UNISA Reinforced Concrete Design Study Guide

Reinforced
Concrete
Design IV
Prepared by: Greg Parrott
Pr Tech (Eng) M Dip Tech (TN) TMSAICE
INTRODUCTION
This text covers the design of reinforced concrete structures in accordance with SABS
0100-1:2000.
The level of study is National Qualifications Framework (NQF) level eight, and covers the
entire syllabus for the subject Reinforced Concrete Design IV as offered by the
Department of Civil Engineering at the University of South Africa (UNISA) for students
studying towards the Bachelors Degree in Technology in the specialised discipline of
Structural Engineering.
It is assumed that the reader has already passed the subject Reinforced Concrete and
Masonry Design III which is offered as one of the subjects in the National Diploma in
Civil Engineering offered by universities of technology (previously known as technikons)
in South Africa.
MODULE TOPIC
1 Introduction
2 Analysis of indeterminate structures
3 Beams
4 Slabs
5 Stairs
6 Columns
7 Foundations
8 Retaining walls
9 Silos
10 Water-retaining structures
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
1.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5

1.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
1.2.2 Reinforcing steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
1.2.3 Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7
1.2.3.1 Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7
1.2.3.2 Fire resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
1.2.3.3 Practical considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
1.3 LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9

1.3.1 Dead loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9
1.3.1.1 Unit weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9
1.3.2 Live loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10
1.3.2.1 Floor loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10
1.3.2.2 Roof loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11
1.3.3 Loading patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11
1.3.3.1 Uniformly distributed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11
1.3.3.2 Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
1.3.3.3 Triangular and trapezoidal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
1.3.4 Unit conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
1.3.5 Continuity effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
1.4 LIMIT STATES DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14

1.4.1 Limit states approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14
1.4.1.1 Ultimate limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14
1.4.1.2 Serviceability limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.15
1.4.2 Limit state equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.15
1.4.3 Partial factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.15
1.4.3.1 Load factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.16
1.4.3.2 Resistance factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.17
MODULE 2 ANALYSIS OF BEAMS AND FRAMES

2.1 ARRANGEMENT OF LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
2.2 CONTINUOUS BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2

2.2.1 Moment distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2
2.2.1.1 Example 2.1 (moment distribution) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4
2.2.2 Redistribution of moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6
2.2.2.1 Example 2.2 (redistribution) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7
2.2.3 Analysis coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10
2.2.3.1 Example 2.3 (analysis coefficients) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11
i
2.3 RIGID FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13
2.3.1 Simplification into sub-frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13
2.3.1.1 Vertical load only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13
2.3.1.2 Vertical and lateral loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.14
2.3.1.3 Example 2.4 (sub-frame analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15
MODULE 3 BEAMS
3.1 FLEXURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.1.1 Rectangular beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.1.1.1 Example 3.1 (moment of resistance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7
3.1.1.2 Example 3.2 (area of tension reinforcement) . . . . . . . 3.10
3.1.2 Rectangular beams doubly reinforced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11
3.1.2.1 Example 3.3 (area of compression reinforcement) . . . 3.14
3.1.3 Flanged beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.16
3.1.3.1 Effective flange width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.16
3.1.3.2 Flexural strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17
3.1.3.3 Example 3.4 (area of tension reinforcement) . . . . . . . 3.19
3.1.4 Nominal reinforcement and spacing of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20
3.1.4.1 Minimum area of tension reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . 3.21
3.1.4.2 Minimum area of compression reinforcement . . . . . . 3.22
3.1.4.3 Maximum area of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22
3.1.4.4 Additional reinforcement in deep beams . . . . . . . . . . 3.22
3.1.4.5 Minimum reinforcement in flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.23
3.1.4.6 Minimum spacing of all bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.23
3.1.4.7 Maximum spacing of bars in tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.25
3.1.4.8 Choice of reinforcing bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.26
3.1.5 Curtailment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.27
3.1.5.1 Anchorage length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.28
3.1.5.2 Simplified rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.29
3.1.6 Design flowchart for flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.31
3.2 SHEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.33

3.2.1 Sections un-reinforced for shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.33
3.2.2 Sections reinforced for shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.34
3.2.2.1 Stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.35
3.2.2.2 Inclined bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.36
3.2.3 Nominal Reinforcement and spacing of bars . . . . . . . . . . . 3.37
3.2.3.1 Minimum area of stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.37
3.2.3.2 Maximum spacing of stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.37
3.2.3.3 Stirrups for compression reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . 3.37
3.2.4 Other considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.38
3.2.4.1 Concentrated load close to support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.38
3.2.4.2 Practical fixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.38
3.2.4.3 Anchorage of stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.39
3.2.4.4 Curtailment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.39
3.2.4.5 Local bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.39
3.2.5 Design flowchart for shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.40
3.2.6 Example 3.5 (shear reinforcement) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.40
ii
3.3 TORSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.43
3.3.1 Torsional shear stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.43
3.3.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.44
3.3.2.1 Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.44
3.3.2.2 Longitudinal bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.45
3.4 COMBINED SHEAR AND TORSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.45

3.4.1 Example 3.6 (combined shear and torsion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.46
3.5 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.49

3.5.1 Rectangular beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.49
3.5.2 Flanged beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.51
3.5.3 Example 3.7 (deflection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.52
3.6 DESIGN EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.55
MODULE 4 SLABS
4.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1
4.2 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2

4.2.1 One-way spanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
4.2.2 Two-way spanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
4.2.2.1 Simply supported unrestrained slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4
4.2.2.2 Restrained slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
4.2.3 Flat slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6
4.2.3.1 General configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6
4.2.3.2 Division of panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7
4.2.3.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8
4.3 DESIGN FOR FLEXURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11

4.3.1 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11
4.3.2 Nominal reinforcement and spacing of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.3.2.1 Minimum area of tension reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.3.2.2 Minimum spacing of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.3.2.3 Maximum spacing of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.3.3 Placement and curtailment of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.3.3.1 One-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13
4.3.3.2 Two-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13
4.3.3.3 Flat slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.14
4.4 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15

4.4.1 One-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15
4.4.2 Two-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15
4.4.3 Flat slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
4.5 DESIGN FOR SHEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16

4.5.1 Beam shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
4.5.2 Punching shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17
4.5.2.1 Point load on solid slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17
4.5.2.2 Flat slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19
iii
4.6 DESIGN EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19
4.6.1 Simply supported slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19
4.6.2 Restrained slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.24
4.6.3 Flat slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.27
4.7 OTHER SLAB SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.35

4.7.1 Rib and hollow block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.35
4.7.2 Coffer or waffle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.36
4.7.3 Voided construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.37
4.7.4 Permanent formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.37
4.7.5 Ribbed beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.38
MODULE 5 STAIRS
5.1 LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.1.2 Imposed load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.1.3 Dead load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
5.2 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2

5.2.1 Effective span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
5.3 DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3

5.3.1 Longitudinally spanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3
5.3.1.1 Example 5.1 (longitudinally spanning stair) . . . . . . . . . 5.4
5.3.2 Laterally spanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7
MODULE 6 COLUMNS AND ARCHES

6.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1
6.2 BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1
6.3 EFFECTIVE HEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2

6.3.1 General method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2
6.3.2 Rigorous method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3
6.3.3 Nomograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4
6.4 SLENDERNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5

6.4.1 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6
6.4.2 Example 6.1 (slenderness classification) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7
6.5 DESIGN AXIAL LOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8
iv
6.6 DESIGN MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9
6.6.1 Additional Moments in slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9
6.6.2 Uni-axial bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11
6.6.2.1 Braced slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11
6.6.2.2 Unbraced slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.13
6.6.2.3 Short columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.14
6.6.3 Bi-axial bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.14
6.6.4 Example 6.2 (design moment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.15
6.7 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.17

6.7.1 Derivation of design equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.17
6.7.1.1 Full compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.18
6.7.1.2 Partial compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.19
6.7.2 Design charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.20
6.8 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.28

6.8.1 Minimum area of main reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.28
6.8.2 Maximum area of main reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.28
6.8.3 Minimum requirement for links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.28
6.9 EXAMPLE 6.3 (reinforcement) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.29
MODULE 7 FOUNDATIONS
7.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1
7.2 ISOLATED BASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1

7.2.1 Base dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2
7.2.2 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2
7.2.2.1 Layout of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
7.2.3 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
7.2.3.1 Beam shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
7.2.3.2 Punching shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4
7.2.4 Example 7.1 (centric axial load) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4
7.2.5 Example 7.2 (centric axial load and applied moment) . . . . . . 7.8
7.3 COMBINED BASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13

7.3.1 Base dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13
7.3.2 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
7.3.3 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
7.3.4 Example 7.3 (rectangular combined base) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
7.4 STRAPPED BASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.22

7.4.1 Base dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.23
7.4.2 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.23
7.4.3 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.23
7.4.4 Example 7.4 (strapped base) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.24
v
MODULE 8 RETAINING WALLS
8.1 TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1
8.1.1 Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1
8.1.2 Cantilever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1
8.1.3 Counter-fort or buttress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1
8.2 COMPONENTS OF A RETAINING WALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2
8.3 MODES OF FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2

8.3.1 Overturning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2
8.3.2 Sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3
8.3.3 Soil failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3
8.3.4 Fracture of elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3
8.4 SOIL PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4

8.4.1 Angle of internal friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
8.4.2 Soil density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
8.4.3 Sliding friction coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
8.4.4 Maximum ground pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
8.5 APPLIED PRESSURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4

8.5.1 Active soil pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
8.5.2 Passive soil pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5
8.5.3 Surcharge pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5
8.5.4 Water pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5
8.5.5 Resulting pressure distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6
8.6 DESIGN APPROACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.8
8.7 EXAMPLE 8.1 (cantilever retaining wall) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.10
MODULE 9 SILOS
9.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1
9.2 PARAMETERS REQUIRED FOR DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1

9.2.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1
9.2.2 Properties of retained material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1
9.3 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2

9.3.1 Horizontal pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3
9.3.2 Ring tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4
9.3.3 Vertical pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4
9.3.3.1 Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4
9.3.3.2 Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4
9.4 EXAMPLE 9.1 (silo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5
vi
MODULE 10 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES
10.1 LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
10.2 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1

10.2.1 Slabs and floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
10.2.2 Walls of cylindrical tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
10.2.3 Walls of rectangular tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
10.3 LIMIT STATE REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2

10.3.1 Ultimate limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2
10.3.2 Serviceability limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2
10.3.2.1 Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2
10.3.2.2 Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2
10.4 CRACK CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3

10.4.1 Direct tension in mature concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3
10.4.2 Direct tension in immature concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4
10.4.2.1 Minimum reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4
10.4.2.2 Calculation of crack spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5
10.4.2.3 Calculation of crack width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5
10.4.3 Flexural tension in mature concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6
10.4.4 Minimum reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10
10.5 DESIGN AND DETAILING OF JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10

10.5.1 Construction joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10
10.5.2 Sliding joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10
10.5.3 Movement joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11
10.5.3.1 Contraction joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11
10.5.3.2 Induced contraction joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.12
10.5.3.3 Expansion joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.12
10.5.3.4 Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.12
10.6 SPECIFICATION OF MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14

10.6.1 Blinding layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.2.1 Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.2.2 Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.3 Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.4 Joining materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.4.1 Joint fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.4.2 Water-stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.15
10.6.4.3 Joint sealing compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.15
10.7 DESIGN EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.16
ANNEXURE A Bending moments in circular tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.20
ANNEXURE B Ring tension in circular tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.24
vii
MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION
This section covers the basic introduction to reinforced concrete design and introduces you
to the symbols, the materials used, loads that the elements will be subjected to, and the
design philosophy adopted.
Reinforced Concrete Design IV G.K. Parrott Module 1 - Introduction
CONTENTS
Page
1.1 SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
1.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5

1.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
1.2.2 Reinforcing steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
1.2.3 Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7
1.2.3.1 Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7
1.2.3.2 Fire resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
1.2.3.3 Practical considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
1.3 LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9

1.3.1 Dead loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9
1.3.1.1 Unit weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9
1.3.2 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10
1.3.2.1 Floor loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10
1.3.2.2 Roof loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11
1.3.3 Loading patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11
1.3.3.1 Uniformly distributed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11
1.3.3.2 Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
1.3.3.3 Triangular and trapezoidal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
1.3.4 Unit conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
1.3.5 Continuity effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
1.4 LIMIT STATES DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14

1.4.1 Limit states approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14
1.4.1.1 Ultimate limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14
1.4.1.2 Serviceability limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.15
1.4.2 Limit state equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.15
1.4.3 Partial factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.15
1.4.3.1 Load factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.16
1.4.3.2 Resistance factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.17
1.1 SYMBOLS
The following list gives the symbols which are commonly used in reinforced concrete design
in South Africa and in the notes that follow.
area of tension reinforcem ent in beam s and slabs mm
area of com pression reinforcem ent in beam s and slabs mm
area of longitudinal reinforcem ent in colum ns mm
area of bent-up bars for shear reinforcem ent mm
induced deflection in slender colum ns mm
distance m easured from the face of support (for shear enhancem ent) mm
sm aller dim ension of rectangular foundation mm

width of rectangular beam mm
sm aller dim ension of rectangular colum n mm
effective width of flange in beam s mm
width of section at the level of tension reinforcem ent mm
web width of flanged beam mm
com pression force (used for derivation of equations for flexure) kN

nom inal dead load kN, kN/m , kN/m
distance from com pression face to tension reinforcem ent mm

distance from com pression face to com pression reinforcem ent mm
average distance from com pression face to tension reinforcem ent mm
Young's m odulus N/m m

eccentricity of resultant force mm
m inim um eccentricity of axial load on colum ns mm
horizontal force on retaining walls kN

ultim ate anchorage bond stress for reinforcem ent in concrete N/m m
characteristic com pressive strength of concrete N/m m
service stress in tension reinforcem ent N/m m
stress in reinforcem ent in the m ore highly com pressed face of a colum n N/m m
stress in reinforcem ent in the less highly com pressed face of a colum n N/m m
characteristic tensile strength of reinforcem ent N/m m
design stress in com pression reinforcem ent N/m m
characteristic tensile strength of shear reinforcem ent N/m m
overall depth of beam mm

larger dim ension of rectangular colum n mm
appropriate depth of backfill behind a retaining wall mm
depth of soil offering passive resistance to sliding of a retaining wall mm
effective diam eter of colum n head for flat slabs mm
thickness of beam flange mm
1.1
second m om ent of area (m om ent of inertia) mm4

bending stress ratio
factor to reduce the additional m om ent in slender colum ns
lim it to bending stress ratio, above which com pression reinforcem ent is required
stiffness of m em ber
active soil pressure coefficient
passive soil pressure coefficient
larger dim ension of rectangular foundation mm

length of retaining wall base mm
nom inal live load kN, kN/m , kN/m
distance between points of zero m om ent in continuous beam s mm
effective span of beam mm

width of stair landing mm
effective colum n height mm
average panel dim ension of flat slab mm
clear colum n height mm
sm aller effective span of two-way spanning slab mm
larger effective span of two-way spanning slab mm
span of flat slab panel in the direction under consideration mm
span of flat slab panel perpendicular to the direction under consideration mm
ultim ate bending m om ent kNm

additional m om ent in slender colum ns kNm
initial m om ent near m id-height of colum n kNm
ultim ate m om ent on short span of two-way spanning slab kNm
ultim ate m om ent on long span of two-way spanning slab kNm
ultim ate m om ent of resistance kNm
sm aller end m om ent on colum n (taken as negative for double curvature) kNm
larger end m om ent on colum n kNm
ultim ate axial colum n load kN

design load on two-way spanning slabs kN/m
factor used to determ ine the active soil pressure coefficient
soil pressure kN/m
perm issible soil-bearing pressure kN/m
m axim um resulting soil pressure below retaining walls kN/m
m inim um resulting soil pressure below retaining walls kN/m
nom inal im posed load kN, kN/m , kN/m
non-dom inant im posed load kN, kN/m , kN/m
dom inant im posed load kN, kN/m , kN/m
resultant force on retaining wall base kN

support reaction kN
nom inal resistance of elem ent (lim it state equation) varies
prefix for m ild steel reinforcem ent
1.2
spacing of reinforcing bars mm
spacing of shear link reinforcem ent mm
tension force (used for derivation of equations for flexure) kN

total ultim ate torsion m om ent kNm
partial ultim ate torsion m om ent on rectangular segm ent kNm
effective perim eter for punching shear mm
ultim ate shear force kN
shear resistance of a single system of bent-up bars kN
effective punching shear force kN
full ultim ate shear force from flat slab panel kN
ultim ate shear stress N/m m

shear resistance of section unreinforced for shear N/m m
lim iting ultim ate shear stress N/m m
torsional shear stress N/m m
torsional resistance of section unreinforced for torsion N/m m
lim iting ultim ate stress to the sum of shear and torsional stresses N/m m
vertical force on retaining walls kN

self-weight of a foundation kN
nom inal wind load kN, kN/m , kN/m
depth of concrete section in com pression mm

sm aller centre-to-centre dim ension of a link mm
prefix for high-tensile reinforcem ent

larger centre-to-centre dim ension of a link mm
lever-arm used to calculate internal m om ent of resistance mm

inclination of bent-up bars for shear degrees
ratio of sum of colum n stiffness to sum of in-plane beam stiffness
coefficient for bending m om ent in short span of unrestrained slabs
coefficient for bending m om ent in long short span of unrestrained slabs
effective length factor for colum ns

inclination of 'com pression strut' between bent-up bars for shear degrees
factor used to calculate the induced deflection in slender colum ns
ratio of redistributed m om ent to the elastic m om ent

coefficient for design m om ent in colum ns subjected to bi-axial bending
coefficient for bending m om ent in short span of restrained slabs
coefficient for bending m om ent in long short span of restrained slabs
ratio of longer to shorter dim ension of a rectangular foundation
unit weight of m aterial kN/m 3

partial load factor for lim it state design
partial m aterial factor for lim it state design
partial load factor for dead load at the serviceability lim it state
partial load factor for live load at the serviceability lim it state
1.3
partial load factor for dead load at the ultim ate lim it state
partial load factor for live load at the ultim ate lim it state
deflection mm
deflection mm
m axim um strain in concrete in com pression (0.0035)
strain in com pression reinforcem ent
angle of internal friction in soil (angle of repose) degrees

coefficient of friction
m axim um ultim ate com pressive stress in concrete N/m m
slope of backfill behind a retaining wall degrees

resistance factor (lim it state equation)
load com bination factor (lim it state equation)
ultim ate uniform load on beam s kN/m

retaining wall surcharge kN/m
1.4
1.2 MATERIALS
Reinforced concrete is a strong, durable building material that can be formed into almost
any shape.
Use is made of steel and concrete by combining the best features of each.
The table below shows the good and bad properties of each material.
CONCRETE STEEL
Strength in tension POOR GOOD

Strength in compression GOOD GOOD (but buckles if slender)
Strength in shear FAIR GOOD
Durability GOOD POOR
Fire Resistance GOOD POOR
Thus when the materials are combined, the reinforcement provides the tensile strength and
some shear strength while the concrete, strong in compression, protects the steel to give
durability and fire resistance.
Nearly all reinforced concrete structures are designed on the assumption that concrete does
not resist any tensile force.
Reinforcement is designed to carry these tensile forces, which are transferred by the bond
between the interface of the two materials.
Referring to the above figure, we can see that the concrete will resist the compressive force,
and the reinforcement will resist the tensile force.
Cracks will develop in the tension face of the member, but providing that the cracks are
small enough to continue offering protection to the reinforcement and the bond is good,
there will be no reduction in the strength of the member.
1.5
Steel reinforcement may also be required in areas where the compressive strength exceeds
the strength of the concrete. Stirrups are used to prevent the compression reinforcement
from buckling and also to provide the required shear reinforcement. A basic cross-section
of a reinforced concrete rectangular beam is shown below.
1.2.1 CONCRETE
The concrete strength is dependant on the mix proportions of sand, stone, cement and
water.
The strength is assessed by measuring the cube crushing strength fcu at 28 days according
to standard procedures.
Typical concrete strengths :
Mass concrete 15 N/mm (MPa)

General structures 25 N/mm
High loadings 30 N/mm
Prestressed concrete 50 N/mm
1.2.2 REINFORCING STEEL
There are three basic types of reinforcement.
a) Mild steel - Characteristic strength = 250 N/mm

- Usually has a smooth surface. Can be readily bent so is
usually used where small radius bends are required or
where re-bending on site is necessary.
1.6
b) High tensile - Characteristic strength = 450 N/mm

- Usually manufactured with a ribbed surface.
- More economical to use as the price is much the same
as for mild steel.
c) Drawn wire - Characteristic strength = 485 N/mm

- Used in welded fabric and suitable for floors, shells,
walls, etc.
1.2.3 COVER
The shortest distance measured from the surface of the concrete to the nearest reinforcing
bar is known as the cover, which is determined by considering durability, fire resistance and
practical considerations.
The effective depth d is that dimension that will be used to determine the resistance of the
beam, and is given by the distance measured from the centre of area of the tension
reinforcement to the extreme compression fibre.
1.2.3.1 Durability
This is covered by part two of SABS 0100, but generally the following table may be used to
choose suitable nominal cover according to the conditions of exposure.
Exposure Concrete grade

conditions
20 25 30 40 50
Mild 25 25 25 25 25
Moderate -- 40 30 25 20
Severe -- 50 40 40 35
Very severe -- -- -- 60 50
1.7
1.2.3.2 Fire resistance [7]
A reinforced concrete element will undergo a gradual reduction in strength when subjected
to fire. We therefore need to retain the structural strength by resisting the penetration of
flames and heat transmission. Concretes made with siliceous aggregates have a tendency
to spall when exposed to high temperature, but this tendency can be reduced by
incorporating supplementary reinforcement (expanded metal).
The fire resistance of a reinforced concrete beam depends on the amount of protective
cover provided to the main reinforcement. Table 43 in the code gives the minimum average
concrete cover and minimum beam width for a fire resistance measured in hours.
1.2.3.3 Practical considerations [4.11.2.4 & 5]
The nominal cover to all reinforcement should be at least equal to the maximum nominal
size of the aggregate (typical nominal sizes being 19 and 26 mm).
The cover to any particular bar should also be at least

equal to the diameter of that bar, or in the case of bundles
of more than two bars, equal to the diameter of a single bar
of equivalent area.
= nominal size of aggregate

= diameter of longitudinal bar
Reference should be made to clause 4.11.2 for further cover requirements.
Note that the link diameter and the longitudinal bar diameter will have to be assumed at the
beginning of our design calculations.
1.8
1.3 LOADS
The two broad categories of loads are: 1) Permanent load Dn

2) Imposed load Qn
Imposed loads will include the following main types:
a) Live Ln
b) Wind Wn
c) Overhead cranes Cn
d) Temperature Tn
e) Earthquake En
The subscript n denotes that the load is nominal (un-factored).
Load calculations are usually the very first step in the actual design procedure for structural
elements, and the importance of determining the load intensities accurately cannot be
emphasised enough.
This book will cover only dead and live loads.
All loading and load calculations will be based on the code of practice for The general
procedures and loadings to be adopted in the design of buildings SABS 0160-1989.
1.3.1 DEAD LOADS
The symbol for nominal dead load (permanent or self-weight load) is:
This nominal self-weight includes the weight of the building itself and all finishes and
materials which may be considered 'permanent'. Note that movable partitions, domestic
appliances, etc. are treated as live loads.
1.3.1.1 Unit weight
Appendix B of SABS 0160 gives the nominal unit mass of a large variety of materials.
A few of the more commonly used material weights are given below:
MATERIAL UNIT WEIGHT (kN/m3)

Structural steel 77
Reinforced concrete 24
Brickwork 20
Asphalt 23
Plaster (cement and sand) 23
Sand (normal MC) 18
SA PINE (up to grade 5) 5
SA PINE (up to grade 10) 7
1.9
1.3.2 LIVE LOADS
The symbol for nominal live load (that produced by people, merchandise, etc.) is:
Live loads are separated into two areas: a) floors
b) roofs
1.3.2.1 Floor Loads
Table 4 of SABS 0160-1989 gives the appropriate loading for different descriptions of floor
loading. It is important to consider the most severe condition of either a uniformly distributed
load or a concentrated load.
A summary of this table is given below for quick reference.

