Name the period 3 elements from
sodium to argon.
State the trends in the melting point
across period 3.
Explain the variations in melting
point for Sodium, Magnesium and
Aluminium.
Explain the variations in melting
point for Silicon.
Explain the variations in melting
point for Phosphorus, Sulfur and
Chlorine.
Explain the variations in melting
point for Argon.
State the trend in electrical
conductivity across period 3.
Sodium, Magnesium, Aluminium, Silicon,
Phosphorus, Sulfur, Chlorine and Argon.
The melting point from sodium to silicon
increases where silicon has the highest
melting point then there is a gradual
decrease to phosphorus then a small
increase to sulphur then a small decrease
from Chlorine to Argon.
Moving from sodium to aluminium, the
ionic charge on the metal ions increases
from +1 to +3 therefore the number of
delocalized electrons increase. Thus, there
is a greater electrostatic attraction between
the ions and the electrons and the higher
the melting point.
Each silicon atom is covalently bonded to
four other silicon atoms in a tetrahedral
arrangement. This forms a three
dimensional giant molecule which requires
large amounts of energy to break its giant
lattice. Thus, it has the highest melting
point.
They have simple molecular structures in
which the molecules are held together by
very weak van der Waals' forces of
attraction. The van der Waals' forces
increase with increasing numbers of
contact points between neighboring
molecules, so sulphur which exists as S8
would have a higher melting point then
Phosphorus which exists as P4 and Cl2
would have the lowest melting of the three.
Argon exists only as isolated atoms so it
has no contact points with any
neighbouring molecules. The van der
Waals' forces between these molecules are
very low, so it has a very low melting point.
Electrical conductivity increases going
across period 3 from sodium to aluminium
then decreases to silicon It further
decreases to negligible conductivity from

