Approach

An approach is a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any language teaching
approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be learnt. An approach
gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something, which use classroom activities or
techniques to help learners learn.

Example
The communicative approach is the best-known current approach to language teaching. Task-
based teaching is a methodology associated with it. Other approaches include the cognitive-
code approach, and the aural-oral approach (audiolingual method).

In the classroom
Learners in the modern language classroom often learn through techniques drawn from a
variety of methods/approaches in what has been labelled an eclectic approach'. Teachers
select techniques from various approaches according to the different needs of their learners.
Most coursebooks mix methods and techniques in this way.

Appropriacy

Appropriacy refers to whether a word is suitable for the context it is being used in. It is an
important aspect of language but an extremely complex one, as decisions about how to say
things depend on understanding exactly what is right for the context and the culture.

Example
It may be appropriate to say hold on a minute, will you?' in one context and Could you wait a
moment, please?' in another.

In the classroom
Focusing on inappropriate forms of language and delivery first is a good way to raise
awareness of this area. For example, learners can identify inappropriate in language in video
7
material such as comedy programmes, match language to contexts where it can be used, and
discuss what is appropriate in their own cultures. In general, it is exposure to a range of
authentic material that will help students develop their understanding of appropriacy.

Aspect

Aspect is information described by a verb that is not related just to tense and time. For
example, aspect shows whether an action is unfinished or not. It can be compared to tense,
which refers to the verb's past or present form, and time, which is whether the verb refers to
past, present or future.

Example
In English, aspects include the simple, the continuous and the perfect.

In the classroom
Teachers may take a functional approach to teaching each verb form, rather than looking
explicitly at tense, time or aspect. For example, learners may study the uses of the present
perfect continuous, or the past simple.

Assimilation

Assimilation is a process where sounds in separate words change when they are put together
in speech. One way this happens is by the second sound changing to be more similar to the
first.

Example
The phrase 'white bag', which becomes 'wipe bag' when it is said.

In the classroom
Raising awareness of assimilation is often easier to achieve than actively encouraging
learners to produce it, as it is a natural process as fluency increases. One way to help learners
notice is to use phonemic script to describe the changes to sounds.

Asynchronous learning

Asynchronous learning occurs when learner and teacher are not in the same place at the
same time. It can be compared with synchronous learning, where the learner and the teacher
are in the same place at the same time. Both terms are used to define types of online
learning.

Example
In online learning, e-mail and discussion threads on forums are asynchronous learning tools.

In the classroom
Asynchronous learning tools are potentially less powerful than synchronous tools such as
videoconferencing and live chat, but they are often used by teachers to support classroom

8
learning rather than as a substitute for it. For example, learners can send written homework
to their teacher for correction, then revise and re-write it.

Audience

Written or spoken communication has an audience - the people the message is for. In order for
the message to be effective it must be written or said with the audience in mind. The
audience will particularly affect the choice of register; the level of formality of lexis and
expressions.

Example
The target audience for a newspaper report will be much wider than a message left on
someone's desk on a post-it note.

In the classroom
Analysis of who the target audience is when learners are planning writing can help develop
awareness. Learners can also be shown how thinking about the target audience can improve
the effectiveness of a piece of writing or speaking.

Audio-lingualism

Audio-lingualism is a method of foreign language teaching where the emphasis is on learning

grammatical and phonological structure, especially for speaking and listening. It is based on
behaviourism and so relies on formation as a basis for learning, through a great deal of
mechanical repetition.

Example
The teacher spends most of the time in the class drilling the learners on grammatical and
phonological structures. Error correction is also important.

In the classroom
Audio-lingualism evolved in the context of large-scale language teaching programmes in the
1950s and 60s. It is unusual in modern language learning and has largely fallen out of use as
a methodology, as cognitive views of language learning and communicative accounts of
language have led to other methodologies.

Authentic

Authentic materials are written or spoken texts used with learners without changing the level
of language.

Example
A story from a news webpage, streamed radio, a story from a CDROM, a podcast, or a live
native speaker talking to learners without adjusting the level of their language.
9
In the classroom
Authentic materials can be exploited at different levels by changing the level of the task to
suit learner levels. Thus, the same piece of authentic material can be used with an
elementary level class or an advanced one.

Authentic task

An authentic task is a task that native speakers of a language would do in everyday life. When
learners do an authentic task they are doing something that puts real communicative
demands on them.

Example
The learners need to plan a trip around their country for a group of students on an exchange
trip.

In the classroom
Authentic tasks are easy to identify as they are what we do with our own language all the
time. Examples include phoning for information, preparing a party, planning a holiday,
answering e-mail, preparing reports, holding a meeting and filling in application forms.

Autonomy

Autonomy means the ability to take control of one's own learning, independently or in
collaboration with others. An autonomous learner will take more responsibility for learning and
is likely to be more effective than a learner who is reliant on the teacher. Learner training in
the classroom encourages autonomy and is an important element of language teaching.

Example
An autonomous learner will set their own goals, reflect on their progress, and seek
opportunities to practise outside the classroom.

In the classroom
Asking learners to keep diaries to reflect on the way they learn best, and teaching them how
to use tools such as dictionaries can encourage autonomy. Asking the question, 'could the
learners do this for themselves?' about any activity planned for class will help create the
conditions for the development of greater learner autonomy in class.

Auxiliary verb

Auxiliary verbs are added to main verbs to make them work in other forms, such as questions,
negatives, and other times.

10
Example
do', have' and be' are examples of auxiliary verbs.

In the classroom
Drilling or matching activities are useful activities to practise the use of auxiliary verbs in
questions, short answers, negatives and tags, as learners need to make mechanical changes
to structures.

For example
T: I have a new car. T: You like fish...
Ls: Do you? L: Don't you?

Awareness-raising

Awareness-raising activities aim to make learners more aware of language and so improve
their understanding, but do not involve learners in using the language themselves. As such,
awareness-raising activities are often the first stage of learning new language.

Example
A pre-intermediate level group have just finished a reading comprehension using an authentic
text and the teacher goes back and highlights the phrasal verbs in the text, explaining what
they are and their meaning, but not asking the learners to use them in any way.

In the classroom
Awareness-raising is a useful technique in mixed-ability classes, as learners will be able to
respond to the new information in different ways and process it according to their level of
competence.

Backchaining

Backchaining is a drilling technique intended to help learners pronounce difficult sound groups, words or
phrases. The teacher begins with the last sound, which the learners repeat, and then gradually builds up the
word or phrase by going 'back' to the beginning.

Example
The following sequence is an example of a backchaining drill:
Teacher: Known
Learners: Known
Teacher: I'd known
Learners: I'd known
Teacher: If only I'd known
Learners: If only I'd known etc

In the classroom
Backchaining is one of many drilling techniques which can be used to focus on pronunciation problems. It is
particularly useful to help learners pronounce weak, elided or intrusive sounds. In addition to helping
learners say difficult phrases, it is also fun.

11
Blending

Blending is one of the many ways new words are made in English. It refers to joining the beginning of one
word and the end of another to make a new word with a new meaning.

Example
Smog, from smoke and fog, and brunch, from breakfast and lunch, are examples of blends.

In the classroom
Discussion of blends can help learners understand how words are formed in English, e.g. Asking learners to
identify root words. Learners can also invent new blend words.

Blog

A blog, or weblog, is a website which functions as a diary or personal journal. The writer makes regular
additions to the site in text, file and image form, and others add comments. The latest entry appears first, and
other people can leave comments on what is written, encouraging a dialogue to develop between the writer
and the readers.

Example
The Guardian newspaper and the BBC now have blogs on their online sites.

In the classroom
Class blogs are an excellent way to motivate learners to produce English, and the applications such as
Blogger' make them extremely easy to start. Students can be encouraged to communicate with each other
outside class through a blog. To monitor them, many teachers use a central hub' blog of their own, with
links to learner blogs through this.

Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence

Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence is one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple intelligence
theory. People with significant bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence may enjoy doing things rather than reading or
hearing about them, and are good at making things and at physical activities in general.

Example
Total Physical Response is an example of an approach that seeks to develop and support this kind of
intelligence.

In the classroom
A learner with bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence may enjoy drama and physical games such as running
dictations and mime rather than more static activities. In general they may welcome opportunities to get up
and move around the class.

Bottom-up

Bottom-up processing happens when someone tries to understand language by looking at individual
meanings or grammatical characteristics of the most basic units of the text, (e.g. sounds for a listening or
12
words for a reading), and moves from these to trying to understand the whole text. Bottom-up processing is
not thought to be a very efficient way to approach a text initially, and is often contrasted with top-down
processing, which is thought to be more efficient.

Example
Asking learners to read aloud may encourage bottom-up processing because they focus on word forms, not
meaning.

In the classroom
Learners can be encouraged to use both bottom-up and top-down strategies to help them understand a text.
For example in a reading comprehension learners use their knowledge of the genre to predict what will be in
the text (top-down), and their understanding of affixation to guess meaning (bottom-up).

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is the random generation of ideas based around a topic. There is no editing or ordering of
these ideas. They may then be used as the basis for another activity such as writing or discussion. It is often
very productive as a whole-class activity.

Example
Learners brainstorm the topic of smoking by writing all the words they associate with it on the board. This is
then followed by a discursive essay-writing lesson on the topic.

In the classroom
Brainstorming can encourage learners to think more freely and creatively than if they were doing a more
controlled planning exercise. It allows learners to remember what they know, and to teach each other. It is a
dynamic and stimulating way to lead learners into a topic.

Conjunction

A conjunction is a word used to connect other words and phrases together.

Example
I wanted to go but she said no, and Tom just laughed.

In the classroom
Using conjunctions is problematic for learners because of how they connect with other words, for example
in spite of...' , however..' and although' mean the same thing but are used differently. Learners can be
helped to use a wider range of conjunctions accurately by identifying and analysing examples in texts.

CBT

Computer-based testing, or CBT, is testing using a computer for all or part of the test. Computer-based
testing is cheaper, more accessible and easier to administer than manual forms of testing but there are
limitations, as CBT which evaluates speaking or writing still requires human examiners.

13
Example
IELTS now has computer-based versions, and the TOEFL is now a computer-based test.

In the classroom
Students who are preparing for a computer-based test need real-time practice of doing test items on
computer.

CLIL

Content and Language Integrated Learning, or CLIL, is where a subject is taught in the target language
rather than the first language of the learners. In CLIL classes, tasks are designed to allow students to focus
on and learn to use the new language as they learn the new subject content.

Example
In a bilingual English/Spanish school, after a certain age half of the subjects, including maths and sciences,
are taught in English.

In the classroom
CLIL materials are often characterised by lots of visual support for meaning, to allow low language level
students to access high level content. The materials allow the students to focus on the language they need to
learn about that particular subject in English. The choice of language focussed on is determined by the
demands of the subject.

Cataphoric reference

Cataphoric reference means that a word in a text refers to another later in the text and you need to look
forward to understand. It can be compared with anaphoric reference, which means a word refers back to
another word for its meaning.

Example
'When he arrived, John noticed that the door was open'.

In the classroom
Matching parts of sentences can help learners understand how cataphoric reference works, for example:
a) As she entered the building 1) Jim fell over
b) When he was running upstairs 2) the woman saw a huge crowd

Categorisation

Categorisation is a task where learners have to put language into different categories.

14
Example
Learners categorise conjunctions according to their function.

In the classroom
Examples of activities include categorising words according to type, e.g. verb, noun, preposition;
categorising functions, e.g. request, order, suggestion; categorising vocabulary by negative or positive.

Catenation

Catenation is one of the ways speakers join words together. In catenation, a consonant sound at the end of
one word joins with a vowel sound at the beginning of the next word.

Example
The two words an + apple become 'anapple' in speech, with catenation of the consonant n and the vowel a
sounds.

In the classroom
Learners often have difficulty hearing individual words due to catenation. Specific listening tasks such as
counting the number of words heard, dictation, and reading with a cassette recording can help practise this.

Choral repetition

Choral repetition is when the teacher or a learner models language and the group of learners repeat it
together.

Example
The class are practising the pronunciation of the schwa sound. The teacher models words from a list and the
learners repeat them together.

In the classroom
Choral repetition is not a very common choice of activity, but it can contribute well to learning some aspects
of language, especially pronunciation of connected speech and formulaic language such as classroom
language. It is also an activity that many learners enjoy.

Chunks

15
Chunks are groups of words that can be found together in language. They can be words that always go
together, such as fixed collocations, or that commonly do, such as certain grammatical structures that follow
rules. A listener or reader uses their knowledge of chunks to help them predict meaning and therefore be able
to process language in real time. Chunks include lexical phrases, set phrases, and fixed phrases.

Example
'Utter disaster', 'by the way', 'at the end of the day', 'encourage + someone + infinitive', 'dependent + on' are
all examples of chunks.

In the classroom
Areas of work such as idioms, collocations and verb patterns all focus on types of chunks. Learners can be
encouraged to identify and record lexical and grammatical chunks as they find them.

Class contract

A class contract is an agreement made between learners and the teacher to follow certain rules and standards.
It applies to both the learners and the teacher, and is drawn up at the beginning of the course.

Example
We will hand in our homework on time' and 'I will mark and return homework quickly' are two terms often
included in a class contract.

In the classroom
Aside from being an enjoyable, relevant and motivating activity a class contract can be a useful way to start
a dialogue concerning how the class works and can so encourage learner autonomy.

Class library

A class library is a collection of books kept in the classroom and used for extensive reading, not generally
for classroom activities.

Example
A classroom library can include readers, the teacher's own books, and books lent by learners.

In the classroom
Ways to encourage learners to use a class library include practising sub-skills such as guessing meaning
from context, guiding learners in their selection of material, and giving learners the opportunity to share
their thoughts and reactions to books through discussions and mini-presentations.

Class reader

16
A class reader is a book that the learners read and analyse together in the class and as homework over an
extended period of time. It may be graded or have authentic language.

Example
The class are reading a collection of short stories. The teacher occasionally reads one aloud in the class, and
others the learners read at home. Learners do a range of activities on the stories in class.

In the classroom
Whilst a range of relevant and motivating pre- and post-reading activities are important, a key factor for
success in getting learners to read is selecting the right reader. A good starting point is to find out what the
learners read in their own language.

Class round-up

A class round-up is an activity where the teacher and learners summarise what they have been doing during
the class. Class round-ups are important not only to focus learner attention on information but also to help
the process of remembering it.

Example
The learners have been practising techniques for a formal reading exam and at the end of the class each
learner shares one useful tip with the group.

In the classroom
Class round-ups can also be done after the lesson in the form of e-mail, or on a class blog.

Class survey

A class survey is an activity where all the learners in the group need to ask each other questions to find
information, which they then need to analyze and report back to the class.

Example
The class have been reading about things that are bad for their health and now conduct a class survey to find
out who in the class has these unhealthy habits. They do this by choosing a question each to ask all the other
learners, then collating this information.

In the classroom
Class surveys can have various aims and functions: as warmers, as ice-breakers for new classes, as pre-
reading activities, to provide freer practice of target language, as tasks etc. The key qualities of surveys are
that they are communicative and dynamic.