Area over
Minimum uniformly Minimum concentrated
which
distributed imposed load (applied over the
Occupancy class of building or floor zone concentrated
floor load area given adjacent
load is
KN/m2 kN
applied (m)
All rooms in a dwelling unit

1.5 1.5
Private rooms in institutional buildings
Classrooms, lecture theatres

2.0 5.0 0.1 x 0.1
X-ray rooms, operating theatres
Garages and parking areas for vehicles of gross weight less

2.0 10.0
than 25 kN
Offices for general use 2.5

9.0 0.75 x 0.75
Offices with data-processing equipment
3.0
Cafes, restaurants 3.0 5.0
Areas of public assembly with fixed individual seating 4.0 3.0

0.1 x 0.1
Light laboratories
4.0 5.0
Sales and display areas in departmental stores
Areas of public assembly without fixed individual seating 5.0 3.0
Note that loads as high as 7 kN/m2 can be experienced at points of congestion

(passageways, etc.) when people are forced by panic to crowd together.
Load reduction: There is little chance that all floors in a multi-storey building will be fully
loaded over their entire area at any one time. For this reason the code
allows for a reduction in the imposed floor load for calculating the loads
on the primary supporting structural elements (columns, walls and
foundations).
Where the total tributary area of a floor A (considering all levels), used
for the assembly of persons or for storage, manufacturing or garaging
exceeds 80 m, the load on the supporting elements may be multiplied
by the following factor, but with a minimum value of 0.7:
$0.7
1.10
1.3.2.2 Roof loads
The intensity of roof loads depends generally on the accessibility of the roof, and these
loads are primarily maintenance or construction loads. These loads will, however, also cater
for limited accumulations of snow (250 mm), hail (60 mm) and rain (50 mm)
An accessible flat roof should generally be designed for a load of 2 kN/m, but consider the
appropriate loading if the roof has an intended use as a floor.
Where no public access is provided to a roof, allow for the most severe of the following:
a) A concentrated load of 0.9 kN applied over a solitary area of

plan dimension 0.1 m x 0.1 m
b) A uniformly distributed load of
where A is the tributary area.
In the adjacent diagram the shaded area

represents the tributary area for the first
interior rafter of the roof.
The intensity of this load should, however, not

be taken as less than 0.3 kN/m or greater
than 0.5 kN/m.
c) A distributed load corresponding to the expected depth of snow, if it is known that the
depth of snow could exceed 250 mm
1.3.3 LOADING PATTERNS
1.3.3.1 Uniformly distributed
A uniformly distributed load (UDL) is that which is constant over any given length or area of
a structure. The units are kN/m (applied to slab elements) or kN/m (applied to beam
elements).
The UDL applied to a beam is usually indicated by one of the two sketches shown below.
1.11
1.3.3.2 Point
A point load is that applied by some intense load over a small enough area for it to be
considered as acting at a point. The unit is kN.
1.3.3.3 Triangular and trapezoidal
These loads are common to beams supporting a two-way spanning slab. The units will be
kN/m but the intensity of the load will vary along the length of the beam.
The load from the slab is assumed to disperse at 450 from the corners of the slab if the two
edges of the slab meeting at that corner have the same restraint (support) condition. This
results in the beams sharing the load from the slab as shown in the following diagram.
These trapezoidal and triangular loads can become awkward to work with, and for this
reason we shall equate these loads to an equivalent UDL for the purpose of calculating the
bending moment. That is, we will convert these trapezoidal or triangular loads to an
equivalent UDL which will produce approximately the same maximum bending moment.
Note: The use of this equivalent UDL produces a conservatively high value for the
reactions and hence shear forces. The correct shear force should therefore be
calculated using the actual load area.
Trapezoidal load: N/m
Triangular load: kN/m
1.12
where: = equivalent UDL (kN/m)

= load on slab (kN/m)
= length of the longer side of slab
= length of the shorter side of slab
Where the two edges of a slab meeting at a corner

have different restraint conditions, the distribution
of load onto the adjacent beams is as shown:
1.3.4 UNIT CONVERSIONS
The load intensity needs to be converted to the appropriate units (depending on the type
of element being considered) and the following table may prove useful.
Original units Required units Multiply by:
kg kN
kN/m3 kN/m2 (slabs) thickness

effective width perpendicular to the
kN/m2 kN/m (beams)
direction of the span
effective length parallel to the
kN/m kN (columns)
direction of the span
1.3.5 CONTINUITY EFFECTS
The continuity of an element usually renders the element indeterminate to some degree.
Consider the beams shown below where it can be seen how the support reaction at A
varies due to the continuity of the beam at B.
1.13
The third beam shown here is statically indeterminate and requires a special analysis to
solve for the reactions. Coefficients to determine the reactions can be obtained for
continuous beams having equal spans and uniform load, and these will be discussed in the
section on analysis in module 2.
1.4 LIMIT STATES DESIGN
1.4.1 LIMIT STATES APPROACH
A structure, or part of a structure, is considered unfit for use or to have failed when it
exceeds a particular state, called the limit state, beyond which its performance or use is
impaired.
The limit states are classified into two categories:

a) Ultimate
b) Serviceability
1.4.1.1 Ultimate limit state
The ultimate limit states are those concerning safety and they correspond to the maximum
load-carrying capacity.
Typical ultimate limit states are: Overturning or uplift

Fracture of members
Deformations resulting in failure
1.14
1.4.1.2 Serviceability limit state
The serviceability limit states are those which restrict the normal use and occupancy, or
which effect durability.
Typical serviceability limit states are: Excessive deflection

Cracking or spalling
Excessive vibration
1.4.2 LIMIT STATE EQUATION
The basic equation for checking the ultimate limit state is as follows:
where: = nominal resistance of element (moment, shear, etc.)

= partial resistance factor
= partial load factor
= dead load effect
= dominant imposed load effect
= non-dominant imposed load effect
= load combination factor
A load effect is the magnitude of the moment, shear, axial stress, etc. resulting from the
applied load.
1.4.3 PARTIAL FACTORS
It is not possible to precisely define either the loads acting or the resistance of the members.
It therefore becomes necessary to apply a factor to each - an amplifying factor for the
applied loads, and a reducing factor for the members resistance.
A load factor is applied to the nominal loads to allow for the fact that loads higher than
anticipated may exist and also to allow for approximations made in the analysis of the load
effects.
A resistance factor is applied to the nominal strength of the member to allow for the
strength being less than anticipated because of variability of material properties, dimensions
and workmanship, and uncertainties in modelling the as-built structure.
1.15
Consider the graph shown:
The first curve on the left represents the amplified load effect with the frequency of
occurrence plotted against the magnitude. The far right end of this curve will therefore
indicate cases where the actual load effect exceeds the amplified load effect.
The second curve represents the factored resistance with the frequency of occurrence
plotted against the magnitude. The far left end of this curve will therefore indicate cases
where the actual strength of a member is for some reason less than the calculated factored
resistance.
Thus the shaded area where the two curves overlap will indicate the rare case where the
amplified applied load effect exceeds the members factored resistance and failure could
occur.
1.4.3.1 Load factors
The factor that is applied to the nominal load varies according to the nature of the load
and consideration of the other loads acting simultaneously. It is thus possible to adjust the
factor according to the precision with which the load can be predicted.
Load combination factors
The total imposed load may consist of many components such as floor or roof loads, wind,
snow, temperature, etc.
It is highly unlikely that all the components of imposed load would be applied simultaneously
at their maximum values. Consider the extreme case where a maximum high temperature
load would not apply simultaneously with snow loading. Nor would the maximum roof load
apply simultaneously with maximum wind intensity.
The approach to overcome this 'over-conservative' (and sometimes impossible) combination

of loading is to consider the dominant imposed loads alone, and then to reduce all other
imposed loads (non-dominant) by a combination factor .
1.16
The partial load factors and load combination factors are given in Table 2 of SABS 0160-
1991, an extract from which is shown below.
Partial load factor Load

Type of load combination
Ultimate Serviceability
factor
limit state limit state
Permanent
In isolation 1.5 1.1 -

In combination with imposed loads 1.2 1.1 1.0
When considering uplift or overturning 0.9 1.0 1.0
Imposed
Garages, filing or storage floor areas 1.6 1.0 0.6

All other floor areas 1.6 1.0 0.3
Accessible roof 1.6 1.0 0.3
Inaccessible roof 1.6 1.0 0
Wind 1.3 0.6 0
Fluids 1.3 1.0 1.0
1.4.3.2 Resistance factors
For reinforced concrete elements designed in accordance with SABS 0100-1 1992, the
resistance factor cannot simply be applied since we are dealing with a combination of two
different materials, viz. concrete and steel reinforcement.
The strength/resistance of each material is therefore divided by a partial material factor

relating to each particular material, which takes account of the following:
- Differences between actual and laboratory values of strength
- Local weakness
- Inaccuracies in the assessment of the resistance of the section
- The importance of the limit state being considered
Values for ultimate limit state [3.3.3.2]
Steel reinforcement = 1.15

Concrete (flexure and axial load) = 1.5
Concrete (shear and bond) = 1.4
Values for serviceability limit state [3.3.4.2]
Steel reinforcement = 1.0

Concrete = 1.0
1.17
MODULE 2
ANALYSIS OF
BEAMS AND FRAMES
The analysis of a structure produces the load effects of bending, shear, torsion, axial
tension, axial compression and deflection which the structure is to be designed to resist.
It is therefore a critical component of the overall design process of ensuring a safe and
serviceable structure.
R einforced C oncrete D esign IV G .K. Parrott Module 2 - Analysis of beams and fram es
CONTENTS
Page
2.1 ARRANGEMENT OF LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
2.2 CONTINUOUS BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2

2.2.1 Moment distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2
2.2.1.1 Example 2.1 (moment distribution) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4
2.2.2 Redistribution of moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6
2.2.2.1 Example 2.2 (redistribution) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7
2.2.3 Analysis coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10
2.2.3.1 Example 2.3 (analysis coefficients) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11
2.3 RIGID FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13

2.3.1 Simplification into sub-frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13
2.3.1.1 Vertical load only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13
2.3.1.2 Vertical and lateral loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.14
2.3.1.3 Example 2.4 (sub-frame analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15
2.1 ARRANGEMENT OF LOADS
The loads on a beam must be arranged (positioned) in such a way as to obtain the worst
load effect.
It will normally be sufficient to consider the following critical arrangements of vertical load:
- All spans loaded with total ultimate load ( )
- All spans loaded with ultimate self-weight ( ) and alternate

spans loaded with ultimate imposed load ( )
No provision need be made for the arrangement of permanent loads as the ultimate load
factor of 1.2 includes allowance for modelling uncertainties.
Consider the continuous beam shown below which is loaded firstly with the total ultimate
load on all spans. The exaggerated deflected shape is indicated by the solid line.
If the live load component is now removed from alternate spans, it can be seen that those
spans still containing the ultimate live load will be permitted to deflect further as indicated
by the broken line.
The effect of this will be an increase in the bending moment on those spans with increased
deflection. To obtain the worst possible positive bending moment on any particular span,
we therefore load that span and alternate spans with the total ultimate load, all other spans
being loaded with the ultimate dead load.
It has been found to be too conservative to load any two adjacent spans to obtain the higher
negative moments and shear forces over internal supports caused by this pattern of
loading.
2.1
2.2 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
A continuous beam is that which is continuous over three or more supports. The ends of the
beam may be either fixed, pinned or free (cantilever).
It is assumed that the supports offer no rotational restraint, i.e. the column ends are
considered as pinned (Note that these columns will need to be analysed according to
clause 4.2.2.4 of SABS 0100.)
There are various suitable methods available to analyse continuous beams, only two of
these being considered in this module (viz. moment distribution and the use of coefficient
tables).
Various computer programs are available which may prove convenient and time-efficient.
The use of such software is certainly encouraged but it is extremely important that the
designer have a thorough understanding of both the input and the output and never simply
accept the answers without confirming their validity.
2.2.1 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION
This is an accurate method for calculating the bending moments and shear forces on a
beam. It is therefore more suitable for accurate curtailment of reinforcement which will yield
a more economical design.
This method is, however, quite time-consuming.
The process of moment distribution will by itself produce all support bending moments and
enable us to calculate the reactions at each support.
The negative moments at the supports resulting from the applied loads will be distributed
according to the stiffness of each span. The span with the greatest stiffness will attract the
greatest load.
The stiffness (k) of a member is given by
where: k = stiffness
E = Young's modulus
I = moment of inertia
L = effective span
2.2
Distribution factors are obtained either side of each support, which are used to calculate
the distribution of moment about that support.
The distribution factor for any member meeting at a joint (or support) is given by the
stiffness of that member divided by the sum of the stiffness of all members meeting at that
joint. For the continuous beams analysed here, we will consider all internal supports as
pinned and hence no moment will be transferred into the support, i.e. stiffness of the
support = 0.
Consider span ABC shown below:
The distribution factor for span AB at B would be given by:
and for span BC at B would be given by:
Both E and I are usually constant throughout the beam and the stiffness k in this case is
then given by:
The distribution factors for certain beam end conditions are given below.
The method of applying moment distribution is as follows:
1) Calculate the distribution factors to either side of each support.
2) Calculate the fixed-end moments for each span independently. Write these
down as negative on the LHS and positive on the RHS (fixed-end moments
for various load types are available in many handbooks). The most common
load type is the UDL, for which the fixed-end moment = TR/12
2.3
3) Calculate the out-of-balance moment at each support and multiply this by the
distribution factor.
(Out-of-balance moment = opp. sign of the algebraic sum of the moments
either side of the support.)
4) Carry half of this value across to the opposite side of the span.
5) Repeat steps 3) to 4) until the distribution becomes small.
6) Sum each column of values to obtain the support moments. (End on a

distribution, not a carry-over, before adding up the columns.)
2.2.1.1 Example 2.1 (moment distribution)
Consider the 3-span beam shown below that is fixed at one end and pinned at the other.
The load case will be considered where the end spans are loaded with 1.2 Dn + 1.6 Ln and
the centre span loaded with 1.2 Dn.
The reactions at any support are then obtained by calculating the sum of the simply
supported reactions and the reaction induced by the difference in moment at either end of
each span.
The reaction induced at the one end of a span is obtained by dividing that end moment, less
the end moment at the other end of the span, by the length of the span.
2.4
There will be an increase in the reaction on the end of a span having the highest negative
end moment on that span.
For example, at support C:
Similarly : = 56.5 kN
= 101.8 kN
= 96.5 kN
From these reactions, the shear force diagram may then be drawn.
Once we have the shear force diagram, the position of the maximum span moments is
easily obtained, (.ie. the position where the shear force is equal to zero).
The values for the positive bending moments at these points are obtained by taking
moments to one side of that point or by simply using the area of shear force diagram
method.
2.5
By taking moments:
By using the area of shear force:
It will now be necessary to repeat the above process for all other load combinations.
The results obtained from all load combinations are combined to produce a shear force and
bending moment envelope. The maximum values from this envelope are the values to be
used in our design.
2.2.2 REDISTRIBUTION OF MOMENT
Reinforced concrete beams behave in a manner that shares the elastic-plastic behaviour
of the steel and the limited plastic deformation of the concrete.
Basically, the continuous reinforced concrete beam may be considered elastic until the steel
yields and then plastic until the concrete fails in compression.
The concrete failure limits the plastic behaviour by limiting the rotation of the plastic hinge.
As the bending moments develop in an elastic-plastic member, the beam will behave
elastically until the plastic moment is reached. Further loading causes these hinges to
rotate without changing the moments. The extra moment is then carried by other parts of
the member.
From a design point of view, this condition may be obtained by calculating the elastic BMD
(moment distribution) and then reducing the support moments while increasing the mid-
span moments by a corresponding amount to maintain equilibrium. This operation is known
as redistribution of moments.
NOTE To maintain equilibrium, the magnitude of the reactions is re-

calculated to suit the adjusted negative moment. The
corresponding new values for the positive mid-span moments
are then calculated as before by taking moments about the new
points of zero shear.
2.6
The following restrictions are, however, given by SABS 0100:
a) Equilibrium between internal and external forces must be maintained. (This

is covered by applying the method of redistribution as explained above.)
b) Where the ultimate moment of resistance of a section is reduced, ensure that

the neutral axis depth does not exceed
(The symbols , and will be explained in the next section.)
c) The ultimate moment of resistance of any section must be at least 75% of that
required before redistribution for beams of constant cross-section and 80%
for non-uniform members.
d) Limit the redistribution to 10% for structures exceeding four storeys in height
where the frame provides the stability.
2.2.2.1 Example 2.2 (redistribution)
A reinforced concrete beam is continuous over two spans of 7 m and 9 m respectively, and
subjected to a nominal dead load of 25 kN/m and a nominal live load of 20 kN/m.
Draw the ultimate bending moment envelope considering all required arrangements of load
and then redistribute the maximum ultimate negative moment obtained by 15% and redraw
the final bending moment envelope.
2.7
SABS
Load Case #1
All spans loaded with maximum ultimate load
Note: For a 2-span continuous beam, the method of moment distribution produces
an exact solution after only two distributions.
The shear forces above are determined by firstl calculating the simply
supported reactions, and then adjusting those values by the shear induced
by moment, which is taken as the difference in support moments divided by
the span.
2.8
SABS
Considering the other two required arrangements of load at the ultimate limit state,
the following bending moment envelope is obtained.
The maximum negative bending moment of 519.2 kNm is obtained from load case
#1. This moment is now reduced by 15% and the shear forces are re-calculated to
maintain equilibrium as shown below:
Recalculating the positive bending moments, we get 191.2 kNm on the 7 m span
and 426.5 kNm on the 9 m span, which are both less than the maximum positive
moments obtained in the design envelope considering all three arrangements of
load.
The final bending moment envelope considering 15% redistribution is:
2.9
2.2.3 ANALYSIS COEFFICIENTS
The coefficients given in Table 4 of SABS 0100 may be used to calculate the values for the
maximum moments and shear force on a continuous beam provided that the following
conditions are met.
a) The characteristic imposed load does not exceed the characteristic dead load
by more than 25%
b) The loading is substantially uniformly distributed over at least 3 spans
c) The lengths of the spans do not differ by more than 15%
Do not make any redistribution of the moments obtained from the table.
Table 4 - Ultimate bending moments *) and shear forces

1 2 3
Position Moment Shear
At outer support 0.45 F
Near middle of end span -
At first interior support 0.6 F
At middle of interior spans -
At interior supports 0.55 F
*)
Do not redistribute the moments obtained from the table.
NOTE: is the total ultimate load (1.2 Dn + 1.6 Ln) and L is the
effective span.
Further tables are available which give a range of coefficients more specific than those
obtained from table 4. Reference should be made to the following:
- South African steel construction handbook pp. 5.84 ,5.85 and 5.86
- Steel designers manual (Constrado, fourth edition) pp. 57, 58 and 59
- Reinforced concrete designers handbook (Reynolds and Steedman, tenth
edition), tables 33, 34 and 35
2.10
2.2.3.1 Example 2.3 (analysis coefficients)
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for a continuous beam with three
equal spans of 6 m. The beam carries a dead load of 12 kN/m and a live load of 10 kN/m.
The table below gives the shear force and bending moment coefficients for a 3-span
continuous beam where the loading is uniformly distributed and all spans are equal.
Bending moment and shear force coefficients (uniform load)
LOAD PATTERN @ V M
A +0.400 0.000
B -0.600 +0.500 -0.100
C -0.500 +0.600 -0.100
D -0.400 0.000
A-B - 0.080
B-C - 0.025
C-D - 0.080
A +0.450 0.000
B -0.550 0.000 -0.050
C 0.000 +0.550 -0.050
D -0.450 0.000
A-B - +0.101
B-C - -
C-D - +0.101
A -0.050 0.000
B -0.050 +0.500 -0.050
C -0.500 +0.050 -0.050
D +0.050 0.000
A-B - -
B-C - +0.075
C-D - -
The coefficients for the shear force V are in terms of , and the coefficients for the
moments M are in terms of , where is the UDL in kN/m on that span of length .
2.11
2.12
2.3 RIGID FRAMES
2.3.1 SIMPLIFICATION INTO SUB-FRAMES
2.3.1.1 Vertical load only
Consider the following structural frame:
The structure may be divided into a series of sub-frames, each consisting of the beams at
one level together with the columns above and below. The columns may be assumed to be
fixed at their remote ends unless a pinned end is more appropriate (as in the case of a
column pinned to a pad foundation).
If the second floor beam were to be analysed using this assumption, then the simplified
structure would be as shown below:
2.13
Alternatively, the structure may be divided into a series of sub-frames, each consisting of
a single beam span together with the columns and beams at each end. Both the column and
beam remote ends may be assumed to be fixed unless a pinned end is more appropriate.
Note that if the beams on either side have been assumed to have fixed ends, then only half
of their actual stiffness should be taken.
If the second floor beam were to be analysed using this assumption, then the simplified
structure would be as shown below:
Note that in both of these cases, the arrangements of load as discussed in 1.1 should be
considered.
2.3.1.2 Vertical and lateral loads
Lateral loads need to be considered where the frame provides the lateral stability to the
structure as a whole (i.e. the structure is not braced by shear walls or other bracing
systems).
The complete frame needs to be analysed using only the design wind load (self-weight and
live load ignored).
The moments obtained from this analysis are then added to those obtained using the
simplified sub-frames.
2.14
2.3.1.3 Example 2.4 (sub-frame analysis)
Draw the bending moment diagram for the sub-frame below.
The moment of inertia of the beam may be taken as 6.144 x109 mm4.
Internal columns are 350 x 350 and external columns are 450 x 350.
Consider an ultimate load of 75.85 kN/m on both spans.
SABS
(given)
2.15
SABS
Moment distribution:
Beam reactions:
2.16
SABS
Bending moment diagram
2.17
MODULE 3
BEAMS
Beams are the structural elements which generally support the slabs and transfer the load
to the columns. Beams are designed for flexure (bending), shear, torsion and deflection.
R einforced C oncrete D esign IV G .K . P arrott M odule 3 - B eam s
CONTENTS
Page
3.1 FLEXURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1

3.1.1 Rectangular beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.1.1.1 Example 3.1 (moment of resistance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7
3.1.1.2 Example 3.2 (area of tension reinforcement) . . . . . . . . . 3.10
3.1.2 Rectangular beams doubly reinforced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11
3.1.2.1 Example 3.3 (area of compression reinforcement) . . . . 3.14
3.1.3 Flanged beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.16
3.1.3.1 Effective flange width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.16
3.1.3.2 Flexural strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17
3.1.3.3 Example 3.4 (area of tension reinforcement) . . . . . . . . . 3.19
3.1.4 Nominal reinforcement and spacing of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20
3.1.4.1 Minimum area of tension reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.21
3.1.4.2 Minimum area of compression reinforcement . . . . . . . . 3.22
3.1.4.3 Maximum area of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22
3.1.4.4 Additional reinforcement in deep beams . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22
3.1.4.5 Minimum reinforcement in flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.23
3.1.4.6 Minimum spacing of all bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.23
3.1.4.7 Maximum spacing of bars in tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.25
3.1.4.8 Choice of reinforcing bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.26
3.1.5 Curtailment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.27
3.1.5.1 Anchorage length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.28
3.1.5.2 Simplified rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.29
3.1.6 Design flowchart for flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.31
3.2 SHEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.33

3.2.1 Sections un-reinforced for shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.33
3.2.2 Sections reinforced for shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.34
3.2.2.1 Stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.35
3.2.2.2 Inclined bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.36
3.2.3 Nominal Reinforcement and spacing of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.37
3.2.3.1 Minimum area of stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.37
3.2.3.2 Maximum spacing of stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.37
3.2.3.3 Stirrups for compression reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.37
3.2.4 Other considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.38
3.2.4.1 Concentrated load close to support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.38
3.2.4.2 Practical fixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.38
3.2.4.3 Anchorage of stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.39
3.2.4.4 Curtailment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.39
3.2.4.5 Local bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.39
3.2.5 Design flowchart for shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.40
3.2.6 Example 3.5 (shear reinforcement) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.40
3.3 TORSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.43

3.3.1 Torsional shear stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.43
3.3.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.44
3.3.2.1 Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.44
3.3.2.2 Longitudinal bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.45
3.4 COMBINED SHEAR AND TORSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.45

3.4.1 Example 3.6 (combined shear and torsion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.46
3.5 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.49

3.5.1 Rectangular beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.49
3.5.2 Flanged beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.51
3.5.3 Example 3.7 (deflection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.52
3.6 DESIGN EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.55

3.1 FLEXURE
This section takes a look at deriving the necessary equations for determining the amount
of reinforcement required to resist bending in concrete elements.
3.1.1 RECTANGULAR BEAMS
It will be assumed in the derivations that follow that the concrete does not resist any tensile
force.
Consider the stress distribution diagram shown below.
The maximum stress in the concrete will be given by the 28-day cube crushing strength
multiplied by a factor of 0.67, which takes into account the difference between the
laboratory and site strength of concrete. This stress must then be divided by the partial
safety factor for materials , which is taken as 1.5 for concrete.
The maximum stress in the concrete is therefore given by:
The depth to the neutral axis is the depth of the actual parabolic compression stress,
which is simplified to the equivalent rectangular stress block having a maximum depth in
compression of .
3.1
The maximum depth to the neutral axis is limited to where the applied maximum
ultimate elastic bending moment is not reduced by more than 10% as a result of
redistribution.
Where the applied maximum ultimate elastic bending moment is reduced by more than 10%
as a result of redistribution, the maximum depth to the neutral axis x is limited further to
where:
Referring to the stress diagram on the previous page:
The compressive force is denoted by ' '.