Explain the variations in electrical
conductivity for sodium, magnesium
and aluminium.
Explain the variations in electrical
conductivity for silicon.
Explain the variations in electrical
conductivity for phosphorus, sulphur
and chlorine.
Explain the variation in electrical
conductivity for Argon.
State the trend in the atomic radii
across period 3.
What is effective nuclear charge?
Explain the variation in atomic radii
across period 3
Explain why Argon's atomic radii is
not compared to the others in
period 3.
phosphorus to argon.
Moving from sodium to magnesium which
has metallic bonding, the number of
delocalized electrons increases thus there
are more charge carriers and the electrical
conductivity increases.
Silicon is a metalloid whose four electrons
are held strongly in covalent bonds,
however an increase in temperature allows
some electrons to be delocalized, thus it is
a semi-conductor.
P, S and Cl hardly conducts electricity
because their electrons are held in covalent
bonds and are not free to move and carry
charge.
Argon which exists as single atoms have
valence electrons which are not free to
move because they are held in a stable
third energy level.
The atomic radii decreases across Period 3.
This is the residual attraction of the nucleus
to the outermost electrons after shielding
from the inner core of electrons have taken
place.
The nuclear charge increases across period
3 but the added electron goes into the
same quantum shell, so there is no
additional shielding of the valence
electrons by the inner shells so the
electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus
causing a decrease in atomic radii.
Argon has the largest atomic radii because
it is not chemically bonded so only the
effect of the van der Waals' force can be
measured while the other atoms are being
measured by their covalent and metallic
radii.
Why is Argon's electronegativity
value zero?
State the trend in electronegativity
across period 3.
Explain the variation in
electronegativity across period 3.
State the trend in density across
period 3.
Explain the variations in density
from Sodium to Aluminium.
Explain the variation in density for
silicon.
Explain the variations in density for
phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine and
argon.
Describe Sodium's reaction with
water. (Mention equation)
Describe Magnesium's reaction with
water. (Mention equation)
Argon does not usually form covalent
bonds.
There is a general increase.
The nuclear charge increases, but the
increase in shielding is negligible because
each extra electron enters the same
principal energy level
so the bonding electrons will be more
strongly attracted to the nucleus.
The density increases from sodium to
aluminium and there is a general decrease
from silicon to argon.
From sodium to aluminium, the forces of
attraction between the atoms increase,
that is the metallic bonding causing them
to be packed closer together. Thus, the
mass per unit volume, i.e. the density
increases.
Silicon has a lower density than aluminium
because it has a more open lattice
structure.
The molecules of P, S and Cl and the atoms
of Ar are held together by weak van der
Waals forces of attraction. The molecules
and atoms are not packed closely together
thus the mass per unit volume or density
decreases.
Sodium has a very exothermic and vigorous
reaction with cold water producing
hydrogen and a colorless solution of
sodium hydroxide.
2Na(s)+2H20(l)2NaOH(aq)+H2 (g)
Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold
water to form Magnesium hydroxide.
Mg(s)+2H20(l)Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium reacts readily with steam to
produce a white precipitate and hydrogen.
Mg(s)+2H20(g)MgO(s)+H2(g)
Describe Aluminium's reaction with
water. (Mention equation)
Describe Silicon's reaction with
water.
Describe Phosphorus and Sulfur's
reaction with water.
Describe Chlorine's reaction with
water.
Describe Argon's reaction with
water.
Describe Sodium's reaction with
oxygen.
Describe Magnesium's reaction with
oxygen.
Describe Aluminium's reaction with
oxygen.
Describe Silicon's reaction with
oxygen.
Describe Phosphorus' reaction with
oxygen.
Describe Sulfur's reaction with
Aluminium does not react with hot or cold
water but reacts with steam slowly in its
powdered form with its white flame to form
Al2O3 and hydrogen.
2Al(s)+3H2O(g)Al2O3(s)+3H2(g)
No reaction
They do not react with water as they are
insoluble in it.
Chlorine dissolves slightly in water to give a
green solution and then reacts to form a
mixture of hydrochloric acid and
hypochlorous acid.
Cl2(g)+H20(l)HCl(aq)+HOCl(aq)
Argon does not react with water.
Sodium burns vigourously when heated to
form sodium oxide.
Na(s)+O2(g)Na2O(s)
Magnesium burns in oxygen in the
presence of a flame to produce white
magnesium oxide.
2Mg(s)+O2(g)2MgO(s)
Aluminium will burn in oxygen if it is
powdered to give white sparks and white
aluminium oxide.
4Al(s) + 3O2(g)2Al2O3(s)
It is a slow reaction but forms silicon
dioxide if heated strongly enough.
Si(s)+O2(g)SiO2(s)
Phosphorus catches afire vigourously
burning with a white flame to form a
mixture of phosphorus (III) and Phosphorus
(V) oxide.
P4(s)+3O2(g)P4O6(s)
P4(s)+3O2(g)P4O10(s)
It burns steadily with a pale blue flame to
oxygen.
Describe Chlorine and Argon's
reaction with oxygen.
Describe Sodium's reaction with
chlorine.
Describe Magnesium's reaction with
chlorine.
Describe Aluminium's reaction with
chlorine.
Describe Silicon's reaction with
chlorine.
Describe Phosphorus' reaction with
chlorine.
Describe Sulfur's reaction with
chlorine.
Describe Chlorine and Argon's
reaction with chlorine.
State the variation in the oxidation
number for the chlorides and oxides
of the period 3 elements.
form a colorless gas, sulfur dioxide.
S(s) + O2(g)SO2(g)
No reaction
It burns vigourously with an orange flame
to form a white solid, sodium chloride.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g)2NaCl(s)
It burns vigourously with an intense white
flame to form white magnesium chloride.
Mg(s)+ Cl2(g)MgCl2(s)
It burns vigourously in a stream of chlorine
to form pale yellow aluminium chloride.
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) ----> 2AlCl3(s)
It reacts slowly in powdered forms to
produce a colourless liquid, Silicon tetra
chloride.
Si(s) +Cl2(g)SiCl4(l)
White phosphorus burns slowly in chlorine
to form a mixture of phosphorus (III) which
is a colourless liquid and Phosphorus (V)
chloride which is an off-white solid.
P4(s) + 6Cl2(g)4PCl3(l)
P4(s) + 10Cl2(g)4PCl5(s)
If a stream of chlorine is passed over, some
heated sulphur, it reacts slowly to form an
orange awful smelling liquid.
2S(s) + Cl2(g)S2Cl2(l)
There is no reaction.
The oxidation number of the oxides and
chlorides of the period 3 elements are
positive. The maximum oxidation number
of each element in period 3 in their oxides
rises across the period where the maximum
oxidation numbers is equal to the number
of valence electrons. Also, the maximum
oxidation state of the chlorides of the
elements in period 3 rises up to PCl5 then
 decreases to +2 in SCl2.

