Professional Documents
Culture Documents
4.1: INTRODUCTION
4.1.1: Upsetting Between Flat Platens
Stresses in most of the metal forming processes, such as cold heading, riveting
etc. are compressive in nature. Upset test at room temperature gives a representative
behavior during metal forming. Upsetting of solid cylinders is an important metal
forming process and an important stage in the forging sequence of many products.
Though extensive studies have been reported by various authors on friction studies
little attention has been given to the compression of taller cylinders, where the initial
height/diameter (H0/D0) ratio equals or exceeds unity. To be comprehensive and
practical, a model of the forging process should permit determination of not only the
platen forces and pressure distributions affecting tool life, but also the internal flow of
the forging influencing die-design and forging sequence and the properties of final
product dictating in-service performance.
56
applications include digitizing of metal parts and tools, to perform forming analysis of
parts and tools and determination of material properties. Good interfaces to
conventional CAD/CAM and numerical simulation systems made such optical
measuring system a part of complex process chains. These process chains mainly
focus on optimizing the development of products and production processes,
improving the product quality using optical systems, considerably decreasing the
development time for products and production while improving the quality.
Conventional methods of analyzing the deformation behaviour during upsetting by
measuring grid distortions on tool makers microscope were available in literature.
Adoption of Machine vision system to analyze the flow behaviour of materials during
upsetting has been proposed in the present work. The advantage of this method is that
the experiment need not be intermittently stopped after certain deformation to
measure the strains from grid. When the experiment is stopped intermittently, elastic
deflections in specimen and tooling may be relieved causing inaccuracies in the next
step of deformation. By the use of vision system, the experiment need not be stopped
during deformation process. Offline analysis can be done latter.
One of the most common analysis and evaluation methods used for the metal
stamping process in measuring the extent of deformation is sometimes related to
forming severity, where the level of deformation is categorized as safe, marginal or
failure. In many press shops, strain measurement is used as a way to asses the
formability of a stamping. Surface strain data can be used effectively to diagnose
production problems, and identify potential failure sites. These data also are used to
verify predicted results from finite element analysis programs (FEA).
57
A number of studies have already been made in an attempt to obtain quantitative
data on friction in metal processing by using the actual metal working operation or by
using simulative laboratory tests. Use of the particular metal working process for
these investigations has the disadvantage that it is difficult to separate the force
necessary to overcome friction from the force necessary to give the required
deformation, and more difficult to control the secondary process variables.
Laboratory tests may furnish valuable measurements of frictional behavior under
controlled conditions provided that these tests are capable of simulating process
conditions such as temperature, deformation speed and deformation pressure.
58
4.2: LITERATURE REVIEW
4.2.1: Friction and Ring Compression test
Friction is the resistance to motion encountered when one body slides over
another. In metal working processes it arises from sliding of the work piece against
the die [1]. In the interest of clarity, friction forces are often neglected. In many real
metal working processes friction is the predominant factor [2]. Shaw et al. [3]
discussed the significance of axisymmetric compression, and then the
mechanical/manufacturing properties of materials, to estimate forming limits up to
plastic instability and fracture. Considerable attention has been devoted to the analysis
of platen forces and pressure distributions in upsetting, particularly for thin discs [4-
8].
Of the many laboratory tests utilized for friction studies the ring test technique
originated by Kunogi [9] and further developed by Male and Cockroft [10] has the
greatest capability for quantitatively measuring friction under normal processing
conditions. Before a satisfactory mathematical solution for the compression of a ring
was available, a pioneering independent calibration was made by experimentation
[11]. Subsequent theoretical analyses [12, 13] have made possible more accurate and
less laborious calibration of the ring test by mathematical computation.
The first satisfactory analysis of the compression of a flat ring was made by
Avitzur [12] through an optimum upper bound mathematical solution and later
verified by Hawkyard and Johnson [13] using a stress analysis approach. Both
solutions are based on assumptions that (a) there is no non-uniform distortion of
cylindrical elements due to frictional constraint, i.e., no barreling; (b) the ring material
obeys Mises stress-strain rate laws, implying no strain hardening effect, no elastic
deformation and no volumetric change; and (c) a constant friction factor, m, for a
given die and material under constant surface and temperature conditions such that the
interfacial frictional shear stress, i, is given by
0
i = m
3
Where 0 = basic yield stress of the ring material. The assumptions of
constant m and constant 0 automatically means that i is constant. Certain
investigations [14-16] on friction indicate that, for metal working conditions, the
assumption of a constant interfacial friction stress may be reasonably justified. When
59
strain hardening of ring material occurs (i.e., assumption (b) is violated) it is
necessary that interpretation of the ring test results with the mathematical solution
should be cautious.