The tensile force is denoted by ' '
For equilibrium within the cross-section, the forces acting towards the right must be equal
to the forces acting towards the left. Therefore =
The distance between these two forces is the lever arm which will be denoted by ' '.
For a perfectly balanced design, the applied ultimate design moment will be equal to the
internal ultimate moment of resistance of the section .
i.e.
or: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eq. (a)
and: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eq. (b)
; therefore the force is equal to the maximum stress in the

concrete multiplied by the area of concrete in compression.
where: = characteristic strength of concrete

= width of section
= depth to N.A.
3.2
We shall firstly consider the case where the redistribution is limited to 10%, in which
case the maximum depth to the neutral axis is given by .
We then have
or .....(i)
The lever arm (measured from the centroid of the full compression area to the centroid of
the tension reinforcement) is given as:
.....(ii)
Substituting (i) and (ii) into eq. (a)
CONCRETE RESISTANCE (for redistribution not exceeding 10%)
If then the concrete will fail in compression.
In a similar way we can derive an equation for the ultimate moment of resistance
considering the concrete strength where redistribution exceeds 10%
(i.e. by setting ).
CONCRETE RESISTANCE (for redistribution exceeding 10%)
If then the concrete will fail in

compression.
We shall refer to the term as , the limiting value of being .
when redistribution does not exceed 10%

when redistribution exceeds 10%
A more general expression may now be given for the moment of resistance of a rectangular
section considering the strength of the concrete.
3.3
3.4
The force is equal to the maximum stress in the reinforcement multiplied by the area of
steel.
where: = characteristic strength of steel

= area of tension reinforcement
= partial safety factor for materials, which is taken as 1.15
for steel
Substituting into eq. (b) gives:
STEEL RESISTANCE
When a beam section is subjected to an applied ultimate moment less than the maximum
moment of resistance , the force in the concrete required to resist this reduced
moment will also reduce. The depth to the neutral axis reduces such that the stress in the
concrete remains at the full value of . This implies that the lever arm will
increase as the applied moment is reduced as shown below.
We therefore need to obtain an expression to enable us to calculate the magnitude of the

lever arm depending on the magnitude of the applied moment.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eq. (c)
3.5
We have shown that:
Substituting eq. (c) into this expression above gives:
Now substituting this expression for into eq. (a) gives:
or rewriting: (LEVER ARM EQUATION)
Note: Do not take the value of as exceeding 0.95.
We now have the necessary equations to enable us to calculate the ultimate moment of
resistance of a singly reinforced rectangular concrete beam for a given cross-section and
area of reinforcement.
3.6
3.1.1.1 Example 3.1 (moment of resistance)
Calculate the ultimate moment of resistance of the beam section shown below if
redistribution of the maximum moments will be limited to 10%.
= 450 N/mm
= 25 MPa
SABS
4.3.3.4
The moment of resistance is therefore 82.23 kNm.
3.7
The equation for the ultimate moment of resistance of a concrete section, considering the
strength of the reinforcement ( ), is that which will be used to calculate
the required area of reinforcement in the beam by setting . This equation is
therefore best written in the form:
In attempting to solve for the lever arm Z from the lever arm equation we will see that it
contains the term , but to solve for we need the value of . To remove the term
from the lever arm equation we can substitute the above equation into the lever-arm
equation as follows:
Multiplying through by Z we get:
therefore
Solving the quadratic equation produces:
which can be simplified to that shown below.
Note: Do not take the value of as exceeding 0.95.
This equation may be given in the form of a graph known as the LEVER ARM CURVE
shown on the following page.
3.8
3.9
We now have the necessary equations to enable us to calculate the area of tension
reinforcement required to resist a given applied ultimate moment to a rectangular section
using the lever arm curve and the equation for steel resistance.
It is important to note that we must always ensure that the equation giving the moment of
resistance with respect to the concrete strength is greater than that for the steel strength
(i.e. the section must be under-reinforced) to ensure that a failure (say to an excessive
overload) will result from the gradual yielding of the reinforcement rather than as a sudden
compression failure in the concrete.
3.1.1.2 Example 3.2 (area of tension reinforcement)
Calculate the area of reinforcement required to resist an applied ultimate bending moment
of 200 kNm to a 750 X 300 beam.
Given: = 450 N/mm

= 30 N/mm
= 675 mm
SABS
4.3.3.4
LA curve
4.3.3.4
3.10
3.1.2 RECTANGULAR BEAMS DOUBLY REINFORCED [4.3.3.4]
We have shown that if , the applied force in the concrete will exceed the maximum
permissible and the concrete will fail in compression.
Reinforcement may, however, be placed in the compression zone to resist the resulting
additional compression force.
In deriving the formulae for compression reinforcement, the concrete is assumed to resist
its maximum possible compressive force. Hence the moment of resistance of the concrete
alone will be that given by:
for redistribution # 10%
for redistribution > 10%
Both of these equations can be expressed as .
The required increase in resistance moment would be the internal moment given by the
force in the compression reinforcement multiplied by the lever arm to the tension
reinforcement .
The increase in resistance moment due to the compression reinforcement alone will be:
Adding this to the equation for the maximum moment of resistance due to the concrete
alone, we get an equation to calculate the maximum total moment of resistance of a
concrete beam reinforced with compression steel.
3.11
Changing the subject of this formula we can show that:
Now:
Substituting this into the above equation for gives:
or:
where:
when redistribution does not exceed 10%
when redistribution exceeds 10%
Figure 2 in the code shows that the maximum compressive stress .
It therefore follows that: for high tensile steel

for mild steel
Note: This maximum compressive stress will only be able to develop if sufficient strain
occurs at the level of the compression reinforcement.
3.12
Figure 1 in SABS 0100 shows that the maximum strain in the concrete in compression is
0.0035.
Consider the strain diagram shown below:
but not exceeding 327.3 N/mm for HT reinf.

or 196.1 N/mm for MS reinf.
We now need to derive an equation to calculate the required area of tension reinforcement
to balance the section by maintaining equilibrium of the internal forces.
Tension force in reinforcement =
Compression force in concrete =
Compression force in reinforcement =
3.13
Balancing these three forces we get:
or re-writing:
where:
We now have the necessary equations for the design of a rectangular reinforced concrete
beam in bending when it requires compression reinforcement.
3.1.2.1 Example 3.3 (area of compression reinforcement)
Calculate the reinforcement required for an 8.6 m long 600 X 300 R.C. beam simply
supported on supports that are 300 mm wide and have a clear distance of 8 m between
them.
The beam carries its self-weight plus a live load of 30 kN/m. The exposure conditions may
be considered as mild.
= 450 MPa
= 25 N/mm
SABS
4.3.2.1.2
3.14
SABS
3.3.1.1
4.3.3.4
4.3.3.4.1
3.15
3.1.3 FLANGED BEAMS
When a concrete beam is cast

integral with a concrete slab,a
portion of the slab (beam flange)
may be used to assist in
resisting the compressive force
providing the applied bending
moment results in the flange
being in compression - i.e. a
positive moment for the flange
on the top of the beam.
3.1.3.1 Effective flange width
The width of the flange which can be used to assist with the resistance of the compressive
force must be limited to allow for full transferral of the compressive stress.
The compressive stress may be assumed to be fully effective within a zone which extends
from the edge of the web at the points of contraflexure to a maximum of one-tenth of the
distance between the points of contraflexure (LZ ) to either side of the web midway between
the points of contraflexure as shown below:
Note: No common area of flange may be shared between any two adjacent beams, so the
effective width of the flange is therefore limited to the actual available flange width.
For a 'T' beam - the web width +
For an 'L' beam - the web width +
3.16
For a simply supported beam the distance between the points of contraflexure is obviously
equal to the effective span.
For a continuous span of a beam the distance between the points of contraflexure can be
determined from first principles by setting the appropriate bending moment equation equal
to zero and solving for the unknown distance/s.
For continuous beams with approximately equal spans that support uniform loading the
distances between the points of contraflexure may be taken as 0.7L for interior spans and
as 0.85L for end spans as shown below:
3.1.3.2 Flexural strength
Two cases of compressive stress distribution may occur: firstly when the neutral axis (above
which the concrete is in compression) lies in the flange, and secondly when it lies in the
web, as shown in figures (a) and (b) respectively.
In the first case: The section may be designed as a rectangular beam by substituting
the breadth with the full effective flange width. Most flanged beams
will fall into this category.
In the second case: An exact solution would require special analysis, but if we ignore the
portion of the web in compression the following equations may be
derived, which will give slightly conservative values for the ultimate
moment of resistance.
3.17
Here the full depth of the flange is taken as being in compression and the lever arm will be
given by:
Substituting this into the equation derived earlier for the ultimate moment of resistance for
rectangular beams, viz. , we get:
(STEEL RESISTANCE)
To calculate the maximum moment of resistance for a flanged beam considering the
maximum compressive stress in the concrete, consider the diagram below:
The maximum compressive force
and the lever arm
(CONC. RESISTANCE)
SABS 0100-1:2000 does, however, give the following equation which may be used to
calculate the required area of reinforcement for a flanged beam where the neutral axis falls
below the flange, this equation being subject to three requirements:
a) .
b) The design ultimate moment is less than
( is obtained from table 5 in the code).
c) Not more than 10% of redistribution has been carried
out.
3.18
How would we know whether or not the N.A. falls within the flange ?
1) Calculate the lever arm Z using our lever arm curve as for a rectangular
beam, assuming that the breadth of our beam = the full effective flange width.
2) Calculate the depth to the neutral axis:
3) If : then the N.A. falls in the flange.
It is important to remember that over a support where negative moments arise, the effect
of a top flange can NOT be used since the flange will be in tension, and as we know, the
tensile resistance of the concrete is ignored in our design equations.
3.1.3.3 Example 3.4 (area of tension reinforcement)
Calculate the area of tension reinforcement required to resist a positive ultimate bending
moment of 550 kNm for a 550 X 250 beam which is cast integral with a 170 thick slab.
There are 4 beams spaced at 3 m centres which are continuous over 5 equal spans of 6 m.
Design one of the internal beams only.
Use high tensile reinforcement and grade 25/26 concrete.

Exposure conditions are moderate.
3.19
SABS
4.3.1.5
LA curve
3.1.4 NOMINAL REINFORCEMENT AND SPACING OF BARS
Once the required area of reinforcement has been calculated and we have decided on what
arrangement of bars to try, there are certain checks which must be carried out to comply
with the requirements of the code which are deemed to satisfy 'normal' requirements for the
serviceability limit state of cracking.
Note that for special structures such as water-retaining structures, further serviceability limit
state checks are required to control the crack width.
3.20
3.1.4.1 Minimum area of tension reinforcement [4.11.4]
This check should generally satisfy the serviceability limit state for cracking in most beams
less than 750 mm deep.
For rectangular beams and slabs, the minimum percentage is

expressed in terms of the gross cross-section, i.e. .
For flanged beams the minimum percentage is

expressed in terms of the gross cross-section
excluding the flange, .ie. .
The following table gives the minimum percentages of tension reinforcement in flexural
members (from table 23 in the code).
Definition Minimum percentage

Situation of High
percentage Mild steel
tensile
Rectangular section
(including secondary 0.24 0.13
reinforcement in slabs)
Flanged beams, web in
tension:
1) 0.32 0.18
2) 0.24 0.13
Flanged beams, flange

in tension:
1) T-beam 0.48 0.26
2) L-beam 0.36 0.20
3.21
3.1.4.2 Minimum area of compression reinforcement
Where this reinforcement is required for the ultimate limit state, the following minimum
values shall apply.
Definition Minimum percentage

Situation of High
percentage Mild steel
tensile
Rectangular section 0.2 0.2

in compression 0.4 0.4

in tension 0.2 0.2
3.1.4.3 Maximum area of reinforcement [4.11.5.1]
Ensure that the area of tension or compression reinforcement does not exceed 4% of the
gross cross-sectional area of the concrete. (The beam dimensions will need to be increased
if this requirement is not met.)
3.1.4.4 Additional reinforcement in deep beams [4.11.4.4]
Where the overall depth of a beam exceeds 750 mm, additional reinforcement is required
on the sides of the beam to control cracking. These bars should be positioned inside the
links up the side of the beam at a spacing not exceeding 250 mm, and must extend to a
distance of two-thirds the depth of the beam measured from the tension face.
The diameter of these bars should be at least
where: is the spacing of the bars

b is the width of the beam (or 500 mm, whichever is the smaller)
3.22
3.1.4.5 Minimum reinforcement in flange [4.11.4]
Transverse reinforcement:
Where a beam is cast monolithically with the slab and the slab provides the flange
to the beam, the amount of reinforcement required in the top of the slab, at right
angles to the span of the beam, will be that necessary to resist the negative moment
in the slab that occurs over the beam.
For an isolated 'T' beam, the amount of reinforcement required in the top of the slab,
at right angles to the span of the beam, will be that necessary to resist the negative
moment caused by the flange cantilevering from the beam.
In both of the above cases, we must however also ensure that the amount of
reinforcement provided across the full effective width of the flange, expressed as a
percentage of the longitudinal cross-sectional area of the flange, is at least 0.15%.
Longitudinal reinforcement:
We shall see in the next section that in a solid suspended slab we need to ensure
that the amount of reinforcement provided at right angles to the main reinforcement,
expressed as a percentage of the gross cross-section, is at least 0.13% for high
yield reinforcement or, alternatively, at least 0.24% for mild steel reinforcement. In
either case, ensure that the distance between bars does not exceed five times the
effective depth of the slab.
3.1.4.6 Minimum spacing of all bars [4.11.8.1]
It is essential that the spacing of any reinforcement bars allows for the proper placement
and compaction of the concrete.
Generally, the gap between the bars should be no less than the diameter of the bar for bars
placed individually, and no less than the equivalent diameter of the sum of the area of all
the bars in the group when they are placed in pairs or in bundles of three or four bars.
The following minimum spacings are however also required:
3.23
- Allow a horizontal gap between

individual bars of at least 5 mm greater
than the maximum stone size.
- If more than one layer of individual

bars is used, the bars must be aligned
vertically with a vertical gap between
rows of at least 2/3 of the maximum
stone size. The spacer bars used
should be spaced sufficiently close to
prevent draping of the longitudinal
bars between the spacers.
- For bars placed in pairs, the same

spacing requirements given above
apply.
- For bars placed in bundles of three or

four bars, the gap between the bars
both vertically and horizontally must be
at least 15 mm greater than the
maximum stone size.
- Ensure also that the reinforcement in

the top of a beam allows for a vibrator
needle to be inserted.
3.24
3.1.4.7 Maximum spacing of bars in tension [4.11.8.2.1.4]
Ensure that the clear horizontal distance between adjacent bars or groups, near the tension
face of a beam, depending on the percentage of redistribution, is not greater than the
values given in table 25 of SABS 0100.
Characteristic Clear distance between bars

strength of mm
reinforcement fy
Percentage redistribution to or from section considered
MPa
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 0 +10 +15 +20 +25 +30
250 215 230 245 260 275 300 300 300 300 300 300
450 120 130 135 145 155 170 185 195 205 210 220
485 110 120 125 135 140 155 170 180 190 195 205
Ensure that the clear distance from the corner of a beam to the surface of the nearest
longitudinal bar is not greater than half the values given above.
Alternatively, the maximum clear distance between bars may be given as:
(but not exceeding 300 mm)
where is the design service stress and may be estimated as follows:
where: = self-weight factor for SLS (serviceability)

= imposed load factor for SLS
= self-weight factor for ULS (ultimate)
= imposed load factor for ULS
Where all applied loads are of a similar nature (e.g. all UDL), it is possibly more accurate
to calculate the service stress using the following equation, which allows for varying
proportions of dead and live loads.
The load effect can be taken as the load itself if both dead and live loads are of the same
nature (e.g. uniformly distributed), but must be taken as the bending moment or some other
load effect if the loading units are not consistent.
3.25
3.1.4.8 Choice of reinforcing bars
Considering all of the above requirements, we may now choose a suitable arrangement of
reinforcement bars that will give an area at least equal to that required.
Total area for different diameters and number of bars ( )
BAR DIAMETER
No.
8 10 12 16 20 25 32
1 50 78 113 201 314 491 804
2 101 157 226 402 628 982 1608
3 151 236 339 603 942 1473 2413
4 201 314 452 804 1257 1963 3217
5 251 393 565 1005 1571 2454 4021
6 302 471 679 1206 1885 2945 4825
Mild steel bars are denoted by: R

High tensile bars are denoted by: Y
The maximum available length of any bar is 13 m.
Note that high tensile bars are not available in 8 mm diameter. Larger diameter high tensile
bars (40 and 50 mm diameter) are sometimes available, but are not preferable.
When using a combination of bar sizes to obtain the required area, the diameter of those
bars should not differ by more than two sizes.
Bars should be chosen such that the arrangement is symmetrical about the vertical axis
through the beam.
3.26
Bars may be placed in pairs or in bundles of up to four bars, but the further spacing
requirements given in clause 4.11.8.1 must be considered.
If more than one full layer of reinforcement is required, the layers should be separated by
a spacer bar equal to at least the size of the largest bar in either layer.
3.1.5 CURTAILMENT [4.11.7.1]
Up until this stage, we have only considered the reinforcement required to resist the
maximum bending moment. However, as the bending moment reduces along the span of
a beam, so too will the required area of reinforcement also reduce.
To determine at what point (theoretical cut-off point) on a beam some of the reinforcement
may be curtailed, the following procedure may be adopted:
a) Decide which bars you wish to curtail (ensuring that all other considerations
are still satisfied for the remaining bars).
b) Calculate the moment of resistance of the section considering the remaining

bars only (see the example given on page 3.7).
c) Calculate the theoretical point at which the curtailed bars are no longer
required, i.e. the distance from one of the supports to the point at which the
moment of resistance is equal to the applied moment. Alternatively, if the
bending moment diagram has been plotted to scale, this distance may be
scaled off.
d) Ensure that the curtailed bars are effectively anchored a full effective
anchorage length beyond this point to enable the development of the full
design strength (0.87 fy) of the bars (see 3.1.5.1).
However: If the shear or bending resistance is greater than twice the

shear force or bending moment actually present at a point 12
times the bar diameter or d, whichever is the greater, beyond
the theoretical cut-off point, then the bars may be extended 12
times the bar diameter or d, whichever is the greater, beyond
the theoretical cut-off point.
3.27
e) At the simply supported end of a beam, anchor each remaining tension bar
by one of the following:
- An effective anchorage length equivalent to 12 times the bar diameter

beyond the centre-line of the support; no bend or hook should begin
before the centre of the support.
- An effective anchorage length equivalent to 12 times the bar diameter

plus d/2 from the face of the support; no bend or hook should begin
before d/2 from the face of the support.
3.1.5.1 Anchorage length [4.11.6.2]
To prevent anchorage bond failure, ensure that the tension in any bar at any section due
to ultimate loads will be developed on either side of the section by an appropriate
embedment length or other end anchorage.
To achieve this, ensure that the anchorage bond stress does not exceed the allowable
values given in table 24 of SABS 0100.
Let us consider the required anchorage length for a high tensile bar in tension using 25
MPa concrete:
From table 24, = 2.5 N/mm2
Note that for the top bars in members exceeding 300 mm in depth, the ultimate
anchorage bond stress should be reduced by 30% for deformed bars and by 50% for
plain bars.
3.28
The following table gives the effective anchorage length in terms of the bar diameter for
different grades of concrete, for both high tensile and mild steel bars:
Concrete grade
Force
20 25 30 40
Tension 46 40 37 30
Compression 37 32 29 24
For high tensile bars: The effective anchorage length may be reduced by 6.5 D for
every standard 900 bend within the anchorage zone.
For mild steel bars: The effective anchorage length may be reduced by 4 D for
every standard 900 bend within the anchorage zone.
3.1.5.2 Simplified rules [4.11.7.2]
a) Simply supported beams: Extend at least 50% of the tension reinforcement

provided at mid-span to the supports and give it an
effective anchorage of 12 times the bar diameter beyond
the centre-line of the support. Extend the remaining 50%
to within 0.08 times the effective span from the centre of
the support.
b) Cantilever beams: Extend at least 50% of the tension reinforcement

provided at the support to the end of the cantilever.
Extend the remaining 50% a distance of half the span or
45 times the bar diameter, whichever is the greater, from
the face of the support.
c) Continuous beams: These simplified rules for curtailment are given on the
next page, but it is important to note that they apply only
to continuous beams having approximately equal spans
and uniform loading.
3.29
top reinforcement:
No more than 40% of the tension reinforcement over the supports may
be curtailed at 0.15 L from the face of the support, and a further 40%
may be curtailed at 0.25 L from the face of the support. The remaining
reinforcement is to continue through the spans.
Bottom reinforcement:
No more than 70% of the tension reinforcement may be curtailed at

0.15 L from the centre of interior supports and at 0.1 L from the centre
of exterior supports. The remaining reinforcement is to extend at least
to the centre of interior supports and extend 12 dia. past the centre of
exterior supports.
3.30
3.1.6 DESIGN FLOWCHART FOR FLEXURE
1. Carry out an appropriate analysis of the structure considering all required combinations of load to
obtain the maximum ultimate design bending moment M at all critical points along the length of the
beam.
2. Determine the required cover to reinforcement.
3. Estimate stirrup and longitudinal bars sizes to obtain the effective depth d.
4. Considering the nature of the bending moment at the point under consideration (sagging or hogging),
determine the effective width of concrete in compression b.
5. Decide on a suitable grade of concrete fcu to be used (25 MPa for most general structures, but
consider durability).
6. Calculate the ratio K .
7. Determine the limit K considering any possible reduction in the design moment due to redistribution
(K = 0.156 if redistribution # 10%).
8. If K > K then compression reinforcement is required and proceed to step 12.
9. Determine the lever arm ratio Z/d and the lever arm Z
(remember that Z/d may not exceed 0.95)
10. For flanged beams, confirm that the compression zone falls within the flange depth by
ensuring that .
11. Calculate the required area of tension reinforcement As .
Proceed to step 17.
12. Estimate the size of the compression bars and obtain the depth from the extreme compression fibre
to the centroid of these bars d.
13. Determine the design stress in the compression reinforcement fyc (consideration must be given to
strain incompatibility in slabs and shallow beams).
14. Calculate the required area of compression reinforcement
As .
15. Determine the lever arm Z (remember that Z/d may not exceed 0.95).
16. Calculate the corresponding required area of tension reinforcement
As .
17. Calculate the minimum and maximum allowable areas of steel.
18. Choose an appropriate and practical arrangement of steel and sketch a cross-section to show the
placement of these bars.
3.31
19. Check the minimum and maximum allowable spacing of bars and adjust the arrangement if
necessary.
20. Choose which bars may be curtailed such that all serviceability requirements are still met.
21. Calculate the moment of resistance of the cross-section considering the area and effective depth of
the remaining bars only.
(not exceeding 0.95)
22. Determine the theoretical cut-off points by setting the general bending moment equation equal to the
moment of resistance and solving.
23. Provide a full anchorage of the curtailed bars beyond these points.
24. Provide additional bars in the sides of the web if the overall depth of the beam exceeds 750 mm.
3.32
Reinforced Concrete Design IV G.K. Parrott Module 3 - Beams
3.2 SHEAR
3.2.1 SECTIONS UNREINFORCED FOR SHEAR
Shear forces give rise to diagonal tension in the concrete and bond stresses between the
reinforcement and the concrete.
The shear force in a concrete beam without shear reinforcement is resisted by the following:
1) Uniform shear stresses in

the compression zone.
2) Aggregate interlock along

the shear crack.
3) Dowel action in the bars

where the concrete between
cracks transmits shear force
to the bars.
The actual behaviour of shear forces in a reinforced concrete section is complex and very
difficult to analyse, but results from experimental investigations give reasonable design
procedures.
We know that:
Therefore:
where : = shear stress

= shear force due to ultimate loads
= effective depth
= width of the section which, for a flanged beam, shall be
taken as the average width of web below the flange.
Where a section has a longitudinal hole through it, the area bd in

the above equation must be reduced by that area of the hole.
i.e.
3.33
The ultimate allowable shear stress in beams is the maximum shear stress that the
beam can resist without providing any form of shear reinforcement. The value for is
obtained from experimental investigations and may be determined from the following
equation.
where: is the partial material factor = 1.4 (see cl 3.3.3.2)
is the percentage of properly anchored tension

reinforcement at the point being considered, and should
not be taken as greater than 3%
shall not be taken to exceed 40 MPa
The reader should note that uncertainty exists regarding the value of the constant in the above equation, which
is given in SABS 0100:1 (2000) as 0.75, and as 0.79 by numerous other sources. 0.75 has been adopted in
this text as it gives a more conservative result.
Ensure that in no case, even with shear reinforcement, will the shear stress exceed a
value the lesser of or .
3.2.2 SECTIONS REINFORCED FOR SHEAR
Where the actual ultimate shear stress in a beam exceeds the allowable value given
by the above equation, it will be required to design shear reinforcement.
Shear reinforcement may be in the form of either stirrups alone, or inclined bars used in
conjunction with the stirrups.
The use of inclined bars has become less favourable over the years and is generally only
used in exceptional circumstances where the use of stirrups alone prooves inadequate.
3.34
3.2.2.1 Stirrups [4.3.4.1.3]
Let be the spacing of the links.
The shear crack is assumed to be at 450.
Horizontal length of crack = d (approx.).
= resistance to shear force of the section without shear reinforcement.

