KISII UNIVERSITY

NAME: MARITIM GEOFFREY KIPLANGAT

REG. NO: ALP/03406/16

FACULTY: EDUCATION

COUSE TITLE: PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

COURSE CODE: PGDE 701

LECTURER: MR.KIBE

TASK: ASSIGNMENT NO. 1

DATE: 26/04/2016 SIGNATURE:

TASK: ASSIGNMENT

(a) Define an exceptional child

(b)Explain various categories and characteristics of each category Visual impaired, mentally

retarded, physically challenged, and talented children

(c) Discuss intervention measures and educational opportunities that are available for exceptional

children
ACRONYMS
AMMD American Association on Mental Deficiency
TMR Trainable mentally retarded
EMR Educable mentally retarded
IQ intelligent quotient
SPH severely and profoundly handicapped
1(a)Exceptional child/children is an inclusive term that refers to children with learning and or

behavioral Problems .OR children with disabilities or sensory impairment and children who are

intellectually gifted or have a special talent. Exceptional children are defined as those who

require special education and related services if they are to realize their full human potential.

There various categories of exceptional children

1) Disabled People
2) Giftedness
3) Physical Disabilities
4) Visual Impairment
5) mental retardation,
6) speech and language disorders,
7) emotional disturbance/behavioral disorder

(a)Mental retardation refers to significantly sub average general intellectual functioning

resulting in or associated with impairments in adaptive behavior and manifested during

the developmental period. (Grossman, 1983, p. 11)

Characteristics

Most professionals classify retarded individuals according to the severity of their problems. The

most generally accepted approach is to consider retardation as existing on a continuum or scale

of severity. The two most common systems are that of the AAMD and the one used primarily by

educators.
The AAMD System There are three reasons why most professionals agree that the AAMD

system is the most useful:

1. The terms usedmild, moderate, severe, and profound retardationdo not carry the degree of

negative stereotyping of earlier descriptions ("idiot," "feeble minded"). They are adjectives

commonly applied to a vast array of other things or conditions besides retardation.

2. The terms used emphasize the level of functioning of the individual.
3. The use of bands of IQ scoresfor example 5055 as the cutoff between mild
recognizes that IQ scores are not perfect predictors of a person's level of retardation.
As the AAMD manual states: a narrow band at each end of each level was used to indicate that

clinical judgment about all information, including the IQs, and more than one test, the

information about intellectual functioning obtained from other sources, etc., is necessary in

determining level. Thus, someone whose Full Scale Wechsler IQ is 53 might be diagnosed as

either mild or moderate, depending on other factors, such as the relative difference in

Performance and Verbal IQ or results of other tests. (Grossman, 1983, p. 13)

The Educators' System
Anyone who has been around school systems has no doubt heard of classes for
"educable" and "trainable" retarded children. Educable mentally retarded (EMR) individuals are

those with IQs between 75 or 70 (more and more school systems are now using 70 whereas

previously they used 75) and 50. Trainable mentally retarded (TMR) persons have IQs between

50 and 25. Since the passage of PL 94-142, schools have been obligated to serve children with

IQs below 25, and classes for these individuals are commonly referred to as classes for the

severely and profoundly handicapped (SPH). The categories of educable and trainable have

survived over the years among educators because they describe, albeit grossly, the educational

needs of retarded children. In general, EMR persons can be taught some basic academic subjects.

The curriculum for TMR individuals, on the other hand, concentrates more on functional

academic subjects, with emphasis on self-help and vocational skills.

One disadvantage of this system is that some educators have at times taken the categories too

literally. Some children labeled trainable retarded were denied access to learning academic
subject matter within their intellectual reach. Intelligence test scores are not reliable and valid

enough to be used to determine entirely different educational objectives for one child with an IQ

of 51 (classified as educable) and another with an IQ of 49 (classified as trainable).

Interventional measures
(1)age-appropriate curriculum and materials
In the past there was a tendency to baby" even older severely and profoundly retarded persons

because of their intellectual limitations. Authorities now agree that this is not only demeaning,

but also educationally harmful. Using infantile materials works against the goal of fostering as

much independent behavior as possible in severely and profoundly retarded students.

(2)specific objectives
Although all special educators are aware of the value of specific teaching objectives, those who

work with lower-functioning individuals are particularly appreciative of the need to specify as

precisely as possible the objectives of instruction.