The theoretical solutions of Avitzur [12] and Hawkyard and Johnson [13] both
yield the following mathematical relationships for a ring specimen under compression
(Figure 4.1), where Rn is the radius of the metal flow divide within the ring
(sometimes referred to as the neutral or no-slip):
1. When Rn Ri
R 4
1 + i X 2
0
2
Rn 3 R
= 1/ 2
R0 2 Ri4
X ( X 1) 1 4 X
R0
R R Ri
2
X 0 exp m 0 1 ---------------(1)
Ri T R0
2. When Ri Rn R0
4
4
R R
1 + 1 + 3
i 0
R0 1 R0 2 R0 Rn
m = ln ------(2)
T Ri 2 Rn Ri R0
4
2 1 + + +
R0 R0 1 1 3
Rn
Eq.(1) is valid when Rn lies between Ri and O and
mR0 1 3( R0 / Ri ) 2
ln -------------------------(3)
T Ri 4
2 1 1 + 1 + 3 R0
R0
Ri
R0 + Ri
Eq.(2) is valid when Rn lies between and R0 and
2
60
mR0 1 3( R0 / Ri ) 2
ln --------------------------(4)
T Ri 4
2 1 1 + 1 + 3 R0
R0
Ri
Direction of
metal flow Upper die
Rn
Ring
Ri specimen T
R0
Lower die
Neither the basic yield stress of the material, 0, nor the interfacial shear
stress, , appear in the final equations in terms of absolute values, only as a ratio, m.
The basic assumption in the analysis is that this ratio remains constant for the material
and deformation conditions. If the analysis is carried out for a small increment of
deformation, 0 and can be assumed to be approximately constant for this increment
and the solution is valid. Thus, if the shear factor m is constant for the whole
operation, it would appear justifiable to continue the mathematical analysis in a series
of small deformation increments using the final ring geometry from one increment as
the initial geometry for the subsequent increment and so on. As long as the ratio of
the interfacial shear stress, , and the material flow stress, 0, remained constant it
would not be of consequence if the ring material strain hardened during deformation
provided that the increase in work hardening in any one single deformation increment
could be neglected. The progressive increase in interfacial shear stress accompanying
strain hardening would also be of no consequence provided that it could be assumed
to be constant over the entire die/ring interface during any one deformation increment.
Thus it is possible that the analysis could be justifiably applied to real materials even
though it was initially assumed that the material would behave according to the
61
Mises stress-strain rate laws provided that the assumption of a constant interfacial
shear factor, m, is correct.
The ring compression test, developed by Male and Cockroft [10] is the most
commonly employed method for determining friction characteristics. The test
involves the compression of a hollow, thick-walled cylinder, or ring, and the
determination of the variation of the internal bore diameter with the height reduction.
The variation of the bore with height has been shown to depend on friction between
the ring and the platens, and to provide a good method for its evaluation [17]. The
test is reasonably easy to carry out at room temperature, since an interrupted
compression test (with the associated loss in accuracy because of the load reversal)
can be employed, with the bore diameter being measured at each interruption.
Calibrating curves for the ring compression test have been obtained using a
range of methods with various simplifying assumptions. Probably the most well-
known calibration curves are those determined by Hawkyard and Johnson [13]. In
their analysis of the ring, it is assumed that the material behaves with rigid perfect
plasticity and that no barreling occurs so that the deformation is completely
homogeneous, with uniform states of stress and strain. The ring compression test is
perceived by many as the standard procedure for determination of friction between the
billet and die in forging operation. In addition, it is sometimes assumed that it is a test
for which a universal calibration can be used. The friction arises due to the work piece
coming in contact with a tool or die [18, 19]. The mechanics of friction are complex.
The fundamentals of this phenomenon have been much studied [5, 14, 20-22], yet
very little that is known would facilitate formulation of exact functional relationship
between and the other variables. Friction can be described by a coefficient of
friction (), defined as:
= F / R = i / p = i / hardness
62
4.2.2: Compression Testing of Short Cylinders
The compression of a short cylinder between anvils is a much better test for
measuring the flow stress in metal working applications [23-25]. The nature of tensile
instability due to necking can be avoided and the test can be carried out to strains in
excess of 2.0 (for ductile material). Friction between the specimen and anvils play
key role. In the homogeneous upset (zero friction) test a cylinder of diameter D0 and
initial height H0 would be compressed in height to H and spread out in diameter to D
according to the law of constancy of volume.
D02 H0 = D2 H
For the selection of an upsetting process the following parameters are significant:
a) Geometry of the component
b) Strength of the component material
c) Formability characteristics of the material
d) Upset ratio
e) Accuracy
f) Surface quality, and
g) The economic considerations.
For trouble-free and economic production the work piece material must be of
uniform quality (chemical composition, mechanical properties and surface finish).