= ultimate shear force
The shear force to be taken by the links

= ultimate shear force - shear resistance of section
= -
ie. shear force taken by links =
The number of links crossing the crack =
The strength of the links =
where: is characteristic strength of the links

is the area of the total number of legs to each link
(usually 2 legs per link)
Equating the strength of the links to the shear force to be taken by the links, we get:
or rewriting:
NOTE : may not exceed 450 N/mm in this equation.
3.35
3.2.2.2 Inclined bars [4.3.4.1.4]
Where longitudinal bars are no longer required to resist moment, they can be bent up to
assist as shear reinforcement.
However, bent-up bars alone are not satisfactory as shear reinforcement. Links must also
be provided, and they must resist at least 50% of the ultimate shear force.
Because the beam would already have been designed for bending, the longitudinal
reinforcement available to be used as bent-up bars is predetermined. We therefore
calculate the shear force that the bent up bars can resist, subtract this from the applied
shear force and design links to resist the greater of the remaining shear force, or 50% of the
maximum shear force.
These bent-up bars are assumed to form the tension members of a lattice girder in which
the concrete forms the compression members.
The shear resistance of a single system of bent-up bars with the bars inclined at 45o or
more, may be calculated from the following equation:
where: = area of bent-up bars across shear failure plane

= the angles as shown in the figure above (must be at
least 45o)
= horizontal spacing of bent-up bars
Note that must be at least and not more than .
Note also that if = , the above equation may be simplified to:
3.36
3.2.3.1 Minimum area of stirrups [4.11.4.5.3]
In all beams, except those of minor structural importance, where the maximum shear stress,
calculated in accordance with 4.3.4, is less than half the recommended value, provide
nominal links throughout the span such that:
where : = the cross-sectional area of the legs of the link.

= the breadth of the beam at the level of the tension
reinforcement.
= the spacing of the link.
3.2.3.2 Maximum spacing of stirrups [4.11.4.5.4]
To ensure that any potential shear crack will be intercepted by at least one link, the spacing
of links must not exceed 0.75 times the effective depth of the beam, and the lateral spacing
of the individual legs of the links must not exceed this figure. Links must enclose all tension
reinforcement.
3.2.3.3 Stirrups for compression reinforcement [4.11.4.5.1]
When in a beam, part or all of the main reinforcement is required to resist compression,
provide stirrups of at least one-quarter of the size of the largest compression bar at a
maximum spacing of twelve times the size of the smallest compression bar. Ensure that all
other bars within a compression zone are within 150 mm of a restrained bar.
Arrange links so that every corner and alternate bar or group in an outer layer of
reinforcement is supported by a link passing round the bar and having an inclined angle of
not more than 135o.
3.37
3.2.4 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
3.2.4.1 Concentrated load close to support [4.3.4.2]
The ultimate allowable shear stress in

beams may be increased if a
concentrated load is less than twice the
effective depth away from the face of
the support. This enhancement is
particularly useful for the design of
corbels (see 6.2.4.2).
Consider the adjacent diagram where it

can be seen that any load applied to the
left of section x-x will have a reduced
effect in producing a shear failure in the
plane as indicated.
The ultimate allowable shear stress may be increased to provided that the shear
stress at the face of the support remains less than the smaller of and
.
3.2.4.2 Practical fixing
Consider the space confinement for positioning the longitudinal reinforcement in the beam.
It is very often practical to use shape code 72 links for shear reinforcement in preference
to the closed link (shape code 60 or 74) to allow for the longitudinal bars to be dropped into
position.
3.38
3.2.4.3 Anchorage of stirrups [4.11.6.4]
A link may be considered fully anchored if it complies with the following:
a) It passes round another bar of at least its own diameter, through an angle of
90o, and continues for a minimum length of eight times its own diameter.
b) It passes round another bar of at least its own diameter, through an angle of
180o, and continues for a minimum length of four times its own diameter.
3.2.4.4 Curtailment
As we curtailed the tension reinforcement where it was no longer required, so too can we
curtail the shear reinforcement in the areas where the shear forces become sufficiently
lower than that used to design the links.
To curtail the links we decide on a suitable increased spacing (or reduced diameter) of the
stirrups, calculate the shear resistance of these stirrups and then calculate from the shear
force diagram at what positions this increased spacing may occur. It is important to
remember that the reduced shear reinforcement must still satisfy the requirements of
nominal area and maximum spacing.
3.2.4.5 Local bond [4.11.6.1 ]
Local bond stresses occur at sections of beams subjected to shear where the force in the
tension bar is changing along its length. If, however, at both sides of any cross-section of
a beam, the force in each bar is permitted to develop as a result of an appropriate
embedment length or end anchorage, local bond stress may be ignored.
3.39
3.2.5 DESIGN FLOWCHART FOR SHEAR
1. Carry out an appropriate analysis of the structure considering all required com binations of load to
obtain the m axim um ultim ate design shear force V at all critical points along the length of the beam .
2. Obtain the area of reinforcem ent A s and effective depth d of the tension steel that has been provided
and fully anchored beyond the point being considered.
3. Calculate the ultim ate shear stress v (where b is the web width).
4. Ensure that this stress does not exceed the absolute ultim ate allowable shear stress which is the lesser
of 4.75 or 0.75 .
5. Calculate the ultim ate allowable shear stress for the section unreinforced for shear:
vc
(the term m ay not be taken as exceeding 3).
6. If v < v c then only nom inal stirrups are required and proceed to step.
7. Calculate the required stirrup area / spacing ratio .
8. Determ ine the m inim um required area / spacing ratio.
9. Note the m axim um allowed stirrup spacing of 0.75d.
10. Choose a suitable stirrup arrangem ent.
3.2.6 EXAMPLE 3.5 (shear reinforcement)
Calculate the shear reinforcement required for a rectangular 600 X 300 RC beam to resist
a maximum ultimate shear force of 267 kN. The beam is simply supported over a single
span and reinforced with 4 Y20 longitudinal bars, 2 of which extend to the supports. The
cover is 25 mm and the concrete is grade 30/26
1) Use HT stirrups only
2) Use a combination of MS stirrups and pairs of Y20 bent-up bars.
3.40
SABS
1) Using HT stirrups only
Assume Y10 stirrups:
4.3.4.1.1
4.11.4.5.3
4.11.4.5.4
Adopt
3.41
S.A.B.S
2) Using MS stirrups with bend-up bars
4.3.4.1.4
4.3.4.1.1
4.11.4.5.3
4.11.4.5.4
Adopt
3.42
3.3 TORSION
Shear reinforcement is usually adequate to control minor torsional cracking under normal
conditions, but when the design of an element relies on the torsional resistance of a beam,
torsional reinforcement will need to be provided where required.
3.3.1 TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESS
The torsional shear stress (N/mm) results from the applied ultimate torsional moment
(kNm) and is calculated from the following equation:
where: and are the smaller and larger dimensions of a rectangular

section respectively.
For flanged beams, the cross-section can be divided into a number of rectangles with each
rectangle being subjected to a partial torsional moment
where:
Divide these rectangles in such way that the widest rectangle is made as long as possible.
The torsional shear stress is then calculated for each rectangle.
3.43
Table 8 in SABS 0100:1 gives the minimum torsional shear stress , which is the
maximum torsional stress that the rectangle section can resist without providing any
additional reinforcement for torsion.
Table 8 - Minimum and ultimate torsional shear stress

Values in m egapascals
1 2 3
Concrete grade Minim um torsional Ultim ate torsional

shear stress v t min shear stress v t u
20 *) 0.27 3.18
25 0.30 3.56
30 0.33 4.00
$40 0.36 4.50 < v t u < 4.75

*)
Grade not recom m ended
NOTES
1. Allowance has been m ade in these figures for a ( m of 1.40.
2. Values of v t u are derived from the equation

but not exceeding 4.75 .
Ensure that in no case will the sum of the shear stress and the torsional shear stress
exceed the ultimate torsional shear stress (also given in table 8).
When the larger dimension of a link (measured centre-to-centre) is less than 550 mm,
ensure that .
3.3.2 REINFORCEMENT
Where the actual ultimate torsional shear stress exceeds the allowable value , it
shall be required to design torsional reinforcement.
Torsional reinforcement is in the form of both links and longitudinal bars and is provided in
addition to that required for bending and shear.
3.3.2.1 Links
Provide stirrups to satisfy the following area / spacing ratio:
3.44
The spacing should not exceed the least of -
= smaller centre-to-centre link dimension.
= larger centre-to-centre link dimension.
The link should be of the closed type (shape code 74).
Note that for thin rectangular sections (such as beam flanges), the maximum spacing of the
links will be very small and it may be more economical to consider the larger rectangle
(beam portion) alone in resisting the torsion.
3.3.2.2 Longitudinal bars
Provide additional longitudinal bars having at least the following total area:
These bars should be distributed evenly around the inside perimeter of the links and should
be spaced at no more than 300 mm. There should be at least one bar in each corner of the
link.
3.4 COMBINED SHEAR AND TORSION
Situation
Design torsion
Provide minimum shear
reinforcement but not less
reinforcement; no torsion
than minimum shear
reinforcement
reinforcement
Design shear reinforcement; Design both shear and
no torsion reinforcement torsion reinforcement
3.45
3.4.1 EXAMPLE 3.6 (combined shear and torsion)
A 450 x 300 beam is 5.5 m long and 'fixed' to the supports at either end. The beam will be
cast monolithically with a cantilever slab150 mm thick which will project 1 100 mm from the
face of the beam as shown below.
The slab is to be designed to carry a live load of 3.5 kN/m.

Grade 25/26 concrete is to be used and exposure conditions are moderate.
Two Y16 bars are required top and bottom for bending.
Calculate suitable reinforcement for shear and torsion.
SABS
Shear
Self-weight
4.2.2.1
4.3.4.1.1
3.46
SABS
4.3.4.1.2
Torsion
Slab self-weight
4.3.5.3
We will let this torsion be resisted by the rectangular portion of beam alone:
T8
Combined shear and torsion
3.47
SABS
4.3.5.3.5
4.11.4.5.3
4.3.5.3.6
4.11.4.5.4
4.3.5.3.5
Adopt
Changing the provided 4 Y16 bars to 4 Y20, the increase in area is 453 mm2.
Further area required .
3.48
3.5 DEFLECTION
If the deflection of any part of a structure is excessive, it becomes noticeable and may
cause damages to finishes such as partitions, windows, etc.
Reasonable limits for deflection are set out in SABS 0100 and for a reinforced concrete
beam may be summarised as follows:
- To prevent the deflection from becoming noticeable, the total final deflection
should not exceed span/250.
- To prevent damage to finishes, the deflection that takes place after the
construction of any finishes should not exceed span/350 or 20 mm.
The deflections calculated must be the long-term deflections, which must include the effects
of temperature, creep and shrinkage.
Deflections may be calculated and compared with the above requirements, but in normal
cases it will be adequate to limit the span to effective depth ratio.
To calculate the actual deflections we may either carry out exact mathematical calculations
or use the deflection equations given in various handbooks, e.g. South African Steel
Construction Handbook (LSD), pgs 5.71 to 5.83
Remember that deflection is a serviceability limit state check and is therefore

calculated using service loads.
The value of Young's modulus to be used in the calculation of the actual deflection may
be obtained from table 1 for different grades of concrete.
It is normal practice to check the basic span to effective depth ratio before commencing with
the complete design to eliminate any obvious deflection failures, and then to do a more
accurate check, or calculate the actual service deflections once the analysis is complete and
all reinforcement has been calculated.
3.5.1 RECTANGULAR BEAMS [4.3.6.2]
Table 10 in SABS 0100 gives the basic allowable span/d ratios for rectangular beams with
a span of less than 10 m.
This table may be used for spans exceeding 10 m but only when it is not necessary to limit
the increase in deflection after the construction of partitions and finishes. Otherwise, in order
to prevent damage to finishes and partitions, the values obtained in table 10 should be
multiplied by 10/span.
The deflection of any cantilever over 10 m in length should be justified by calculation.
3.49
Table 10 - Basic span/effective depth ratios for rectangular beams
Support conditions Ratio
Truly simply
16
supported
Single span with

nominal end 20
restraint
One end
24
continuous
Both ends
28
continuous
Cantilever 7
Multiply these ratios by a factor of 0.85 if poor quality concrete or workmanship is

expected.
Deflection will be influenced by the moment applied to a section as well as the actual stress
occurring in the tension reinforcement (service stress ). For this reason the value obtained
from table 10 should be modified by the factors obtained from table 11, which is derived
from the following equation:
Modification factor for tension steel = #2.0
fs = service stress in reinforcement (see page 3.25), but not exceeding 300 MPa
M = ultimate bending moment
b = effective width of section
d = effective depth of section
3.50
Sagging moments in a beam seldom require compression reinforcement. However, if it is

required then the amount of compression reinforcement provided will also influence the
deflection. Table 12 in SABS 0100 gives the modification factor to take the effect of this
reinforcement into account. The breadth b to be used in this table is the width of the web.
Note: Tables 10 to 12 take into account the effects of normal creep and shrinkage.
3.5.2 FLANGED BEAMS [4.3.6.5]
Because the moment of inertia of a cross section has a direct influence on the amount of
deflection that will take place, the allowable span/d ratio for a rectangular beam must be
reduced for flanged beams to take into account the absence of concrete below the flange.
For a flanged beam, multiply the ratio obtained from tables 10 to 12 by a further factor,
which may be read off the table given below:
Consider the three cross-sections shown below:
(a) rectangular section, therefore no reduction in span/depth ratio
(b) flanged section with high web / flange width ratio, therefore small reduction in
moment of inertia and small reduction in span / depth ratio
(c) flanged section with low web / flange width ratio, therefore large reduction in moment
of inertia and large reduction in span / depth ratio
3.51
3.5.3 EXAMPLE 3.7 (deflection)
The dimensions and reinforcement for a 'T'-beam which is truly simply supported over a
span of 11 m is given below. A dry-wall partition will be fitted to the soffit of the beam.
The cover to all reinforcement is 20 mm and the concrete is grade 25/26
Live load Ln = 12 kN/m

Dead load Dn = 8 kN/m
Check whether the beam satisfies the code requirements for deflection.
In designing the beam for flexure, the following results were obtained:
3.52
SABS
T10
T11
4.3.6.5
We could increase the depth of the beam, but although the beam does not satisfy the
requirements of span/d ratio we could still calculate the expected service deflection
and check this against the allowable limits:
3.53
SABS
T1
3.2.3.2.1.1
3.2.3.2.1.2
This is very close to the expected working deflection therefore can accept!
3.54
3.6 DESIGN EXAMPLE
The drawing below shows the plan of a suspended reinforced concrete floor slab to be
utilised for an office with data processing equipment. The top of the slab will be finished
with a screed 35 mm thick and the soffit will receive plaster 25 mm thick.
Exposure conditions may be taken as mild and no fire rating is required. The slab will be
cast monolithically with the 450 X 300 beams supporting it. All columns are 300 X 300.
Design beam (2) using grade 25/26 concrete. Include all the necessary checks, and
provide a schedule of reinforcement.
3.55
SABS
LOADING
Slab Loading (kN/m2)
SABS 0160
Table 4
Beam loading (kN/m)
Span 4-5
Span 5-6 (slab continuity factor = 1.2)
3.56
SABS
The combinations of load shown above, in accordance with clause 4.3.2.1.2, are
used to determine the ultimate shear force and bending moment envelopes below.
(Note that redistribution of moments has not been carried out in this example.)
3.57
SABS
BENDING - positive moment on span 5-6
4.3.1.5
LA curve
4.3.3.4
4.11.4
4.11.5.1
3.58
SABS
4.11.8.1
T 25
Consider curtailing the centre Y32.
LA equation
Let x be the distance from the RHS of span 5-6 to the theoretical cut-off point.
Considering load case 2:
4.11.6.2
3.59
SABS
DEFLECTION - span 5-6
T 10
4.3.6.3.1
T 11
4.3.6.5
BENDING - positive moment on span 4-5
4.3.1.5
3.60
SABS
LA curve
4.3.3.4
4.11.4
4.11.8.1
BENDING - negative moment at support 5
3.61
SABS
4.3.3.4
Utilise the Y32's provided in the bottom of the beam for compression steel.
Use the two Y32 bars (As = 1 608) and ensure adequate compression anchorage
4.11.5.1
3.62
SABS
Consider curtailing the lower 2 Y25 bars and reducing the central Y32 to a Y20.
LA equation
Let a be the distance from the LHS of span 4-5 to the theoretical cut-off point.
Let b be the distance from the RHS of span 5-6 to the theoretical cut-off point.
3.63
SABS
4.11.6.2
4.3.4 SHEAR - just to right of support 5
3.64
SABS
4.11.4.5.3
4.11.4.5.4
Adopt
Consider curtailing the stirrups to Y10 @ 250 c/c
Consider 2Y25 and 1Y20 to determine vc
4.3.4.1.2
4.3.4.1.3
3.65
SABS
The shaded portion of the shear force envelope shown above represents the length
of the beam over which the Y10 stirrups are required to be spaced at 125 centres.
In between these shaded portions the stirrups may be spaced at 250 centres.
3.66
3.67
MODULE 4
SLABS
Slabs are the elements that generally receive the load first and transfer it to the columns
directly, or through beams to the columns. Slabs are designed for flexure (bending),
shear, torsion and deflection and may span in one or both directions.
Reinforced Concrete Design IV G.K. Parrott Module 4 - Slabs
CONTENTS
Page
4.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1
4.2 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2

4.2.1 One-way spanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
4.2.2 Two-way spanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
4.2.2.1 Simply supported unrestrained slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4
4.2.2.2 Restrained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
4.2.3 Flat slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6
4.2.3.1 General configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6
4.2.3.2 Division of panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7
4.2.3.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8
4.3 DESIGN FOR FLEXURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11

4.3.1 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11
4.3.2 Nominal reinforcement and spacing of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.3.2.1 Minimum area of tension reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.3.2.2 Minimum spacing of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.3.2.3 Maximum spacing of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.3.3 Placement and curtailment of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.3.3.1 One-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13
4.3.3.2 Two-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13
4.3.3.3 Flat slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.14
4.4 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15

4.4.1 One-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15
4.4.2 Two-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15
4.4.3 Flat slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
4.5 DESIGN FOR SHEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16

4.5.1 Beam shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
4.5.2 Punching shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17
4.5.2.1 Point load on solid slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17
4.5.2.2 Flat slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19
4.6 DESIGN EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19

4.6.1 Simply supported slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19
4.6.2 Restrained slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.24
4.6.3 Flat slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.27
4.7 OTHER SLAB SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.35

4.7.1 Rib and hollow block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.35
4.7.2 Coffer or waffle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.36
4.7.3 Voided construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.37
4.7.4 Permanent formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.37
4.7.5 Ribbed beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.38
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Slabs are those elements forming floors and roofs of buildings, and usually support an
uniformly distributed load (kN/m).
Slabs are usually relatively thin and deflection is often a major factor in the design.
The end (edge) conditions (supports) to a slab may be free, simply supported or continuous.
To identify these conditions clearly in our design calculations for any particular slab panel
under consideration, the following convention will be adopted.
Most slabs are designed assuming that

they consist of a series of rectangular
beams one metre (1000 mm) in width.
Slabs may span in one or two directions depending on the location of the supports provided.
One-way spanning Two-way spanning
4.1
4.2 ANALYSIS
The methods that follow for analysing any particular type of slab are based on a uniform
load over the entire slab panel area. Non-uniform loads such as a point load (from a
column) and linear load (from a wall) may however occur.
When non-uniform loads are present, it is best to first calculate the applied moment due to
the uniform loading alone, and then to add this to the moment resulting from the non-
uniform load using the principle of superposition.
Although it is possible to share the non-uniform load between the long and short span of
two-way spanning slabs, it is easiest (although a bit conservative) to consider the short span
as carrying all of the non-uniform portion of the load.
Consider the following two cases that follow where the slab is loaded with a wall producing
a linear load.
- Wall across short span -
It may be assumed that only one strip of slab will carry the full load. This single strip would
therefore require more reinforcement than the other strips.
- Wall across long span -
In this case it may be assumed that the wall will act as a point load on the short span, and
each strip of slab will carry a point load equal to the weight of a 1 m length of wall.
4.2
4.2.1 ONE-WAY SPANNING
A one-way spanning slab is that supported on opposite ends of the panel only, or where the
panel is supported on all four edges. If the short span is less than half of the length of the
long span, the slab is designed across the short span only.
Slabs spanning in one direction only (simply supported or continuous) may be analysed as
for beams.
For continuous one-way spanning slabs the bending moments and shear forces may be
obtained from table 13 in SABS 0100:1 provided that:
- the area of each bay exceeds 30 m

-
Table 13 - Ultimate bending moments and shear forces

in one-way spanning slabs
Position Moment Shear

At outer support 0 0.4 F
Near middle of end span 0.086 F L -
At first interior support -0.086 F L 0.6 F
At middle of interior spans 0.063 F L -
At interior supports -0.063 F L 0.5 F
NOTE: F is the total ultimate load
4.2.2 TWO-WAY SPANNING
Slabs spanning in two directions are more difficult to analyse, and various options of
analysis are available:
- Yield line
- Strip
- Finite element
- Moment coefficients
The use of moment coefficients is by far the simplest method, and these tables are given
in SABS 0100.
Table 14 - simply supported unrestrained slabs

Table 15 - restrained slabs
Table 16 - flat slabs
4.3
4.2.2.1 Simply supported unrestrained slabs
An unrestrained slab is a single rectangular slab panel which is simply supported on all four
edges and has no means of restraint to prevent the corners from lifting.
Using moment coefficients, the moments per unit width may be obtained from the following
equations (note that the coefficients are given such that both the long and the short span m om ents are
calculated using the length of the short span):
where: = maximum moment on short span

= maximum moment on long span
= total ultimate load
and are the coefficients given below, which is a slight modification
to Table 14 given in the code.
1.0 0.045 0.045
1.1 0.061 0.038
1.2 0.071 0.031
1.3 0.080 0.027
1.4 0.087 0.023
1.5 0.092 0.020
1.6 0.097 0.017
1.7 0.100 0.016
1.8 0.102 0.016
1.9 0.103 0.016
2.0 0.104 0.016
Note that if the ratio of long span to short span exceeds 2.0, then the slab is assumed to
span in one direction across the short span only, and
4.4
The maximum shear force need only be calculated on the short span by assuming it to be
simply supported and spanning in that direction only.
4.2.2.2 Restrained slabs
When the corners of a panel are prevented from lifting and adequate provision to resist
torsion at the corners is made, the maximum moments per unit width are given by the
following equations:
where: = total ultimate load

and are the coefficients from table 15
The diagram below shows the plan of a building constructed using two-way spanning slab
panels supported on beams, and indicates each slab panel as a particular case referring
to Table 15.
Shear forces may be calculated across the short span using the shear coefficients given in
Table 13, assuming that the short span is continuous and one-way spanning. By doing this,
the shear forces across the long span can be ignored.
4.5
4.2.3 FLAT SLABS
4.2.3.1 General configuration
A flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab which is generally supported by columns only.
Although not common, the perimeter of the slab may be supported by walls or beams.
The column and slab may be of constant dimension.
The column may be increased in dimension towards the soffit

of the slab to form a column head.
The angle of slope of the column head, for the purposes of

analysis, must not exceed 45o from the vertical.
The diameter of the column head is taken at a distance of

40 mm below the soffit of the slab or drop, and may not be
taken as greater than 0.25 the average dimension of the panel.
If the column head is rectangular, consider a circle of the same

area as the cross-section of the head.
The slab may be of constant thickness or may be increased

in thickness locally around the column or column head.
This is referred to as a drop.
A combination of a column head and drop may also be adopted.
4.6
Although the thickness of a flat slab is usually greater than that required for beam and slab
construction, the omission of beams gives shorter storey heights and construction is simpler.
The slab is divided into panels contained by the

lines joining the column centres.
4.2.3.2 Division of panels
Flat slabs are two-way spanning and each panel is divided into strips in both directions as
follows:
Where there are no drops provided, the flat slab panel is to be divided into column strips
and middle strips as shown below.
Where drops are provided, the width of the column strips is made equal to the size of the
drop, except that drops less than one-third the size of the smaller panel dimension are
ignored.
4.7
4.2.3.3 Analysis
Continuous frame analysis
For this method, the structure is divided into a series of frames or sub-frames and analysed
in accordance with Module 2.
Simplified analysis
As long as the following restrictions are met, a flat slab may be analysed using bending
moment and shear force coefficients given in table 16 of SABS 0100:1.
- Stability must be provided by bracing or shear walls.
- The ratio of the characteristic imposed load to the characteristic self-weight

load may not exceed 1.25.
- The characteristic imposed load may not exceed 5 kN/m.
- The slab must comprise a series of rectangular panels in at least three rows
in each direction.
- Each panel must be of approximately equal span in the direction under

consideration (within say 15%).
- The ratio of long span to short span may not exceed 2.
Table 16 is used to determine the total panel bending moments and shear forces as well
as the total moment to be distributed between the columns above and below.
Table 16 - Bending moments and shear force coefficients for flat slabs
of three or more equal spans
Total
Position Moment Shear column
moment
Outer support:
Column -0.040 F L 0.045 F 0.04 F L
Wall -0.020 F L 0.40 F -
Near middle of end span 0.083 F L - -
At first interior support -0.063 F L 0.60 F 0.022 F L
At middle of interior spans 0.071 F L - -
At interior supports -0.055 F L 0.50 F 0.022 F L
4.8
The moment thus calculated is then divided between the middle and column strips in the
following proportion:
Moments Column strip Middle strip