17
Class-centred teaching

The term class-centred teaching draws attention to the importance of behaving in ways that
encourage classes to develop into cohesive groups in which learning is regarded as a
collective, collaborative endeavour and the performance of individuals is lifted by the positive
atmosphere of the overall class group.

ExampleA

Teacher engages in light-hearted banter with the class for a few moments. Students,
appreciative of the opportunity to be involved in group social interaction, return to the
learning task with renewed vigour.

In the classroom

Class-centred teachers develop trusting relationships with their classes and find themselves
teaching in flexible ways. Guided by the principle of inclusivity they give as many students as
possible the opportunity to contribute to the collective learning of the class group.

Classroom management

Classroom management refers to the decisions a teacher makes regarding the physical environment and
resources available to them, including furniture, resources, learners and themselves. These decisions are
made to support the aims of the class.

Example
The decision to put individual tables together into one big circle for an open class discussion supports the
aim of involving all learners in the activity.

In the classroom:
Different classroom activities require very different management and an essential part of planning is to make
decisions about areas such as learner groupings, teacher involvement, positioning of furniture where
possible, instruction giving and timing.

Clause

A clause is a phrase that contains a verb and normally a subject. It can be a full sentence by itself or be part
of a sentence.

Example
'The rain fell heavily' is an example of a clause that is a full sentence. 'It fell on the land, which quickly
flooded' is an example of a clause as parts of a sentence, in this case a relative clause.

In the classroom
Areas that can be focussed on include defining and non-defining relative clauses, conditional clauses, and
how to link clauses together in writing.

Cleft sentence

18
A cleft sentence is made by separating a single clause into two clauses, one main and one subordinate. Cleft
sentences are useful to change emphasis; for example, compare You stole the money' and It was you who
stole the money, not him'.

Example
It was me who broke the vase' is a cleft sentence made up of two clauses. A single clause version would be
I broke the vase'.

In the classroom
Sentence transformations are a form of controlled practice of cleft sentences, for example:
Pat broke the window.
Was: ...It was Pat who broke the window.

Cline

A cline is a scale of language items that goes from one extreme to another, for example, from positive to
negative, or from weak to strong.

Example
The teacher asks learners to map modal verbs of probability such as must', might not' and may' on a cline
of probability from 100% sure to 100% not sure.

In the classroom
Clines can be a useful tool for learners to record information, and they can help teachers as a concept check.
However, a learner's ability to use a cline does not mean that they can use the target language in context.

Clipping

Clipping is one of the ways new words are created in English. It involves the shortening of a longer word,
often reducing it to one syllable. Many examples are very informal or slang.

Example
Maths, which is a clipped form of mathematics, is an example of this. Informal examples include 'bro' from
brother and 'dis' from disrespect.

In the classroom
Discussion of clipping can help learners understand how words are formed in English, and will help learners
understand authentic speech. One possible exercise to do this is for learners to identify the original words
that have been clipped. Learners can also invent new clipped words.

Closed pairs
19
Working in closed pairs means that the learners are all working in pairs simultaneously and therefore
privately. Closed pairs are the opposite of open pairs, where one pair works while the rest of the learners
watch.

Example
The learners are practising pronunciation of stressed and unstressed syllables in pairs; the teacher monitors
the group.

In the classroom
Closed pair work is important because it gives learners a chance to explore new language without pressure;
it is also useful for teachers because it gives them a chance to monitor the work of all learners discretely and
give accurate and personalised feedback to individuals if they wish.

Cloze

A cloze is a practice exercise where learners have to replace words missing from a text. These are removed
at regular intervals, for example every five words. This contrasts with a gap-fill exercise, where words are
chosen and removed in order to practise a specific language point.

Example
The third sentence above as a cloze would be: 'This contrasts with a ______ exercise, where words are
______ and removed in order ______ practise a specific language ______'.

In the classroom
Clozes are often used to practise reading skills or as a general language review. They are common in testing.

Cognate

Cognates are words in English and the learner's language that are similar and have similar meaning. They
can be compared to false cognates, which look similar but have different meanings.

Example
The Spanish word pausa has a similar meaning to the English word pause.

In the classroom
In a mono-lingual class translation is one way to raise awareness of real and false cognates. Learners can
translate a text from their L1 into English in groups or individually, then compare their versions and identify
possible cognates.

Cognitive overload

20
Cognitive overload is a situation where the teacher gives too much information or too many tasks to learners
simultaneously, resulting in the learner being unable to process this information. In this situation, the
language processing demands of an activity go beyond the language processing limits of the learner. It
produces anxiety and stress, as well as affecting learning.

Example
A teacher introduces learners to the passive by explaining all its uses in English in one class. The learners
experience a cognitive overload due to the large amount of information and they are unable to understand, or
integrate the new knowledge with what they already know.

In the classroom
It is important to be selective when asking learners to process information, particularly in terms of the
amount of new information a task asks learners to cope with. If necessary, a large amount of information can
be broken up into several classes.

Cognitive strategies

Cognitive strategies are one type of learning strategy that learners use in order to learn more successfully.
These include repetition, organising new language, summarising meaning, guessing meaning from context,
using imagery for memorisation. All of these strategies involve deliberate manipulation of language to
improve learning. Classifications of learning strategies distinguish between cognitive strategies and two
other types, metacognitive strategies (organising learning), and social/ affective strategies (which enable
interaction).

Example
A learner remembers new words by visualising them represented in a memorable or ridiculous situation.
This makes it easier and faster to recall these words.

In the classroom
Activities which can be described as cognitive strategies include making mind maps, visualisation,
association, mnemonics, using clues in reading comprehension, underlining key words, scanning and self-
testing and monitoring.

Cognitive style

Cognitive style refers to the way a person thinks and processes information. Many of the most useful models
of cognitive style place learners on a bi-polar scale. These include field dependence - independence,
convergent-divergent, and holist-serialist. Cognitive style can be compared with cognitive ability, which
refers to how good a person is at thinking and processing information.

Example:
In the field dependence - independence model some learners are better at distinguishing information and
separating it from the information around it.

In the classroom
Learners can be encouraged to think about their cognitive style and how it affects their learning by trying a
quiz to identify their preferences. If they understand how they prefer to think then they can learn how to
optimise their work in the classroom, and also try alternative ways.

21
Cognitive theory

A cognitive theory of learning sees second language acquisition as a conscious and reasoned thinking
process, involving the deliberate use of learning strategies. Learning strategies are special ways of
processing information that enhance comprehension, learning or retention of information. This explanation
of language learning contrasts strongly with the behaviourist account of language learning, which sees
language learning as an unconscious, automatic process.

Example
This view leads to a classroom focus on using learning strategies that have been observed in successful
language learners and to a view of the learner as an 'information-processor', with limitations as to how much
new information can be retained, and who needs strategies to be able to transfer information into memory.

In the classroom
Relevant activities include review and revision, class vocabulary bags, using a scaffolding approach with
young learners, analysis and discussion of language and topics, inductive approaches and learner training.

Cognitive-code approach

The cognitive-code approach of the 1970s emphasised that language learning involved active mental
processes, that it was not just a process of habit formation (the assumption underlying the audiolingual
method that came before it). Lessons focussed on learning grammatical structures but the cognitive code
approach emphasised the importance of meaningful practice, and the structures were presented inductively,
i.e. the rules came after exposure to examples. There was, however, little use of examples from authentic
material.

Example
The aim of the class is for learners to understand the rule of the day', which is that the past form of regular
verbs is made using -ed. The teacher elicits a dialogue that includes clear examples of the structure. The
learners practise it, and the teacher uses it to elicit the rules.

In the classroom
The approach included the clear and structured use of concept questions to help learners identify the limits
of use of structure and lexis, and teachers still find this useful. The PPP methodology, (Presentation, Practice
and Production), through which learners gain a clear understanding of a grammatical rule before they
practise it in meaningful contexts, may still suit some learning contexts and teachers.

Coherence

Coherence is one of the two qualities that give a written or spoken text unity and purpose. The other is
cohesion. Coherence refers to the general sense that a text makes sense through the organisation of its
content. In writing, it is provided by a clear and understood structuring of paragraphs and sentences in
writing.

Example
A learner's argument essay is coherent because it has a structure that gives unity and follows an accepted
form. It begins with a statement of belief, gives the opposing arguments, refutes these, and summarises in a
final paragraph.

In the classroom
Coherence in written work and extended speaking, e.g. presentations, can be practised by looking at suitable
organisation of content, and by planning exercises.

22
Cohesion

Cohesion is one of the two qualities that give a written or spoken text unity and purpose, the other being
coherence. It refers to the use of linguistic devices to join sentences together, including conjunctions,
reference words, substitution and lexical devices such as repetition of words, collocations and lexical
groups.

Example
The second sentence above has cohesive devices such as conjunctions (and, such as, including), articles
(the), references (it), and collocations (join _____ together, lexical groups).

In the classroom
Cohesion is an extensive area and can be approached at a discrete item level, e.g. practising article use or
differing synonyms. Teachers can also make learners aware of the cohesive features of a text, asking them to
identify examples of reference, substitution, lexical cohesion, and conjunction.

Collaborative activity

Collaborative activity involves learners working together in order to complete a task. Collaboration
increases the opportunities a student has to use the target language, and thereby develop their skills in it.

Example
The task-based learning approach requires learners to work on collaborative activities.

In the classroom
Learners can benefit from collaboration in a variety of activities, including writing tasks, projects and
inductive approaches.

Collocation

Collocation refers to words that are found together in language. Collocations can be fixed, where it is
difficult to replace one of the words with an alternative, or freer, allowing for more choice of words.

Example
'Utter disaster' is a fixed collocation, as there are few words that can be used instead of 'disaster'. 'Make a
cake' is a freer collocation, as there are many words that can be used instead of 'cake'.

In the classroom
Collocations often have to be memorised; teachers can help learners focus on and remember collocations by
exposing them to authentic texts, and by helping students to record collocations in their notebooks.

23
Communicative approach

The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language successfully comes through having
to communicate real meaning. When learners are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for
language acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.

Example
Practising question forms by asking learners to find out personal information about their colleagues is an
example of the communicative approach, as it involves meaningful communication.

In the classroom
Classroom activities guided by the communicative approach are characterised by trying to produce
meaningful and real communication, at all levels. As a result there may be more emphasis on skills than
systems, lessons are more learner-centred, and there may be use of authentic materials.

Communicative competence

Communicative competence refers to a learner's ability to use language to communicate successfully. Canale
and Swain (1980) defined it as composing competence in four areas:

Words and rules

Appropriacy

Cohesion and coherence

Use of communication strategies

Example
The aim of communicative language teaching and the communicative approach is communicative
competence.

In the classroom
Testing communicative competence is challenging. Formats teachers can use to evaluate their learners'
competence include information gap and role-play activities for speaking, letters for writing, and note-taking
and summarising, which combines listening and writing competencies.

Community-building software

Community-building software allows users to create and maintain an online community.

Example
Joomla! is open-source software which can be used to build a community.

In the classroom
Whether teachers create a new community or use an existing commercial site, there are numerous features
that can be exploited in the classroom, including forums, bulletin boards, chat, personal profiles, and
galleries.

24
Compensation strategies

Compensation strategies are communication strategies used by learners to compensate for limitations in their
language. Different kinds of learners have preferences for different kinds of learning strategies, for example
female learners tend to prefer social and affective strategies and monolingual learners may favour
compensation strategies.

Example
Guessing the meaning when you don't understand and using gestures are examples of compensation
strategies.

In the classroom
Miming games and definition activities such as crosswords are two ways to help learners practise
compensation strategies.

Compound word

A compound word is made up of other words. It can be compared to a derivative, which is made up of a
word plus a bound structure such as a prefix or a suffix.

Example
Backache and filmgoer are examples of compound words.

In the classroom
Compound words are an excellent way to help learners expand their vocabulary, for example by focusing on
one head word - such as ache in the example above - and then looking at what modifiers can go with it.
Learners sometimes need help with the question of whether compounds are together, separate or
hyphenated, and can be encouraged to use dictionaries to check this information.

Comprehensible input

Comprehensible input is language input that can be understood by listeners despite them not understanding
all the words and structures in it. It is described as one level above that of the learners if it can only just be
understood. According to Krashen's theory of language acquisition, giving learners this kind of input helps
them acquire language naturally, rather than learn it consciously.

Example
The teacher selects a reading text for upper-intermediate level learners that is from a lower advanced level
course book. Based on what the teacher knows about the learners, the teacher believes that this will give
them 'comprehensible input' to help them acquire more language.

25
In the classroom
Trying to understand language slightly above their level encourages learners to use natural learning
strategies such as guessing words from context and inferring meaning. As the example suggests, a teacher
needs to know the level of the learners very well in order to select comprehensible input, and in a large class
of mixed ability, different learners will need different texts.

Concept checking

Concept checking is finding out if a learner has understood a new item. There are a variety of ways to do
this, including asking concept questions. It is especially important in inductive language teaching, where
learners arrive at an understanding of rules through looking at examples of use, and the teachers may need to
check that the learners have a clear understanding of the concepts presented.

Example
Asking learners to point to someone wearing glasses to check whether they understand the item 'glasses'
checks their understanding of the concept.

In the classroom
Concept checking is an important tool as it avoids asking the question, 'Do you understand?', which can be
answered 'yes' without indicating true understanding. Concept questions, using realia, asking learners to
repeat instructions, learners explaining meaning, and open-class questions are all ways of concept checking.

Concept questions

Concept questions are used to find out if a learner has understood a new item. The question is designed to
test the key concepts of the item and normally requires a yes/no or short answer.

Example
To test understanding of the use of 'used to' in the example 'I used to swim in the summer', a teacher might
ask 'Do I still swim now?' and 'Did I only swim once?' to test understanding of 'used to' as a finished and
repeated action in the past.

In the classroom
When planning a presentation lesson on a new language point, many teachers prepare a series of concept
questions that will fully test understanding of the new language.

Concord

Concord refers to grammatical agreement between different parts of a sentence. Some aspects of concord are
more difficult for learners to learn than others, for example the third person s'.

Example
In the sentence He doesn't want to go, and now they don't either' there is concord between he' and doesn't'
because he' needs an s' on the verb, and between they' and don't'.

26
In the classroom
Focusing on writing is a useful way for learners to practise concord. Relevant activities include dictogloss,
and editing written work in groups.

Congruency

Congruency refers to all the parts of something working together; in ELT this means how different elements
work together to produce successful communication. These elements can include such tools as intonation,
gesture, grammatical structure and lexis.

Example
Learners working on matching different intonation patterns to utterances are thinking about how different
elements of language can work together.

In the classroom
The concept of congruency - all parts working together - is a useful one, as learners and teachers need to
consider how a wide variety of language tools combine to make communication effective. One way to draw
learner attention to this is to emphasize the impact on the listener or reader of their communication, for
example by asking them how would a reader feel?' or how would a listener respond?'

Connected speech

In connected speech, the pronunciation of a word will change depending on the words around it. Changes in
pronunciation within and across word boundaries include changes to individual sounds and new sounds
being inserted. Learners have to become aware of these changes in order to understand authentic speech, and
to help their pronunciation.