Why are the oxidation numbers for Oxygen and Chlorine are more
the chlorides and oxides positive? electronegative than the other elements in
period 3.

Explain the variation in oxidation This is because the number of valence

number for the oxides and generally electrons increase and all of the valence
the chlorides of the period 3 electrons in the period 3 elements are used
elements. in bonding.

Explain the breakage in the trend Sulphur does not form the hexachloride
for the chlorides of the period 3 because the atom cannot accommodate
elements. more than four chlorine atoms around it
since it is unstable.

Why does Argon not have a chloride Argon is a noble gas and is therefore quite
or an oxide? unreactive. It will not form bonds with any
other element.

Describe the chloride of sodium's It dissolves in water and their is negligible

reaction with water. heat change and a colourless solution of
ions is produced. There is no hydrolysis.
NaCl(aq) + H20(l) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Describe Sodium oxide's reaction Sodium oxide dissolves readily in water to

with water. form an alkaline solution.
Na2O(s) + H20(l)2NaOH(aq)

Describe the chloride of It dissolves in water and it is a slightly

Magnesium's reaction with water. exothermic reaction and a colourless
solution of ions is produced. There is no
hydrolysis.
MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) Mg2+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Describe Magnesium Oxide's Magnesium oxides dissolves slightly in

reaction with water. water to form an alkaline solution.
MgO(s) +H20(l) Mg(OH)2(aq)

Describe the chloride of It reacts vigourously in water.

Aluminium's reaction with water. AlCl3(aq) + 6H2O(l) [Al(H20)6]3+(aq)
+3O-(aq)

Which oxides of the period 3 Aluminium Trioxide and silicon dioxide.

elements do not react or dissolve in
or with water?

Describe the chloride of Silicon's It reacts violently in water and heat is

reaction with water.
Describe the oxides of sulphur's
reaction with water.
Describe the chloride of Sulphur's
reaction with water.
Describe the oxides of Phosphorus'
reaction with water.
Describe the chloride of Phosphorus'
reaction with water.
Describe the oxide of chlorine's
reaction with water.
Why does Argon not have a Chloride
or an oxide?
State the trend in the acid/base
behaviour of the oxides and
hydroxides of period 3.
Why is Al2O3 amphoteric? And why
does the basicity decrease across
the period?
evolved and also steamy fumes of HCl are
produced and also a white precipitate of
Silicon dioxide is formed. There is complete
hydrolysis.
SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) --> SiO2(s) + 4HCl(g)
It reacts readily with water to form acidic
solutions.
SO2(g) + H2O(l)H2S03(aq)
SO3(g) + H20(l) H2S04 (aq)
It reacts violently, heat is evolved and
steamy fumes of HCl are produced. There is
complete hydroysis.
2S2Cl2(l) + 2H2O(l)3S(s) + SO2(aq) +
4HCl(g)
It reacts readily with water to form an
acidic solution.
P4O6(g) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO3(aq)
P4H10(g) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO3(aq)
It reacts violently and steamy fumes of HCl
are produced. A colourless solution of
phosphoric acid is formed. There is also
complete hydrolysis.
PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l)H3PO4(aq)+5HCl(g)
It reacts readily with water to form an
acidic solution.
Cl2O7(g) + H20 (l)2HClO4(aq)
It is a noble gas with a full outer shell thus
it is unreactive and tends to stay isolated.
Basic hydroxides are formed for sodium
and magnesium only. Aluminium oxide is
amphoteric and the oxides of phosphorus,
sulfur, chlorine and silicon are all acidic
oxides.
The basicity thing is explained in the
reactions.
The presence of the O2- ion makes Al2O3
basic (i.e. able to react with acid). However,
the Al3+ ion has high positive charge
density, hence is strongly attracted to and