Negative 75 % 25 %
Positive 55 % 45 %
The bending moment coefficients obtained from table 16 can be presented on a bending
moment diagram as shown below:
4.9
It must be noted, however, that the maximum moment that can be developed at the outside
edge of a column strip cannot be greater than the moment that can be transferred into the
column at that point.
It will be assumed that the maximum moment that can be transferred into an exterior column
by the column strip will be equal in magnitude to the flexural capacity of a strip of slab
having an effective width (be) equal to the width of the column parallel to the edge of the
slab (Cx) plus the distance measured from the edge of the slab to the internal edge of the
column (y).
i.e. (bs cannot be taken greater than the width of the column strip)
The maximum moment that can be developed at the outside edge of a column strip is
therefore given as: ML max = 0.156 fcu b d2
If, in the analysis of the slab, a moment exceeding ML max is obtained at this position, then
the moment must be reduced to ML max and the positive moment in the exterior span
adjusted accordingly.
The normal limitations on redistribution of moment may be ignored in this case.
4.10
Where the column strip is taken as equal to the width of the drop, and the middle strip is
thereby increased in width, increase the moments to be resisted by the middle strip in
proportion to its increased width.
The moments to be resisted by the column strip may then be decreased by an amount such
that there is no reduction in either the total positive or the total negative moments resisted
by the column strip and middle strip together.
These moments are applied to the full strip width; therefore a half-column strip parallel to
the edge of the slab would carry half of the column strip moment calculated.
Where the edge of the slab is supported by a load-bearing wall or beam, the moments on
the half-column strip adjacent to that edge are taken as one-quarter of the moments in the
interior column strip parallel to the edge. The wall or beam should be designed to carry the
direct load plus a uniformly distributed load equal to one-quarter of the total load on the
panel.
4.3 DESIGN FOR FLEXURE
4.3.1 REINFORCEMENT
The calculation of the required area of reinforcement to resist the applied ultimate bending
moment is no different to that of beams, except that in thin slabs (thickness less than say
250 mm) it is preferable not to require compression reinforcement.
Because it is convenient to use a design width of 1 m, the following table proves useful in
choosing a suitable arrangement of reinforcement.
Area for different diameters and spacing of bars
BAR DIAM ETER

Spacing
8 10 12 16 20 25 32
50 1005 1571 2262 4021 6283 9817 16085
75 670 1048 1508 2681 4189 6545 10723
100 503 785 1131 2011 3142 4909 8042
125 402 628 905 1608 2513 3927 6434
150 335 524 754 1340 2094 3272 5362
175 287 449 646 1149 1795 2805 4596
200 251 393 564 1005 1571 2454 4021
225 226 353 508 904 1414 2208 3619
250 201 314 452 804 1257 1963 3217
275 184 288 414 737 1152 1799 2949
300 168 262 377 670 1047 1636 2681
325 156 243 350 622 972 1519 2489
350 144 224 323 574 898 1402 2298
375 134 209 302 536 838 1309 2145
400 126 196 283 503 785 1227 2011
4.11
4.3.2.1 Minimum area of tension reinforcement [4.11.4]
Ensure that, in both directions, the area of tension reinforcement in a slab is not less than
0.13% b h when using high yield reinforcement, or 0.24% b h when using mild steel,
where: b = the breadth of the slab ( 1000 mm )
h = overall depth of concrete
4.3.2.2 Minimum spacing of bars
It is essential for the proper compaction of the concrete that the spacing of bars allows:
a) for the stone in the concrete to pass between the bars and
b) that the reinforcement in the top of the slab allows for a vibrator to be inserted.
See clause 4.11.8.1 of S.A.B.S 0100 for a further guide to bar spacing.
4.3.2.3 Maximum spacing of bars [4.11.8.2.2]
These requirements provide control of cracking.
When a slab is not more than 200 mm thick when using high tensile steel, or 250 mm thick
when using mild steel, no check is required providing the area of reinforcement provided is
less than 0.3 % and the bars have a maximum spacing of three times the effective
depth.
When the slab is thicker than that given above or the amount of tension reinforcement
exceeds 1 %, the clear distance between bars should be limited to the values given in table
25. For percentages between 0.3 % and 1 %, the clear distance between bars should be
limited to the values given in table 25 divided by the percentage of reinforcement.
4.3.3 PLACEMENT AND CURTAILMENT OF BARS
In all types of slabs, it is convenient to curtail every second bar if the requirements of
maximum spacing and minimum area are still
satisfied.
Consider the two detailing options (shown

adjacent) of curtailing 50% of the reinforcement
in a single span.
In the option on the left only one bar type is used

and alternate bars are reversed.
In the second option two bar types are used

which alternate in position.
4.12
Due to the allowed tolerances in the overall dimensions of the bent bars, the second option
is not preferred, since there will be inadequate cover if the bars are bent longer than
scheduled. Also, if the bars are bent longer than scheduled there could be inadequate
anchorage at the supports.
4.3.3.1 One-way spanning slabs
The reinforcement is curtailed the same as beams. i.e. the bending moment equation can
be used to determine the theoretical cut-off points of the remaining bars, or the simplified
rules of curtailment may be adopted.
4.3.3.2 Two-way spanning slabs
In each particular direction, the calculated

required area of reinforcement must be
placed in a central strip taken as being
equal to three-quarters of the full width
perpendicular to the direction of the span.
Only nominal reinforcement is required in
the remaining strips (shown shaded above),
which are partially supported by the parallel
edges. Detailing as mentioned here can
however become cumbersome, and in
practice the required area of reinforcement
is often provided over the full width
perpendicular to the direction of the span.
Paragraphs a) to d) of clause 4.4.4.2.2 set out the simplified rules for curtailing the
reinforcement in the bottom and top of the slab. Although the reinforcement may be
curtailed to less than the minimum area required (0.13%), it is preferable for the
reinforcement in the bottom of the slab at an exterior edge of each panel to be at least the
minimum required.
The diagram below shows how this curtailment may be applied in each particular direction.
4.13
Torsion steel
In restrained two-way spanning slabs, because the corners of the slab are prevented from
lifting, torsional stresses will develop at the external corners of the exterior panels. Torsion
reinforcement as detailed below will be required to resist these torsional stresses and to
prevent cracking in that region.
Both edges simply supported:
Provide torsion reinforcement consisting of top and

bottom bars as shown, where the area of
reinforcement in each of these four layers must be
three-quarters of the area required for the maximum
mid-span moment in the slab.
One edge continuous:
Provide torsion reinforcement equal to half

that described above.
4.3.3.3 Flat slabs [4.6.5.4] & [4.11.7.3.3]
Tension steel should extend over the full width of each strip and may be curtailed as follows:
Top steel: Two-thirds of the amount of reinforcement required to resist the

negative moment in the column strip should be placed in a width equal
to half that of the column strip and central to the column strip.
50% of all tension reinforcement in the top of the slab should extend
0.3R beyond the line joining the centre of the columns. The remaining
50% should extend the greater of 0.15R or 45 times the diameter of the
bar beyond the line joining the centre of the columns.
Bottom steel: Half the bottom reinforcement should extend 20 diameters beyond the
line joining the centre of the columns. The other half shall extend to
within a distance of 0.2R from the line joining the centre of internal
columns and 0.1R from the line joining the centre of external columns.
4.14
4.4 DEFLECTION
4.4.1 ONE-WAY SPANNING SLABS
SABS 0100 states that it will be sufficient to restrict the span to effective depth ratio (table
10, modified by tables 11 and 12).
Consider only the reinforcement at the centre of the span in the width of slab under
consideration to influence deflection.
Base the ratio on the short span and the amount of reinforcement in that direction.
4.4.2 TWO-WAY SPANNING SLABS
For two-way spanning slabs, checking deflection using the span to effective depth ratio is
usually too conservative since it does not take into account the stiffening effect of the
perpendicular long span.
Because of this it often becomes necessary to check the actual working deflection against
the normal allowable limits of span/250 for total service deflection and span/300 for working
service deflection.
The determination of the expected deflections in two-way spanning slabs is very difficult to
calculate and is usually done using a finite element computer software package.
Although not perfectly accurate, it will generally be acceptable to assume that the deflection
of a two-way spanning slab panel compared to a similar simply supported one-way spanning
panel would be reduced by an equal proportion to what the bending moment would reduce.
In other words: The deflection can be calculated assuming the slab to be simply
supported and spanning one way across the short span only, and then
reduced by a factor equal to the bending moment coefficient that was
used in calculating the bending moment in the short span divided by
0.125 (where 0.125 is the bending moment coefficient for a simply
supported one-way spanning element).
estimated deflection =
(The co-efficient is obtained in table 14 or table 15.)
4.15
4.4.3 FLAT SLABS
For slabs with drops of total width in both directions equal to at least one-third of the
respective spans:
It will be sufficient to restrict the span to effective depth ratio. (table 10, modified by
tables 11 and 12).
Consider only the reinforcement at the centre of the span in the strip under
consideration to influence deflection.
Base the ratio on the longer span and the amount of reinforcement in that direction.
For slabs with no drops, or where the drops are of total width in both directions less than
one-third of the respective spans, multiply the allowable span/effective depth ratio by 0.9.
4.5 DESIGN FOR SHEAR
Where the actual ultimate shear stress in the slab exceeds the ultimate allowable shear
stress , shear reinforcement will be required.
It is however preferable not to require shear reinforcement in thin slabs (thickness less than
say 250 mm) since the efficiency of the short vertical legs of the links is reduced.
Note that nominal shear reinforcement is not required in slabs when as it is in

beams.
Two types of shear stresses need to be considered in slabs, viz. one-way shear (as in
beams) and two-way shear (punching shear).
4.5.1 BEAM SHEAR
The ultimate shear stress , allowable shear stress , and the required link area to
spacing ratio are calculated as for beams (except that: = 1000 mm).
One-way shear reinforcement in a slab may be in the form of beam cages in one direction
and loose bars in the other direction as shown below.
4.16
The width and spacing of the cages will determine the spacing of the shear reinforcement
( ), and the number of legs per metre-wide strip will determine the area of the links ( ).
Note that the spacing of the legs must not exceed 0.75 d.
4.5.2 PUNCHING SHEAR [4.4.5.2]
4.5.2.1 Point load on solid slabs
When a concentrated load is applied to a slab, a

portion of the slab will tend to be 'punched' out as
shown.
The shear stress is calculated by dividing the ultimate concentrated load by an effective
shear plane. This shear plane is taken as having a depth equal to the average effective
depth of the slab considering both layers of tension reinforcement , and a breadth equal
to the length of a perimeter .
The maximum shear stress, which is calculated using the actual perimeter of the
loaded area , should not exceed the lesser of or .
The perimeter may be defined as: The boundary of the smallest rectangle that can
be drawn around the loaded area such that no
part of the rectangle comes closer than a
specified distance .
Note: Refer to the code for cases where the perimeter may need to be reduced to an
effective length of a perimeter to allow for the effects of openings or external edges.
4.17
The distance has a minimum value of 1.5 and is taken to increase in increments of
0.75 until, on such a perimeter, at which point no shear reinforcement is
required.
The calculation of is as before, in which the term is given by the average for
the two directions.
When, on a particular perimeter , reinforcement is required to resist the shear stress,

this reinforcement should be evenly distributed in a zone of slab between that perimeter and
a perimeter inside of it.
This reinforcement should be in the form of vertical links, with each leg not greater than
apart and spaced at no more than .
This reinforcement may be calculated as follows:
for for
Avoid requiring shear reinforcement in slabs less than 200 mm thick and for any slab
thickness where , in which cases a rational design is required.
Note that in these equations, may not be taken as less than 0.4.
4.18
The simplest method, yet slightly conservative, of designing this shear reinforcement is to
design a suitable beam cage to satisfy the requirements of the first failure zone, and then
to extend these beam cages to the perimeter just before that where .
4.5.2.2 Flat slabs [4.6.2]
Punching shear is a critical design consideration in flat slab design.
The effective shear force depends on the position of the column under consideration and
may be obtained from the table below, which includes an allowance for non-symmetrical
loading and moment transfer from the slab to the column.
Column position
internal columns 1.15
corner columns 1.25
edge columns 1.40
where: is the force obtained by considering each column to take one-quarter

of the ultimate design load on each adjoining panel.
The maximum shear stress for flat slabs is slightly more that that for point load on
a solid slab, and should not exceed the lesser of or .
The methods for checking the shear stresses or designing shear reinforcement are as
mentioned previously.
4.6 DESIGN EXAMPLES
4.6.1 SIMPLY SUPPORTED SLAB
Analyse, design and detail the roof slab for a single garage using grade 25/26 reinforced
concrete. The slab is to be 150 mm thick, and will be supported on 220 walls on three sides,
and on a 400 X 220 beam over the opening.
The internal dimensions of the garage are to be 4 000 X 6 500.
The roof is to be used as an open verandah and be capable of supporting a live load of 3
kN/m. A screed with an average thickness of 50 mm will be placed on top of the concrete,
and will be finished with 35 mm mastic asphalt waterproofing.
4.19
SABS
4.3.1.2
Table 14
SHORT SPAN
Bending
4.3.3.4.1
4.20
SABS
LA curve
4.3.3.4
4.11.4
4.11.8.2.2
Try:
Try:
Adopt:
Note that the first option could work out to be m ore econom ical even although curtailm ent is
not possible due to the m axim um spacing being exceeded, but the second option has been
adopted in any case, to dem onstrate the detailing of the curtailed steel.
4.4.5.1 Shear
4.21
SABS
Deflection
Table 10
Table 11
Although the slab does not satisfy the requirem ents of span/depth ratio, the actual expected
long-term service deflection can be calculated and com pared with the recom m ended lim its.
(This is m ore often than not the case with m ost slabs.)
4.22
SABS
Table 1
3.2.3.2.1.1
LONG SPAN
Bending
4.3.3.4.1
LA curve
4.11.4
4.11.8.2.2
Adopt:
4.23
SABS
4.4.4.1
4.6.2 RESTRAINED SLAB
Determine the ultimate bending moments and shear forces in the panel marked A in the
floor layout shown overleaf.
The slab is supported by beams that are 250 mm wide and cast monolithically with the slab.
The slab is to be 165 mm thick and finishes to the floor may be taken as 1.0 kN/m. The
occupancy of the floor is offices for general use.
4.24
SABS
0160
Table 4
4.25
SABS
where:
Panel is case 4
Table 15
Position Coefficient Moment (kNm)

short span positive +0.065 14.59
short span negative -0.087 19.53
long span positive +0.034 7.63
long span negative -0.045 10.10
Table 13
4.26
4.6.3 FLAT SLAB
Flat slab construction is to be used for the floor of an office block with a plan dimension of
40 m x 30 m. The columns will be spaced at 8 m centres over the length of 40 m and at 6
m centres over the length of 30 m. The perimeter of the slab is supported on 220 mm load-
bearing brickwork and stability to the structure will be provided by shear walls.
25 mm cover is required to all reinforcement.
The finishes to the slab will amount to approx. 1.0 kN/m and the slab is to support a live
load of 4 kN/m.
The columns are to be 350 x 350 square

with 1.6 m square heads as shown.
Use grade 25/26 concrete and high tensile reinforcement to design suitable reinforcement
for the interior edge panel on the 40 m length (shown shaded below). Check one of the
interior columns for punching shear and check the panel for deflection.
4.27
SABS
4.6.1.3
Check requirements for simplified analysis:

4.6.5.2
4.28
Reinforced Concrete Design IV G.K. Parrot Module 4 - Slabs
SABS
BENDING - 8 m span
4.6.1.4
4.29
SABS
T16 & T17
POSITION Total strip moment b Moment per metre

middle positive 132.3 3 000 44.1
middle negative 57.0 3 000 19.0
column positive 161.8 3 000 53.9
column negative 170.9 3 000 57.0
POSITION K Z/d As req. Reinf. As prov.

middle positive 0.0368 0.950 541 Y12@200 564
middle negative 0.0158 0.950 233* Y10@225 353
column positive 0.0450 0.947 664 Y12@150 754
column negative 0.0475 0.944 704 Y12@150 754
4.11.4 *
4.30
SABS
BENDING - 6 m span
4.6.1.4
T16 & T17
4.31
SABS
T16 & T17
POSITION Total strip moment b Moment per metre

middle positive 103.2 5 000 20.6
Ext. middle negative 13.8 5 000 2.76
Int. middle negative 43.5 5 000 8.70
column positive 126.1 3 000 42.0
Ext. column negative 41.4 3 000 13.8
Int. column negative 130.5 3 000 43.5
POSITION K Z/d As req. Reinf. As prov.

middle positive 0.0193 0.950 268* Y10@225 353
Ext. middle negative 0.0026 0.950 36* Y10@225 353
Int. middle negative 0.0081 0.950 113* Y10@225 353
column positive 0.0392 0.950 546 Y12@200 564
Ext. column negative 0.0129 0.950 179* Y10@225 353
Int. column negative 0.0406 0.950 565 Y12@200 564
4.11.4
*
4.32
SABS
SHEAR - internal column
4.6.2.2.1
Extend all reinforcement in the top of the slab over the column a minimum distance
of an effective depth beyond the exterior design perimeter.
4.3.4.1.2
4.6.2.4
4.4.5.2.2
4.33
SABS
4.4.5.2.3
No shear reinforcement is required!
DEFLECTION - long span middle strip
T10
4.3.6.3.1
T11
4.6.3
Increase the slab depth or check the actual deflection using computer software
4.34
4.7 OTHER SLAB SYSTEMS
There are various methods of constructing in-situ slabs in such a way that maximum use
is made of our design theory to reduce the amount of concrete and reinforcement over a
given floor area. At times a system may be required where a conventional solid slab is not
practical or economical.
These slabs are usually deeper than the conventional slab and generally require little or no
temporary support.
Each system has its advantages and disadvantages which should be considered before
adopting any particular system.
4.7.1 RIB AND HOLLOW BLOCK [4.5.1.1 a) 1)]
This system consists of concrete ribs cast in situ between blocks that remain part of the
completed structure. The tops of the ribs are connected by a topping of concrete forming
flanges to the ribs.
The main reinforcement is provided in reinforced or prestressed concrete planks which are
propped to support the blocks during the placing of the in situ concrete.
The rib and hollow block slab can span in one direction only, and is usually designed as
simply supported single spans.
The blocks are available in a variety of sizes, are generally hollow and are shaped to
provide a suitable rib above the planks into which the in-situ concrete may be placed.
The thickness of the topping should be a minimum of 40 mm or one-tenth of the clear

distance between the ribs.
Design and detailing
A single layer of mesh reinforcement should be provided to control cracking in the topping.
The mesh should have a cross-sectional area in each direction of at least 0.12% of the
cross-sectional area of the topping, and the spacing of wires should not exceed half the
centre-to-centre distance between the ribs.
Where the slab has been designed as simply supported but is in fact continuous, the
reinforcement provided in the top of the slab should be at least 25% of that required in the
middle of adjoining spans.
4.35
It is common to ignore the strength of the hollow blocks in the design of such a system and
the slab is designed as a series of flanged beams.
The same methods for determining the ultimate moment of resistance of beams may be
used.
The same methods for determining the ultimate shear resistance of beams may be used
except that where < , no shear reinforcement is required.
4.7.2 COFFER OR WAFFLE [4.5.1.1 a) 2)]
As the name suggests, these slabs have the appearance of a waffle when viewing the
finished slab soffit.
This system uses moulded fibre-glass elements as temporary formwork.

These form moulds are available in a variety of sizes.
The space between the moulds will form the rib in which the tension
reinforcement is placed, and the topping of concrete above the moulds
will form the compression flange.
The moulds are square in plan, which makes this system capable of spanning in two
directions.
A typical cross-section is shown here:
The thickness of the topping should be a minimum of 50 mm or one-tenth of the clear

distance between the ribs.
The slab is designed as a series of flanged beams, and the same methods for determining
the ultimate moment of resistance of beams may be used.
At least 50% of the tension reinforcement should be continued to the supports and
anchored accordingly (clause 4.11.7).
The same methods for determining the ultimate shear resistance of beams may also be
used except that where < , no shear reinforcement is required.
4.36
4.7.3 VOIDED CONSTRUCTION
This system is constructed with a continuous top and bottom containing voids of various
shapes. Generally the shapes used are either rectangular or oval. The material used to form
these voids may be any relatively strong light-weight material such as cardboard or
polystyrene.
The slab is designed as a series of flanged beams, and the same methods for determining
the ultimate moment of resistance of beams may be used. An advantage of this system is
that it contains a bottom flange which increases the resistance to negative moments.
At least 50% of the tension reinforcement should be continued to the supports and
anchored accordingly (clause 4.11.7).
The same methods for determining the ultimate shear resistance of beams may also be
used except that where < , no shear reinforcement is required.
4.7.4 PERMANENT FORMWORK
This system incorporates a concept of composite co-action between concrete and steel,
which is dependent upon unique deformations of the profiled steel unit.
The strength of this system is difficult to analyse accurately, but the suppliers of the system
provide design charts giving the allowable span/load for the different profiles available.
The profiled steel units are usually of sufficient strength to support the weight of the wet
concrete and construction loads such that no propping is required.
4.37
4.7.5 RIBBED BEAM
This system consists of precast 'T' beams (usually prestressed) which, when laid side by
side, form the basis of a suspended concrete slab.
The added advantage of this system is that it requires no propping. This means that, for
example, a domestic house may be altered into a double storey without disturbing the
existing ceiling.
4.38
MODULE 5
STAIRCASES
Stairs are generally designed as solid slabs spanning in one direction.
A stair may be designed to:

- span longitudinally between landings, walls or beams
- span laterally between walls stringer beams
- cantilever laterally from a stiff wall or spine beam
Reinforced Concrete Design IV G.K. Parrott Module 5 - Staircases
CONTENTS
Page
5.1 LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1

5.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.1.2 Imposed load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.1.3 Dead load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
5.2 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2

5.2.1 Effective span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
5.3 DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3

5.3.1 Longitudinally spanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3
5.3.1.1 Example 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4
5.3.2 Laterally spanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7
5.1 LOADING
5.1.1 GENERAL
Although a staircase is inclined, the

loading in taken on plan area and the
span is taken as a horizontal distance.
When the two spans of stair landings are at right angles

to each other, the ultimate load on the common areas
may be assumed to be divided equally between the two
spans. Consider the plan of a staircase surrounding a
lift shaft shown:
5.1.2 IMPOSED LOAD
The imposed load on a stair should be taken as at least equal to the imposed load on any
area giving access to the stair.
Where staircases are nominally built in to walls by at least 110 mm, a strip of 150 mm
adjacent to the wall may be neglected in calculating the loading - i.e. considering the
diagram below, the imposed load is only applied to the shaded portion.
5.1
5.1.3 DEAD LOAD
The dead load should include the self-weight of the stair as well as any applied finishes.
The self-weight of a staircase is best calculated by considering one 'step' and then
converting that into either a lateral or longitudinal horizontal linear load.
In the figure above, the area of a single 'step' is given by:
5.2 ANALYSIS
Staircases are usually simply supported and therefore the normal rules of static equilibrium
may be used to calculate the bending moments. etc. Special stairs such as spirals will,
however, require a more rational analysis.
5.2.1 EFFECTIVE SPAN [4.9.1.3]
For stairs spanning onto landings which span at right angles to the span of the staircase,
the effective support position shall be taken as that to the centre of the landing subject to
a maximum distance from the end of the stair of 900 mm.
i.e.
5.2
In the case of a stair

supported by a distinct
element, the effective
support position shall be
taken as that to the centre of
the support width subject to
a maximum distance from
the inside face of the support
of half the effective depth of
the stair.
5.3 DESIGN
5.3.1 LONGITUDINALLY SPANNING
These stairs are the most common and are designed as solid slabs using the waist of the
stair as the overall slab depth. Distribution reinforcement should preferably be spaced at
one bar per step.
The positioning of longitudinal reinforcement at the flight/landing intersection is of the utmost

importance. The following diagrams may be used as a guide.
Supported at end of landing (simply supported)
Supported by landing (semi-continuous)
5.3
Supported at end of flight (continuous)
5.3.1.1 Example 5.1
Design and detail the staircase shown below, which spans longitudinally between beams
at the end of each landing. The landing, risers and treads of the staircase will be finished
with a screed 20 mm thick (the soffit finish will be off-shutter).
Consider an imposed live load of 1.5 kN/m2.
5.4
SABS
UDL 1
UDL 2
ANALYSIS
5.5
S.A.B.S.
DESIGN FOR FLEXURE
Longitudinal reinforcement:
Adopt
Transverse reinforcement:
Adopt
DESIGN FOR SHEAR
This is very low (< 0.4) therefore shear is okay!
5.6
5.3.2 LATERALLY SPANNING
In this case each step is designed as an independent beam using a cross-section as shown
below.
5.7
MODULE 6
COLUMNS
Columns are those elements acting as the vertical supports to beams and slabs. The load
is transferred from beams and slabs through the columns down to the foundations.
Columns are primarily compression members although they may also have to resist bending
moments applied to one or both axes.
Reinforced Concrete Design IV G.K. Parrott Module 6 - Columns
CONTENTS
Page
6.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1
6.2 BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1
6.3 EFFECTIVE HEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2

6.3.1 General method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2
6.3.2 Rigorous method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3
6.3.3 Nomograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4
6.4 SLENDERNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5

6.4.1 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6
6.4.2 Example 6.1 (slenderness classification) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7
6.5 DESIGN AXIAL LOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8
6.6 DESIGN MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9