Example
Intrusion: If the words 'go' and 'up' are said together, there is a new /w/ sound between the two words.
Elision: The disappearance of a sound in connected speech; chris(t)mas, int(e)rest.
Linking: We tend to link final consonants and initial vowels across word boundaries.
Weak forms: In connected speech, many words are pronounced in a weak form.

In the classroom
Intensive listening activities can help raise awareness of the features of connected speech, as can teaching
phonemic symbols to illustrate these features. Modelling and drilling contextualised language can help
learners to approximate connected speech.

Connotation

The connotation of a word is its suggested or emotional meaning, as compared to its literal meaning.
Connotations can be negative or positive, and are often subjective.

Example
'Thin' is more or less neutral, 'slim' may have a positive connotation, 'skinny' a negative one.

27
In the classroom
Teachers often teach negative and positive connotations along with literal meaning. It is important to raise
learners' awareness of the connotations of a word if they are to use them appropriately, although it is a
complex and changeable area.

Consciousness-raising

Consciousness-raising, also known as awareness-raising, is part of the process a learner can go through with
new language. They first become aware or conscious of the new language, then recognise and distinguish it,
then produce it.

Example
Learners studying the contracted form 'didn't' first may become aware that the form exists in English, then
recognise it when they hear it and distinguish it from other sounds, and then produce it themselves.

In the classroom
Often a teacher decides to encourage learners to notice new language, or to recognise it, rather than produce
it themselves. Two examples could be recognising phrasal verbs, and guessing their meaning context, or
distinguishing the words said in connected speech.

Consolidation

Consolidation is a lesson stage where new material is reviewed, and hopefully learning is reinforced. It
normally occurs at the end of the lesson. Consolidation can be compared with revision, which takes place at
a later time and serves to remind learners.

Example
At the end of a lesson on vocabulary of the body a game of 'Simon Says', e.g. 'Simon says touch your nose',
is played to consolidate the material seen.

In the classroom
As well as helping learners retain material and reinforcing it, consolidation is an opportunity to clarify and
address any doubts. It can also offer a different 'angle' on new language, which is productive for learners
with different styles.

Consonant cluster

A consonant cluster in a word is a group of consonants with no vowels between them. The longest possible
cluster in English is three consonant sounds at the start, such as 'splash', and four at the end, as in 'twelfths'.

Example
The tongue twister 'The sixth twisty crisp' has several consonant clusters in it, making it difficult to
pronounce.
28
In the classroom
Consonant clusters cause problems for learners whose first language does not allow so many consonants
together without intervening vowel sounds. Examples of this are Spanish and Arabic.

Content validity

If a test has content validity then it has been shown to test what it sets out to test. Content validity can be
compared to face validity, which means it looks like a valid test to those who use it.

Example
Public examination bodies ensure through research and pre-testing that their tests have both content and face
validity.

In the classroom
Not only teachers and administrators can evaluate the content validity of a test. Learners can be encouraged
to consider how the test they are preparing for evaluates their language and so identify the areas they need to
work on.

Content words

Content words are words that have meaning. They can be compared to grammatical words, which are
structural. Nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs are usually content words. Auxiliary verbs, pronouns,
articles, and prepositions are usually grammatical words.

Example
We flew over the mountains at dawn'.

In the classroom
There is an important difference in pronunciation between content and grammatical words. Content words
tend to be stressed and grammatical words are often pronounced in a reduced form or with a schwa sound.
Practice of this can be provided in listening comprehension activities that require learners to reconstruct
what they have heard.

Contextualisation

Contextualisation is putting language items into a meaningful and real context rather than being treated as
isolated items of language for language manipulation practice only. Contextualising language tries to give
real communicative value to the language that learners meet. The context can help learners remember the
language and recall it at a later date. Learners can use natural learning strategies to help them understand
contextualised language, such as guessing meaning from context.

29
Example
Teaching the language used to give advice by looking at problem pages from teenage magazines gives the
target language context.

In the classroom
Contextualisation can be as simple as providing an example sentence that uses a new word, or as complex as
preparing a telephone role-play to practise functional language.

Continuous assessment

Continuous assessment means assessing aspects of learners' language throughout their course and then
producing a final evaluation result from these assessments. It can be compared with a final or summative
assessment, which only assesses the learner at the end of the course. Continuous assessment often provides a
more accurate and complete picture of the learner's level and has a positive impact on learning.

Example
The learners are giving mini-presentations on their favourite films as a follow-up activity after reading about
the history of cinema. The teacher evaluates their presentations and uses the results as part of their final
result.

In the classroom
Continuous assessment can be made more relevant and motivating by asking the learners to decide which
assignments and tasks will be assessed during the course.

Controlled language

Controlled language is language that the teacher gives the class that is in some way changed to suit the level
or the aims of the lesson. This contrasts with authentic language, which is not adjusted in any way.

Example
A teacher may prepare a written biography of a famous person that only uses present simple tense, for an
elementary class.

In the classroom
There is debate over the use of controlled and authentic language. Many teachers favour an 'in at the deep
end' approach, where the target language is within a text that is not changed.

Controlled practice

Controlled practice is a stage in a lesson where learners practise new language in a limited form. It can be
compared to free practice, which involves learners producing language using the target content freely.

Example
The teacher has shown the learners the form and use of the past passive form. They now practise using the

30
structure by completing sentences using cues, e.g.
My car (stolen) _________ last week.

In the classroom
Controlled practice can still be meaningful despite its limitations. For example, we could ask the learners to
complete the following based on their experiences:
(What?) was stolen (when?).
This is even more controlled in terms of the target language but allows the learners to personalise the
activity.

Correction code

A correction code is used to show learners what kind of mistakes they have made in written work. The
teacher underlines each mistake and writes a symbol or an abbreviation next to it, showing the kind of
mistake.

Example
We made our homework' - WW (wrong word).

In the classroom
Correction codes need to be adjusted to level and also to the degree of learner self-correction expected. For
example, for higher level learners who have been editing their own work for some time the teacher can
indicate that there is a mistake in a line, and not say where or what kind.

Correction codes

Correction codes are symbols the teacher uses when correcting written work. The code tells the learner what
type of error they have made, and learners can then attempt to correct their errors themselves, using the
symbols to guide them.

Example
The following is an example of correction using a code:
I felt very comfortable in my new house SP (spelling)

In the classroom
Typical codes include WO (word order); WW (wrong word); T (tense); and P (punctuation). Teachers use
correction codes to develop the learners' ability to correct and edit their own work, as well as making
learning from errors more memorable. However, some learners are either resistant to self-correction or find
it difficult.

Counselling

Counselling is a teacher talking with a learner about their learning and advising them. It can be done in a
formal or informal way, and integrated into the beginning or end of a language course.

31
Example
At the end of the course, each learner has 15 minutes of counselling with the teacher. They discuss the
learner's strengths and weaknesses, progress, plans and get feedback about the course.

In the classroom
Young learners can be helped by having counselling sessions with their parents. This is an effective way to
include the parents as a learning resource and support.

Countable

Countable nouns are nouns that can be preceded by a number and that have singular and plural forms. Some
nouns have both forms. The opposite of countable nouns is uncountable nouns.

Example
'Apple' is a countable noun, 'coffee' is both countable (representing a cup of coffee) and uncountable
(meaning the product).

In the classroom
This is a problematic area, countable nouns are often taught as nouns that can be counted. However, this is
not a consistent explanation and also varies from language to language, e.g. bread is uncountable in English
but not in other languages. There are also rules concerning determiners such as 'many' and 'some'.

Criterion-referenced test

A criterion-referenced test measures a candidate's mark against a series of criteria and produces a description
of level based on that criterion. It can be compared with a norm-referenced test, which places a learner's
mark against what other people are achieving in the same test. Criterion-based tests are useful for indicating
how a group of learners are progressing as they compare candidates against a standard, rather than each
other.

Example
Many formal English exams, including IELTS and TOEFL, are criterion-based tests.

In the classroom
It is useful for candidates to understand how criteria are used to evaluate their language. Writing
comprehension activities can help. For example, learners can put jumbled up criteria in order, or do a three
way matching activity with level descriptions, the bands they correspond to, and the input from the
examiner.

Critical period hypothesis

The critical period hypothesis says that there is a period of growth in which full native competence is
possible when acquiring a language. This period is from early childhood to adolescence. The critical period
32
hypothesis has implications for teachers and learning programmes, but it is not universally accepted.
Acquisition theories say that adults do not acquire languages as well as children because of external and
internal factors, not because of a lack of ability.

Example
Older learners rarely achieve a near-native accent. Many people suggest this is due to them being beyond the
critical period.

In the classroom
A problem arising from the differences between younger learners and adults is that adults believe that they
cannot learn languages well. Teachers can help learners with this belief in various ways, for example, by
talking about the learning process and learning styles, helping set realistic goals, choosing suitable
methodologies, and addressing the emotional needs of the adult learner.

Cuisenaire rods

Cuisenaire rods are small wooden rods of different lengths and colours. They are used as a classroom
resource to visually represent various areas of language. Cuisenaire rods are used in the Silent Way, a
teaching methodology associated with humanism.

Example
Rods of one colour are used to represent verbs, another is added at the end to represent the past -ed form.

In the classroom
Many uses have been found for rods in the classroom. They can for example be used as realia, e.g. asking
learners to compare sizes and to demonstrate prepositions, or as representations of concepts such as verb
forms and word order.

Curriculum

A curriculum is a set of subjects for an educational institution, or a set of subjects within a course. In
bilingual schools some subjects in the curriculum are taught in one language and some in the other.

Example
School curriculae give increasing importance to foreign language learning, making competence in one or
two foreign languages one aim of schooling.

In the classroom
There are often cross curricular elements in a school curriculum, such as Personal and Social Education and
Environmental Education, and the content of these can often provide interesting content for projects in the
language classroom.

De-contextualised

33
De-contextualised language is a term that describes language that is presented as an isolated item rather than
with a meaningful and real context. This means that the teacher and learners focus on the target language
only, often through an example at sentence level. This 'abstract' language contrasts with contextualised
language.

Example
In young children, the ability to recognise and understand de-contextualised language is one milestone in the
development of language.

In the classroom
Learners can produce some very interesting responses in activities that use de-contextualised language. For
example, abstract terms can form a basis for creative writing, and many words games use de-contextualised
vocabulary.

De-lexicalised verbs

De-lexicalised verbs are verbs that have little meaning alone but that can be joined together with many other
words, so generating a wide variety of new meanings. These have also been called 'empty' verbs.

Example
'Get' is a common example of this. 'Get' does not have one single meaning but can be linked with many other
words to generate meanings, e.g. get in, get away, get married, get paid, get older, get more difficult etc.

In the classroom
Learners often have problems with these verbs because they try to find a general meaning. They also
struggle to find the right collocation, often translating possible equivalents from their own language. An
example of this is the confusion caused by the de-lexicalised verbs 'make' and 'do'.

Deductive approach

A deductive approach to teaching language starts by giving learners rules, then examples, then practice. It is
a teacher-centred approach to presenting new content. This is compared with an inductive approach, which
starts with examples and asks learners to find rules, and hence is more learner-centred.

Example
The form and use of the third conditional is explained to learners, then they have a gap-fill exercise to
complete, then prepare their own examples.

In the classroom
The deductive approach may be suitable with lower level learners who need a clear base from which to
begin with a new language item, or with learners who are accustomed to a more traditional approach and so
who lack the training to find rules themselves.

Delayed correction

34
Delayed correction techniques are corrections a teacher uses some time after a learner has made an error.
This is usually done to avoid interrupting fluency practice, although there are other reasons also. Delayed
correction contrasts with correction techniques such as reformulation and echoing, which occur immediately,
'on the spot'.

Example
The teacher monitors closely as learners discuss a topic in groups, making a note of the most
interesting/important errors. When the discussion finishes, these are discussed open class.

In the classroom
The decision whether to correct immediately or not depends on various factors. These include aims, class
dynamics, learner attitude and expectations, motivation, level, and the teacher's evaluation of whether a
mistake or an error has been made.

Descriptive grammar

A descriptive grammar is a set of rules about language based on how it is actually used. In a descriptive
grammar there is no right or wrong language. It can be compared with a prescriptive grammar, which is a set
of rules based on how people think language should be used.

Example
A descriptive grammar might include He goes...', meaning He said'.

In the classroom
Learners can be encouraged to move away from a prescriptive approach to grammar by using a guided
discovery, or inductive, approach, in which they look for examples of variations in use in authentic texts.
These examples can be compared to prescriptive rules in order to decide if they are useful or not.

Determiner

A determiner is a word that goes before a noun and describes how we are referring to it in the sentence.
Determiners can be compared to adjectives, which express how something is. Determiners can include
demonstratives such as that, articles such as the, and possessive pronouns such as his.

Example
This is the third drink you've had.

In the classroom
Realia is a good way to demonstrate determiners such as this' and that', for example by asking learners to
play games such as I-spy.

Diagnostic

35
A diagnostic is an activity that a teacher carries out with learners in order to identify problem areas they may
have. This data is then used to plan further activities.

Example
Before teaching phrasal verbs to a class, the teacher asks the learners to identify all the verbs and their
meanings in a prepared text. The teacher observes that most learners know what phrasal verbs look like and
how they work, but have difficulty using context to guess meaning. The next class is planned based on this
information.

In the class:
Test Teach Test (TTT) is a classroom approach that uses a form of diagnosis, in this case tests, in order to get
data on learners and then plan accordingly.

Diagnostic test

A diagnostic test is a test that helps the teacher and learners identify problems that they have with the
language.

Example
At the start of the course, the teacher gives the learners a diagnostic test to see what areas of language need
to be in the syllabus.

In the classroom
Progress tests given during the course can also act as diagnostic tests as they help the teacher and learners
identify what areas will be looked at next on the course.

Dictogloss

Dictogloss is a classroom dictation activity where learners are required to reconstruct a short text by
listening and noting down key words, which are then used as a base for reconstruction.

Example
Learners discuss the sea. The teacher then explains the task, and reads a short text on the sea to the class,
who just listen. The teacher reads the text again, and the learners take notes. In groups, the learners then
reconstruct the text.

In the classroom
Dictogloss is often regarded as a multiple skills and systems activity. Learners practise listening, writing and
speaking (by working in groups) and use vocabulary, grammar and discourse systems in order to complete
the task.

Diglossia

36
Diglossia is a situation where a language that has two forms, one a higher' and more prestigious form used
by educated speakers in formal situations, and the other a lower', vernacular form used more commonly.
Although English is not a diglossic language, it does have a wide variety of dialects, colloquial forms and
levels of formality.

Example
Greek, Arabic and Tamil are diglossic languages.

In the classroom
Teachers working with multi-lingual groups may find this is an interesting area to explore if there are
learners in the class who speak diglossic languages. Learners can explain the different types of language and
the roles they have in society and comparisons can be made with English.

Diphthong

A diphthong is a one-syllable sound that is made up of two vowels. In Received Pronunciation English there
are eight diphthong sounds.

Example
The sound /ei/ in play and made is a diphthong made up of two vowel sounds, /e/ and /i/.

In the classroom
Learners often have problems discriminating between diphthong sounds (and also certain vowel sounds
which are similar) and exercises that raise awareness and practise recognition are useful. Examples include
sounds bingo, minimal pairs, odd one out and sorting.