State the trend in bonding for the
chlorides of the period 3 elements.
State the trend in bonding for the
oxides of the period 3 elements.
State the trend in atomic radii down
group 2.
Explain the variations in atomic radii
and ionic radii for the group 2
elements.
Explain the variation in the
ionization energies for the group 2
elements.
Describe generally the reactions of
the group II elements with oxygen.
reacts with the electron rich OH- ions
present in alkalis to form aluminate ions
[Al(OH)4-].
The chlorides of sodium and magnesium
both are ionic in bonding while the chloride
of aluminium is ionic with covalent
character, while silicon, phosphorus,
sulphur and chlorine all have simple
covalent bonding.
The oxides of sodium and magnesium both
are ionic while the oxide of aluminium is
ionic with covalent character and silicon
dioxide is giant covalent and phosphorus,
sulphur and chlorine all have covalent
bonding.
The atomic radii increases.
Atomic/ionic radii increase on descending
group II. This occurs as there are more core
shells as one descends the group. This
increases the distance between the nucleus
and the valence shell. More core shells
means a greater shielding effect between
the nucleus and the valence electrons. This
results in a weaker force of attraction
between the nucleus and the valence
electrons and the distance would therefore
be greater.
On descending the group, the electrons are
getting further away, this means the
attraction gets weaker as a result of
shielding and therefore less energy is
needed to remove an electron. Therefore
ionization energy decreases down the
group.
All group II elements react with oxygen to
form its metallic oxide. All burn readily in
oxygen, given highly exothermic reactions
as the reactivity increases down the group.
Also, all the group II elements tarnish in air
as a layer of oxide is formed on the surface

Describe the reactions of the group
II elements with water.
Describe the reaction of group II
elements with acids.
State the trend in the solubility of
the sulphates in group 2 elements.
Explain the variation in the solubility
of the sulphates of Group II
elements.
What is polarizing power?
State the trend in the variation in
thermal stability in group 2.
Explain the variation in the thermal
decomposition of the carbonates
and nitrates of group II elements.
of the metal.
Calcium,Strontium and Barium reacts
vigourously with cold water.
All the group II metals react with acids to
produce salts and hydrogen gas. The
reactivity increases down the group.
Calcium reacts vigourously with acids,
while Barium reacts violently.
The solubility decreases.
Lattice energy is inversely proportional to
the sum of the radius of the cation and
anion. The anion is constant since all the
sulfates contain the SO2-4 anion. The
cation increase in size however this
increase in size is negligible compared to
the large size of the anion. Thus, the
increase in ionic radii is very small hence
the decrease in lattice energy is very small.
As the size of the cation increases down the
group, the charge density decrease, this
decreases the forces of attraction which
develop with the polar water molecules.
Thus the hydration energy decreases which
is the energy released when ions are
hydrated. Since the decrease in the reverse
lattice energy is less when compared to the
decrease in hydration energy, the enthalpy
of solution becomes more positive down
the group, thus the solubility decreases
down the group.
The tendency of metal cation to distort the
electron cloud of anion
Thermal stability of the nitrates/carbonates
increase down the group.
As you go down the group, the size of the
metal cation increases. The smaller the
cation, the better it is at distorting the
electron cloud charge of the large
carbonate or nitrate ion. So group 2