6.6.1 Additional moments in slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9
6.6.2 Uni-axial bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11
6.6.2.1 Braced slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11
6.6.2.2 Unbraced slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.13
6.6.2.3 Short columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.14
6.6.3 Bi-axial bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.14
6.6.4 Example 6.2 (design moment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.15
6.7 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.17

6.7.1 Derivation of design equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.17
6.7.1.1 Full compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.18
6.7.1.2 Partial compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.19
6.7.2 Design charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.20
6.8 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.28

6.8.1 Minimum area of main reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.28
6.8.2 Maximum area of main reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.28
6.8.3 Minimum requirement for links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.28
6.9 EXAMPLE 6.3 (reinforcement) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.29

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The cross-section of a column can be either rectangular, circular or irregular.
Reinforcement is in the form of longitudinal bars which are prevented from buckling by
closely spaced links.
6.2 BRACING [4.7.1.3]
Braced columns are defined as those where the stability of the whole structure is provided
by shear walls or other bracing designed to resist all lateral loads. A structure may be
braced in one plane and unbraced in the other.
Consider the basic building layouts shown in plan below:
6.1
6.3 EFFECTIVE HEIGHT [4.7.1.6]
The effective height ( ) of a column is by far the most critical design consideration and will
determine the mode of failure.
Three methods for obtaining the effective height are given: general method, rigorous
method and nomograph.
6.3.1 GENERAL METHOD [4.7.1.6.1]
Referring to a particular axis (x-x or y-y), the effective height Le is obtained by multiplying
the clear height between lateral restraints Lo by a coefficient $ .
Note that where beams are used in one direction only, the clear height need not be the
same for the different axes. The diagram below shows an elevation of the columns in the
x-x plane. ie. buckling visible in this plane will be about the y-y axis.
The coefficient $ is obtained from table 18 for a braced axis and from table 19 for an
unbraced axis. These tables are based on the degree of end fixity, which is measured on
a scale of 1 to 4.
End condition 1 - beam or slab depth exceeds column

dimension or foundation designed to
resist moment.
End condition 2 - column dimension exceeds beam or

slab depth.
End condition 3 - nominal end restraint only (pinned).
End condition 4 - totally unrestrained (e.g. tip of cantilever).
6.2
Table 18 - Values for for braced columns
End condition
End condition at bottom
at top
1 2 3
1 0.75 0.80 0.90
2 0.80 0.85 0.95
3 0.90 0.95 1.00
Table 19 - Values for for unbraced columns
End condition
End condition at bottom
at top
1 2 3
1 1.2 1.3 1.6
2 1.3 1.5 1.8
3 1.6 1.8 -
4 2.2 - -
6.3.2 RIGOROUS METHOD [4.7.1.6.2]
This method for calculating the effective height of a column is dependent on the actual ratio
of column-to-beam stiffness at either end. For a framed structure, the effective height may
be obtained from the following equations:
a) For a braced column, the lesser of
and
b) For an unbraced column, the lesser of
and
6.3
is the ratio of the sum of column stiffness to the sum of in-plane beam
stiffness at one end of the column.
is the ratio of sum of column stiffness to sum of in-plane beam stiffness at the
other end of the column.
is the lesser of and .
The stiffness of a member should be obtained by dividing the second moment of area of the
section by the distance centre-to-centre of restraints.
The following simplifying assumptions may be made:
- For flat slab construction, use the stiffness of the column strip.
- For a 'pinned' column end, = 10.
- For a 'fixed' column end, = 1.
6.3.3 NOMOGRAPH [4.7.1.6.3]
As an alternative method to using the above equations, the nomograph given in the code
(figure 20) may be used.
The adjacent figure shows the nomograph

for a Braced frame
Q is the ratio of the sum of column

stiffness to the sum of in-plane beam
stiffness at the end of the column (each
end to be calculated separately).
A value for is to be read off from the

relevant nomograph, which is multiplied by
the clear column height to obtain the
effective height.
6.4
6.4 SLENDERNESS [4.7.1.4]
Compression failure of the concrete and or steel

reinforcement will occur in columns that are short and
stocky.
Buckling failure will occur in columns that are long and

slender.
It is important, therefore, to be able to define a column as 'short' or 'slender' since the

failure mode for each case is different and hence the design procedure will also be different.
To determine how slender a column is we shall examine the slenderness ratio, which is
defined as the effective height about a particular axis divided by the depth of the column
measured perpendicular to that axis (dimension in the plane of bending).
Slenderness ratio about the x-x axis =
Slenderness ratio about the y-y axis =
6.5
A column that is unbraced about a particular axis may be considered short if its
slenderness ratio about that axis does not exceed .
A column that is braced about a particular axis may be considered short if its slenderness
ratio about that axis does not exceed
where: M1 = smaller initial end moment which should be taken as negative

for a column bent in double curvature.
M2 = larger initial end moment, taken as positive.
Double curvature Single curvature
6.4.1 LIMITS [4.7.1.5]
Generally, the clear height should satisfy the following:
and
For a cantilever column, however, ensure that .
Ensure also that the average slenderness ratio of unbraced columns at any particular level
does not exceed 30.
6.6
6.4.2 EXAMPLE 6.1 (slenderness classification)
Calculate the effective height about each axis for the column shown below and state
whether the column is short or slender.
All beams are 500 x 220 and the slabs are 150 thick.
The storey height measured from floor to floor is 4.5 m.
The structure is braced about the y-y axis only.
SABS
Major axis (x-x) - unbraced
Condition at top =1
Condition at bottom = 1
T 19
4.7.1.4 Short limit = 10
6.7
SABS
Minor Axis (y-y) - unbraced
Assume for the purpose of this example that the

column is bent in double curvature about the minor
axis with end moments of 7 kNm and 10 kNm.
Condition at top =2
Condition at bottom = 1
T18
4.7.1.4 Short limit =
6.5 DESIGN AXIAL LOAD
The ultimate load (kN) applied to a column will be the sum of the load from the column
immediately above, plus the reactions from the beams/slab at the top of the column, plus
the self-weight of the column. The axial load may be calculated on the assumption that
beams and slabs transmitting force into the column are simply supported.
6.8
6.6 DESIGN MOMENT
Moment may be applied to either axis or both axes simultaneously.
The primary ultimate moment should be determined from an elastic first-order analysis of
the structure. This moment will not necessarily be the moment for which the column will be
designed.
- In slender columns a higher moment may be required to make allowance for

additional moments arising out of slenderness.
- In columns that are bent about both axes, the column will be designed to
resist an enhanced moment about one axis only.
- The design moment about either axis should not be less than that resulting
from the design ultimate axial load acting at a minimum eccentricity
equal to 0.05 times the depth of the column about the axis under
consideration. This minimum eccentricity should not, however, be taken to
exceed 20 mm.
The moment thus obtained will be used to calculate the reinforcement in the column and
will be referred to as the design moment ( or ).
6.6.1 ADDITIONAL MOMENTS IN SLENDER COLUMNS [4.7.3]
Account has to be taken of the additional moment induced in the column by its deflection.
This is often referred to as the effect.
Consider the axial load applied to a slender axis resulting in

a deflection .
An additional moment equal to will result.
This induced deflection is referred to as and is calculated as follows:
6.9
where: =
(The slenderness ratio to be used here is generally the maximum,

except for bi-axial bending, where the slenderness ratio for the relevant
axis is used.)
= the dimension perpendicular to the axis under consideration.
is a reduction factor that corrects the deflection to allow for the influence of
axial load and may be calculated as follows:
= where:
or if this gives a value greater than unity, then
= where:
= initial design moment before allowance for

additional moments arising out of
slenderness.
where: is the area of longitudinal reinforcement

is the net area of concrete, i.e.
is the dimension parallel to the axis of bending
is the dimension perpendicular to the axis of bending
Note: These equations are only true for symmetrically reinforced rectangular sections.
You will notice that, to calculate this reduction factor, the area of longitudinal reinforcement
is required. The appropriate value of may however be found iteratively, taking an initial
value of 1.0.
Alternatively it would always be conservative to assume that = 1.0, but this could result
in providing an area of reinforcement far exceeding that required.
The additional moment in a slender column is therefore given by:
6.10
6.6.2 UNI-AXIAL BENDING
6.6.2.1 Braced slender columns [4.7.3.2.1]
If a column is slender about one axis only, the additional moment need only be considered
in that plane.
The full additional moment is assumed to occur near mid-height.
Half of the additional moment is assumed to occur at fixed ends.
The figures below show the shape of the additional moment diagram for different end
conditions.
The design moment (used for calculating the required longitudinal reinforcement) is
obtained by combining the additional bending moment and the primary bending moment
diagrams.
The combination of these moment diagrams for a braced column fixed at both ends might
look something like that shown below:
6.11
The curvature of the additional moment diagram is orientated in such a way that the
maximum additional moment at mid-height occurs on the same side (i.e. same sign) as the
maximum primary moment. Depending on the shape of the primary and additional moment
diagrams, the critical design moment could be either at the top or bottom, or at mid-height.
Near mid-height the additional moment is added to an initial primary moment which may
be given by:
but
is the smaller end moment due to ultimate loads and should be taken as negative for
a column bent in double curvature.
is the larger end moment due to ultimate loads and is assumed to be positive.
Note that regardless of the maximum value produced by the combined bending moment
diagram, the column must be designed for a moment of at least .
The design moment in a braced column bent uni-axially will therefore be given by the
greatest of (a), (b) or (c) below.
a) or [ critical at ends ]
b) [ critical at mid-height ]
c) [ critical at mid-height ]
6.12
6.6.2.2 Unbraced slender columns [4.7.3.2.2]
For slender columns the additional moment is assumed to occur at the end of the column
having the larger primary moment (i.e. the end having the larger stiffness).
The magnitude of the additional moment occurring at the other end of the column may be
reduced in proportion to the end stiffness.
The figure below shows the shape of the additional moment diagram for the only two
possible combinations of end conditions in an unbraced slender column.
The design moment (used for calculating the required longitudinal reinforcement) is
obtained by adding the additional bending moment diagram to the primary bending moment
diagram.
The curvature of the additional moment diagram is orientated in such a way that the
maximum additional end-moment occurs on the same side (i.e. same sign) as the maximum
primary moment. The critical design moment will always occur at the end of the column
having the greatest stiffness.
The design moment in an unbraced column bent uni-axially will therefore be given by
the greatest of (a) or (b) below.
a)
b)
NOTE: The equations given in the code are more complex, and include vertical and
horizontal components of the primary moment. This approach may be
adopted once further explanation is found.
6.13
6.6.2.3 Short columns
For short columns, where no additional moment arises out of slenderness, the design
moment will be given by the greatest of (a) or (b) below.
a)
b)
6.6.3 BI-AXIAL BENDING [4.7.4.4]
For symmetrically reinforced rectangular columns subjected to bending about both axes, the
section may be designed to withstand an enhanced design moment about one of the axes
only.
The design axis will be that having the greater moment/depth ratio.
For x-x design axis:
For y-y design axis:
Table 21 - Values of coefficient
0.000 0.50
0.075 0.60
0.150 0.70
0.250 0.70
0.300 0.65
0.400 0.53
0.500 0.42
$ 0.600 0.30
6.14
6.6.4 EXAMPLE 6.2 (design moment)
For the column given in the example on page 135, a first order linear analysis of the
structure produced the following results (ULS) for the load case considered to be the most
critical.
Determine the design axis and give the ultimate moment for which the section should be
designed.
SABS
X-AXIS (unbraced)
This axis was found to be slender with a slenderness ratio of 13.71.
4.7.3.1
4.7.2.3
6.15
SABS
Y-AXIS (braced)
This axis was found to be slender with a slenderness ratio of 15.82.
4.7.3.1
4.7.3.2.1
4.7.2.3
BI-AXIAL BENDING
6.16
6.7 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
6.7.1 DERIVATION OF DESIGN EQUATIONS
To derive suitable design equations we shall consider two cases of stress distribution which
may occur in a column cross-section. (Remember that depth of concrete in compression =
, where is the depth to the neutral axis.)
Firstly, when the concrete is in compression over the full depth of the cross-
section, and all steel is in compression
and when compression exists over only a portion of the cross-section, and
the steel opposite the more highly compressed face will be in
tension.
Consider the diagram below, which will be used to derive the necessary design equations.
C = compression force
T = tension force
f = stress
, = strain
The subscript refers to the reinforcement in the more highly compressed face.
The subscript refers to the reinforcement in the less highly compressed face.
6.17
6.7.1.1 Full compression
, and
For force equilibrium, the applied ultimate axial load must be balanced by the internal
forces.
Dividing by we get:
For moment equilibrium, the applied ultimate moment must be balanced by the internal
moment of resistance taken about the centre of the cross-section.
Dividing by we get:
6.18
6.7.1.2 Partial compression
, and
For force equilibrium, the applied ultimate axial load must be balanced by the internal
forces.
Dividing by we get:
For moment equilibrium, the applied ultimate moment must be balanced by the internal
moment of resistance taken about the centre of the cross-section.
Dividing by we get:
6.19
6.7.2 DESIGN CHARTS
From the foregoing equations, a set of design charts can be produced, each for different
values of , and
Using these parameters and a chosen proportion of reinforcement , a range of
values for and can be calculated from the foregoing equations by using the
stress in the reinforcement ( or ) corresponding to a range of depth of compression
depths expressed as .
The stress in the reinforcement ( or ) may be determined by calculating the strain in

the steel and multiplying it by Young's modulus (E = 200 000 N/mm).
Note, however, that the maximum ultimate stress in the steel is given as in tension,
for high tensile steel in compression and for mild steel in compression.
For full compression:
is compressive and by similar )'s,
6.20
for partial compression:
is tensile and by similar )'s,
6.21
Values for and can then be plotted for a variety of values, the intersection
of these two values representing the chosen of reinforcement. To use the design charts, for
known values of and , a percentage of reinforcement may be read
off.
If we consider only high tensile reinforcement ( = 450 N/mm) and the most common
grade of concrete for columns ( = 30 N/mm), the following five design charts are
produced.
Note that where the actual ratio for the section being designed lies between two charts,
both charts may be read and the percentage of reinforcement found by linear interpolation.
6.22
6.23
6.24
6.25
6.26
6.27
6.8 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
6.8.1 MINIMUM AREA OF MAIN REINFORCEMENT [4.11.4.2.2]
Ensure that the minimum number of longitudinal bars provided in a column is four in
rectangular columns and six in circular columns and that the diameter of those bars is at
least 12 mm.
Ensure that the total cross-sectional area of the longitudinal bars will be at least 0.4% of the
cross-sectional area of the column.
6.8.2 MAXIMUM AREA OF MAIN REINFORCEMENT [4.11.5.2]
The area of longitudinal reinforcement in a vertically cast column may not exceed 6%.
The area of longitudinal reinforcement in a horizontally cast column may not exceed 8%.
For both vertically and horizontally cast columns, the area of reinforcement at laps may not
exceed 10%.
6.8.3 MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR LINKS [4.11.4.5]
Provide links at least one-quarter the size of the largest bar at a maximum spacing of
twelve times the size of the smallest bar.
Ensure that all other bars or groups are within 150 mm of a restrained bar.
Very often a down pipe will prevent clips (as shown above) from being used to restrain those
bars that are further away than 150 mm from a fully restrained bar. In this case an alternate
arrangement of links will need to be considered. Refer to the diagram overleaf:
6.28
Arrange links so that every corner and alternate bar or group in an outer layer is supported
by a link passing round the bar and having an inclined angle of not more than 135o.
In the case of a circular column, provide a spiral tie (circular link) passing round all the
reinforcement.
6.9 EXAMPLE 6.3 (reinforcement)
If the required cover is 40 mm, calculate suitable reinforcement for the column in the
previous example and provide a sketch to show the placing of this reinforcement.
SABS We saw on page 6.16 that the X-axis is the design axis with a design moment M =
119 kNm. The design axial load was given as N = 785 kN.
4.7.4.2
Assume R8 links and Y20 longitudinal bars:
Design
charts
6.29
SABS
4.11.4.2.2
4.11.5.2
4.11.4.5
4.11.4.5
6.30
6.31
MODULE 7
FOUNDATIONS
Foundations are the elements of a structure that transfer all loads into the ground and
therefore form a critical component of design. Foundations may be deep (as in the case of
piles) or shallow (which is the type that will be covered in this text).
Reinforced Concrete Design IV G.K. Parrott Module 7 - Foundations
CONTENTS
Page
7.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1
7.2 ISOLATED BASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1

7.2.1 Base dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2
7.2.2 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2
7.2.2.1 Layout of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
7.2.3 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
7.2.3.1 Beam shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
7.2.3.2 Punching shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4
7.2.4 Example 7.1 (centric axial load) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4
7.2.5 Example 7.2 (centric axial load and applied moment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8
7.3 COMBINED BASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13

7.3.1 Base dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13
7.3.2 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
7.3.3 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
7.3.4 Example 7.3 (rectangular combined base) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
7.4 STRAPPED BASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20

7.4.1 Base Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.21
7.4.2 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.21
7.4.3 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.21
7.4.4 Example 7.4 (strapped base) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.22
7.1 INTRODUCTION
There are various types of foundations, and generally they may be classified as follows:
1) Isolated
2) Combined
3) Strapped
4) Strip
5) Piled
6) Rafts and basements
The first four mentioned in this list are defined as shallow foundations.
The choice of the type of foundation to be adopted depends on numerous factors such as:
a) soil conditions
b) proximity of boundaries
c) allowable differential settlement
d) types of load
e) site conditions
In choosing the type of foundation to adopt, we must consider those which are safe,
practical and least costly.
7.2 ISOLATED BASES
Isolated bases may also be referred to as 'spot' or 'pad' foundations. They may be required
to resist axial load alone or a combination of axial load and moment.
The foundation is usually rectangular in plan and supports a single column load which is,
wherever possible, in the centre of the base. Due to the proximity of boundaries, however,
it may be necessary to position the column eccentrically on the base, which will result in an
additional moment applied to the base resulting from the eccentricity of the axial load.
Four possible cases arise: - centric column with axial load only
- centric column with axial load and moment
- eccentric column with axial load only
- eccentric column with axial load and moment
7.1
7.2.1 BASE DIMENSIONS
Choose a suitable base area such that the maximum allowable working ground
pressure is not exceeded. The working loads should include all applied dead and live
loads and an estimate of the self-weight of the base .
For bases that support an axial load only the pressure is assumed to be uniform below the
base, and the required area may be calculated from the following formula:
These bases are usually square in plan, but where the column has a depth much greater
than its width, the base should (whenever possible) extend equal distances from the column
face in both directions.
For bases that are designed to resist moment in addition to axial load, the pressure below
the base will be assumed to vary linearly between a minimum and maximum value in the
plane of bending. The base should be proportioned such that the eccentricity of the
resultant force Ecc falls within the middle third of the base, and that the maximum working
pressure does not exceed the allowable.
The working pressure may be calculated from the following formula:
The depth of the base is dependent on the ultimate limit state design for bending and
shear.
7.2.2 BENDING [4.10.2]
Bending is designed at the ultimate limit state, so the pressure needs to be recalculated
using the appropriate load factors.
The ground pressure below the foundation will tend to 'curl'

the base up around the column.
The base may be designed as an inverted cantilever slab

bending about each face of the column. That is, the
reinforcement must be designed to resist the ultimate
moment about the X-X and the Y-Y axes.
It is convenient to choose a width of 1 m for design

purposes.
7.2
7.2.2.1 Layout of reinforcement [4.10.3.2]
In a square base the reinforcement is spaced equally in each direction.
For a rectangular base, the

reinforcement may be spaced
equally in the direction of the long
span. In the direction of the short
span we must concentrate most of
the reinforcement over a band with a
width equal to the smaller dimension
of the base and centred on the
column.
= the ratio of the longer side to the shorter side, i.e. L/B
The remainder of the reinforcement not placed in the centre band must be spread out over
the outer parts, but remember that in no case must the reinforcement anywhere in the base
be less than the minimum allowable.
A full anchorage length must be provided to all tension reinforcement beyond the point of
maximum stress. ie. 40 times the bar diameter beyond the face of the column.
7.2.3 SHEAR [4.10.3.3]
It is preferable not to have to use shear reinforcement in bases but to rather ensure
adequate depth. Design for shear generally governs the depth of the foundation.
7.2.3.1 Beam shear [4.10.3.3.2 a)]
The vertical shear force is taken as the sum of the vertical

loads on the outside of the critical section, which may be
taken at 1.5 times the effective depth of the base from the
face of the column.
The shear stress is then checked as for slabs (see 4.5.1).
7.3
7.2.3.2 Punching shear [4.10.3.3.2 b)]
The effective shear force Veff needs to be calculated, which includes allowance for the
foundation slab bearing on an elastic medium. The effective shear force is calculated using
the ultimate pressure acting on the area outside of the critical perimeter.
The punching shear stresses are checked on the actual perimeter of the column and on the
first perimeter from the column face.
The methods for checking the shear stresses will be as given on page 4.17.
7.2.4 EXAMPLE 7.1 (centric axial load)
This is the most basic of all foundation designs and should clearly demonstrate the design
considerations applicable to most isolated foundations.
A 850 x 250 column carries a dead load of 900 kN and a live load of 400 kN. The allowable
soil pressure is 200 kPa.
Design a suitable rectangular base for the column using grade 25/26 concrete and high
tensile reinforcement.
Use grade 30/26 concrete and high tensile reinforcement and assume that the base is to
have a depth of 500 mm.
SABS
For equal moments in each direction, the distance from the face of the column to the
edge of the base should be approximately equal in each direction.
7.4
SABS
Adopt a base 3 000 x 2 400
Note that the weight of the base has been omitted in calculating the ultimate pressure
since, although it would increase the pressure, it would be acting in the opposite
direction to the pressure when we calculate the shear force or moments.
Bending
4.3.3
4.11.4
4.10.3.2
7.5
SABS
For central strip of width b = 2.4 m:
Adopt
Note that the reinforcement required outside of this central strip is less than that
provided within the central strip width, but for practical purposes the Y16 bars at 200
centres will be continued over the full length of the base.
Beam shear
4.10.3.3.2
4.3.4.1.2
Punching shear
7.6
SABS.
Load perimeter:
First perimeter
7.7
7.2.5 EXAMPLE 7.2 (centric axial load and applied moment)
A 450 X 450 column is to support the applied nominal loads as tabled below:
Axial load Moment