Direct method

The direct method of teaching was developed as a response to the Grammar-Translation method. It sought to
immerse the learner in the same way as when a first language is learnt. All teaching is done in the target
language, grammar is taught inductively, there is a focus on speaking and listening, and only useful
everyday' language is taught. The weakness in the Direct Method is its assumption that a second language
can be learnt in exactly the same way as a first, when in fact the conditions under which a second language
is learnt are very different.

Example
The teacher explains new vocabulary using realia, visual aids or demonstrations.

In the classroom
Aspects of the Direct Method are still evident in many ELT classrooms, such as the emphasis on listening
and speaking, the use of the target language for all class instructions, and the use of visuals and realia to
illustrate meaning.

Discourse

37
Discourse is one of the four systems of language, the others being vocabulary, grammar and phonology.
Discourse has various definitions but one way of thinking about it is as any piece of extended language,
written or spoken, that has unity and meaning and purpose. One possible way of understanding 'extended' is
as language that is more than one sentence.

Example
Something as short as two phrases in a conversation or as long as an entire extended essay are both
examples of discourse and both show various features of discourse.

In the classroom
Areas of written and spoken discourse looked at in language classrooms include various features of cohesion
and coherence, discourse markers, paralinguistic features (body language), conventions and ways of taking
turns.

Discourse management

Discourse management refers to the ability to produce extended written and spoken texts, for example
conversations.

Example
Discourse management is often a criteria in formal evaluation of spoken and written language.

In the classroom
We use a range of devices to produce effective discourse, including cohesion and coherence, paralinguistic
tools, different communicative functions, and conversational principles. Some of these can be taught
explicitly, for example features of cohesion and functions. Others develop through practice in managing
discourse in activities such as guided and free conversation, roleplay, drama, and presentations.

Discourse markers

Discourse markers are words and phrases used in speaking and writing to 'signpost' discourse. Discourse
markers do this by showing turns, joining ideas together, showing attitude, and generally controlling
communication. Some people regard discourse markers as a feature of spoken language only.

Example
Words like 'actually', 'so', 'OK', 'right?' and 'anyway' all function as discourse markers as they help the
speaker to manage the conversation and mark when it changes.

In the classroom
Discourse markers are an important feature of both formal and informal native speaker language. The skilful
use of discourse markers often indicates a higher level of fluency and an ability to produce and understand
authentic language.

Discrete item

38
A discrete item is an item of language isolated from context.

Example
Examples of discrete items could be a single phoneme such as /e/, the past form -ed, a phrasal verb such as
'get up', or a conjunction such as 'in addition'.

In the classroom
A discrete item approach to teaching language isolates the language and enables teachers and learners to
focus on the item itself. For example, it is often useful to practise sounds as discrete items, then in words and
connected speech. Discrete items often appear in testing, where there is a need to focus on knowledge of
specific items.

Display questions

Display questions are questions you ask to see if the person you are speaking to knows the answer. In an
ELT classroom, this normally means questions teachers ask learners to see if they understand or remember
something. Display questions can be compared to referential questions, which are questions you ask because
you don't know the answer.

Example
The teacher asks a learner What is the past simple form of leave?'

In the classroom
Display questions clearly lack the communicative quality and authenticity of referential questions, but they
are an important tool in the classroom, not only for the teacher to be able to check and test their learners, but
also as a source of listening practice. One of the first things a beginner learns in English is how to
understand and answer display questions.

Dogme

Dogme is an approach to teaching that argues that teaching should focus on the learner and not be driven by
the resources available, including course books. It is a recent movement in ELT, started by a group of
teachers who are against 'resource heavy' teaching, arguing that if learners are not interested they will not
learn and therefore all material should be generated by the learners and the lessons directed by them, rather
than the teacher.

Example
Learners come to class discussing something that is in the news. The teacher encourages and facilitates
discussion and provides answers to questions about grammar and vocabulary as they arise.

In the classroom
In a Dogme lesson, the classroom as such does not exist, as there are no resources, course books or lesson
structures apart from those that learners bring. The teacher involves the learners in deciding on their
priorities each lesson, and takes the role of facilitator of their objectives.

Drill

39
A drill is a classroom technique used to practise new language. It involves the teacher modelling a word or a
sentence and the learners repeating it. There are different kinds of drilling, such as choral drill, which
involves the whole class, and substitution drill, where the teacher changes the cue words after each
repetition.

Example
The following sequence is an example of a substitution drill
Teacher: I like cheese
Learners: I like it
Teacher: I like apples
Learners: I like them
Teacher: I like Sue etc

In the classroom
Drilling is a classroom technique which some teachers reject due to a possible lack of communicative
quality and its highly controlled, teacher-centred nature. However, there are advantages to it also, such as
offering learners an opportunity to practise pronunciation in a non-threatening dynamic.

E-learning

E-learning is the delivery of a learning programme by electronic means; it includes web-based learning,
virtual classrooms, digital collaboration and delivery of content through internet. It can be combined with
face-to-face learning with a teacher, in blended learning.

Example
A learner may choose to sign up for an online language skills programme, which will offer reading, writing,
listening and live speaking activities over the web. There may be a tutor who will monitor his progress,
organise speaking sessions, and mark written work.

In the classroom
The face-to-face class time in a blended learning programme will be used to clear up organisational
problems, for an emphasis on speaking skills, and as an opportunity to help build a good class dynamic
between group members.

English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

English for Academic Purposes, or EAP, refers to learning English in order to use it to study another subject.

Example
Many universities have pre-sessional EAP courses. Courses concentrate on specific skills the learners will
need to benefit from their learning in another language.

In the classroom
EAP classes can include areas such as academic reading skills, listening and taking notes, writing
summaries, justifying opinions, interpreting graphical information and writing essays. Learners may need
specific preparation for an external test they will take to prove their ability to study in English, such as
IELTS.

English as a Foreign Language (EFL)

40
English as a Foreign Language, or EFL, refers to learning and using English as an additional language in a
non-English speaking country. It can be compared with ESL and ESOL, which refer mainly to learning
English as a new resident in an English-speaking country.

Example
EFL includes short summer courses in an English-speaking country, such as the UK, Canada or the US.

In the classroom
EFL materials tend to be written for learners either studying English in their own country or on a short
course in an English-speaking country. ESL materials tend to focus on survival English' for people now
living in an English-speaking country.

English Language Teaching (ELT)

English Language Teaching, or ELT, refers to the activity and industry of teaching English to non-native
speakers.

Example
Many large editorial companies have ELT sections which publish books for English teachers and learners to
use.

English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL)

English for Speakers of Other Languages, or ESOL, refers to learning English as a new resident in a
English-speaking country. ESOL is similar to ESL. It can be compared with EFL, which refers to learning
and using English as an additional language in a non-English speaking country.

Example
There are many ESOL projects in countries such as the UK or US, where there are immigrants from non-
English speaking countries.

In the classroom
ESOL classes can include areas such as survival English, functional language, specific speaking and
listening skills, and sociocultural information. They often have an element of citizenship training also.

English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

41
English for Specific Purposes, or ESP, refers to learning English because you have a specific need. It can
include the area of EPP, English for Professional Purposes.

Example
Survival English for immigrants, English for Hotel Management, and English for Air Traffic Controllers are
all ESP.

In the classroom
Asking learners what they need to learn is an important element of ESP classes, as often their language
needs and aims are very specific. This data can then be combined with the teacher's analysis of core
language and learning needs in order to prepare a syllabus.

Eclectic approach

In the move away from teachers following one specific methodology, the eclectic approach is the label given
to a teacher's use of techniques and activities from a range of language teaching approaches and
methodologies. The teacher decides what methodology or approach to use depending on the aims of the
lesson and the learners in the group. Almost all modern course books have a mixture of approaches and
methodologies.

Example
The class starts with an inductive activity with learners identifying the different uses of synonyms of
movement using a reading text. They then practise these using TPR. In another class the input is recycled
through a task-based lesson, with learners producing the instructions for an exercise manual.

In the classroom
A typical lesson might combine elements from various sources such as TPR and TBL (the examples); the
communicative approach, e.g. in communication gap activities; the lexical approach, e.g. focusing on lexical
chunks in reading; and the structural-situational approach, e.g. establishing a clear context for the
presentation of new structures.

Editing stage

In process writing, the editing stage is where the writer and peers edit the written work. It comes after the
other stages: pre-writing activities, focusing ideas and structuring.

Example
The learners have written their first drafts, based on their notes, without thinking too much about
organisation and accuracy. Then they move to the editing stage.

In the classroom
In order to optimise the opportunity for practice and noticing aspects of language use, editing can be done as
a group activity, or with each learner working on another's text and then briefing the writer on the changes
they suggest.

Elicitation

42
Elicitation is a technique by which the teacher gets the learners to give information rather than giving it to
them.

Example
A teacher elicits the rules for the structure of the first conditional by asking learners to look at some
examples, then writing 'We make the first conditional in English with?' on the board.

In the classroom
Elicitation is an important technique for various reasons. It helps develop a learner-centred dynamic, it
makes learning memorable as learners can link new and old information, and it can help produce a dynamic
and stimulating environment.

Elision

Elision is the omission of sounds, syllables or words in speech. This is done to make the language easier to
say, and faster.

Example
'I don't know' /I duno/ , /kamra/ for camera, and 'fish 'n' chips' are all examples of elision.

In the classroom
Elision is an important area in listening skills, as learners are often unable to hear elided words correctly,
especially if they have little contact with native speakers. Word-counting and dictations are two activities
that practise recognition, whilst at the production stage drilling elided forms such as contracted forms is
common.

Ellipsis

Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words from a sentence, where they are unnecessary because they
have already been mentioned. Meaning can be understood without these words. Ellipsis is one of the aspects
of language that gives text cohesion.

Example
An example of nominal ellipsis, where a noun phrase is omitted, is 'as it has the last three ( )' and of verbal
ellipsis 'Yes, I have ( )'.

In the classroom
Analysis of tape scripts of native speakers is one way of raising learners' awareness of ellipsis. This can then
be continued as a controlled practice exercise by asking learners to fill in the gaps by replacing the missing
words.

Embedding

43
Embedding refers to the process of inserting one sentence into another sentence. It includes putting
questions into affirmative sentences, with a subsequent change in word order (embedded questions).

Example
'I wonder if you could tell me what time it is?' is the question 'What time is it?' embedded in a polite
structure. 'He asked me if I wanted to have a drink' is another embedded question, this time in reported
speech.

In the classroom
Learners need opportunities for recognising embedded questions as questions and practice in changing word
order when they use the form.

Emoticons

Emoticons, a form of paralanguage, are symbols made up of characters available on a keyboard. They
normally represent emotions, such as happiness or anger. Emoticons are also available on chat sites as small
symbols, normally faces.

Example
: ) is happy, (:-$ is sick, :-@ is screaming.

In the classroom
Focusing on emoticons as a feature of text will help learners understand authentic materials from the
worldwide web or e-mail. Students can practise writing messages to each other using emoticons.

Empathy

Empathy is the ability to imagine another person's thoughts, beliefs and feelings. In an ELT context, it
normally refers to the ability to understand how a learner is feeling. It can be compared with sympathy,
feeling sorry for how they are feeling.

Example
A teacher working in a highly unstable and dangerous environment chooses not to do a reading
comprehension where a writer describes their feelings after the violent death of their mother.

In the classroom:
Showing empathy with learners is important when they choose to communicate real feelings and
experiences, for example in learner diaries or extended writing work. Similarly, it is important to understand
the emotional difficulties connected with a learning experience.

Empowerment
44
Empowerment refers to giving learners the power to make their own decisions about learning rather than the
teacher having all the control. This opportunity to make decisions is part of what can make a learner more
independent, or autonomous.

Example
A teacher decides to negotiate the syllabus of a skills course for a group of high level learners. The learners
identify what they need and help design a suitable course.

In the classroom
Certain teaching approaches and methodologies have learner empowerment as an aim. Examples include
Community Language Learning, the Dogme approach, the inductive approach to new language and
humanistic traditions.

Englishes

There are many kinds of Englishes spoken around the world, both as a first and second language and the
term 'Englishes' suggests this. One view holds that these are equally correct and valid. This lessens the
importance of a 'standard' English, and questions giving priority to 'British' or 'American' English as targets
for teaching English.

Example
A learner in India who is not planning to travel to another English-speaking country but who needs to
transact business in India might need to be taught Indian English.

In the classroom
The experience of many teachers is that learners know very clearly what kind of English they want to learn.
It is important to identify needs and not make assumptions about what they are.

Errors

Errors are mistakes caused by a learner not knowing something. They can be compared with slips, which are
caused by a learner being tired, nervous, excited or another temporary factor.

Example
The learner says I buyed a new book' because she does not know that buy has an irregular past form.

In the classroom
Errors are a key part of the learning process and give teachers essential - and reliable - information about
where their learners are, and what needs to be done next. It is important to emphasise the positive role errors
have and to involve learners in correction, for example by using correction codes, doing group correction of
writing or by dealing with typical spoken errors as a class after a speaking activity.

Exploitation
45
Exploitation is the way a teacher or learner uses resources to meet their learning aims.

Example
A teacher can exploit a native speaker by asking them to come into the class and talk to learners, asking
learners to prepare interview questions beforehand or by using the native speaker in a role-play, etc.

In the classroom
One interesting area many teachers explore is finding new ways to exploit the course books prescribed for
their classes. Few course books are suitable for every learner and finding new approaches to material in
them based on learner needs is a useful skill.

Exposure

Exposure refers to the contact that the learner has with the language that they are trying to learn, either
generally or with specific language points. Referring to the language in general, it often refers to contact
outside the classroom.

Example
A learner studying in a country where English is spoken as a first language has a lot of exposure and so more
opportunities to learn.

In the classroom
One of the most important tasks of the teacher is to give learners enough exposure to examples of language
in different contexts, and from different speakers. As a competent speaker of the language, the teacher
themselves can provide useful examples of language, and can also use natural input from cassettes,
television, video, web sites, magazines, and books.

Extended speaking

Extended speaking is a type of speaking activity that involves learners speaking for longer periods of time
and in a freer form than controlled speaking practice. Extended speaking is an opportunity to practise all the
skills needed for communication.

Example
The learners have been reading about xenophobia in different countries and they now share their opinions on
causes in an open class discussion.

In the classroom
Extended speaking activities can include speaking games such as Just a minute', presentations and
discussions led by learners, interviews, and informal conversation. Jigsaw reading or listening tasks may
also give an opportunity for extended speaking.

Extension task
46
An extension task is further activity around the aims of a class but after it, often as homework. Extension
tasks can provide more, or different, forms of practice. They can also make classroom learning more
meaningful, as they give learners a chance to personalise language and content.

Example
The learners have been reading about extreme sports and as an extension task they research other examples,
choose one to explore further, and present their findings to the group.

In the classroom
Extension tasks can be a useful strategy to deal with mixed ability classes, as they can be given to early
finishers or set as extra, more demanding work for higher level learners.

Extensive reading

Extensive reading involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop general reading skills. It can
be compared with intensive reading, which means reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks.

Example
A teacher reads a short story with learners, but does not set them any tasks except to read and listen.