63
4.2.4: True Stress and True Strain
The engineering stress-strain curve does not give a true indication of the
deformation characteristics of a material because it is based entirely on the original
dimensions of the specimen and these dimensions change continuously during the
test. In metal working processes the work piece undergoes appreciable change in
cross sectional area. Thus measures of stress and strain which are based on the
instantaneous dimensions are needed.
Ludwik [29-31] first proposed the definition of true strain or natural strain .
In this definition of strain the change in length is referred to the instantaneous gauge
length, rather than to the original gage length.
L dL L
= = ln -------------- (3)
L0 L L0
L
= ln or = ln(1 + e) -------------- (4)
L0
True stress is the load at any instant divided by the cross-sectional area over
which it acts. True stress will be denoted by the familiar symbol .
p
= -------------- (5)
A0
P
= (1+e) or = S (1+e) -------------- (6)
A0
where: S = engineering stress
e = engineering strain
P = applied load
A = instantaneous area
64
4.2.5: Computation of Plastic Strain
Stress
Plastic strain (p) = (Total strain)
Young's modulus
From figure 4.2 C = y mx = E tot
C ( E tot )
P = C / m = =
E E
= P = tot --------------- (8) [27]
E
y
y = mx + C
p elastic
total
C
65
be used for strains less than 20% and also do not allow the measurement of larger
deformation. Three optical methods can be employed for large strain measurement
using a grid (lines or spots) method of mark-tracking techniques.
66
4.2.7: Theoritical Background of Orthogonal Axes
The orthogonal axes of reference for the component of stress and strain
increment on the free surface of a compression specimen are as shown in figure 4.3.
It is assumed that throughout the compression test the principal axed of stress and
strain increment coincide. The reference axis, r, in a principal direction because the
shear stresses on a free surface are zero, and -axis is principal direction because the
flow is symmetrical about the longitudinal axis, hence the z-axis is also a principal
direction.
Longitudinal
axis
z
w0
Equator r
z0
For these conditions, the Von-Mises yiels criterion can be written in terms of
principal stresses as
= 3J 2 = [ + z - z ] 1 / 2 ------------ (1)
2 2
Because the transverse stress component r is zero on the free surface. Here
J 2 is the second invariant of the stress deviator.
67
Where d is non negative constant which may vary throughout the loading history.
d 2 z 1 + 2
= or = ------------ (3)
d z 2 z z +2
d
Where = is a parameter which can be determined by experimental
d z
measurements of the ratio of the principal strain components in the and z directions
on the free surface of the specimen.
Substituting equations (3) and (1) gives the following expression for and z .
1 / 2
1 + 2 1 + 2 2
z = 1 + ---------------(4)
2 + + 2
1 + 2
And = z ----------------------(5)
2+
isotropic material for the appropriate effective strain at the free surface.
In terms of the principal strain increments
d =
2
(d 2
+ d 2 z + d d z )
1/ 2
------------------(6)
3
The effective strain at the free surface from equation (6) is given by
(1 + + )
z 1/ 2
z 2
= d = d z -----------------(7)
2
0 0
3
68
Where the integration can be performed along the strain path provided the
principal axes of the strain increment do not rotate relative to element.
The equations (4),(5) and (7), will enable us to calculate the stresses and
effective strains on the geometric centre of the bulge surface and are identical to the
equations derived by Kudo and Aoi and David et al [41,45].
Theoretically, may take any value between - and + but there is no real
value of for which or z would increase with out bounds. In the present
69
4.3: EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
70
4.3.2: EXPERIMENTAL STRAIN MEASUREMENTS
4.3.2.2: Materials
The upsetting tests were performed on four different materials viz., AA2024
alloy , and AA2024-2% fly ash, AA2024-6% fly ash and AA2024 10% fly ash
composites in the following conditions.
71
Figure 4.5: Experimental set up of computer controlled 100 kN compression testing
machine with on line video recording system (Model: UT 9102; Dak
System inc).
72
CCD Camera
Top Platen
Upsetting
Specimen
Bottom Platen
(a)
Top Platen
Upsetting
Specimen
Bottom Platen
(b)
Figure 4.6: (a) Closer view of the experimental set up of computer controlled 100 KN
compression testing machine with on line video recording system (b)
Closer view of the Upset sample.