(3)functional activities :need to be practical. Learning to dress oneself by
practicing on a doll, for example, is not as effective as practice using one's own clothes.
(4)consistent cue hierarchy
A consistent cue hierarchy using cues or prompts (such as pointing) is necessary to help the

person make correct discriminations. As Bates et al. (1981) state: "When instructing a child to

'pick up the cup,' a teacher may accompany the instructions with a gesture towards the cup. This

gestural cue is an extra stimulus or prompt which facilitates the student's correct response"
(5)regular data collection The more often the teacher evaluates a student's progress, the better

able he or she will be to determine whether the teaching objectives are being met.
(6)periodic iep revision
Because many severely and profoundly retarded individuals have quite variable learning rates, it

is difficult to predict very far in advance how much they can be expected to achieve. Therefore

llates et al. recommend frequent revision of LEP5.

(7)detailed classroom schedule
The teacher needs to maintain a consistent classroom schedule. This structure not only benefits

the students, it also helps the teacher keep track of the myriad activities he or she needs to plan

for each child.

(8)instruction outside the classroom
Because many of the skills being taught to severely and profoundly retarded students are for use

in settings outside the classroom, such( as public transportation or the grocery store, instruction

in such activities has proved more effective when done in the natural setting (Snell, 192). As

Brown and his colleagues have stated:

There are many severely handicapped students in this country who are being taught
Important skills, but only in artificial or simulated environments. Included are those adolescents

who are being taught telephone skills using a telephone that functions only between the

classroom and hallway; those who are being taught to "ride" the cardboard bus in the school

cafeteria; those who are being taught to tell time only on clocks madepaper plates; and those who

are being taught to "grocery shop" for empty boxes in the classroom store. One major

assumption underlying such training, of course, is that if a student is being taught to perform a

functional skill in a simulated environment (e.g., a public school), he! She then will be able to

perform the same skill in a natural environment. Where severely handicapped students are

concerned, however, one can have little confidence in such an inference (Stokes and Baer, 1977).

Unfortunately, we cannot infer that because they perform important skills in simulated

environments, they will perform the same skills in natural environments

(9)integrated therapy. Many severely and profoundly retarded persons have multiple

disabilities, necessitating the services of a variety of professionals, such as speech therapist,

physical therapist, and occupational therapist. The student will benefit most when the goals of all

these professionals are integrated so that each can contribute to the student's overall

development.
(10) small-group instruction: Bates et al. (1981) note that in the past a great deal of the

instruction of severely and profoundly retarded students took place on a one-to-on basis. Some

group instruction, however, may contribute to the student's social development.

(11)Interaction with nonhandicapped individuals
Most authorities agree that it is beneficial for both severely and profoundly retarded individuals

and the no handicapped population to interact in some way. One method some schools are trying

involves having no handicapped students act as tutors or classroom helpers in classes for

severely and profoundly handicapped students.

(11) Family involvement. Because many of the skills being taught to these students are for use

in the home, Bates et al. (1981) recommend that families be involved in some way in the

education of their children. The involvement can range from simply informing parents about the

progress of their children to having them act as classroom aides.

(b)physically challenged is a limitation on persons physical function mobility, dexterity or

stamina other physical disabilities include impairment which limit other facets of daily living

such as respiratory disorders ,blindness ,epilepsy and sleep disorder.

Characteristics

(b) Visual impaired is limitation of one or more functions of the eye. The most common

impairments affect the sharpness or clarity of vision the normal range on what you can see

Characteristics

The most common visual problems are the result of errors of refraction. Myopia

nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), and astigmatism (blurred vision) are all examples

of refraction errors that affect central visual acuity. Although each can be serious enough to cause

significant impairment (Kerby, in his 1958 study, lists myopia and hyperopia as the most

common impairments of partially sighted children), usually glasses or contact lenses can give the

individual vision within normal limits.

INTERVENTIONAL MEASURES
Four major areas require special modifications for the child with little or no sight :(1) Braille, (2)

use of remaining sight, (3) listening skills, and (4) mobility training. The first three pertain

directly to academics, particularly reading; the last refers to skills needed for everyday living.

The most classroom adaptations, of course, are needed for reading

(c)Talented children are those children whose abilities have already been translated into

achievements and who are currently performing at level that places them within the top 10% of

their age peers.

Characteristics of talented students

A variety of definitions of giftedness have been proposed during the past two decades, including

the following:

Exceptional academic achievement

Exceptional creativity

Existence of special talents

Superior achievement beyond peers in any valued line of activity

Inclusion in the top X percent of children according to any criterion of giftedness

INTERVENTIONAL MEASURES

1. Enrichment in the classroom: Provision of a differentiated program of study for gifted pupils

by the classroom teacher within the regular classroom, without assistance from an outside

resource or consultant teacher.

2. Consultant teacher program: Differentiated instruction provided within the regular

classroom by the classroom teacher with the assistance of a specially trained consultant teacher.
3. Resource room/pullout program: Gifted students leave the classroom on a regular basis for

differentiated instruction provided by a specially trained teacher.