Cite a use of Magnesium Oxide.
Cite uses of Calcium Oxide.
Cite uses of Calcium Hydroxide.
Cite uses of Calcium Carbonate.
State the group 4 elements.
State the general trend in electrical
conductivity and metallic character
in group 4.
Explain the variation in electrical
conductivity.
State the trend in the metallic
character down the group.
Draw XCl4.
Describe the bonding of the
carbonates/nitrates with smaller cations
have a greater degree of covalence in the
ionic bonding. The greater the degree of
covalence, the less energy required to
break the bond.
It is used as refractory linings in furnaces
because of its high melting point and low
reactivity.
It is used to make cement, mortar, drying
agents and calcium hydroxide.
To neutralize acidic soils.
It can also be used to make mortar by
mixing it with water and sand, to make
bleaching powder and lime water.
It is used as limestone blocks for buildings
and removing Silicon dioxide as slag in the
blast furnace for the extraction of iron. It is
also used to make oxide for cement,
Carbon. silicon, germanium, tin and lead.
Carbon in the form of diamond is a non-
conductor , while Silicon and Germanium
are semi-conductors and finally Tin and
Lead are conductors.
All of carbon's valence electrons are used
in covalent bonding so it does not conduct
electricity. Silicon and germanium electrons
can delocalise with an increase in
temperature so they are semi-conductors.
Tin and lead are conductors because their
valence electrons are delocalised. Relate
this to their metallic character.
Carbon is a non-metal, while silicon and
germanium are metalloids and finally tin
and lead are metals.
All the elements in group 4 form
tetrachlorides.
Tetrachlorides are all simple covalent
tetrachlorides.
State the reaction of the
tetrachlorides with water.
Explain the reactions of the
tetrachlorides of silicon,
germanium, tin and lead with water.
Explain the reactions of the
tetrachloride of Carbon reaction
with water.
State the trends in bonding for the
group 4 monoxides. (+2 oxidation
state)
State the trends in bonding in group
4 dioxides. (+4 oxidation state)
State the trends in the acid/base
character in the group 4 monoxides.
State the trends in the acid/base
character of the dioxides.
molecules with a tetrahedral shape and
weak van der Waals' forces between their
molecules. The group 4 element is at the
centre and bonds with four chlorine atoms
by four single covalent bonds. They are
non-polar because the dipoles cancel.
With the exception of tetrachloromethane
(CCl4) , all of the tetrachlorides are readily
hydrolyzed by water to the oxide in the +4
state and steamy acidic fumes of HCl are
produced.
Silicon, germanium, tin and lead all have
empty d orbitals. The atoms allow incoming
water molecules to donate a lone pair to
their d orbitals to form a bond. As the X-O
bonds form, the X-Cl bonds weaken and
break. The bonds make and break one by
one until all 4 chlorine atoms are displaced.
Thus, hydrolysis of the tetrachloride occurs.
Tetrachloromethane (CCl4) is immiscible in
water and does not undergo hydrolysis. The
empty 3d orbitals in carbon are too
different in energy for carbon to expand its
octet to form dative bonds with the water
molecules.
The monoxides of carbon and silicon are
covalent, while the monoxides of
germanium, tin and lead are predominantly
ionic.
The dioxides of carbon and silicon
germanium are covalent, while the dioxides
of lead and tin are covalent with ionic
character.
The monoxides of carbon and silicon are
neutral and the monoxides of germanium,
tin and lead are amphoteric.
The dioxides of carbon and silicon are
acidic and the dioxides of germanium, tin
and lead are amphoteric.
State the trend in the thermal
stability of the oxides of the
oxidation state 2 and 4.
Why is lead's +2 state more
thermally stable than the +4
oxidation state?
State the trend in stability of the +2
oxidation state.
State the trend in the stability of the
+4 oxidation state.
Discuss the uses of ceramic based
on silicon (IV) oxide.
Explain the variation in the volatility
of the elements of group 7.
The +4 oxidation state is more thermally
stable than +2 for all the group IV elements
except lead. For lead, the +2 is more
thermally stable than the +4 oxidation
state. There is no +2 oxidation state for Si
and Ge.
When the two electrons on the p orbital are
removed, the remaining two valence
electrons on the s orbital are relatively
stable and not easily removed. This is
because the effective nuclear attraction
towards them is greater since the d orbitals
do not screen the nucleus as efficiently as
the s and p orbitals so the two remaining
electrons behave inertly since the
ionization energy required for their removal
is very large.
The thermal stability of the +2 oxidation
state increases down the group, so as you
go up the group, they are better reducing
agents.
The thermal stability of the +4 oxidation
state decreases down the group so as you
go down the group, they are better
oxidizing agents.
It is a good thermal insulator and has a
very high melting point due to the many
strong covalent bonds, so it is used in
furnace linings.
It is hard and has a high melting point so it
is use as an abrasive.
Since it is relatively unreactive and easily
moulded and the high melting point is
useful for ovenware, it is used in the
manufacture of glass and porcelain.
As group 7 is descended, the number of
electrons in the halogen increases as a fully
filled energy shell is added. These added
electrons causes a greater van der Waals
forces of attraction since these electrons
can move freely setting up temporary
dipoles. These stronger inter-molecular