73
4.3.3: PREPARATION OF SAMPLES, GRID MARKING AND
MEASUREMENTS
Deformation behaviour for two limiting values of aspect ratio 1.5 (to avoid
buckling) and 1.0 (which is used in most of the forging applications) are chosen to
conduct the tests. The specimens were machined from 18 mm diameter gravity die
cast and homogenized fingers to a diameter of 12 mm and to lengths 12 mm and 18
mm. Grid lines were marked at the mid height of the surfaces (4 mm x 900). The
measurement and strain calculations scheme was shown in figure 4.7. Online video
images of grid were recorded during the deformation process. The tests were
continued till 50% deformation or till the appearance of an appreciable crack which
ever is earlier. The images of grids before and after deformation for Ho/Do = 1.0 were
shown in figure 4.8 (a) and (b) respectively. The distortions of grid from recorded
images were analyzed offline after the experiments at desired reductions. The camera
was calibrated for the corresponding distances of grid to yield a fixed magnification
and to take care of distortions in the images. The images were selected at deformation
steps of 5% using the software animation shop 3.0 and are transported to paint shop
pro 7.0 for further processing to get the enhanced noiseless images of high clarity
grid. Axial ( z ) and circumferential strain ( ) values were calculated from these
measurements according to:
h w
z = ln , and = ln
h0 w0
74
Where: h0 and w0 are the initial height and width of an element (Figure 4.7a),
respectively, and hi and wi are the current height and width of the element respectively
(Figure 4.7b).
H0
h0 h
w w
D
D0
Figure 4.7: (a) Schematic diagram of upset tests showing grids for strain
measurements
(a) (b)
Figure 4.8: Images of grids drawn at equatorial plane for Ho/Do = 1.0 (a) before
deformation (b) after deformation
75
4.4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The decrease in internal diameter of the ring compression test was plotted
against % of deformation on Male and Cockcroft calibration curves in increments of
10% deformation. The experimental values obtained for AA2024 alloy and fly ash
composites was fitted into the Male and Cockcroft calibration curves, as shown in
Figure 4.9 (a-d). These experimentally obtained curves were coinciding with the
calibration curve at the friction factor m value of 0.36. Hence the friction factor m
for this AA 2024 alloy and the composites in dry condition was equal to 0.36. The
same set of flat platens was used for upsetting alloy and the composites under
investigation. The same surface roughness for alloy and composites samples was
maintained. Hence, the friction factor m for alloy and the composites under
investigation was found to be 0.36. Figure 4.10 shows the photographs of ring
specimen before and after 50% deformation. The end face of a ring specimen after
deformation has a polished finish; this phenomenon evident the existence of friction
between the ring specimen and die during deformation under dry condition.
76
100
80 m=0.8
AA 2024 alloy m=0.6
40
m=0.12
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-20 m=0.08
-40 m=0.04
m=0 m=0.02
-60
% Deformation
(a)
100
m=0.8
80 AA2024 -2% Fly Ash Composite m=0.6
% Decrease in Internal Diameter
m=1
m=0.4 m=0.2
60
40
m=0.12
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
m=0.08
-20
-40 m=0.04
m=0
m=0.02
-60
% Deformation
(b)
77
100
40
m=0.12
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 m=0.08
80 90
-20
m=0.04
-40
m=0.02
m=0
-60
% Deformation
(c)
100
m=0.6
m=1
m=0.2
60
40
m=0.12
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-20 m=0.08
-40 m=0.04
m=0 m=0.02
-60
% Deformation
(d)
Figure 4.9: Ring test calibration curves for AA 2024 alloy and composites showing
the changes of the minimum internal diameter as a function of the
reduction in height for dry (Unlubricated) condition. (a) AA 2024 alloy
(b) AA 2024 alloy- 2% Fly ash Composite (c) AA 2024 alloy- 6% Fly ash
Composite, and (d) AA 2024 alloy- 10% Fly ash Composite.
78
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.10: Ring compression test specimen (OD: ID: H = 6:3:2) (a) Before
deformation (b) after 50% deformation in dry condition
79
4.4.2: Compressive Properties of the AA2024 alloy and Al-Fly Ash Composites
Figure 4.11 shows the hardness of the AA 2024 alloy and AA 2024 alloy fly
ash (ALFA) composites before and after 50% deformation. As the amount of fly ash
is increasing the hardness of the composite is increasing. This increase was observed
from 73 VHN for AA 2024 alloy to 130 VHN for AA 202410% fly ash composite.
This could be due to the presence of fly ash particulates which consists of majority of
the alumina and silica which are hard in nature.
Further, figure 4.11 also illustrates the hardness values for 50% deformed of
AA 2024 alloy and AA 2024 alloyfly ash composites (2, 6 & 10 wt. % fly ash) under
compression loading. The increased hardness values were observed for all the tested
samples under deformed condition. This increase in hardens was higher for higher the
amount of fly ash presence in the matrix. This increase was attributing from the
presence of high hardness fly ash powder, which act as reinforcing phase, are
dispersed in AA 2024 alloy matrix and become the obstacles to the movement of
dislocation when plastic deformation occurs. From the present investigation the
increase in hardness value at before and after 50% deformation for alloy and
composites was observed as: for AA2024 alloy: 73 to 89 VHN, whereas for AA2024-
2% fly ash composite was 85 to 115 VHN, for AA2024-6% fly ash composite was118
to 132 VHN, and for AA2024-10% fly ash composite 130 to 143 VHN respectively.