In the classroom
Extensive reading is often overlooked, especially as a classroom activity. Teachers often feel it is not an
effective use of class time or are just uncomfortable with the extended silence. Learners can be encouraged
to read extensively by setting up a class library, encouraging review writing, and incorporating reading of
books into the syllabus, and dedicating some class time to quiet reading.

Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation is a motivation to learn caused by external pressures such as work, because a parent has
sent a learner to class, or the need to gain a qualification in the language. It contrasts with intrinsic
motivation, which is an internal force such as interest in learning a language to communicate with other
people or for further personal development in general.

Example
Exams preparation classes often have a high degree of extrinsic motivation as learners are attending class to
pass an exam, often for work purposes.

In the classroom
Many teachers believe that intrinsic motivation is rare in learners. Learners often have a mixture of the two
types of motivation, or change from one to another.

Face validity

47
If a test has face validity then it looks like a valid test to those who use it. Face validity can be compared
with content validity, which describes how far the test actually measures what it aims to measure.

Example
Many public English exams have high face validity as they are seen as being very good tests by those who
take them.

In the classroom
Face validity is not an objective measure of how good a test may be. However, it is as important as content
validity, because learners and teachers need to think a test is credible if it is to work.

Facilitation

Facilitation is a term used to describe a possible role of the teacher. Facilitation is providing the necessary
resources, information and support in order for learners to complete a task, rather than teaching.

Example
A teacher facilitates a discussion on euthanasia by asking learners to research the issues for homework,
structuring the groups, providing a list of useful functional phrases, acting as a quick reference for language
questions, and managing the discussion where necessary.

In the classroom
The role of teacher as facilitator is fundamental in modern language classrooms. For example, it is key in
developing learner-centred work, communicative activities and humanistic approaches.

False friends

False friends are words that look or sound the same as words in the learner's first language but in fact are not
so, causing the learner to make a mistake. They can be compared with cognates, which are words that are the
same in different languages.

Example
The Spanish word 'sensible' means sensitive in English and the German word 'gift' means poison.

In the classroom
Learners usually enjoy doing simple translations of sentences containing false cognates, and this can result
in amusing mis-translations, which help learners focus on the correct version. Dealing with false cognates
can help remove a major source of common mistakes for a group of learners. It is useful for a teacher to be
aware of the common false cognates of various L1s and to anticipate problems when looking at materials for
lessons.

Feedback

48
Feedback is information a teacher or another speaker, including another learner, gives to learners on how
well they are doing, either to help the learner improve specific points, or to help plan their learning.
Feedback can be immediate, during an activity, or delayed, at the end of an activity or part of a learning
programme and can take various forms.

Example
A teacher agrees with learners that they will not be corrected during a conversation activity but that the
teacher will take notes and give feedback afterwards.

In the classroom
In correction, it is typical to use feedback in a way that shows the learner has made a mistake, but allows the
learner to attempt to correct it themselves. Facial expression, body language, gesture and intonation can all
be used to give this type of feedback to speaking. Correction codes are used in writing to achieve this; if
learners have made a word order mistake, the teacher marks 'WO' at that point, allowing the learner to go
back and correct it themselves.

Field-dependent learners

In the field-dependent/independent model of cognitive or learning style, a field-dependent learning style is

defined by a relative inability to distinguish detail from other information around it. It can be compared to a
field-independent learning style, which is defined by a tendency to separate details from the surrounding
context.

Example
Field-dependent learners often work well in teams as they tend to be better at interpersonal relationships.

In the classroom
Activities that connect different parts of a lesson are useful for field-dependent learners. For example,
learners can discuss what they know about a topic, predict content, or look at and listen to related material.

Field-independent learners

In the field-dependent/independent model of cognitive or learning style, a field-independent learning style is

defined by a tendency to separate details from the surrounding context. It can be compared to a field-
dependent learning style, which is defined by a relative inability to distinguish detail from other information
around it. Theorists define these two cognitive styles in terms of how they are psychologically different -
which makes this a useful model for teachers trying to understand their learners.

Example
Field-independent learners tend to rely less on the teacher or other learners for support.

In the classroom
Activities such as extensive reading and writing, which learners can carry out alone, are useful for field-
independent learners.

Find someone who activity

49
A find someone who' activity is a speaking activity which involves learners trying to find someone in the
group who matches a description.

Example
The group are practising using the present perfect for experiences. Amongst the group there are learners who
have to:
find someone who has been abroad
find someone who has eaten something really strange
find someone who has done a bungee jump

In the classroom
This is a very versatile activity, which can be adapted to almost any language aim. For example, learners can
practise multi-word verbs (Find someone who has fallen out with their partner') or character vocabulary
(Find someone who is a lone wolf').

Flashcards

Flashcards are pictures or photographs mounted on small cards. They are used as a visual resource in
language teaching.

Example
A teacher can use flashcards showing different faces in a lesson on describing how people look.

In the classroom
In the above class, learners can describe a face on one of the flashcards, and the other students can guess
which one it is. They then follow this with an imaginary biography for the face they like most. Apart from
being used for new vocabulary items, flashcards can be exploited as a prompt for extended skills work
including discussion and creative writing.

Fluency

Fluency refers to how well a learner communicates meaning rather than how many mistakes they make in
grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. Fluency is often compared with accuracy, which is concerned with
the type, amount and seriousness of mistakes made.

Example:
A learner might be fluent (make their meaning clear) but not accurate (make a lot of mistakes).

In the classroom:
Activities that help to develop fluency focus on communication, for example discussions, speaking games,
presentations, task work such as projects and e-mailing.

Formal assessment
50
Formal assessment uses formal tests or structured continuous assessment to evaluate a learner's level of
language. It can be compared to informal assessment, which involves observing the learners' performance as
they learn and evaluating them from the data gathered.

Example
At the end of the course, the learners have a final exam to see if they pass to the next course or not.
Alternatively, the results of a structured continuous assessment process are used to make the same decision.

In the classroom
Informal and formal assessments are both useful for making valid and useful assessments of learners'
knowledge and performance. Many teachers combine the two, for example by evaluating one skill using
informal assessment such as observing group work, and another using formal tools, for example a discrete
item grammar test.

Formative assessment

Formative assessment is the use of assessment to give the learner and the teacher information about how
well something has been learnt so that they can decide what to do next. It normally occurs during a course.
Formative assessment can be compared with summative assessment, which evaluates how well something
has been learnt in order to give a learner a grade.

Example
The learners have just finished a project on animals, which had as a language aim better understanding of
the use of the present simple to describe habits. The learners now prepare gap-fill exercises for each other
based on some of their texts. They analyse the results and give each other feedback.

In the classroom
One of the advantages of formative feedback is that peers can do it. Learners can test each other on language
they have been learning, with the additional aim of revising the language themselves.

Fossilization

Fossilization refers to the process in which incorrect language becomes a habit and cannot easily be
corrected.

Example
Many advanced level learners who have Spanish as an L1 do not distinguish between he' and she'. This
could be a fossilized error.

In the classroom
Errors in general take time to correct but a fossilized error may never be corrected unless the learner sees a
reason to do so, e.g. if it is seriously hindering communication. Teachers can help learners notice their
fossilized errors by for example recording them speaking, or by asking them to keep a record of written
errors as part of a language portfolio.

Free practice

51
Free practice is a stage in a lesson where learners produce language using the target content freely. It can be
compared with controlled practice, which involves learners producing the language previously focussed on
in a restricted context.

Example
The teacher has shown the learners the form and use of the present passive form. They have practised using
the structure by completing sentences using cues, and now they practise the form more freely by describing
a process they have chosen.

In the classroom
Free practice appears in the production stage of a PPP lesson (Presentation, Practice, Production), and can
also be the first stage in models such as TTT (test-teach-test) and ARC (Authentic Use-Restricted Use-
Clarification and Focus).

Functions

Functions refer to what items of language actually do in a real context, as opposed to what they might mean
literally. These include suggesting, criticising, refusing, agreeing and disagreeing, enquiring, talking about
the past, and giving advice.

Example
The phrase 'What time do you call this?' has a clear literal meaning but its function is to ask 'Why are you
late? I'm very angry!'

In the classroom
It is important for learners to understand that one form may have many different functions, and to see how
functions work in context, as the example above shows. Many forms have sensitive functions and so their
appropriacy, formality and degree need to be considered.

Gap-fill

A gap-fill is a practice exercise in which learners have to replace words missing from a text. These words are
chosen and removed in order to practise a specific language point. Gap-fill exercises contrast with cloze
texts, where words are removed at regular intervals, e.g. every five words.

Example
The first sentence above prepared to practise article use could read '______ gap-fill is ______ practice
exercise where ______learners have to replace ______ words which have been removed from ______ text.'

In the classroom
Gap-fills are often used to practise specific language points, for example items of grammar and vocabulary,
and features of written texts such as conjunctions. They are common in testing.

Generative grammar

52
A generative grammar is a set of rules that tries to include all examples of correct language and predict how
these will be formed.

Example
The tree structure is important in the context-free generative grammar model. It describes phrases in terms
of constituent grammatical parts.

In the classroom
Generative grammars are of limited use to learners and are not meant to be a guide to how to use language.
Learners looking for more information about grammar can be supported by grammar usage books, which
show how structures are used in language, and by prescriptive grammars, which describe rules.

Genre

Genre is a term used to classify types of spoken or written discourse. These are normally classified by
content, language, purpose and form.

Example
Learners analyse an example of a formal letter of complaint, looking at structure, set phrases, formality and
purpose. They identify the key elements of this genre then produce their own examples based on this data.

In the classroom
Written genres that learners deal with in class include reports, news articles, letters of enquiry, stories,
invitations, e-mails and poems. Spoken genres include presentations, speeches, interviews and informal
conversation.

Gist

Gist is the general meaning or purpose of a text, either written or spoken. Reading a text for gist is known as
skimming.

Example
Before answering detailed comprehension questions on a short story, learners read it quickly for gist, and
then match the text to a picture that summarises what happens in the story.

In the classroom
Readers employ a variety of reading skills including prediction, reading for gist, scanning and intensive
reading. Learners need to be shown these and taught how to use them in order to find their own effective
strategies.

Global comprehension
53
Global comprehension means understanding the general meaning of what you are listening to or reading. It
can be compared to selective comprehension, which means understanding specific information in the text,
and detailed comprehension, which means understanding everything. Global, selective and detailed
comprehensions have parallels with the three reading skills of skimming, scanning and intensive reading.

Example
The learners have listened to a story and now try to recreate it by putting jumbled sentences into the correct
order.

In the classroom
Various activity types can test global comprehension. Learners can be asked to sort out jumbled versions of a
text, as in the example, produce or complete summaries, answer comprehension questions that test general
understanding, such as true or false statements, and suggest titles.

Gloss

Glosses are summaries of the meanings of words, usually found as notes in the margin or between the lines
of a text. Glosses can be interpretations, explanations or translations.

Example
Learners work together on a project to provide a gloss for a text on pub life in the UK, investigating the
socio-cultural significance of the language in the text.

In the classroom
One interesting gloss exercise is to translate terms within a text into L1. If this is done in groups, then
various communicative and analytical aims can be introduced.

Glottal stop

The glottal stop is a consonant sound produced when the flow of air is stopped by the glottis closing, and
then released. Many languages use glottal stops, often much more than in English.

Example
The sound /t/ in cat' is often a glottal stop sound.

In the classroom
Few learners have difficulty producing the glottal stop sound but they can have problems understanding
words that can be pronounced with it in certain accents, like bottle and butter. Listening to examples from
speakers with relevant accents and following tapescripts identify different ways of pronouncing the same
words.

Goal

54
Goals are the targets that learners and teachers have in language learning. These may be short- and long-
term. Goals can be compared to aims, which usually refer to the targets of one lesson or unit of work.

Example
One learner includes among her goals: to be able to deliver a presentation in English to overseas colleagues,
to understand the music of her favourite band, and to be able to use all the English language software on her
laptop.

In the classroom
Goal-setting is an important activity in the development of a learner's metacognitive skills and awareness.
Learners can be encouraged to set goals about how, what and when they are going to learn. Teachers need to
find out about learners' goals, since learners may come to the course with goals that are different from those
expressed in the course.

Gradable adjectives

Gradable adjectives are adjectives which have different degrees and so can be graded. They can be
compared with non-gradable adjectives, which do not have degree.

Example
Hot' and cold' are both gradable adjectives. You can say very hot', a bit cold' really hot', rather cold' etc.

In the classroom
Learners find focusing on collocations such as absolutely awful' and a bit chilly' interesting, and this is a
natural way to focus on whether adjectives are gradable or not. It may not necessarily be useful for learners
to spend time separating adjectives into gradable and non-gradable, as this will not immediately help them
use adjectives correctly.

Graded language

Graded language is classroom language that is adapted to the level of the learners in some way. Many course
books use graded language. It can be compared with authentic language, which is not changed in any way.

Example
An intermediate level class are using graded readers, reading works of literature but written in simplified
English.

In the classroom
Most learners using course books are exposed to graded language, so it is useful to try to include authentic
language and highlight the differences between them. For example, the teacher can invite a native speaker
into the class for a listening exercise which mirrors one the learners have done from a course book

Graded readers
55
Graded readers are reading books that contain language adjusted to the level of the learner rather than
authentic language.

Example
Many ELT publishers produce graded readers for a wide range of levels.

In the classroom
Graded readers can help learners build their confidence in reading, and they can make a useful addition to
exposure of authentic reading texts, even at very low levels. Activities with graded readers include
imagining and creating the past lives of characters, dramatizing key scenes, and writing letters to the author.

Grammatical syllabus

A grammatical syllabus is based on the structures of a language. It can be compared to other types of syllabi
based around tasks, vocabulary, functions or topics. Learners learn grammatical structures in a sequence that
reflects their complexity, rather than their use in communication, leading to many artificial contexts for
practice, and perhaps an inability to transfer learning to real communication. Organising learning around a
grammatical syllabus has been criticised because of this, but it is still the most common type of syllabus in
published materials, mostly because it is the easiest type of syllabus to sequence.

Example
A grammatical syllabus may start with the present simple, then the present continuous, then the past simple,
and so on. Learners are not usually exposed to more difficult structures than the ones they are learning.

In the classroom
Teachers may find it useful to blend a grammatical syllabus with other elements. For example, it may be
suitable to teach verb times explicitly but structures such as the use of would' in requests and advice in a
functional framework instead.

Group dynamics

Group dynamics refer to the relationships between learners in a group and the impact that this has on the
way they work.

Example
The group dynamics of a class can change enormously when a new learner or teacher joins the class.

In the classroom
In the language classroom, the teacher needs to recognise which of the factors that contribute to group
dynamics are within their control, as not all are. Teachers can contribute to positive group dynamics through
choosing relevant aims, topics and appropriate activity types, and establishing a good rapport.

Group work
56
Group work is when the learners work together on a task or activity in groups.

Example
Learners in threes, a class separated into two, and an open class, are all examples of groups.

In the classroom
Group work increases the opportunities for all learners to speak the new language, it allows them to learn
from each other, and frees the teacher to monitor individuals and give them feedback. Examples of typical
group work activities include ranking discussions, jigsaw activities, project work group and group writing
tasks.