Dead 800 kN 60 kNm
Live 300 kN 40 kNm
It is proposed that the base be 3.75 m long, 2.75 m wide and 500 mm deep.
The safe bearing pressure is 150 kPa.
Check that the size of the base is suitable for the applied loads and calculate suitable
reinforcement using grade 25/26 concrete.
SABS
WORKING PRESSURE
ULTIMATE PRESSURE
Note that the weight of the base has been omitted in calculating the ultimate pressure
since, although it would increase the pressure, it would be acting in the opposite
direction to the pressure when calculating the shear force and moment.
7.8
SABS
BENDING - long direction
(assuming Y16 bars in the first layer)
4.3.3
7.9
SABS
LA curve
4.11.4
Adopt
BENDING - short direction
(assuming Y16 bars in the second layer)
4.3.3
LA curve
Adopt
7.10
SABS
4.10.3.3.2 BEAM SHEAR
4.3.4.1.2
PUNCHING SHEAR
4.3.4.1.2
7.11
SABS
4.4.5.2.2
4.4.5.2.3
No shear reinforcement is required!
7.12
7.3 COMBINED BASES
Initially, foundation sizes are based on compact spot bases. Where these overlap as shown
below, long and narrow spot bases may be considered.
Long narrow spot foundations are acceptable only if the length of the foundation does not
exceed twice the width. Where this ratio of length to width is exceeded, the foundation tends
to become uneconomical. Generally, a combined base is more practical and economical.
Non-uniform pressure below a combined base may result in uneven settlement and rotation
of the foundation. To prevent this, we ensure that the pressure is evenly distributed below
the base by so proportioning the base that its centroid coincides with the centroid of the
column loads.
Owing to the proximity of boundary lines and other obstructions, it may not be possible to
maintain a rectangular shape to the foundation and still maintain even pressure.
Consider the example given below where the ideal dimension of a combined rectangular
base would encroach beyond the site boundary. Two possible solutions are offered in the
form of either a 'trapezoidal' or a 'stepped' foundation.
7.13
7.3.2 BENDING
These foundations are generally designed as a 'beam-in-slab' spanning parallel to the

columns centred on the columns. The remaining portion of the base will then be designed
to cantilever from this beam. Note that the beam is required to carry the full pressure, and
not only that acting over its width.
Where the bending moments are high, it may sometimes be necessary to provide an
inverted beam to offer adequate ultimate bending resistance.
7.3.3 SHEAR
The beam-in-slab should be checked for beam shear as for a rectangular beam. Note that
multiple leg shear links may be used.
Punching shear is also required to be checked. The effective shear force, in this case Veff,
needs to be calculated, which includes allowance for the reduction in shear force resulting
from the ultimate soil pressure acting within the perimeter under consideration.
7.3.4 EXAMPLE 7.3 (rectangular combined base)
Two 350 x 350 columns 'A' and 'B' are spaced 2 m apart and carry the nominal loads tabled
below:
Dead load Live load
Column 'A' 650 kN 370 kN
Column 'B' 800 kN 550 kN
If the maximum ground pressure is 135 kPa, design a suitable foundation for the two
columns. There are no boundary or other restrictions to the shape of the foundation.
7.14
SABS
In an attempt to design two separate spot bases it is found that the required length
of the base for column 'B' exceeds twice the width. A rectangular combined base will
therefore be designed.
Taking moments about B
Assume self-weight of base = 175 kN
Let x be the equal overhang at column B, which is the column having the largest
load.
7.15
SABS
Adopt a base size as shown:
ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
7.16
SABS
BENDING - column B
Try a 1 m wide beam-in-slab:
Choose a depth such that no compression steel will be required.
Try h = say 650 mm
(assuming Y16 stirrups and Y32 longitudinal bars)
4.3.3
LA curve
Adopt
BENDING - column A
LA curve
7.17
SABS
Adopt
BENDING - cantilever portion
(assuming Y16 bars in first layer)
4.3.3
LA curve
Adopt
7.18
SABS
4.4.5.1 BEAM SHEAR - column B
4.3.4.1.2
4.11.4.5.3
4.11.4.5.4
Adopt
PUNCHING SHEAR - column B
Although not calculated here, it can be shown that punching shear stresses
are within the allowable limits.
7.19
7.4 STRAPPED BASES
In the CBD it is generally impossible to avoid large eccentricities in the external foundations
due to the fact that the maximum use must be made of all available ground, and hence the
outside edges of the building will be positioned on the site boundary.
Such an eccentricity would result in the soil being grossly over-loaded, and a strap footing
is provided between the external foundation and the adjacent internal foundation (or
counter-weight if there is no suitable internal foundation) to remove the eccentricity from the
foundation.
To obtain an uniform pressure below the base, a model will be adopted which assumes a
stiff strap and an imaginary sub-foundation below the external base with a central stub
column. This stub column replaces the uniform load below the sub-foundation with a single
resultant force applied centrally below the actual base as shown in the diagram below. In
this way the pressure at the actual founding level may be assumed to be uniform.
The foundation system will tend to rotate about the assumed resultant force. Using the total
actual load (Dn + Ln) at P1 and the minimum load (0.9 Dn) at P2, the factor of safety for
overturning must be at least 1.5.
The strap is designed as a rectangular beam. Note that the width of the strap should not be
less than 500 mm to allow for easy excavation.
7.20
The internal base is designed as an isolated base and sized accordingly.
The external base should be rectangular in plan with the larger dimension parallel to the
boundary. The dimensions of this base must be calculated to resist a force equal to the
reaction from the stub column which will be greater than the column load due to the
eccentricity. As a starting point, the reaction may be assumed to be approximately 12%
greater than the column load.
7.4.2 BENDING
The internal foundation is designed as an isolated base.
The strap will be designed to resist the ultimate bending moment resulting from an elastic
analysis. The strap is to extend to the extreme ends of each base.
The portion of the external base beyond the width of the strap will be designed as a
cantilever slab.
7.4.3 SHEAR
The effective width to be used in calculating the shear stress may be taken as that shown
by the shaded area below. Shear forces are high, and fillets may be required to increase the
shear width.
Punching shear is also checked, but be aware of the possible reduced perimeter around the
external column.
7.21
7.4.4 EXAMPLE 7.4 (strapped base)
The drawing below shows the plan of the column layout to a building where the outside
edge of the columns will lie on the site boundary.
The permissible ground pressure is 200 kPa
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams applied to the strap of a suitable
strapped base for columns 1C and 2C. All columns are 600 x 300. The characteristic loads
from the two columns at foundation level are given below:
Column 1C Dn = 475 kN
Ln = 375 kN
Column 2C Dn = 940 kN
= 720 kN
SABS
BASE 2 C
7.22
SABS
BASE 1 C
7.23
SABS
ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
7.24
MODULE 8
RETAINING WALLS
Retaining walls are structures used to retain material which would not be able to stand
vertically unsupported.
Reinforced Concrete Design IV G.K. Parrott Module 8 - Retaining Walls
CONTENTS
Page
8.1 TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1

8.1.1 Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1
8.1.2 Cantilever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1
8.1.3 Counter-fort or buttress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1
8.2 COMPONENTS OF A RETAINING WALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2
8.3 MODES OF FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2

8.3.1 Overturning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2
8.3.2 Sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3
8.3.3 Soil failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3
8.3.4 Fracture of elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3
8.4 SOIL PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4

8.4.1 Angle of internal friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
8.4.2 Soil density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
8.4.3 Sliding friction coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
8.4.4 Maximum ground pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
8.5 APPLIED PRESSURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4

8.5.1 Active soil pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
8.5.2 Passive soil pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5
8.5.3 Surcharge pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5
8.5.4 Water pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5
8.5.5 Resulting pressure distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6
8.6 DESIGN APPROACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.8
8.7 EXAMPLE 8.1 (cantilever retaining wall) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.10

8.1 TYPES
There are many different forms that a retaining wall may take. A few of the most common
are discussed here.
8.1.1 GRAVITY
Stability is provided by the weight of the structure alone and

would not require the design of reinforcing bars.
8.1.2 CANTILEVER
Stability is provided by the weight of the wall plus the earth on

the base. The concrete needs to be reinforced to resist the
forces acting on it.
8.1.3 COUNTER-FORT OR BUTTRESS
Stability is also provided by the weight of the

structure plus the earth on the base. The
concrete needs to be reinforced to resist the
forces acting on it. The wall spans between
the counter-forts (or buttresses) as well as
off the base. Design moments are lower
than for cantilever walls of the same height.
8.1
8.2 COMPONENTS OF A RETAINING WALL
TYPICAL SECTION THROUGH A CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL
8.3 MODES OF FAILURE
8.3.1 OVERTURNING
The wall will be assumed to overturn about the lower tip of the toe if there is not sufficient
weight on the base to resist the overturning moment applied by the active soil pressure
behind the wall. This mode is checked under working loads by ensuring a factor of safety
against overturning of 1.5.
8.2
8.3.2 SLIDING
The force tending to slide the wall forward is given by the active force of the soil behind the
wall (area of the active pressure diagram). Resistance to sliding is offered by:
- the friction between the base of the retaining wall and the founding material
- the passive force offered by the soil in front of the wall
This mode of failure is checked under working loads by ensuring a factor of safety against
sliding of 1.5.
8.3.3 SOIL FAILURE
Excessive settlement will occur if the resulting pressure under the base of the retaining wall
exceeds the maximum allowable ground pressure. This mode of failure is also checked
using working loads.
8.3.4 FRACTURE OF WALL ELEMENTS
The elements that make up the retaining wall (heel, toe, key, wall, etc.) are required to resist
all the forces and moments applied to them. These elements are designed at the ultimate
limit state.
8.3
8.4 SOIL PARAMETERS
There are certain properties of the soil that we need to know before we can commence with
our design. These are as follows:
8.4.1 ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION (degrees)
This is the angle at which the material will safely support itself. The value of 2 is normally
between 30o and 45o depending on the material.
8.4.2 SOIL DENSITY (kN/m3)
This is the weight of the soil. The value is normally upwards of 15 kN/m3.
8.4.3 SLIDING FRICTION COEFFICIENT (dimensionless)
This is the measure of the frictional resistance between the concrete and the founding
material. The value is normally between 0.3 and 0.5. A value of tan (2 - 5) is often assumed.
8.4.4 MAXIMUM GROUND PRESSURE (kPa)
This is a measure of the maximum pressure that the ground can support before excessive
settlements will begin to take place. A typical value is 150 kPa for reasonable sands.
8.5 APPLIED PRESSURES
8.5.1 ACTIVE SOIL PRESSURE
The pressure from the soil behind the wall will become 'active' as it begins to move forward.
The distribution of pressure will be triangular, with a value of zero at the top of the wall and
increasing to a maximum value at the bottom of the wall.
According to Rankine's theory, the active soil pressure at any depth is given by:
where : = active soil pressure

= active pressure coefficient
= density of the retained material
= depth to point being considered
8.4
Where the backfill is level behind the wall:
where : = angle of internal friction of retained material
For a sloping backfill at an angle of measured from the horizontal:
where: n =
8.5.2 PASSIVE SOIL PRESSURE
The passive pressure is that pressure which will develop when the wall 'pushes' against the
soil in front of it. The distribution of pressure will be triangular, and is given by:
where:
8.5.3 SURCHARGE PRESSURE
The pressure resulting from a uniform surcharge applied to the top of the backfill behind the
wall will have a rectangular pressure distribution which will be given by:
where : = pressure due to surcharge

= surcharge (kN/m2)
8.5.4 WATER PRESSURE
Weep-holes are provided to relieve any build up of water pressure behind the wall, and
therefore the effects of water may be ignored as long as the weep-holes are correctly
constructed.
8.5
8.5.5 RESULTING PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
To calculate the pressure distribution below the base, we simply apply the basic combined
stress formula:
where: = pressure ( )
= total vertical weight ( )
= width of base x 1 m ( )
=
= section modulus
The formula may be rewritten as:
The eccentricity is the distance at which the resultant force acts from the centre of the
base and may be calculated as follows:
8.6
= horizontal force acting at

a lever arm of from ' '
= vertical weight acting at a

lever arm of from ' '
= overturning moment =
= stabilising moment =
By symmetry:
But:
From the above diagram:
It follows that: or
Note : If , then the resultant force will not fall within the middle third of the base,
and the full length of the base will not be under compression.
However, tensile stress cannot develop between the base of the retaining wall and the soil,
the maximum pressure in this case being given by:
where the length of the pressure diagram =
Note that it is advisable for at least 75% of the base length to be under compression.
8.7
8.6 DESIGN APPROACH
The stability checks and calculation of ground pressures are the same for all types of
retaining walls, the only difference in design being the analysis of the ultimate forces and
moments on the retaining wall elements.
A 1 m length of wall is considered for design purposes, and all elements of a retaining wall
are generally designed as for slabs.
The general design procedure is to assume dimensions for the wall elements (toe, heel,
base, etc.) and then check the retaining wall for stability using those dimensions. Once
suitable dimensions have been established, the reinforcement in the retaining wall elements
will be designed at the ultimate limit state.
The following may be used as guidelines for determining the trial dimensions for a cantilever
wall. It must be remembered, however, that these guidelines apply only to a wall that is not
restricted by boundaries or subjected to unusual loading.
Thickness of wall at base : 0.09 h

Depth of base : 0.09 h + 75 mm
Toe : 0.125 h
Heel : 0.4 h
The design of retaining walls is very methodical in approach and is therefore suitable for the
development of a simple spreadsheet programme.
The tables that follow show the general calculation format for checking the stability of a
retaining wall based on the symbols indicated in the sketch below:
8.8
OVERTURNING
Force Lever arm Moment
Description
F LA Mo
backfill
surcharge
STABILISING
Weight Lever arm Moment
Description
W LA Ms
backfill
bank
cover
stem rectangle
stem triangle
base
surcharge
where: = surcharge (kN/m2)

= unit weight of soil
= unit weight of concrete (typically 24 kN/m2)
Note that any other form of load (e.g. concentrated point load on top of stem) not listed in
the above tables must be appropriately included.
8.9
8.7 EXAMPLE 8.1 (cantilever retaining wall)
Design a suitable reinforced concrete cantilever retaining wall where the difference in
ground levels is to be 3.7 m.
The top of the foundation is to be 300 mm below the finished ground level in front of the
wall.
The soil behind the wall will be inclined at 10o and will carry a live load surcharge of 2.0
kN/m. The top of the wall is to extend 200 mm above the level of the backfill immediately
behind the wall.
Use grade 25/26 concrete and high tensile reinforcement.
The soil properties are given as follows:

= 35o
= 16 kN/m3
= 0.4
The working ground pressure may not exceed 120 kPa.
SABS
Trial dimensions
Try the following wall layout:
8.10
SABS
OVERTURNING
Overturning
Description F (kN) LA (m) Mo (kNm)
backfill
surcharge
Stabilising
Description W (kN) LA (m) Ms (kNm)
backfill
bank
cover
stem rectangle
stem triangle
base
surcharge
8.11
SABS
SLIDING
SOIL PRESSURE
8.12
SABS
DESIGN AT ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
The following partial load factors at the ultimate limit state will be considered:
SABS 0160 Concrete = 1.2

Table 2 Surcharge = 1.6
Soil = 1.4 (taken as the avarage of 1.2 and 1.4 due to the
uncertainty of considering the soil load as
either permanent or live)
Description W actual (i W ultimate

backfill 102.40 1.4 143.36
bank 3.61 1.4 5.05
cover 2.40 1.4 3..36
stem rectangle 20.16 1.2 24.19
stem triangle 7.56 1.2 9.07
base 23.52 1.2 28.22
surcharge 3.20 1.6 5.12
W = 218.37 kN
8.13
SABS
Heel
Description Shear (kN) LA (m) Moment (kNm)
rectangular pressure
triangular pressure
heel
backfill
bank
surcharge
Toe
rectangular pressure
triangular pressure
toe
cover
8.14
SABS
Stem
backfill
surcharge
4.3.3.4.1 BENDING - stem
LA curve
4.11.4
4.11.8.2.2
Adopt
Consider curtailing the Y10's:
8.15
SABS
Let h be the distance from the top of the backfill to the theoretical cut-off point.
Y10 bars can stop 850 mm above the base as shown in the elevation below:
8.16
S.A.B.S
SHEAR - stem
4.4.5.1
4.3.3.4.1 BENDING - heel
LA curve
4.3.3.4
4.11.4
Adopt
Note that this reinforcem ent has been chosen to m atch the spacing of the bars in the stem .
This reinforcem ent could be curtailed to Y10 @ 250, but note this would then be less than the
required m inim um area of steel.
8.17
SABS
SHEAR - heel
4.4.5.1
TOE
Extend the reinforcement provided in the heel through to the toe.
4.11.4 SECONDARY REINFORCEMENT
Wall:
Base:
8.18
MODULE 9
SILOS
This section is limited to the very basic analysis and design of a reinforced concrete silo
storing granular material and will in no way equip you with all of the required information
necessary to analyse or design the entire structure.
Reinforced Concrete Design IV G.K. Parrott Module 9 - Silos
CONTENTS
Page
9.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1
9.2 PARAMETERS REQUIRED FOR DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1

9.2.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1
9.2.2 Properties of retained material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1
9.3 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2

9.3.1 Horizontal pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3
9.3.2 Ring tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4
9.3.3 Vertical pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4
9.3.3.1 Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4
9.3.3.2 Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4
9.4 EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Material-containing structures are classified as shallow or deep and the contents of such
a structure can consist of any granular material.
The pressures acting on a shallow container would be calculated in a similar manner to the
active pressure acting on a retaining wall.
When a container is classified as deep there is a tendency for the retained material to arch
between the vertical surfaces, and hence the pressures will vary from that of a shallow
container. A silo is a deep container.
9.2 PARAMETERS REQUIRED FOR DESIGN
9.2.1 GEOMETRY
The overall height h1 and internal diameter d

are chosen to satisfy the required capacity of
the silo.
The thickness of the concrete wall t is a

strength requirement which will be checked
at the ultimate limit state.
The hydraulic radius r is another parameter

that is required for the design of a silo, and
this is given as the cross-sectional area
divided by the internal perimeter.
therefore
9.2.2 PROPERTIES OF RETAINED MATERIAL
The unit weight D (kN/m3), the angle of internal friction of the retained material 2 (degrees)
and the angle of friction between the retained material and the concrete : (degrees) must
be known for the silo shell to be analysed.
9.1
The following table gives approximate values for 2 and D for some of the common types of
retained material.
Material 2 (degrees) D (kN/m3)

Wheat 25 8.40
Maize 27 8.40
Barley 27 7.50
Oats 28 6.30
Cement 10 14.2
Coal (crushed) 40 8.80
Ash 35 9.43
The angle of friction between the contained material and the concrete wall : is required for
periods of both filling :f and emptying :e , and can be obtained from the table below, which
gives values for granular material (particle size > 0.2 mm) and powdered material (particle
size < 0.06 mm). Linear interpolation may be used for intermediate particle sizes.
Grain size (mm) :f :e

> 0.20 0.75 2 0.60 2
< 0.06 2 2
9.3 ANALYSIS
The load effects required are: Horizontal pressure

Hoop tension
Vertical wall pressure
Vertical floor pressure
The magnitude of the applied stresses will depend on whether the silo is filling, emptying
or in a state of rest.
Table 21 of the Reinforced concrete designers handbook by Reynolds and Steedman will
be used here to calculate these stresses.
9.2
9.3.1 HORIZONTAL PRESSURE
The horizontal pressure qh will vary with depth and obviously depend on whether the silo
is filling or emptying.
A graph showing the variation of pressure with height is shown below:
Note that the horizontal pressure during discharge is reduced over a height of 1.2 d (but not
exceeding 0.75 h1) above the outlet owing to the proximity of the compartment floor.
The equation given below applies only to deep containers where :
(KN/m2)
Note that this equation is derived from Janssens formula which is:
ho = reference depth = for filling
= for emptying
9.3
9.3.2 RING TENSION
The horizontal ring tension T (or hoop tension) is given by the following formula:
(KN per m of wall height)
9.3.3 VERTICAL PRESSURE
9.3.3.1 Walls
The vertical pressure on the walls qv is caused by the self-weight of the walls together with
the vertical load of the retained material supported by wall friction. The maximum value will
occur at the level of the floor of the silo.
The self-weight of the walls W (kN) is a straightforward calculation and needs no

explanation.
The vertical load of the retained material supported by wall friction (kN/m2) is given by the
product of the unit weight of the material and the hydraulic radius. This load is then
multiplied by the surface contact area (B d h) to obtain the load in kN.
(N/mm2)
where A = total cross-sectional area of the wall
9.3.3.2 Floor
The vertical pressure on the floor qv is caused by the vertical load of the retained material
and will be equal to the horizontal pressure during emptying and twice the horizontal
pressure during filling.
9.4
9.4 EXAMPLE 9.1 (silo)
Design a cylindrical reinforced concrete silo with an external diameter of 10 m and a wall
thickness of 180 mm. The silo is required to store 2 600 tons of crushed coal having an
average particle size of 0.125 mm.
Use grade 30/26 concrete and high tensile reinforcement.
SABS
Unit weight
Unit mass
Required volume
Internal diameter
Internal area
Required height
Design at ultimate limit state
Hydraulic radius
Angle of repose
During filling:
(by interpolation)
9.5
SABS
At h = 40 m :
During emptying:
At h = 28.43 m :
At h = 10 m :
9.6
SABS
At h = 5 m :
Horizontal reinforcement
Adopt
Vertical reinforcement
9.7
SABS
4.8.4.1
4.11.4
Adopt
9.8
MODULE 10
WATER-RETAINING
STRUCTURES
These structures are no different from any other type of structure except for the fact that
they must be impermeable and reasonably waterproof.
The structures that can be designed following the guidelines of this module exclude dams,
aqueducts, structures retaining liquids that have a severe corrosive effect on the concrete,
and structures with special shapes.
Reinforced Concrete Design IV G.K. Parrott Module 10 - Water-retaining structures
CONTENTS
Page
10.1 LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
10.2 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1

10.2.1 Slabs and floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
10.2.2 Walls of cylindrical tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
10.2.3 Walls of rectangular tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
10.3 LIMIT STATE REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2

10.3.1 Ultimate limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2
10.3.2 Serviceability limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2
10.3.2.1 Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2
10.3.2.2 Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2
10.4 CRACK CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3

10.4.1 Direct tension in mature concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3
10.4.2 Direct tension in immature concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4
10.4.2.1 Minimum reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4
10.4.2.2 Calculation of crack spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5
10.4.2.3 Calculation of crack width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5
10.4.3 Flexural tension in mature concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6
10.4.4 Minimum reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10
10.5 DESIGN AND DETAILING OF JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10

10.5.1 Construction joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10
10.5.2 Sliding joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10
10.5.3 Movement joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11
10.5.3.1 Contraction joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11
10.5.3.2 Induced Contraction joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.12
10.5.3.3 Expansion joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.12
10.5.3.4 Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.12
10.6 SPECIFICATION OF MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14

10.6.1 Blinding layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.2.1 Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.2.2 Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.3 Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.4 Joining materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.4.1 Joint fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
10.6.4.2 Waterstops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.15
10.6.4.3 Joint sealing compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.15
10.7 DESIGN EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.16
ANNEXURE A Bending moments in circular tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.20
ANNEXURE B Ring tension in circular tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.24

10.1 LOADS
Structures should be designed for both full and empty conditions, and the arrangement of
load should be such as to cause the most critical effects. For a structure subjected to lateral
soil pressure, the active pressure should be considered when the structure is empty, but no
passive soil pressure may be taken into account when considering the structure full.
Water and lateral soil loads should be considered as live loads, but the soil covering a roof
of a structure may be taken as a dead load.
10.2 ANALYSIS
10.2.1 Slabs and floors
These elements are generally analysed as for solid or flat slabs, and the method of analysis
given in SABS 0100-1:2000 may be adopted (see Module 4).
10.2.2 Walls of cylindrical tanks
Tables produced by the Portland Cement Association of America are available which give
coefficients for calculating the vertical moment as well as the ring tension developed at any
required height in a wall for a variety of end conditions. These tables conveniently allow for
rectangular, triangular or trapezoidal loading patterns (see Annexure A).
10.2.3 Walls of rectangular tanks
These walls may be designed using a simple elastic analysis. However care should be
exercised at all points of intersection. Tables are available which give bending moment
coefficients for both horizontal and vertical moments in wall panels. The walls may be
divided into panels and may span vertically, horizontally or in both directions.
10.1
10.3 LIMIT STATE REQUIREMENTS
10.3.1 Ultimate limit state
The recommendations given in SABS 0100-1:2000 should be applied. For combined

bending and tension (as in the case of a circular tank), the areas of steel can be calculated
separately and then added together.
10.3.2 Serviceability limit state
10.3.2.1 Deflection
The limits for deflection should follow the recommendations given in SABS 0100-1:2000 for
non-liquid-retaining structures since only in very exceptional circumstances will deflection
be critical with regard to the effects of liquid.
10.3.2.2 Cracking
The allowable crack widths will depend on the class of structure, and for reinforced concrete
structures should be controlled as shown in the following table. Classes A and B are
designed as water-retaining structures according to BS 5337, and class C structures are
designed as normal reinforced concrete structures according to SABS 0100-1:2000.
LIMITING CRACK WIDTH

CLASS DEFINITION
(mm)
Exposed to a moist or corrosive atmosphere
A 0.1
or subjected to alternate wetting and drying
Exposed to continuous or almost continuous
B 0.2
contact with liquid
Generally not exposed to liquid or to moist
C 0.3
corrosive conditions
For a class C structure exposed to an aggressive environment, the surface width of cracks
at points nearest to the main reinforcement should not in general exceed 0.0004 times the
nominal cover to the main reinforcement.
Where a wall or slab has a thickness exceeding 225 mm, the class of each face may be
considered separately. For a wall or slab 225 mm or less, the class of both faces should be
taken as the most severe of the two exposure conditions.
10.2
10.4 CRACK CONTROL
To make a concrete structure impermeable we need to control the spacing and width of
cracks which may be caused by early thermal contraction, temperature and moisture effects
and flexure. Remember that crack control is a serviceability limit state requirement.
10.4.1 Direct tension in mature concrete
This is a simple check where the crack widths may be deemed to be satisfactory if the steel
stress under service conditions does not exceed the appropriate value given in the table
below.
Allowable stress (N/mm2)

Class of exposure
Plain bars Deformed bars
A 85 100
B 115 130
The service stress may be estimated as shown below (clause 4.11.8.2.1.4 of SABS 0100-
1:2000), or determined by the method given in 1.4.3 of this module.
where: = self-weight factor for SLS (1.1)