80
This indicates that the fly ash addition leads to improvement in the strength of the
composites. The strength of the metal matrix composites (MMC) is expected to
increase by addition of solid ceramic particles due to the strengthening effects
occurred in particulate reinforced composites. These effects include the transfer of
stress from the matrix to the particulate, the interaction between individual
dislocations and particulates, grain size strengthening mechanism due to a reduction
in composite matrix grain size, and generation of a high dislocation density in the
matrix of the composite as a result of the difference in thermal expansion between the
metal matrix and particulates [46-48]. Further the experimental results shows that
increased in aspect ratio decreases the load required for the same amount of
deformation. For a fixed diameter, a shorter specimen will require a greater axial
force to produce the same percentage of reduction in height, because of the relatively
larger undoformed region [49].
160
140
Hardness (VHN)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 6 10
Figure 4.11: Comparative hardness bar chart for AA 2024 alloy and AA 20242-10%
fly ash composites before and after 50% deformation
81
Figure 4.12: Load displacement curves for AA 2024alloy
alloy and Al-Fly
Al ash
composites at the aspect ratio (Ho/Do) =1.0
82
Figure 4.14: True stress vs true plastic strain curves for AA 2024alloy and Al-Fly
Al ash
composites at the aspect ratio (Ho/Do) =1.0
83
4.4.3: HOLLOMON POWER LAW PARAMETERS
True stress vs true strains were calculated from equation (7) and (8) of section
4.2.4 with the help of the Load displacement data; which was generated during the
cold upsetting of alloy and composites. The calculated true stress vs true strains were
fit into well established Hollomon power law [50-56] given by:
=K n
Where: = true stress
= true plastic strain
K= strength coefficient, and
n = strain hardening exponent
84
Figure 4.16(b) shows the effect of fly ash particle on strain hardening
exponent n. The value of n found to be increasing with fly ash addition. The
strength of the metal matrix composites (MMC) is expected to increase by addition of
solid ceramic particles due to the strengthening effects occurred in particulate
reinforced composites. The presence of second phase particles in the continuous metal
matrix phase resulted in localized internal stresses which modify the plastic properties
to a great extent [69, 70]. Hence, the presence of hard fly ash particles made the
composites high strength subsequently increase in strain hardening exponent n
values for larger fly ash content.
85
(a)
(b)
86
4.4.4: MEASUREMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL STRAIN PATH EQUATIONS
Surface strains, and z were evaluated for the geometric mid-sectional grid
of the specimens (figure 4.8) and the results were plotted in figures 4.17 to 4.20, for
AA2024 alloy and AA2024-2 to 10 wt. % fly ash composites respectively.
Homogeneous deformation corresponds to ideal condition, that is, deformation
1
without friction or barreling with a constant slope of = .
Z 2
1
The line with a slope = on vs z plot and which intersects the
Z 2
Upset tests with friction produce curved strain paths. The deviation of slope
from that of homogeneous deformation to ratio between axial strain ( ) and
87
circumferential strain ( z ) represents barreling. This deviation was less when the
specimen die interface friction was low. From the experimental results, it was
evident that the strain paths obtained from cylindrical specimens with aspect ratios 1.0
and 1.5 deviated from the slope 0.5 (which represents the homogeneous
deformation). It was also observed that all strain paths obtained from different
specimens exhibited nonlinearity from the beginning to the end of the strain path. And
also it was shows that the slope at a point on the strain path increases as that point
moves toward the end of the strain path or the fracture point. This means that at the
fracture point, the incremental axial strain component was almost zero, while the
incremental circumferential strain component was very high. This change in the slope
of the strain path has a great effect on the stress state at the surface of the specimen.
The curve fitting technique was used (because of the scatter in the experimental data
for axial and circumferential strains) to obtain a smooth relationship between the axial
strain and circumferential strain. This relationship represents the equations of the
strain paths. Some of these equations of strain paths obtained from different
specimens were given in table 4.1. The ends of the strain paths represent the fracture
points. Joining all the fracture points on all strain paths gives the workability limit for
the materials under considered.
Table 4.1: Experimental strain path equations obtained by the best curve fit technique.
The compression tests were carried at the friction factor m= 0.36 (Dry condition).