Guided discovery

Guided discovery, also known as an inductive approach, is a technique where a teacher provides examples of
a language item and helps the learners to find the rules themselves.

Example
The learners are shown a problem page containing various examples of the second conditional 'If I were you,
..'. They identify the structure and then the rules for making it.

In the classroom
Guided discovery is regarded by many teachers as an important tool. It encourages independence, makes
learning more memorable, and if analysis is done in groups is a meaningful communicative task. It is
important, however, to understand that some learners are resistant to this approach.

Guided writing

Guided writing involves a teacher working with a group of learners on a writing task. The aims of the task
are based on what they have previously been learning about the writing process. Guided writing aims to
support learners in this psychologically and cognitively difficult activity.

Example
The learners have been looking at how conjunctions are used to contrast and compare ideas. They are now
writing a short discursive essay on the subject of animal experimentation. The teacher is working with the
groups to guide them in the correct use of the target language.

In the classroom
Guided writing can be fully exploited by providing learners with the language they need to complete the task
together with the teacher. For example, this may include making suggestions (Why don't we start by
saying...?'), agreeing and disagreeing (That's a good idea - let's put that'), and asking for help (Is it right to
say...?').

Higher-order questions
57
Higher-order questions require answers that go beyond simple information and as such both the language
and thinking behind them is more complex. They take learners into more abstract language functions, such
as giving and justifying opinions, speculation, and hypothesising.

Example
Asking What colours make up a rainbow?' is an observational question, asking Why are rainbows
important?' is a higher question.

In the classroom
Amongst their many functions, higher order questions can be used to get learners to interpret things, suggest
solutions to problems, explain why something is important, give opinions, and make comparisons. Learners
need the opportunity to practise using language for these functions.

Holistic approach

A holistic approach to language sees it as a whole, which is not divisible in a meaningful way for teaching.
This contrasts with an atomistic approach to language, which attempts to analyse language into parts, such
as grammatical structures or functional exponents, which can later become the content of a syllabus. A
holistic approach would focus on everything the learner needs to know to communicate effectively.

Example
Young learners have a set of daily tasks in the classroom including cleaning the board and collecting
materials. This is all done in the target language.

In the classroom
Content-based instruction, language across the curriculum, the Cognitive Academic Language Learning
Approach and topic-based syllabi take a holistic approach by using a framework of meaningful content.

Homonym

A homonym is a word that has the same sound or spelling as another but a different meaning. Homonyms
can be separated into two groups, homographs (same spelling) and homophones (same sound).

Example
Write', right' and rite' are examples of homophones, and wind' is a homograph with several meanings
(wind the clock' a howling wind').

In the classroom
There are various useful learning opportunities associated with homonyms. For example, learners can better
understand the difference between English spelling and pronunciation by looking at homophones, and
homonyms can be a good way of showing the usefulness of phonemic script.

Homophone
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A homophone is a word that has the same sound as another word but different meaning and spelling. This
can be compared with a homonym, which has the same spelling and sounds the same but has a different
meaning.

Example
The words 'rain', 'reign' and 'rein' are homophones. 'Set' is a homonym.

In the classroom
Homophones are useful to help learners understand that the relationship between spelling and sound is not
consistent in English. Dictations, poems, jokes, and word games such as bingo are all used to practise this
area.

Horseshoe layout

A horseshoe layout is a way of organizing learners' seats in a class in the form of a horseshoe.

Example
The teacher needs to use the board a lot in a class so arranges the seats in a horseshoe shape.

In the classroom
A horseshoe shape is a very effective way to organize the classroom, as it means the learners can see each
other, the teacher and the board. Thus it is useful for whole-group work such as an open discussion or for a
teacher-centred class.

Humanistic

Humanistic language teaching is an approach based on the principle that the whole being, emotional and
social, needs to be engaged in learning, not just the mind.

Example
A teacher always responds to the content of learners' written work, not just the quality of the language. They
write an extended 'answer' to this work, and also offer choices for learners who prefer to write on another
topic.

In the classroom
Humanistic teaching approaches include the Silent Way, Community Language Learning, Total Physical
Response and Suggestopaedia.

Hyponyms
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Hyponyms are words that are the specific examples of a general word, a superordinate'. They can be
compared with synonyms, which mean the same things, and antonyms, which mean opposite things.

Example
Red, white and blue are all colours.

In the classroom
Learners can record words in hyponym groups in vocabulary banks and add new words to these groups. This
can be a useful way to process new vocabulary and may mirror how we organise words in our first language.

Hypotheses

Hypotheses are possible ideas about language rules that learners form as they receive information. Learners
test their hypotheses by using language and these ideas change as new information is received.

Example
A learner has noticed that English often uses the suffix -ness to form a noun from an adjective and so
develops a hypothesis that this is a rule. The teacher gives them more information and the learner adjusts the
hypothesis accordingly.

In the classroom
Learners often make systematic errors as they test hypotheses. For example, overuse of the past -ed may be
due to an incorrect hypothesis about past forms in English. Teachers can find out a lot about learners' current
understanding of the new language from noticing the errors learners make.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Information and Communication Technology, or ICT, refers to technological tools that are used to
communicate and to manage information.

Example
Interactive Whiteboards are an example of ICT.

In the classroom
ICT is often part of a teacher-centred class but it is easy to exploit these tools in learner-centred activities.
For example, learners can control a cassette or DVD, stopping it each time they hear a contraction, develop
their own class blog on the Internet with minimum teacher involvement, or use a computer in a multi-media
area to present their findings from a pre-reading task.

Ice-breakers

60
Ice-breakers are speaking activities used with a new class in order to give the learners an opportunity to meet
each other. In order to complete an ice-breaker task learners must talk to each other.

Example
The teacher gives each learner a sheet with a series of 'Find someone who' statements, e.g. 'Find someone
who has a cat'. Learners circulate around the class and complete the statements with names.

In the classroom
Relationships between learners are fundamental to successful learning in many approaches and
methodologies, and ice-breakers are designed to begin the process of building a positive dynamic in the
class.

Idioms

Idioms are expressions whose meanings are different from the words that make them. Understanding an
idiom requires some other knowledge than knowing the words used. Idioms normally cannot be modified or
the words within them changed.

Example
'I lost my head completely' as an idiom means 'I got very angry', whilst literally it means something very
different.

In the classroom
Idioms are an area of language that learners and teachers find very enjoyable. Authentic material offers a
good source of contextualised idioms, and teachers can encourage learners to guess the meaning from
context. An interesting exercise in a multi-lingual class is to compare idioms from different cultures and
languages.

Immersion programme

In immersion programmes learners are fully immersed in the target language for a certain period of time,
both in and outside the class. It is sometimes compared to submersion, where individual learners are placed
in classes where everybody else speaks the same language. There are varying degrees of immersion,
including full, partial and bilingual immersion, which involves two groups of students learning each other's
languages.

Example
Immersion programmes have been a popular way to teach French in Canada for many years.

In the classroom
Teachers can simulate an immersion environment by establishing an English-only' area in their institutions
and by insisting on all communication with them being in English. This gives learners the opportunity to
develop a range of relevant skills in a more spontaneous, authentic- and demanding- context than the class.

Inductive approach
61
An inductive approach to teaching language starts with examples and asks learners to find rules. It can be
compared with a deductive approach that starts by giving learners rules, then examples, then practice.

Example
Learners listen to a conversation that includes examples of the use of the third conditional. The teacher
checks that the students understand the meaning of its use through checking learners' comprehension of the
listening text, and only after this focuses on the form, using the examples from the text to elicit rules about
the form, its use and its pronunciation.

In the classroom
Inductive approaches to presenting new language are commonly found in course books, and form part of a
general strategy to engage learners in what they learn. Some learners may need introduction to inductive
approaches since they may be more familiar, and feel more comfortable, with a deductive approach.

Inference

Inference is the technique of finding answers from clues and from prior knowledge rather than directly.

Example
Learners listen to a discussion between two unidentified speakers and must infer their relationship from
what they hear.

In the classroom
The ability to infer meaning and situation correctly is an important skill, as in many cultures speakers avoid
saying something directly by using implication. Ways to look at this include analysis of dialogue from films,
learner implication- inference exchanges, listening tasks, using video and games, e.g. 'Find 10 ways to say
Shut the door!'

Informal assessment

Informal assessment involves observing the learners as they learn and evaluating them from the data
gathered. It can be compared to formal assessment, which involves evaluating a learner's level of language
in a formal way, such as through an exam or structured continuous assessment.

Example
The teacher has carried out informal assessment of the learners during speaking activities throughout the
course by keeping notes about how well individuals are doing in speaking and uses the data gathered to
evaluate the learners at the end of the course.

In the classroom
Informal and formal assessments are both useful for making valid and useful assessments of learners'
knowledge and performance. Many teachers combine the two, for example by evaluating one skill using
informal assessment such as observing group work, and another using formal tools, for example a discrete
item grammar test.

Information gap

62
An information gap activity is an activity where learners are missing the information they need to complete
a task and need to talk to each other to find it.

Example
Learner A has a biography of a famous person with all the place names missing, whilst Learner B has the
same text with all the dates missing. Together they can complete the text by asking each other questions.

In the classroom
Information gap activities are useful for various reasons. They provide an opportunity for extended speaking
practice, they represent real communication, motivation can be high, and they require sub-skills such as
clarifying meaning and re-phrasing. Typical types of information gap activities you might find include;
describe and draw, spot the difference, jigsaw readings and listenings and split dictations.

Initiation-response-feedback (IRF)

Initiation-response-feedback, or IRF, is a pattern of discussion between the teacher and learner. The teacher
initiates, the learner responds, the teacher gives feedback. This approach to the exchange of information in
the classroom has been criticized as being more about the learner saying what the teacher wants to hear than
really communicating.

Example
The teacher asks a learner for rules about use of the present perfect, the learner gives an answer, and the
teacher says whether that is correct or not.

In the classroom
Although this approach has been criticized, it can provide a useful framework for developing meaningful
communication in a controlled form. For example, there is room for authentic input in an IRF dialogue such
as:
- How many brothers have you got?
- Three!
- Oh so you've got three brothers! That's a big family! Etc

Input

Input refers to the exposure learners have to authentic language in use. This can be from various sources,
including the teacher, other learners, and the environment around the learners. Input can be compared to
intake, which is input then taken in and internalized by the learner so it can be applied.

Example
Acquisition theories emphasise the importance of comprehensible input, which is language just beyond the
competence of the learner, and provides the ideal conditions for acquisition to happen.

In the classroom
The most important and accessible input for learners is that of the teacher. When teachers are talking in
classes they are providing opportunities for learners to develop their comprehension. Teachers can optimise
this opportunity by choosing the right levels of complexity of vocabulary and structures, speed of delivery,
degree of clarity, and range of register and style.

Intensifiers
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Intensifiers are words that make the meaning of other words stronger.

Example
She's very good at maths' and You are much taller than your brother'.

In the classroom
One high level function of intensifiers is in sarcasm, for example:
Oh, yeah, that was really clever'
Learners at higher levels can look at this use of intensifiers, especially if they are in an English-speaking
country. It is important that they can recognise this function.

Intensive reading

Intensive reading involves learners reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks. It can be
compared with extensive reading, which involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop
general reading skills.

Example
The learners read a short text and put events from it into chronological order.

In the classroom
Intensive reading activities include skimming a text for specific information to answer true or false
statements or filling gaps in a summary, scanning a text to match headings to paragraphs, and scanning
jumbled paragraphs and then reading them carefully to put them into the correct order.

Interaction patterns

In ELT interaction patterns are the different ways learners and the teacher can interact in the class. Using the
right interaction pattern is a fundamental factor in the success of any activity and the achievement of aims.

Example
The class are doing a dictation activity. The interaction pattern is teacher to the whole group (T-Ss). Other
patterns include pair work (S-S), and group work (Ss-Ss).

In the classroom
Different interaction patterns can support the aims of different kinds of activities. For example, if the
learners are doing group writing then small Ss-Ss groups are best, but for elicitation of ideas the interaction
pattern could be Ss-T. Changing interaction patterns can help vary the pace and choosing an appropriate
pattern can help achieve learning aims, for example, making learners take the place of the teacher (S-Ss) can
be very productive.

Interactional

64
Interactional language is the language we use to build and maintain relationships. It can be compared to
transactional language, which normally carries a message and is the language used to get things done. To
maintain interaction, speakers use interactional strategies.

Example
Learners in a multi-lingual group chatting together before a class begins are using interactional language.

In the classroom
Teachers can present elements of interactional language, and raise learners' awareness of interactional
strategies by exposure to video and authentic conversation. Learners can learn to use paralinguistic features
such as gestures, eye contact, and body language, and linguistic features used to maintain an interactional
conversation including functions such as expressing interest and asking for clarification.

Interactive White Blackboard (IWB)

The Interactive White Blackboard, or IWB, is a large interactive display attached to a computer and a
projector. The teacher and learners control the computer through the display.

Example
The learners are looking at words that are difficult to say. They check the phonetic script in the dictionary,
then click on symbols on a phonemic [symbols] chart on the IWB to hear the pronunciation and decide how
the word is pronounced.

In the classroom
IWBs are often criticised for making classes much more teacher-centred and it is important that learners are
given appropriate opportunities to use the resource. Learner-centred activities involve them using the board
themselves, and include presentations or learners leading a stage of the class.

Intercultural communicative competence (ICC)

Intercultural communicative competence, or ICC, refers to the ability to understand cultures, including your
own, and use this understanding to communicate with people from other cultures successfully.

Example
ICC could include understanding how gestures and the distance between speakers vary from culture to
culture.

In the classroom
Ways to develop this competence include learners producing a written or online guide to their own country
and culture for visitors, reading and discussing guides written by visitors, researching aspects of a target
culture in various media including cinema, literature and television, giving presentations on aspects of the
target culture, and exploiting the teacher's own expertise of their own culture.

Interlanguage

65
Interlanguage is the learner's current version of the language they are learning. Interlanguage changes all the
time but can become fossilised language when the learners do not have the opportunity to improve.

Example
A learner who has lived in an English-speaking environment for many years but not attended classes or
studied for some time has problems with reported speech and forming tag questions. His interlanguage has
become fossilised.

In the classroom
Interlanguage is often heavily influenced by L1 and interference from this may make it seem perfectly
logical to the learner, although it is incorrect. It is important for teachers to understand this and also to see
interlanguage as a series of learning steps.

Interlocutor

The interlocutor is a person who is actively involved in a conversation.

Example
In some oral exams, there is an interlocutor, who talks with the candidates, and an assessor, who marks
them.

In the classroom
Successful communication in another language is being aware of your impact on the other interlocutor,
especially if they are from another culture with different conventions. Some teachers spend time with
learners looking at areas such as body language, facial expression and physical distance between speakers,
all of which can have significant impact.

Internalisation

Internalisation is the process of learning something so that it can be used as the basis for production. Once
language is internalised, it can then be retained and retrieved when needed for communication.

Example
A learner finds that using a spidergram helps them record a new lexical set on words that describe emotions
effectively and so internalising this new vocabulary is easier.