4. Community mentor program: Gifted students interact on an individual basis with selected

members of the community for an extended time period on a topic of special interest to the child.

5. Independent study program: Differentiated instruction consists of independent study

projects supervised by a qualified adult.

6. Special class: Gifted students are grouped together and receive instruction from a specially

trained teacher.

7. Special school: Gifted students receive differentiated instruction in a specialized school

established for that purpose. Education of gifted and talented students should have three

characteristics: curriculum designed to accommodate advanced cognitive skills, instructional

strategies consistent with learning styles in particular curriculum areas, and administrative

facilitation of grouping for Instruction. Programs and practices in the education of gifted students

are extremely varied and include special schools, acceleration, special classes, tutoring, and

enrichment during the school year or summer. Administrative plans for modifying the curriculum

include enrichment in the classroom, use of consultant teachers, resource rooms, community

mentors, independent study, special classes, and special schools. Teachers of gifted students

should exhibit characteristics that are desirable for all teachers, but probably must be particularly

intelligent, creative, energetic, enthusiastic, and committed to excellence. Future developments in

the education of gifted students will likely be influenced by telecommunications, the use of

microcomputers in home and classroom, and the pressure for excellence in American schools.

Special considerations for the preschool child include providing stimulation to foster giftedness,

early identification of special abilities, and special provisions, such as acceleration, to make
education appropriate for the child's advanced skills. Acceleration versus enrichment is a central

issue in the education of gifted adolescents and young adults? Programs of acceleration

(especially in mathematics, in which students skip grades or complete college- level work early)

have been evaluated very positively.

The regular classroom teacher has a large responsibility because the majority of gifted children

receive their education alongside their average classmates. It is important, therefore, that teachers

periodically review the characteristics

(d)Physically challenged is defined as a person physical functioning ,mobility ,dexterity or

stamina other physical disabilities include impairments which limit other facets of daily living

such as respiratory disorders ,blindness, epilepsy and sleep disorders

Characteristics

(a) neurological impairments; One of the most common causes of physical disability in

children is damage to or deterioration of the central nervous system. A brain-damaged child may

show a wide variety of behavioral symptoms, including mental retardation, learning problems,

perceptual problems, and lack of coordination, distractibility, emotional disturbance, and speech

and language disorders.

(b)musculoskeletal conditions; Most of the time muscular and skeletal problems involve the

legs, arms, joints, or spine, making it difficult or impossible for the child to walk, stand, sit, or

use his or her hands

(c)Congenital malformations; several of the conditions we have described are always

congenital (spina bifida); others are sometimes congenital and sometimes acquired after birth

(cerebral palsy). Babies can be born with a defect or malformation of any body part or organ

system.
(d) Accidents and other conditions. Falling, burning, poisoning, and mishaps involving

bicycles, motorcycles, and automobiles are some of the ways children and youths acquire

disabilities. Neurological impairments as well as disfigurement or amputation may result from

such accidents; and the physical, psychological, and educational problems range from

insignificant to profound. The problem of childhood accidents can hardly be overrated: More

children die in accidents each year than are killed by all childhood diseases combined

(e) Child abuse and neglect. Children who are beaten, burned, sexually molested, starved, or

otherwise neglected or brutalized by their parents or other older persons.

Interventional measures

It goes almost without saying that knowing the child's medical status is crucial. Many physically

disabled children will need the services of a physical therapist and! Or occupational therapist.

The physical therapist and occupational therapist can give valuable suggestions about helping the

child use his or her physical abilities to the greatest possible extent, continuing therapeutic

management in the classroom, and encouraging independence and good work habits. Teachers

should be particularly concerned about how to handle and position the child so that the risk of

further physical disability is minimized and independent movement and manipulation of

educational materials are most efficiently learned. Specialists in prosthetics and orthotics design

and build artificial limbs, braces, and other devices that help physically disabled individuals

function more conventionally.

By conferring with such specialists, the teacher will get a better grasp of the function and

operation of a child's prosthesis or orthosis and understand what the child can and cannot be

expected to do.
Social workers and psychologists are the professionals with whom most teachers are quite

familiar. Cooperation with them may be particularly important in the case of a physically

disabled child. Work with the child's family and community agencies is often necessary to

prevent lapses in treatment. The child may also be particularly susceptible to psychological

stress, so the school psychologist may need to be consulted to obtain an accurate assessment of

intellectual potential.

Speech/language therapists are often called upon to work with physically disabled children,

especially those with cerebral palsy. The teacher will want advice from the speech/language

therapist on how to maximize learning of speech and language

REFERENCES

Daniel P. Hallahan and James M. Kauffman(1998) exceptional children introduction to special

education fourth edition university of Virginia prentice hall, Englewood Cliffs, New

Jersey 07632