S. No Material Aspect ratio Strain path equations
1. H0/D0=1.0 =0.218 z 2 -0.5426 z
AA2024 alloy
2. H0/D0=1.5 =0.0938 z 2 -0.5223 z
3. AA2024 alloy- 2% H0/D0=1.0 =0.2135 z 2 -0.6884 z
4. fly ash composite H0/D0=1.5 =0.1579 z 2 -0.5558 z
5. AA2024 alloy- 6% H0/D0=1.0 =0.0929 z 2 -0.9262 z
6. fly ash composite H0/D0=1.5 =0.6439 z 2 -0.3569 z
7. AA2024 alloy- 10% H0/D0=1.0 =0.2958 z 2 -0.7729 z
8. fly ash composite H0/D0=1.5 =0.4193 z 2 -0.4283 z
88
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.7
0.6
0.5
Circumferential Strain
0.4
0.3
0.2
H/D = 1.0
H/D = 1.5 0.1
Fracture Line
Homogeneous Deformation
0
-0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
Axial Strain
89
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.3
0.2
H/D = 1.0
0.1
H/D = 1.5
Fracture Line
Homogeneous Deformation
0
-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
Axial Strain
0.7
0.6
0.5
Circumferential Strain
0.4
0.3
0.2
H/D = 1.0
H/D = 1.5
0.1
Fracture Line
Homogeneous Deformation
0
-0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
Axial Strain
90
4.4.5: DETERMINATION OF STRESS COMPONENTS
Estimation of the effective strain, , on the geometrical mid section of the free
surface were made from equation (7) of section 4.2.7. The effective strain obtained
by this method allowed estimates of the effective stress from the stress - strain power
law relationship discussed in section 4.2.7. The appropriate value of effective stress
was then used in equation (4) and (5) of section 4.2.7 to calculate the stresses and
H becomes ( + z )/3.
was zero and the axial stress z was equal to the yield stress, 0 . Under this
The present results referring to figures 4.21 to 4.24 of AA2024 alloy and
AA2024alloy fly ash composites show that with the increasing effective strain the
circumferential stress component increasingly becomes tensile with continued
deformation. The increase in its value was found to be more in case of specimens
deformed for lower aspect ratio compared to the higher aspect ratio conditions. On
91
the other hand the axial stresses z , for AA 2024 alloy as well as all the fly ash
composites increased in the very initial stages of deformation but started becoming
less compressive immediately as barreling developed. For unfractured specimens the
axial stress z , was always be compressive. However for the specimens where
surface fracture occurred both z and H stress components became less and less
compressive as deformation progressed and became tensile. This gave rise to the so
called normal fracture.
Kudo and Aoi [41] and Kobayashi [43] observed both the normal and shear
type of fractures in their ductile failure studies; the shear type of fracture was
observed when the axial stress, z on the surface is compressive. It is possible to
speculate that when friction at the interface is so negligible that the axial stress z is
always compressive and the circumferential stress never reaches the critical value,
shear type of fracture should occur. To verify this hypothesis Samantha [74] made his
study on an Al specimen of H0/D0 = 1.5 which was incrementally deformed without
any strain measurements. New Teflon film was used at each incremental deformation,
and the deformation was continued until shear crack appeared, after 93% reduction in
height. This result gives an indication that, if the cold heading wire does not contain
longitudinal surface defects such as seams and laps, and is well lubricated, ductile
fracture should not be a problem in a similar process such as bolt heading, plate
bending and other cold forming operations.
The hydrostatic stress involves only pure tension or compression and yield
stress is independent of it. But fracture strain is strongly influenced by hydrostatic
stress [77, 78]. Increase in friction constraint and decrease in aspect ratio caused
hydrostatic stress to be tensile and instability starts. As the hydrostatic stress becomes
more and more tensile, a state of tensile instability will occur. The transformation in
nature of the hydrostatic stress from compressive to tensile depends on the shape and
size of the specimen and the frictional constraint at the contact surface of the
specimen with the die block.
In the present work, the upsetting tests were performed in dry condition for
predicting the deformation to fracture. Due to practical difficulties in observing the
92
crack initiation the maximum deformation is limited to 50%. For AA2024 alloy and
AA2024 alloy -2% fly ash composites, no crack was observed. In case of AA2024
6% fly ash composite, the crack was observed at 48% deformation for aspect ratio of
1.0 and no crack was observed for aspect ratio of 1.5. Referring to the result obtained
for AA2024-10% fly ash composite, the crack appearance was observed at 46% and
48% deformation for the aspect ratios of 1.0 and 1.5 respectively
93
(a)
(b)
94
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.22: Effective stress , stress components , z and H as a function of
95
(a)
(b)
96
(a)
(b)
97
4.5: CONCLUSIONS
1. The friction factor m was found to be 0.36 for the given set of compression dies
in dry condition.
2. Irrespective of alloy composition the friction factor values were found to be same
for a given set of dies.
3. Load requirement increased with decrease in aspect ratio for given frictional
condition.