Explain the variation in the density
of the elements of group 7.
Explain the variation in the state of
the elements of group 7.
Colour and state of chlorine.
Colour and state of Bromine
Colour and state of iodine.
Colour and state of Astatine
Explain the relative reactivities of
the elements as oxidising agents
forces of attraction means that more
energy is needed to break the bonds
between the molecules. Therefore the
melting point and boiling point increases
down the group so the halogens become
less volatile down the group.
As group 7 is descended, the number of
electrons in the halogen increases as a fully
filled energy shell is added. These added
electrons causes a greater van der Waals
forces of attraction since these electrons
can move freely setting up temporary
dipoles. These attractive forces which exist
between the molecules increase as we
descend the group. Thus, as the forces of
attraction between the molecules increase,
the molecules pack closer together thus
the mass per unit volume increases, thus
the density increases.
As group 7 is descended, the number of
electrons in the halogen increases as a fully
filled energy shell is added. These added
electrons causes a greater van der Waals
forces of attraction since these electrons
can move freely setting up temporary
dipoles. The increase in the van der Waals
force of attraction results in a change in the
physical states of the molecules from a gas
to a liquid to a solid.
Yellowish-green gas
Dark red-brown liquid
Dark, crumbly solid that sublimes into
purple vapour
Black solid
As the group is descended, the oxidizing
ability decreases. The stronger the
oxidizing agent the more positive the
standard electrode potential value. Fluorine
has the most positive standard electrode
potential value, while, Iodine has the

Describe the oxidizing ability of the
group 7 elements.
Describe the reactions of the
elements with hydrogen.
State the trend in the thermal
stability of the hydrogen halides.
Explain the relative stabilities of the
hydrides.
Describe the reactions of the halide
ions with aqueous solution of
lowest. Thus, Fluorine accepts electrons
more readily than Iodine.
Fluorine is such a strong oxidizing agent
that it oxidizes water to oxygen.
For chlorine, Bromine and iodine, a halogen
higher in the group can oxidize the ions of
one lower.
Only fluorine, chlorine and bromine can
oxidize thiosulphate ions to sulphate ions.
Iodine oxidizes the thiosulphate ions to
tetrathionate ions.
The halogens react directly with hydrogen
to produce hydrogen halides.
The reaction between hydrogen and
fluorine is explosive even at low
temperatures.
H2(g)+F2(g)2HF(g)
Hydrogen reacts with chlorine slowly in the
dark and explosively in sunlight.
H2(g)+Cl2(g)2HCl(g)
Bromine combines with hydrogen at high
temperatures in the presence of a catalyst
slowly.
H2(g)+Br2(g)2HBr(g)
The reaction between hydrogen and iodine
is slow and reversible giving a low yield.
(Reaction takes place in a closed
container.)
H2(g)+I2(g)2HI(g)
The thermal stability decreases down the
group.
This is because the bond energy decreases
because the larger the halogen atom, the
greater is the distance between the
hydrogen and halide nuclei. So, down the
group, there is a smaller attractive force
between the nuclei and the bonding
electrons. So going down the group it takes
less energy to break the hydrogen-halide
bond.
Reagent (AgNO3)
F-:No observable reaction
AgNO3 followed by aqueous
ammonia;
Describe the reaction of the halide
ions with concentrated sulphuric
acid.
Describe the reactions of chlorine
with cold and with hot aqueous
solution of sodium hydroxide.
Mention changes in oxidation
number.
Name the first row transition
elements.
State the characteristics of
transition elements.
Cl-:White precipitate of AgCl is formed
which dissolves in excess dilute ammonia.
Br-: Cream precipitate of AgBr is formed
which dissolves in excess concentrated
ammonia.
I-: Yellow precipitate of .AgI is formed which
is insoluble in concentrated ammonia.
Reagent (conc. H2SO4)
Concentrated sulphuric acid is an oxidizing
agent and it is strong enough to oxidize HBr
to Br2 and HI to I2. However, it is not
strong enough to oxidize HF and HCl.
Chlorine with cold dilute sodium hydroxide
Cl2(aq)+2NaOH(aq)NaCl(aq)+NaClO(aq)
+H2O(l)
0 -1 +1
Chlorine with hot concentrated sodium
hydroxide.
3Cl2(aq)+6NaOH(aq)5NaCl(aq)
+NaClO3(aq)+3H2O(l)
0 -1 +5
Both these reactions are disproportionation
which are reactions in which a single
substance becomes oxidized to a higher
oxidation state and reduced to a lower
oxidation state.
In the above reactions, chlorine has been
reduced to Cl- ions and oxidized to either
chlorate(I) or chlorate(V) ions.
Titanium, Vanadium, Chromium,
Manganese, Iron, Cobalt, nickel and copper.
(Scott) Tickled Vanna's Cranium.Mean
Females Come Nightly to Club (Z.)
Scabby, tell valerie carry mi funds come
now, copper,zeen.
1. They have variable oxidation numbers.
2. They form coloured complexes by
combining with one or more ligands.
4. Many transition elements and their
compounds can be used as catalysts
because of their ability to change oxidation
states.
5. Transition elements have magnetic