= imposed load factor for SLS (1.0)
= self-weight factor for ULS (1.2)
= imposed load factor for ULS (1.6)
Where all applied loads are of a similar nature (e.g. all UDL), the following equation will
more accurately calculate the service stress by allowing for the varying proportions of dead
and live loads.
Where the loading is not uniform the service and ultimate loads in this equation can be
replaced by the service and ultimate moments.
10.3
10.4.2 Direct tension in immature concrete
Changes in the temperature of the concrete and reinforcement and in the moisture content
of the concrete cause dimensional changes which, if resisted internally or externally, may
crack the concrete.
The heat evolved by the hydration of cement will raise the temperature for a day or more
after casting, and then fall towards ambient. Cracking usually occurs at this time in the
immature weak concrete.
10.4.2.1 Minimum reinforcement
A minimum area of reinforcement is required to distribute cracking due to the direct tension
resulting from early thermal and moisture effects in the immature concrete.
This reinforcement is placed in surface zones as described below:
- For ground floor slabs less than 200 mm thick, assume that the top surface zone is
100 mm thick and ignore the bottom zone.
- For ground floor slabs between 200 mm and 400 mm thick, assume that the top
surface zone is half of the slab thickness and ignore the bottom zone.
- For ground floor slabs between 400 mm and 500 mm thick, assume that the top
surface zone is half the slab thickness and the bottom surface is half the slab
thickness less 150 mm.
- For ground floor slabs exceeding 500 mm thick, assume that the top surface zone
is 250 mm thick and the bottom surface zone is 100 mm thick.
- For walls exceeding 500 mm thick, assume that each surface zone is 250 mm thick.
The critical steel/concrete ratio is given by:
where: = tensile strength of the immature concrete, which may be taken

as 1.15 for grade 25 MPa concrete and as 1.3 N/mm2 for grade
30 MPa concrete
= width of section (generally 1 000 mm)
= overall thickness of the slab or thickness of the surface zone

under consideration
Note that only 2/3 is required where the cracking is controlled by closely spaced
movement joints (see 10.5.3.4 option 3).
10.4
10.4.2.2 Calculation of crack spacing
When sufficient reinforcement is provided to distribute cracking, the likely maximum spacing
of cracks is given by:
where: = diameter of each reinforcing bar
= actual steel/concrete ratio
= average bond strength between the steel and concrete obtained

from clause 4.11.6.3 of SABS 0100-1:2000 and reduced by
30% for bars in direct tension
Alternatively, the value of may be taken as 1.0 for round bars and 2/3 for deformed bars.
This equation may be expressed for design purposes as:
where: = the number of bars in the width of section
10.4.2.3 Calculation of crack width
For elements exposed to normal climatic conditions the estimated maximum crack width for
temperature effects is given by:
where: = the fall in temperature between the hydration peak and ambient
(which is dependent on the type of cement, cement content and
type of formwork) should be obtained from specialist literature.
(A value of 230 for floors and 280 for walls may be assumed.)
= a further fall in temperature due to seasonal variations. This

further fall in temperature should not be taken any less than 150.
Note that if partial movement joints are provided at not more
than 7.5 m centres, or complete movement joints are provided
at not more than 15 m centres, this subsequent temperature fall
need not be considered.
= coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete (typically 10 x10-6

m/mm/0c.
10.5
10.4.3 Flexural tension in mature concrete
The width of flexural cracks on the surface of an element depends primarily on three factors:
- proximity of the reinforcing bars

- magnitude of the applied moment (and position of neutral axis)
- average strain at the surface being considered
The following formula for calculating the crack width due to flexural tension in mature
concrete may be used, provided that the service stress in the tension reinforcement is
limited to 0.8 and the stress in the concrete is limited to 0.45 :
SECTION STRAIN DIAGRAM
where: = distance from point being considered to nearest bar

= strain in the tension reinforcement
= strain at the level being considered
= average strain at the level being considered
= minimum cover to reinforcement
10.6
The strain in the tension reinforcement is given by:
where: = service stress in the tension reinforcement

= Youngs modulus for steel reinforcement (200 GPa)
The strain at the level being considered is given by:
To calculate the distance to the neutral axis (x), consider the diagram below.
SECTION STRAIN ELASTIC STRESS
By similar triangles:
For equilibrium:
Hence:
Dividing by we get: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eq. 1
is the modular ratio for which we shall use the symbol .
Now multiplying eq. 1 by we get:
or: . . . . . . . . . . eq. 2
10.7
Dividing eq. 2 by gives:
If we let , we can rewrite the above equation as:
Solving this quadratic equation produces:
Rewriting we get:
where: =
= (usually in the order of 15)
Note that the value for should be taken as half of that given in table 1 of SABS 0100-
1:2000 to make allowance for the long-term effects of creep and shrinkage.
The average strain at the surface is given by:
(The second term in this equation allows

for the stiffening effect of the concrete in
the tension zone.)
To calculate the service stress , consider the previous diagram.
The internal moment of resistance is given by:
where: Therefore:
The service stress in the steel is therefore given by:
10.8
Alternatively, the service stress in the tension reinforcement and the depth to the neutral
axis may be obtained from the following table, which is extracted from table 2 of TDH
5158.
0.10 0.159 0.095 0.58 0.339 0.514 1.06 0.427 0.909

0.12 0.173 0.113 0.60 0.344 0.531 1.08 0.430 0.925
0.14 0.185 0.131 0.62 0.348 0.548 1.10 0.433 0.941
0.16 0.196 0.150 0.64 0.353 0.565 1.12 0.436 0.957
0.18 0.207 0.168 0.66 0.357 0.581 1.14 0.438 0.973
0.20 0.217 0.186 0.68 0.361 0.598 1.16 0.441 0.989
0.22 .0226 0.203 0.70 0.365 0.615 1.18 0.444 1.005
0.24 0.235 0.221 0.72 0.369 0.631 1.20 0.446 1.021
0.26 0.243 0.239 0.74 0.373 0.648 1.22 0.449 1.037
0.28 0.251 0.257 0.76 0.377 0.665 1.24 0.452 1.053
0.30 0.258 0.274 0.78 0.381 0.681 1.26 0.454 1.069
0.32 0.266 0.292 0.80 0.384 0.697 1.28 0.457 1.085
0.34 0.272 0.309 0.82 0.388 0.714 1.30 0.459 1.101
0.36 0.279 0.217 0.84 0.392 0.730 1.32 0.462 1.117
0.38 0.286 0.344 0.86 0.395 0.747 1.34 0.464 1.133
0.40 0.292 0.361 0.88 0.398 0.763 1.36 0.467 1.149
0.42 0.298 0.378 0.90 0.402 0.779 1.38 0.469 1.164
0.44 0.303 0.396 0.92 0.405 0.796 1.40 0.471 1.180
0.46 0.309 0.413 0.94 0.408 0.812 1.42 0.474 1.196
0.48 0.314 0.430 0.96 0.412 0.828 1.44 0.476 1.212
0.50 0.319 0.447 0.98 0.415 0.845 1.46 0.478 1.227
0.52 0.325 0.464 1.00 0.418 0.861 1.48 0.480 1.242
0.54 0.330 0.481 1.02 0.421 0.877 1.50 0.483 1.259
0.56 0.334 0.498 1.04 0.424 0.893
is the moment calculated using service loads.
10.9
10.4.4 Minimum reinforcement
The reinforcement in each direction should be at least 0.3% of the gross cross-section for
high tensile steel and 0.5% of the gross cross-section for mild steel.
Where the thickness of a slab is less than 200 mm, the reinforcement may be placed in a
single layer.
Where the thickness of a slab (wall or floor) is 200 mm or greater, half of this reinforcement
should be provided in each face.
All reinforcement should consist of bars of small diameter at relatively close spacing.
10.5 DESIGN AND DETAILING OF JOINTS
10.5.1 Construction joints
A construction joint is a joint in the concrete introduced for convenience in construction at

which measures are taken to achieve subsequent continuity.
10.5.2 Sliding joints
This joint has complete discontinuity in both reinforcement and concrete, and special
provision is made to facilitate relative movement in the plane of the joint.
10.10
10.5.3 Movement joints
A movement joint is specially formed to accommodate movement between adjoining parts

of the structure with special provision being made for maintaining water tightness.
Movement joints in adjacent elements should preferably be aligned.
10.5.3.1 Contraction joint
There is no initial gap between the concrete on each side of the joint. The joint may be
partial (reinforcement is continued through the joint) or complete (both the concrete and
reinforcement are interrupted).
Partial contraction joint in floor
Complete contraction joint in wall

Note that the water-stop is positioned centrally in a wall and on the under-surface of a floor.
10.11
10.5.3.2 Induced contraction joint
The concrete is continuous at the time of casting. It is provided with a reduced cross-section
at which a crack should be induced. For this type of joint to be effective, a minimum
reduction in section of 33% for floors and 25% for walls should be provided.
10.5.3.3 Expansion joint
This joint has complete discontinuity in both the reinforcement and the concrete, and is
intended to accommodate either expansion or contraction.
The above figure shows a typical detail in a floor. For a wall the waterstop would be
positioned centrally in the section.
10.5.3.4 Spacing
The provision of movement joints and their spacing is dependent on the design philosophy
adopted.
Three options of construction method and control are given.
At the one extreme (option 1), no joints may be provided in the concrete, but a substantial
amount of small diameter reinforcement bars will be required. At the other extreme (option
3), close movement joints are provided and less reinforcement is required. In between the
two (option 2), control can be exercised by varying the reinforcement and joint spacing.
10.12
Option 1: Continuous construction where the control of temperature and moisture

effects is done by offering full restraint to movement. To achieve this an area
of reinforcement well in excess of the critical area will be required, and
will consist of closely spaced bars of small diameter.
Option 2: Semi-continuous construction where the control of temperature and moisture

effects is done by offering partial restraint to movement with joints to control
the balance of movement. The reinforcement will be less than that required
in option 1, but will still be in excess of .
Complete joints are provided at a spacing not exceeding 15 m, or partial joints

are provided at a spacing not exceeding 7.5 m. A combination of complete
and partial joints may be considered, where the maximum spacing of joints
would be interpolated between 7.5 m and 15 m.
Note that by using this option, the fall in temperature due to seasonal
variations ( ) may be neglected in calculating the crack width in immature
concrete.
Option 3: Here the control of temperature and moisture effects is done by allowing for
freedom of movement. It is adequate to provide an amount of reinforcement
exceeding only 2/3 .
The joint spacing should not exceed the following:
For complete joints:
For alternate complete and partial joints:
For partial joints:
10.13
10.6 SPECIFICATION OF MATERIALS
10.6.1 Blinding layer
A layer of blinding of at least 75 mm thick should be placed over the ground below any floor.
When casting a floor over clay, the last 150 mm or so of excavation should be done by hand
just before the blinding layer is cast to prevent the clay from drying out and later expanding
as it regains moisture.
10.6.2 Concrete
The concrete grade should be at least 25 MPa and should be durable and well compacted.
Curing should continue for at least 4 days after casting, and it is desirable to prevent the
concrete from drying by draping suitable material over the walls or ponding the floor and
roof. Keep the cement content down to the minimum permitted and ensure that it does not
exceed 400 kg/m3.
Avoid thermal shock or over-rapid cooling of concrete surfaces.
10.6.2.1 Cement
Use cements with low rates of heat evolution.
10.6.2.2 Aggregate
Use aggregates having low coefficients of thermal expansion and avoid the use of
shrinkable aggregate.
10.6.3 Formwork
Ties used to secure and align the formwork should not pass completely through any part of
a structure that will be retaining water as this will lead to a potential weakness in water
tightness. The cover to a tie should be at least that provided to the reinforcement, and the
gap left from the end of the tie to the face of the concrete should be effectively sealed.
10.6.4 Joining materials
10.6.4.1 Joint fillers
The material should be compressible and of sufficient thickness to maintain the initial gap
between the concrete surfaces under pressure from the newly placed concrete. It is
preferable to use non-rotting cork-based joint fillers rather than fibrous jonit fillers which can
absorb moisture.
10.14
10.6.4.2 Waterstops
Waterstops must be durable and impermeable and be capable of allowing for the whole
range of joint movements. The waterstop must be sufficiently wide to ensure that the water
path through the concrete past the waterstop is not unduly short.
The full concrete cover to all reinforcement should be maintained in the vicinity of a water-
stop, and it is essential to ensure the proper compaction of concrete.
10.6.4.3 Joint sealing compounds
Joint sealing compounds (sealants) are impermeable ductile materials which are required
to provide a watertight seal by adhesion to the concrete throughout the range of joint
movements.
10.15
10.7 DESIGN EXAMPLE
The ground floor slab of a reservoir is 250 mm thick and subjected to a service moment of
28 kNm and an ultimate moment of 45 kNm. The structure is to be class B and the minimum
cover required to all reinforcement is 40 mm. Use grade 25/26 concrete and mild steel bars
to calculate suitable reinforcement if complete movement joints are provided at 12 m
centres.
SABS
4.3.3.4.1 Bending
LA curve
4.3.3.4
4.11.4
Flexural tension in the mature concrete
Table 1
10.16
BS 5337
10.17
BS 5337
Direct tension in immature concrete
10.18
BS 5337
10.19
ANNEXURE A - Bending moments in circular tanks
The figure below shows the typical distribution of the bending moments induced in the
vertical section.
No moment is induced in the vertical section when the top is free and the base is free to
slide.
When the top of the wall is free and the base is either pinned or fixed, the moments
induced in the vertical section at any depth may be obtained from Tables A1, A2 or A3 that
follow.
The load from retained liquid is triangular.
The load from gas pressure or prestress is uniform (constant throughout the depth).
Further tables should be consulted for the cases where the top of the wall has shear
restraint from a roof or for moments applied to the base of the wall.
10.20
TABLE A1 Fixed base, free top Triangular load

Bending moment coefficients
0.1 h 0.2 h 0.3 h 0.4 h 0.5 h 0.6 h 0.7 h 0.8 h 0.9 h 1.0 h
0.4 +0.05 +0.14 +0.21 +0.07 -0.42 -1.50 -3.02 -5.29 -8.16 -12.1
0.8 +0.11 +0.37 +0.63 +0.08 +0.70 +0.23 -0.68 -2.24 -4.65 -7.95
1.2 +0.12 +0.42 +0.77 +1.03 +1.12 +0.90 +0.22 -1.08 -3.11 -6.02
1.6 +0.11 +0.41 +0.75 +1.07 +1.21 +1.11 +0.58 -0.51 -2.32 -5.05
2.0 +0.10 +0.35 +0.68 +0.99 +1.20 +1.15 +0.75 -0.21 -1.85 -4.36
3.0 +0.06 +0.24 +0.47 +0.71 +0.90 +0.97 +0.77 +0.21 -1.19 -3.33
4.0 +0.03 +0.15 +0.28 +0.47 +0.66 +0.77 +0.69 -0.23 -0.80 -2.68
5.0 +0.02 +0.08 +0.16 +0.29 +0.46 +0.59 +0.59 -0.28 -0.58 -2.22
6.0 +0.01 +0.03 +0.08 +0.19 +0.32 +0.46 +0.51 -0.29 -0.41 -1.87
8.0 0.00 +0.01 +0.02 +0.08 +0.16 +0.28 +0.38 -0.29 -0.22 -1.46
10.0 0.00 0.00 +0.01 +0.04 +0.07 +0.19 +0.29 -0.28 -0.12 -1.22
12.0 0.00 +0.01 +0.01 +0.02 +0.03 +0.13 +0.23 -0.26 -0.05 -1.04
14.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 +0.01 +0.08 +0.19 -0.22 -0.01 -0.90
16.0 0.00 0.00 -0.01 -0.02 -0.01 +0.04 +0.13 -0.19 -0.01 -0.79
Note that a positive coefficient indicates tension on the outer face.
where: = vertical moment at given depth kNm per m

= internal tank diameter m
= thickness of tank wall m
= bending moment coefficient
= unit weight of retained liquid kN/m3
= depth measured from top m
10.21
TABLE A2 Fixed base, free top Uniform load

Bending moment coefficients
0.1 h 0.2 h 0.3 h 0.4 h 0.5 h 0.6 h 0.7 h 0.8 h 0.9 h 1.0 h
0.4 -0.23 -0.93 -0.27 -4.39 -7.10 -10.2 -14.6 -20.0 -25.9 -33.1
0.8 0.00 -0.06 -0.25 -0.83 -1.85 -3.62 -5.94 -9.17 -13.3 -18.4
1.2 +0.08 +0.26 +0.37 +0.29 -0.09 -0.89 -2.27 -4.68 -8.15 -11.8
1.6 +0.11 +0.36 +0.62 +0.77 +0.68 +0.11 -0.93 -2.67 -5.29 -8.76
2.0 +0.10 +0.36 +0.66 +0.88 +0.89 +0.59 -0.19 -1.68 -3.89 -7.19
3.0 +0.07 +0.26 +0.51 +0.74 +0.91 +0.83 +0.42 -0.53 -2.23 -4.83
4.0 +0.04 +0.15 +0.33 +0.52 +0.68 +0.75 +0.53 -0.13 -1.45 -3.65
5.0 +0.02 +0.08 +0.19 +0.35 +0.51 +0.61 +0.52 +0.07 -1.01 -2.93
6.0 +0.01 +0.04 +0.11 +0.22 +0.36 +0.49 +0.48 +0.17 -0.73 -2.42
8.0 0.00 +0.01 +0.03 +0.08 +0.18 +0.31 +0.38 +0.24 -0.40 -1.84
10.0 0.00 -0.01 0.00 +0.02 +0.09 +0.21 +0.30 +0.26 -0.22 -1.47
12.0 0.00 0.00 +0.01 0.00 +0.04 +0.14 +0.24 +0.22 -0.12 -1.23
14.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 +0.02 +0.10 +0.18 +0.21 -0.07 -1.05
16.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.01 -0.01 +0.06 +0.12 +0.20 -0.05 -0.91

= uniform horizontal pressure kN/m3
10.22
TABLE A3 Pinned base, free top: Combined triangular and uniform Load
Bending moment co-efficients
0.1 h 0.2 h 0.3 h 0.4 h 0.5 h 0.6 h 0.7 h 0.8 h 0.9 h 1.0 h
0.4 +0.20 +0.72 +1.51 +2.30 +3.01 +3.48 +3.57 +3.12 +1.97 0.00
0.8 +0.19 +0.64 +1.33 +2.07 +2.71 +3.19 +3.29 +2.92 +1.87 0.00
1.2 +0.16 +0.58 +1.11 +1.77 +2.37 +2.80 +2.96 +2.63 +1.71 0.00
1.6 +0.12 +0.44 +0.91 +1.45 +1.95 +2.36 +2.55 +2.32 +1.55 0.00
2.0 +0.09 +0.33 +0.73 +1.14 +1.58 +1.99 +2.19 +2.05 +1.45 0.00
3.0 +0.04 +0.18 +0.40 +0.63 +0.92 +1.27 +1.52 +1.53 +1.11 0.00
4.0 +0.01 +0.07 +0.16 +0.33 +0.57 +0.83 +1.09 +1.18 +0.92 0.00
5.0 0.00 +0.01 +0.06 +0.16 +0.34 +0.57 +0.80 +0.94 +0.78 0.00
6.0 0.00 0.00 +0.02 +0.08 +0.19 +0.39 +0.62 +0.78 +0.68 0.00
8.0 0.00 0.00 -0.02 0.00 +0.07 +0.20 +0.38 +0.57 +0.54 0.00
10.0 0.00 0.00 -0.02 -0.01 +0.02 +0.11 +0.25 +0.43 +0.45 0.00
12.0 0.00 0.00 -0.01 -0.02 0.00 +0.05 +0.17 +0.32 +0.39 0.00
14.0 0.00 0.00 -0.01 -0.01 -0.01 0.00 +0.12 +0.26 +0.33 0.00
16.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.01 -0.02 -0.04 +0.08 +0.22 +0.29 0.00

= uniform horizontal pressure kN/m3
10.23
ANNEXURE B - Ring tension in circular tanks
The figure below shows the typical distribution of ring tension throughout the height of the
wall.
When the top is free and the base is free to slide, the ring tension at any depth is given by:
where: = ring tension kN

When the top of the wall is free and the base is either pinned or fixed, the ring tension at
any depth may be obtained from tables B1 or B2.
10.24
TABLE B1 Pinned base, free top: Triangular load

Ring tension coefficients
0.0 h 0.1 h 0.2 h 0.3 h 0.4 h 0.5 h 0.6 h 0.7 h 0.8 h 0.9 h
0.4 +47.4 +44.0 +39.5 +35.2 +30.8 +26.4 +21.5 +16.5 +11.1 +5.70
0.8 +42.3 +40.2 +38.1 +35.8 +33.0 +29.7 +24.9 +20.2 +14.5 +7.60
1.2 +35.0 +35.5 +36.1 +36.2 +35.8 +34.3 +30.9 +25.6 +18.6 +9.30
1.6 +27.1 +30.3 +24.1 +36.9 +38.5 +38.5 +36.2 +31.4 +23.3 +12.4
2.0 +20.5 +25.0 +32.1 +37.3 +41.1 +43.4 +41.9 +36.9 +28.0 +15.1
3.0 +7.40 +17.9 +28.1 +37.5 +44.9 +50.6 +51.9 +47.9 +37.5 +21.0
4.0 +1.70 +13.7 +25.2 +36.7 +46.9 +54.5 +57.9 +55.3 +44.7 +25.6
5.0 -0.80 +11.4 +23.5 +35.6 +46.9 +56.2 +61.7 +60.6 50.3 +29.4
6.0 -1.10 +10.3 +22.3 +34.3 +46.3 +56.6 +63.9 +64.3 +54.7 +32.7
8.0 -1.50 +9.60 +20.8 +32.4 +44.3 +56.4 +66.1 +69.7 +62.1 +38.6
10.0 -0.80 +9.50 +20.0 +31.1 +42.8 +55.2 +66.6 +73.0 +67.8 +43.3
12.0 -0.20 +9.70 +19.7 +30.2 +41.7 +54.1 +66.4 +75.0 +72.0 +47.7
14.0 0.00 +9.80 +19.7 +29.9 +40.8 +53.1 +65.9 +76.1 +75.2 +51.3
16.0 +0.20 +10.0 +19.8 +29.9 +40.3 +52.1 +65.0 +76.4 +77.6 +53.6
Note that a positive coefficient indicates tension.

10.25
TABLE B2 Fixed base, free top: Triangular load

Ring tension coefficients
0.0 h 0.1 h 0.2 h 0.3 h 0.4 h 0.5 h 0.6 h 0.7 h 0.8 h 0.9 h
0.4 +14.9 +13.4 +12.0 +10.1 +8.20 +6.60 +4.90 +2.90 +1.40 +0.40
0.8 +26.3 +23.9 +21.5 +19.0 +16.0 +13.0 +9.60 +6.30 +3.40 +1.00
1.2 +28.3 +27.1 +25.4 +23.4 +20.9 +18.0 +14.2 +9.90 +5.40 +1.60
1.6 +26.5 +26.8 +26.8 +26.6 +25.0 +22.6 +18.5 +13.4 +7.50 +2.30
2.0 +23.4 +25.1 +27.3 +28.5 +28.5 +27.4 +23.2 +17.2 +10.4 +3.10
3.0 +13.4 +20.3 +26.7 +32.2 +35.7 +36.2 +33.0 +26.2 +15.7 +5.20
4.0 +6.70 +16.4 +25.6 +33.9 +40.3 +42.9 +40.9 +33.4 +21.0 +7.30
5.0 +2.50 +13.7 +24.5 +34.6 +42.8 +47.7 +46.9 +39.6 +25.9 +9.20
6.0 +1.80 +11.9 +23.4 +34.4 +44.1 +50.4 +51.4 +44.7 +30.1 +11.2
8.0 -1.10 +10.4 +21.8 +33.5 +44.3 +53.4 +57.5 +53.0 +38.1 +15.1
10.0 -1.10 +9.80 +20.8 +32.3 +43.7 +54.2 +60.8 +58.9 +44.0 +17.9
12.0 -0.50 +9.70 +20.2 +31.2 +42.9 +54.3 +62.8 +63.3 +49.4 +21.1
14.0 -0.20 +9.80 +20.0 +30.6 +42.0 +53.9 +63.9 +66.6 +54.1 +24.1
16.0 0.00 +9.90 +19.9 +30.4 +41.2 +53.1 +64.1 +68.7 +58.2 +26.5
Note that a positive coefficient indicates tension.

10.26

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Reinforced

2 Analysis of indeterminate structures

1.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5

1.3 LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9

1.4 LIMIT STATES DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14

MODULE 2 ANALYSIS OF BEAMS AND FRAMES

2.2 CONTINUOUS BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2

3.2 SHEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.33

3.4 COMBINED SHEAR AND TORSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.45

3.5 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.49

3.6 DESIGN EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.55

4.2 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2

4.3 DESIGN FOR FLEXURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11

4.4 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15

4.5 DESIGN FOR SHEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16

4.7 OTHER SLAB SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.35

5.2 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2

5.3 DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3

MODULE 6 COLUMNS AND ARCHES

6.2 BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1

6.3 EFFECTIVE HEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2

6.4 SLENDERNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5

6.5 DESIGN AXIAL LOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8

6.7 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.17

6.8 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.28

6.9 EXAMPLE 6.3 (reinforcement) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.29

7.2 ISOLATED BASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1

7.3 COMBINED BASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13

7.4 STRAPPED BASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.22

8.2 COMPONENTS OF A RETAINING WALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2

8.3 MODES OF FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2

8.4 SOIL PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4

8.5 APPLIED PRESSURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4

8.6 DESIGN APPROACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.8

8.7 EXAMPLE 8.1 (cantilever retaining wall) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.10

9.2 PARAMETERS REQUIRED FOR DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1

9.3 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2

9.4 EXAMPLE 9.1 (silo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5

10.2 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1

10.3 LIMIT STATE REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2

10.4 CRACK CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3

10.5 DESIGN AND DETAILING OF JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10

10.6 SPECIFICATION OF MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14

10.7 DESIGN EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.16

ANNEXURE A Bending moments in circular tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.20

ANNEXURE B Ring tension in circular tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.24

1.1 SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1

1.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5

1.3 LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9

1.4 LIMIT STATES DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14

area of tension reinforcem ent in beam s and slabs mm

area of com pression reinforcem ent in beam s and slabs mm

area of longitudinal reinforcem ent in colum ns mm

area of bent-up bars for shear reinforcem ent mm

induced deflection in slender colum ns mm

sm aller dim ension of rectangular foundation mm

width of section at the level of tension reinforcem ent mm

web width of flanged beam mm

com pression force (used for derivation of equations for flexure) kN

distance from com pression face to tension reinforcem ent mm

Young's m odulus N/m m

m inim um eccentricity of axial load on colum ns mm

horizontal force on retaining walls kN

characteristic com pressive strength of concrete N/m m