4. Strength coefficient (K) increased with increase in fly ash content for all the fly
ash composites compare to AA 2024 alloy.
5. Strain hardening exponent (n) increased with in fly ash content for all the fly ash
composites compare to AA 2024 alloy.
8. AA2024 alloy and AA2024 alloyfly ash composites show that with the
increasing effective strain the circumferential stress component increasingly
becomes tensile with continued deformation.
10. The axial stresses z , for AA 2024 alloy as well as all the fly ash composites
increased in the very initial stages of deformation but started becoming less
compressive immediately as barreling developed.
13. Increase in fly ash content and decrease in aspect ratio caused hydrostatic stress to
be tensile leading to normal type of fracture.
98
REFERENCES
3. Shaw, M. C., and Avery, J. P., Forming Limits, Reliability, Stress Analysis and
Failure Prevention Methods in Mechanical Design, A Century 2 Publication,
ASME Centennial bound; Vol:1980: pp. 297-303.
6. Schroeder.W and D. A. Wevstrer, J. App. Mech. Vol. 16; 1949: pp. 289.
7. Van Rooten G .T, and Gackofen W.A., Int. J. Mech. Sci., Vol. 1; 1960: pp.1.
8. Daneshi G. H., and Hawkyard J. B., Int. J. Mech. Sci. Vol. 13; 1971: pp. 355.
9. Kunogi, M., Reports of the Scientific Research Institute, Tokyo, Vol. 30; 1954:
pp.63.
10. Male, A. T., and Cockcroft, M.G., A Method for the Determination of the
Coefficient of Friction of Metals Under Conditions of Bulk Plastic Deformation,
J. Inst. of Metals, Vol.93; 1964-65: pp.38.
11. Male, A. T., The Friction of Metals Undergoing Plastic Deformation at Elevated
Temperatures, Ph.D., Theses, Department of Industrial Metallurgy, University of
Birmingham, England, October 1962.
12. Avitzur, B., Forging of Hollow Disks, Israel Journal of Technology, Vol 2,
No.3; 1967: pp.295.
99
13. Hawkyard, J. B., and Johnson, W., An analysis of the changes in Geometry of a
Short Hallow Cylinder During Compression, International J. of Mechanical
Sciences, Vol.9; 1967: pp.163.
14. Van Rooyen, G. T., and Backofen, W.A., A Study of Interface Friction in Plastic
Compression, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, Vol.8; 1966: pp.731.
15. Peterson, M. B., and Ling, F. F., Friction and Lubrication at Extreme Pressures,
Symposium on Friction and Lubrication in Metal processing, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, 1966, pp. 39.
16. Danchert, J. Analysis of the ring test method for the evaluation of frictional
stresses in bulk metal forming processes. Ann. CIRP, Vol. 1; 1988: pp. 37.
17. Sadhu Singh, Theory of Plasticity and Metal Forming Processes. Khanna
Publications.
18. Bowden. F. P. and D. Tabor, The Friction and Lubrication Of Solids, Oxford
University Press, London, part I, 1954, part II, 1964.
20. Fukui, S., Ohi, T., Kudo, H., Takita, I., and Seino, J. Some Aspects of Friction in
Metal-Strip Drawing, Int.J. Mech. Sci., Vol 4; July-August, 1962: pp.297-314.
21. Butler, L. H., The Effects of Lubricants on the Surface Appearance of Aluminum
After Plastic Deformation, Metallurgia, Vol.55; 1957: pp. 63-66.
22. Butler, L. H., Surface Conformation of Metals Under High Nominal Contact
Pressures, Metallurgia, Vol.61; 1960: pp. 167-174.
23 Betzalel Avitzur Metal Forming: Processes and Analysis TMH Edition 1977
Tata McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York.
100
25 Altan T, Bonlger F.W. Flow stress of metals and its applications in metal
forming analysis Journal of Engineering Industry, Vol. 95; 1973: pp. 1009-
1019.
26 Kurt Lange Hand Book of Metal Forming 1919 McGraw-Hill, Book Company
New York
29 Shangwu Xiong, Wing Kamliu, Jian Cao, Li, C.S., Rodrigver, J M C., Martins
P.A.F., Simulation of bulk meal forming process using the reproducing kernel
particle method. Computer and Structures, Vol. 83; 2005: pp: 547-587.
32 Bruck, H.A., Mc Neill, S. R., Sutton, M.A. and Peters, W.H. Digital image
correlation using Newton-Raphson method of partial differential correction. Exp.
Mech., Vol. 29, no.3; 1989: pp. 261-267.
33 Joenathan, C., Franze, B., Haible, P. and Tiziani H.J. Speckle interferometry with
temporal phase evaluation for measuring large-object deformation. Appl. Opt.,
Vol. 37 no.13; 1998: pp. 2608-2614.