In the classroom
A learner discovering for themselves what the meaning of a new word is by using context will internalise
this information more deeply than a learner being told what the meaning is. This kind of processing is key to
techniques such as guided discovery, learning strategies such as the example above, and task-based
learning.

Intonation
66
Intonation is crucial for communication. It's also a largely unconscious mechanism, and as such, a complex
aspect of pronunciation.

It's no surprise that many teachers don't feel confident about tackling it in the classroom. When teaching
grammar or lexis, we find ways of making the language accessible to our learners. How then to do this with
intonation?

What is intonation?

Why teach intonation?

Can I improve my own awareness of intonation?

How I help my students:

o Awareness-raising

o Intonation and grammar

o Intonation and attitudes

o Intonation and discourse

Conclusion

What is intonation?
Intonation is about how we say things, rather than what we say. Without intonation, it's impossible to
understand the expressions and thoughts that go with words.
Listen to somebody speaking without paying attention to the words: the 'melody' you hear is the intonation.
It has the following features:

67
 It's divided into phrases, also known as 'tone-units'.

The pitch moves up and down, within a 'pitch range'. Everybody has their own pitch range.
Languages, too, differ in pitch range. English has particularly wide pitch range.

In each tone unit, the pitch movement (a rise or fall in tone, or a combination of the two) takes place
on the most important syllable known as the 'tonic-syllable'. The tonic-syllable is usually a high-
content word, near the end of the unit.

These patterns of pitch variation are essential to a phrase's meaning. Changing the intonation can
completely change the meaning.

Example:

o Say: 'It's raining'.

o Now say it again using the same words, but giving it different meaning. You could say it to
mean 'What a surprise!', or 'How annoying!',or 'That's great!'. There are many possibilities.

Why teach intonation?

Intonation exists in every language, so the concept we're introducing isn't new. However, learners are often
so busy finding their words that intonation suffers. Yet intonation can be as important as word choice - we
don't always realise how much difference intonation makes:

Awareness of intonation aids communication.

Incorrect intonation can result in misunderstandings, speakers losing interest or even taking offence!

Though it's unlikely our learners will need native-speaker-level pronunciation, what they do need is greater
awareness of intonation to facilitate their speaking and listening.

Can I improve my own awareness of intonation?

It's difficult to hear our own intonation. Choose somebody to listen to closely: as you listen, visualise the
melody in your head, 'seeing' how it's divided into tone-units. Next time you do a class speaking activity,
focus on your students' intonation. Are there students whose language is 'correct', but something doesn't
sound right? Do they come across as boring or insincere? It may well be their pitch range isn't varied
enough.

How I help my students

Awareness-raising
Some techniques I find useful for raising learners' awareness of intonation:

Provide learners with models - don't be afraid to exaggerate your intonation.

Let students compare two examples of the same phrase, eg: varied/flat intonation, English / L1.

68
 Ask students to have a 2-minute conversation in pairs as 'robots' (elicit the word using a picture if
necessary), i.e. with no intonation. When they then go back to speaking 'normally', point out that the
difference is made by intonation - this is what gives movement to our voices.

Get students to imitate my intonation, but without words, just humming.

Intonation doesn't exist in isolation. So it makes sense to approach it together with other factors.

Intonation and grammar

Where patterns associating intonation and grammar are predictable, I highlight these to my students. I see
these as starting-points, rather than rules.

Some examples are:

Wh-word questions: falling intonation

Yes/No questions: rising

Statements: falling

Question-Tags: 'chat' - falling; 'check' - rising

Lists: rising, rising, rising, falling

When practising these constructions, I include activities focusing specifically on intonation.

For example, Question-Tags: Students in groups are assigned jobs to mime to each other. Students make
notes about what they think each person's job is. They then have to check they've understood the jobs:
Students use rising/falling intonation question-tags depending how sure they are: 'You're a pilot, aren't you?'.
At the end, students confirm their jobs.

Intonation and attitude

It's important that students are aware of the strong link between intonation and attitude, even if it's difficult
to provide rules here.

The first thing is for learners to recognise the effect of intonation changes. I say the word 'bananas' -
firstly with an 'interested' intonation (varied tone); then 'uninterested' (flat). Students identify the two
and describe the difference. We then brainstorm attitudes, such as 'enthusiastic', 'bored', 'surprised',
'relieved'. I say 'bananas' for these. Students then do the same in pairs, guessing each other's attitude.

This can be developed by asking students to 'greet' everybody with a particular attitude. At the end,
the class identify each person's attitude. For younger learners, I use 'Mr Men' characters (Miss
Happy, Mr Grumpy, Miss Frightened, etc.) Each student is allocated a character and, as above, they
greet the class with that character's voice.

Intonation and discourse

Learners' also need awareness of intonation in longer stretches of language. Here, we can give our learners
clearer guidelines: 'new' information = fall tone; 'shared' knowledge = 'fall-rise'.
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A simple shopping dialogue demonstrates this:

SK: Can I help you?

C: I'd like a chocolate (fall) ice-cream.
SK: One chocolate (fall-rise) ice-cream. Anything else?
C: One strawberry (fall) ice-cream.
SK: One chocolate (fall-rise), one strawberry (fall-rise). Anything else?
C: Yes. One chocolate (fall-rise), one strawberry (fall-rise), and one vanilla (fall).

Higher level students can identify the 'new' / 'shared' information, and then practise reading accordingly.

With lower level students, we memorise the dialogue together. Although I don't refer to intonation directly, I
use my hands to indicate it (fall = hand pointing down; fall-rise = down then up). Students then prepare their
own dialogues. I've found my learners pick up these patterns very quickly.

Conclusion
When working on intonation in the classroom I:

Remember that intonation is relevant to any speaking activity, and makes interesting
remedial/revision work.

Remember that students don't always have to 'know' we're focusing on intonation: every time I drill
phrases they're hearing intonation models.

Provide realistic and clear contexts.

Avoid going into theory.

Help students find patterns / rules-of-thumb, wherever possible.

Use a consistent system for marking intonation on the board for example: arrow for tone; tonic-
syllable in CAPITALS; double lines ( // ) for tone-unit boundaries.

Keep it positive and don't expect perfection. The last thing I'd want is to make my students so
anxious about their intonation that they stop speaking!

Further reading
Sound Foundations by Adrian Underhill
Pronunciation by Dalton and Seidlholfer
How to Teach Pronunciation by Gerald Kelly
Teaching English Pronunciation by Joanne Kenworthy

Marta J. Sabbadini, British Council, Cameroon

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Intransitive verbs

Intransitive verbs do not have a direct object. They can be compared to transitive verbs, which need one.

For example:
'I lied', 'She is crying', 'We left on Tuesday' are all examples of intransitive verbs.

In the classroom
Students can explore which verbs can be both transitive and intransitive; they are verbs that are often used to
talk about some kind of change. E.g. 'The door opened' and 'He opened the door'. Other examples include
empty, increase, shut, spoil.

Intrapersonal intelligence

Intrapersonal intelligence is one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple intelligence theory.
People with strong intrapersonal intelligence are often introspective, prefer working alone, and are very self-
aware.

Example
A student with strong intrapersonal intelligence may not like working in groups, or save certain kinds of
work for home.

In the classroom
Teachers interested in developing intrapersonal intelligence often try to encourage their learners' self-
awareness and autonomy. Learner diaries and developing learning skills such as dictionary use and effective
recording of vocabulary are ways to help this.

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is a motivation to learn that comes from an internal force such as interest in language
learning or the desire for further personal development in general. It compares with extrinsic motivation,
which is motivation from external pressures such as the need to speak English for work or because a parent
has sent a learner to class.

Example
Often high level learners show a high degree of intrinsic motivation as they continue to study a language
beyond any practical need.

In the classroom
Sometimes learners join a class because of extrinsic motivation and become motivated intrinsically as
learning becomes enjoyable and rewarding. Getting feedback from the learners on the teaching and learning
71
process through simple questionnaires about aspects of class can help a teacher identify what students find
most useful and enjoyable.

Intrusion

Intrusion is a feature of connected speech. When two words are said together, an extra sound is sometimes
placed between them in order to make them easier to say.

Example
When a native speaker says 'I am not happy' there is an intrusive /j/ sound between 'I' and 'am' which makes
it easier to say the phrase quickly.

In the classroom
Teachers can help learners hear and recognise the words and sounds involved through asking students to
predict where in a dialogue they might hear intrusive sounds, and then listening to check.

Jigsaw

A jigsaw listening or reading activity is an information gap exercise. Learners hear or read different parts of
a text, then exchange information with others in order to complete a task.

Example
Learners in three groups hear different versions of an encounter with aliens. Together with other learners,
they complete comprehension questions based on all three descriptions of the encounter.

In the classroom
Jigsaw tasks are an excellent way to integrate the skills, as learners read or listen to a text, and speak and
listen to others to reconstruct the information in the text. Most written texts can be made into a jigsaw
activity easily. Managing a jigsaw listening exercise is more challenging as it requires multiple tape
recorders, enough space to listen without disturbing other groups, and time.

Jumble activity

In a jumble activity learners need to put sentences or paragraphs from a text, or pictures illustrating a text,
into the correct order.

Example
The learners put jumbled pictures into a possible order and then read the text to see if their ideas are right.

In the classroom
Ordering jumbled sentences and paragraphs is an excellent way to raise learners' awareness to features of
discourse.

72
Key points

The key points of a spoken or written text are the most important points.

Example
The learners listen to a talk from an outside speaker on how to do a parachute jump and note the key points.
They then check these together and write an article for their class blog.

In the classroom
One way to help learners develop the skill of identifying key points in texts is by not giving them too much
time to read (and so to start focusing on detail). Reading races, timed readings and reading exam practice
questions can encourage learners to find key points as quickly as possible.

Kinesics

Kinesics is the study of non-verbal communication achieved by movement of the body.

Example
This includes gestures such as waving or tapping your fingers, eye movements such as winking and rolling,
and body movements such as shrugging your shoulders.

In the classroom
Learners in a multi-lingual group can be encouraged to think about this by asking them to compare the
different meanings of gestures and facial expressions in their cultures. This could also be done in an
extended form as a project. Learners in a monolingual group could compare British and American behaviour
with their own.

L1

L1 is a speaker's first language. L2 is the second, L3 the third etc.

Example
A learner whose L1 is Spanish may find Portuguese and Italian easy languages to learn because of a fairly
close connection between the languages.

In the classroom
L1 interference - where a speaker uses language forms and structures from their first language in language
they are learning - is an area many teachers are concerned with. In a mono-lingual class where the teacher

73
also speaks the L1, it is easier to identify interference and address it, often discussing it explicitly with
learners.

Labial

A labial consonant is produced by using your lips. Bilabial consonants are made by using both lips,
labiodental consonants by using your top lip and your teeth. Some learners have problems recognizing the
difference between labial and labiodental consonants. Spanish speakers, for example, have problems with /v/
and /b/.

Example
/p/ and /b/ are labial consonants, /v/ and /f/ are labiodental consonants.

In the classroom
Asking learners to distinguish between minimal pairs such as ban' and van' and bet' and vet' is one way to
help them learn to recognise these sounds. Learners can make pairs themselves for other students.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

The Language Acquisition Device, or LAD, is part of Chomsky's acquisition hypothesis. The LAD is a
system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in
which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn. Second language learning theory
proposes that acquisition is possible in second and subsequent languages, and that learning programmes
have to create the conditions for it.

Example
One piece of evidence for the existence of a LAD is the fact that physical areas of the brain concerned with
production and comprehension have been identified.

In the classroom
The belief that acquisition is possible lies at the heart of any method that involves engaging the learner in
natural communication and authentic input, these include task-based learning, CLIL, and some story- and
activity-based programmes.

Language aptitude

Language aptitude refers to the potential that a person has for learning languages. This potential is often
evaluated using formal aptitude tests, which predict the degree of success the candidate will have with a new
language. Aptitude tests vary but many include evaluation of ability to manage sounds, grammatical
structures, infer rules, and memory.

74
Example
The Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) evaluates language aptitude.

In the classroom
Language aptitude may be fixed but there are many things teachers can do in the area of learner training to
improve the learner's ability. These include helping learners identify their preferences for learning; thinking
about learning styles, and then looking at how these can be developed; and developing learner autonomy by
teaching learners how to study effectively.

Language usage

Language usage refers to the rules for making language, i.e. the structures used. It can be compared to use,
which considers the communicative meaning of language.

Example
The usage of the third conditional is: If + past perfect + would + present perfect

In the classroom
Using an inductive approach is an effective way to get learners to explore usage. They can for example
identify the target language in a text and then look at its usage and use.

Language use

Language use refers to the communicative meaning of language. It can be compared to usage, which refers
to the rules for making language and the structures we use to make it.

Example
One use of the third conditional is to express regret, e.g. If I hadn't spent so much time mucking about at
school, I would have passed a few more exams'.

In the classroom
A key stage in awareness of how English works is when learners understand that usage and use are not
necessarily connected. For example, the past form of verbs (usage) can express a wish about the present
(use), such as:
- I wish I didn't have this boss. He's awful!

Learner training

Learner training involves helping learners find out how they learn most effectively. It means encouraging
learners to take responsibility for learning and helping them to develop learning strategies and study skills.
Most importantly, it asks learners to reflect on how they are learning. The aim of learner training is to
produce effective, independent language learners.

Example
Learners think about what time of day they are most productive and then produce a diagram showing their
peaks and troughs. Together they discuss how to plan study with this in mind.

75
In the classroom
Areas often discussed include ways of recording new vocabulary, different learning styles and preferences,
finding opportunities to use English outside the class, reflecting on strengths and weaknesses, and study
skills.

Learning strategies

Learning strategies are tools and techniques that learners develop as they learn. Learning strategies are an
important part of developing autonomy.

Example
A learner keeps a small notebook in their pocket and records interesting new language when they hear it,
then researches it later using online reference material they have been shown.

In the classroom
There are a wide range of strategies available to learners. A teacher's responsibility is to expose learners to as
many as possible, give them the opportunity to experiment, and help them identify what works.

Learning styles

Learning styles are the different ways people prefer to learn. There are a wide variety of styles and also
terminology used to describe them.

Example
A learner likes to record new vocabulary in lists and sees this list in their mind when recalling words. This is
typical of what some teachers call a visual learner.

In the classroom
In a group of learners there will be a variety of learning styles. Addressing their needs means using a range
of techniques and resources, including visual realia, colours, movement, music, games and social
interaction.

Lexical approach

The lexical approach is a way of analysing and teaching language based on the idea that it is made up of
lexical units rather than grammatical structures. The units are words, chunks formed by collocations, and
fixed phrases.

Example
The phrase 'Rescue attempts are being hampered by bad weather' is a chunk of language, and almost a fixed
phrase. It is formed by the collocations 'Rescue' + 'attempt', 'rescue attempt' + 'hampered', 'hampered' + 'by',
'hampered by' + 'bad weather'.

76
In the classroom
A simple activity to incorporate the lexical approach is to encourage learners to identify and record lexical
chunks and fixed phrases in texts they read.

Lexical chunk

A lexical chunk is a group of words that are commonly found together. Lexical chunks include collocations
but these usually just involve content words, not grammar.