34 Han, B., Ifju, P. and Post D. Geometric moir methods with enhanced sensitivity
by optical/digital fringe multiplication. Exp. Mech., Vol. 33 no.3; 1993: pp. 195-
200.
101
35 Sevenhuijsen, P.J. the Development of a laser grating method for the measurement
of strain distribution in plane, opaque surface. V.D.I. Berichte, Vol. 313; 1978: pp.
143-147.
39 Post, D. Moir Interferometry at VPI & SU. Exp. Mech., Vol 23, no 2; 1983: pp.
203-210.
40 Bremand R., Dupre J.C. and Lagarde, A. Mesure des deformations sans contact
per analyse d-images. Proc. Photomecanique 95 Etude du compartment des
materiaux et des structures, Cachan, 1995 : pp. 171-177.
41 Kudo, H., and Aoi, K., Effect of Compression Test Condition Upon Fracturing of
a Medium Carbon Steel Study on Cold Forgeability Test; Part II, Journal of
the Japan Society of Technical Plasticity, Vol. 8; 1967: pp. 17-27.
44 Kuhn, H.A., and Lee, P.W., Strain Instability and Fracture at the Surfaced of
Upset Cylinders, Metals Trans., Vol. 2; 1971: pp. 3197 3202.
45 David W. Manthey, Dr. Daeyong Lee, Rebecca M. Pearce: The Need For
Surface Strain Measurement. - Metal Forming Magazine.11/28/2005.
102
46 Natarajan N, Vijaya Rangan S and Rajendran I. Wear behaviour of A356/25SiCp
aluminium matrix composites sliding against automobile friction materials, Wear,
Vol. 261; 2006: pp. 812822.
103
56 Johs A. Bailey The plane strain forging of Aluminum and An Aluminum alloy
at low strain rates and elevated temperatures. International. Journal of
Mechanical. Science. Vol. 11; 1969: pp: 491 507, Pergam on press.
57. Gouveia, B.P.P.A., Rodrigues, J.M.C and Martins, P.A.F Fracture predicting in
bulk metal forming Int. J. Mech. Sci., Vol 38, No 4; 1996: pp. 361-372.
58. Buhler, H., and Wagner, H.W., Z. Metallk. Vol. 55; 1967: pp. 136-144.
59. Datsko, J., Material Properties and Manufacturing Processes, Wiley, New York,
1966.
61. Dillamore, I.L., J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys, Vol. 7; 1974: pp. 979-991.
62. Green, S.J., Langan, J. J., Leasia, J.D., and Yang, W.H., Metall. Trans., Vol. 2;
1971: pp. 1813.
63. Huges, I.F., and Page, E.W., Metall. Trans. Vol. 2; 1971: pp. 2067-2075.
64. Kashar, L.J., Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME, Vol. 239; 1967: pp.1461-1468.
65. Levy, B.S., Sheet Metal Znd, Vol. 47; 1970: pp. 527-530.
66. Painter, M.J., and Pearce, R., J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys, Vol. 7; 1974: pp. 992-1002.
67. Rowe, G.W., and Wolstencroft, F., J. Inst. Metals, Vol. 98; 1970: pp 33-41.
104
70. Shevakin J.U.F. and M. I. Tsypin. The curves of plastic flow and deformation
strengthening of some solid solution on the basis of copper. Advanced
performance materials, Vol. 4; 1997: pp. 233-237.
71. Estrin. Y. and H.Mecking, Acta Metall., Vol. 32; 1984: pp. 57.
72. Malygin. G.A. Phys. Stat. Sol, Vol. 119; 1990: pp. 423 1990.
73. Kubin. L.P and Y.Estrin., Acta Metall., Vol. 38; 1990: pp. 697.
74. Samantha, S.K. Effect of Friction and Specimen Geometry on the Ductile
Fracture in Upset Forging, Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology,
Transactions of the ASME, January, 1975, pp. 14 20.
75. Brownrigg, A., Duncan, J.L., and Embury, J.D. Free Surface Ductility of Steels
in Cold Forging, Internal Report, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada, 1979.
76. Kuhn, H.A., Lee, P.W., and Erturk, T. A Fracture Criterion for Cold Forming,
Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, Transactions of the ASME
October, 1973, pp 213 218.
78. Brozzo, P., Deluca, B., and Rendina, R, A new method for the prediction of
formability limits in metal sheets, Sheet Metal Forming and Formability:
Proceedings of the 7th biennial Conference of the International Deep Drawing
Research group 1972.
79. Edelson, B., and Baldwin, W., The Effect of Second Phases on the Mechanical
Properties of Alloys, Transactions ASM, Vol. 55; 1962: pp. 230-250.
105