Example
In this dialogue there are five possible chunks:
- Did you stay long at the party?
- No, I got out of there as soon as they ran out of food.

In the classroom
Focussing on lexical chunks is a useful way to look at language and to extend learners' control of it. For
example, learners can spend a little time at the end of a reading comprehension exercise identifying chunks
in the text and analysing them, or identifying other contexts they might be found in.

Lexical set

A lexical set is a group of words with the same topic, function or form.

Example
'Cat, dog, tortoise, goldfish, gerbil' is part of the topical lexical set pets, and 'quickly, happily, completely,
dramatically, angrily' is part of the syntactic lexical set adverbs.

In the classroom
Lexical sets are a way of looking at new vocabulary that some learners find useful. Activities include asking
learners to sort words into groups, word games such as the chaining game 'I went to the market and
bought', Odd One Out, and Stop, and class poster projects.

Lexicon

A lexicon is often used to describe the knowledge that a speaker has about the words of a language. This
includes meanings, use, form, and relationships with other words. A lexicon can thus be thought of as a
mental dictionary.

Example
A successful learner develops an L2 lexicon independently of their L1 lexicon, which means there is less
confusion, translation and L1 interference.
77
In the classroom
Many teachers and learners regard expanding the target language lexicon - in other words, learning more
vocabulary - as a priority. Advanced level learners, for example, will express the need for 'more words'
frequently.

Lingua franca

A lingua franca is a language that is used widely outside the country where it is spoken as a native language.

Example:
French, Greek, Portuguese and Latin have all been major lingua franca at some point in history. The current
lingua franca of international business is English.

In the classroom
The position of English as a lingua franca, or international language, and the growth and diversification of
other Englishes, has raised many questions about what kind of English learners want and need.

Linguistic intelligence

Linguistic intelligence - also known as verbal-linguistic - is one of the many types of intelligence described
in multiple intelligence theory. People with significant linguistic intelligence are often good at languages and
enjoy reading and writing.

For example
A student with strong linguistic intelligence may remember new words very easily and use them quickly.

In the classroom
Supporting and developing linguistic intelligence involves encouraging learners to enjoy real
communicating through reading and writing, and speaking and listening. This allows learners to see the
purpose of language, and helps them take an interest in it. Writing and receiving real letters or emails from
classmates or e-pals is motivating, as are any group communicative speaking activities.

Linking

Linking is when sounds are joined together or when a sound is inserted between two others to make them
easier to say.

Example
When we say I did it!' we join together the /d/ and the /it/ to produce I didit'. When we say I am' we insert
a /j/ sound to produce I yam'.

In the classroom
Learners can be helped to distinguish how words are linked through how many words did you hear?'
78
activities, and can be encouraged to produce linked language through the teacher backchaining models for
pronunciation.

Logical/mathematical intelligence

Logical/mathematical intelligence is one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple intelligence
theory. People with significant logical/mathematical intelligence are often good at logical reasoning and
scientific investigation.

For example
A student with strong logical/mathematical intelligence may ask a lot of questions as they organise and
categorise new information about language.

In the classroom
Certain approaches may be more suited to learners with strong logical/mathematical intelligence, for
example the inductive approach, where learners find rules themselves from examples of the language.

Long vowels

Long vowels are vowel sounds that are longer than normal, or short, vowels. In RP English the long vowel
sounds are those in 'seat', 'suit', 'sort', 'shirt' and 'start'. Phonemic symbols for long vowel sounds have a /:/ to
indicate length.

Example
The word 'kiss' has a short /i/ sound, whilst the equivalent long sound /i:/ produces the word 'keys'.

In the classroom
Differences in length in vowel sounds are difficult for many learners. One approach is to highlight the
difference in minimal pairs (pairs of words that have only one difference, in this case the vowel length) such
as the example above and to model the different sounds for learners to copy.

Marker sentence

Marker or model sentences are sentences that are clear examples of the target language of the lesson. Marker
sentences help learners understand the structure, use and meaning of new language. They can also provide
information about context, including collocations and connotation and work as a reliable example for
learners to record.

Example
The aim of the class is for learners to understand the use of the present perfect to describe something that

79
starts in the past and continues. The marker sentence the teacher writes on the board is I have lived here in
Japan since 1989'.

In the classroom
As part of looking at new language, learners can be asked to suggest a marker sentence themselves. This
helps them focus on the target language and is also a useful learning strategy for them to develop for private
study.

Maze

A maze is a task where learners have to make decisions about what to do at certain points, in order to
continue towards a final goal.

Example
The aim of the maze activity is for learners to successfully get the job they want. They have to make
decisions about areas such as their CVs, how to prepare for the interview, and what to say when talking to
their new employer.

In the classroom
The target language of a maze activity can be the content, such as the example, and it can be the language
learners need to complete the task. Learners need to have available functional language for agreeing and
disagreeing, making a suggestion, reaching a decision, moving the conversation on, concluding etc.

Mechanical activities

Mechanical activities are activities learners do which are not meaningful but which may be necessary in
order to have the tools to use language. The move away from mechanical to communicative activity has
been emphasized and prioritized for many years.

Example
Learners thinking about the position of the tongue in the pronunciation of certain sounds, or learning how to
write in Roman script are doing mechanical but necessary activities.

In the classroom
Drills, substitution exercises, and using prompts to produce structures are common mechanical activities.

Medium of instruction

The medium of instruction is the language used by the teacher to teach. Teaching the language, or
educational content, through the target language increases the amount of exposure the learner gets to it, and
the opportunities they have to communicate in it, and therefore to develop their control of it.

Example
English is used from the beginning of a course as the main language in class, and the teacher adapts their

80
methodology to support meaning, by using a lot of visual information and non-verbal communication to
support meaning.

In the classroom
The question of which medium of instruction to use, and the impact on learners and learning, is a complex
one. It is useful to consider how the language used supports the aims of the class. For example, it may fit the
aims to give all classroom instructions in English in a low level class, because this is useful exposure to new
language and will be learnt, but explaining the methodology behind an activity to the same group might be
done in L1.

Meta-language

Meta-language is the language teachers and learners use to talk about the English language, learning and
teaching.

Example
Words and phrases such as 'verb', 'noun', 'present perfect continuous', 'phrasal verb' and 'reported speech' are
all examples of common classroom meta-language.

In the classroom
Certain classroom teaching materials rely on the learner knowing an extensive range of meta-language and
teachers sometimes spend time teaching learners some of the more common terms.

Metacognitive awareness

Metacognitive awareness means being aware of how you think. In the ELT classroom, it means being aware
of how you learn. Developing metacognitive awareness is an important part of helping learners become
more effective and, importantly, more autonomous. If learners are conscious of how they learn then they can
identify the most effective ways of doing so.

Example
The teacher asks the learners to keep a diary of their classes in which they can note what they liked and
didn't like and why. They then discuss their ideas and develop individual and class action plans.

In the classroom
One of the most effective and easiest ways to develop metacognitive awareness is simply talking with
learners about how they do things in the classroom, such as recording new words, reading a text, and laying
out a page in their notebooks.

Metaphors

Metaphors are words and phrases that are not used in their literal meaning, but are used to describe
something else.

81
Example
'I have a lot on my plate', 'Sales really took off' and 'He's a real couch potato' are all metaphors.

In the classroom
Metaphors are a rich and enjoyable area of language for learners but also can be problematic, as their
meaning is not immediately obvious. Activities that encourage the use and study of metaphors include;
creative writing, classroom posters of metaphor groups, looking at euphemisms and finding L1 equivalents.

Methodology

Methodology is a system of practices and procedures that a teacher uses to teach. It will be based on beliefs
about the nature of language, and how it is learnt (known as 'Approach').

Example
Grammar Translation, the Audiolingual Method and the Direct Method are clear methodologies, with
associated practices and procedures, and are each based on different interpretations of the nature of language
and language learning.

In the classroom
Many teachers base their lessons on a mixture of methods and approaches to meet the different needs of
learners and the different aims of lessons or courses. Factors in deciding how to teach include the age and
experience of learners, lesson and course objectives, expectations and resources.

Mind map

A mind map is a visual record of new vocabulary, or other content. Vocabulary mind maps are also known as
word maps or spidergrams, and are organised in a way that shows groupings or relationships between the
words.

Example
The teacher writes a list of words based around the topic of food on the board. Learners organise the words
in a mind map and then compare ideas on how they have grouped words and related them.

In the classroom
Mind maps are often used as a tool in the planning stage for writing exercises, as learners can structure ideas
and discuss how they are related.

Mingle

A mingle is a short activity where learners walk around the classroom and talk to each other. An ice-
breaker, where learners get to know each other, is a type of mingle.
82
Example
The learners are talking about attitudes to marriage. They prepare a question each and then mingle to ask
others in the class what they think.

In the classroom
Mingle activities include class questionnaires, matching activities (finding your partner), group dictations,
and role-plays.

Minimal pairs

Minimal pairs are pairs of words that only have one sound different.

Example
But' and bat' are a minimal pair. Only the vowel sound is different.

In the classroom
Minimal pairs are a useful way to highlight a sound in a meaningful context and also to show the learner
how important correct pronunciation of the sound is. Activities to practise minimal pairs include reverse
dictation (the teacher writes what the learners say on the board), tongue twisters and drilling.

Mistakes

Mistakes are things that are wrong in a learner's English. They can be divided into two types, errors and
slips. Slips may not require feedback but errors will, at some point, or at least they tell us important things
about the learner's knowledge.

Example
A learner saying I look forward seeing you' because they don't know that we use to' in the structure is
making an error, but if the learner says this because they are tired and not concentrating it may just be a slip.

In the classroom
There are many ways to give feedback on learner mistakes. Techniques for spoken mistakes include
recording learners for delayed correction, and using gestures and echoing for immediate correction. Written
mistakes can be addressed using correction symbols, group editing and models.

Mixed ability

Mixed ability as used in ELT usually refers to the differences that exist in a group in terms of different levels
of language proficiency. This might be a result of simply the amount of time they have spent learning, their
different language learning abilities or learning style preferences. Almost all groups are mixed ability.

83
Example
A teacher has a large intermediate group of mixed ability teenage learners - some learners are actually pre-
intermediate, a minority are intermediate, and a small number should be in an upper-intermediate level.

In the classroom
Teachers need to have a range of strategies for managing mixed ability classes. Extension tasks for fast
finishers, differing levels of difficulty on tasks that work towards common aims, and putting learners of
different levels together for some activities, and apart for others are all possible strategies.

Modal verbs

Modal verbs are a small group of verbs which convey the speaker's opinion about or attitude towards what is
being expressed. Modal verbs include could', should', might' and may'.

Example
The modal verb must' can express a speaker's sense of obligation - I really must finish that project' - and
how probable a speaker thinks something is - You must be feeling awful'.

In the classroom
Modal verbs are problematic for learners for various reasons. They can have various uses and irregular
negative and past forms. For example, the past of must' depends on its function and can be either had to' or
must have'. Exploring examples of the use of modal verbs from authentic texts will help learners build their
confidence in using them.

Model

A model is an example of the target language a teacher shows learners to help them notice language patterns,
or to encourage them to imitate. This could be a sentence, a model of an intonation pattern, or an entire text,
such as an example of a writing genre.

Example
Learners are looking at different uses of the present perfect continuous. The teacher writes two models on
the board, 'I've been waiting for you for ages', and 'What have you been doing? You look awful'.

In the classroom
Clear, accurate, contextualised models are an important part of language presentations as they show learners
correct form and provide an example of use in context.

Monitor

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To monitor is to watch and listen to learners while they are doing an activity but not to lead them in the
activity. Teachers monitor to find out what problems the learners are having, and to identify the type of
errors learners make as they produce language.

Example
The class break into pairs to practise pronunciation of contracted forms in a short dialogue. The teacher
walks around the class monitoring for difficulties and corrects where necessary, then talks to the whole class
about common mistakes.

In the classroom
Monitoring is an important classroom technique and works best when it is directed at lesson aims. Teachers
can take time to explain to learners why they are doing it, and negotiate when they will give feedback on
problems.

Monolingual

Students in a monolingual class speak the same first language, and will share most aspects of a culture.
Monolingual classes can be compared to multilingual ones, where there are a variety of first languages.

Example
Monolingual classes are typically found in schools in the learners' own country.

In the classroom
In a monolingual class there may be more use of L1, which can create problems but can be a useful tool, e.g.
translation can be used when necessary. There is also a shared culture, which a teacher can exploit. The
learners may have similar learning strategies, and similar problems learning the target language.

Morpheme

A morpheme is the smallest single unit of language that has meaning.

Example
The word 'uneconomical' has three morphemes, 'un-', 'economy' and '-al'. 'un-' is a negative and a bound
morpheme (appearing only with other morphemes), 'economy' is a free morpheme, and '-al' is a bound
morpheme which forms an adjective.

In the classroom
The most common bound morphemes are prefixes and suffixes. They are frequently taught by looking at
word families based on the same free morpheme.

Multi-word verbs (MWV)

Multi-word verbs, or MWVs, are verbs made up of two or more words. These words are a verb plus a
preposition or particle. They are often known as phrasal verbs.

85
Example
Get on' and turn off' are multi-word verbs.

In the classroom
Recording MWVs correctly can help learners understand and use them. Verbs can be grouped together
according to the particle, e.g. verbs with up', according to meaning, e.g. verbs about feelings, or according
to the main verb, e.g. verbs beginning with turn'. However verbs are grouped, it is useful to encourage
learners to include an example of the verb in use.

Multilingual

A multilingual class is a class where the learners speak a variety of first languages. Multilingual classes can
be compared to monolingual ones, where all the learners speak the same first language.

Example
Multilingual classes are typically found where learners have travelled from other countries to learn a
language, e.g. summer schools.

In the classroom
In a multilingual class there can be much more use of the target language, because it will be the only
common language between the learners, who will use it for their normal interactions both in and out of class.
Learner behaviour and cultures can be very different, which may create problems but can be used as a focus
of comparison and discussion.

Multiple choice

Multiple choice items are questions that require learners to choose the best response from a group of
answers.

Example
Complete the sentence with the best answer:
My car broke ____
- down
- away
- off
- up

In the classroom
One way to make multiple choice items more productive is to prepare the question so that learners have to
choose the best answer rather than the only correct one. This is a way to include issues such as collocation,
connotation and formality.
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Multiple Intelligence

Multiple Intelligence Theory says that there are at least eight different kinds of intelligence, and that human
beings possess all of them to different degrees. Learners' profiles of intelligences will affect their preferences
when learning.

Example
Learners with a predominantly verbal-linguistic intelligence tend to have large vocabularies and be good at
languages, whilst those with high body-kinaesthetic intelligence may learn best by doing things physically.

In the classroom
Multiple Intelligence Theory is one of many models of intelligence and learning style. For many teachers the
most important implication of these models is that they need to use a wide range of resources and techniques
with learners.

Musical intelligence

Musical intelligence is one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple intelligence theory.
People with strong musical intelligence are more sensitive to music and often have clear musical ability.

For example
A student with strong musical intelligence may prefer to study with music playing in the background.

In the classroom
It is interesting to note that some students like having music on in the classroom and others do not and
actually find it has a negative impact on their ability to learn.

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