Determine the electronic
configuration of the first row
transition elements and of their ions
State the trend in the atomic radii,
ionic radii and first row transition
elements for the first row transition
elements.
Explain the relatively small changes
in atomic radii and ionic radii and
ionization energy.
Explain the formation of coloured
ions by
transition elements in octahedral
complexes.
Perform experiments to show the
variation in oxidation states of
vanadium;
Include the use of an acidified
properties.
COMC
Sc [Ar] 4s23d1
Ti [Ar] 4s23d2
V [Ar] 4s23d3
Cr [Ar] 4s13d5
Mn [Ar] 4s23d5
Fe [Ar] 4s23d6
Co [Ar] 4s23d7
Ni [Ar] 4s23d8
Cu [Ar] 4s13d10
Zn [Ar] 4s23d10
[Ar] - 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p6 4s 3d
There is a general decrease in the atomic
radii, thus there is a small increase in the
ionization energy.
As the nuclear charge increases across the
period, each additional electron enters the
penultimate 3d orbital which increases the
shielding experienced by the 4s electrons.
This results in a relatively small increase in
the effective nuclear charge as the
shielding effect nullifies(cancels), to a large
extent, the increase in nuclear charge, thus
causing a small increase in the energy
required to remove one mole of electron.
In octahedral complexes, two of the five d
orbitals experience repulsion and are
pushed to a higher energy level.The energy
gap corresponds to energies in the visible
region of the spectrum. Electrons in the
lower d energy level can then absorb the
visible light which corresponds to the
energy gap and jump up to the higher d
energy level. The colour of the complex is
the complement of the colours absorbed
from the visible light.
Add ammonium vanadate to sodium
hydroxide then mix it with sulphuric acid
forming an orange solid containing V.
Shake this solution with granulated zinc
solution of ammonium vanadate(V)
and granulated zinc.
Discuss qualitatively the melting
point and conductivity of transition
elements when compared to those
of calcium as a typical s-block
element.
Discuss qualitatively the density of
transition elements when compared
to those of calcium as a typical s-
block element;
Discuss qualitatively the atomic and
ionic radii and first ionisation energy
of transition elements when
compared to those of calcium as a
typical s-block element;
Predict the shapes of complexes of
transition elements
discuss the use of
Fe3+(aq)/Fe2+(aq), MnO4-
(aq)/Mn2+(aq), Cr2O72- (aq)/Cr3+
(aq) as redox systems.
Explain the principle of ligand
exchange.
Stability constants and the CO/O2
causing a colour change from blue (V) to
green (V) to violet (V)
OBGV
ob stetrician gyna vag....
All of the cell potentials are positive, so zinc
can gradually reduce ammonium vanadate.
In transition elements, the delocalized
electrons are from the 4s and 3d orbitals,
while calcium's delocalized electrons are
only from the s orbitals, thus the metallic
bonding in the transition metals are
stronger than that of calcium, thus
transition elements are better conductors
of electricity than calcium.
Transition elements have a higher atomic
mass than calcium, so for each mas per
unit volume more molecules are found
there than that of calcium with a smaller
atomic mass.
Calcium has a larger atomic radii than
transition elements because it has a
smaller shielding effect than transition
elements since it has less electrons, while
since transition elements have more
electrons to shield it's valence electrons it
has a smaller atomic radii than that of
calcium, thus the first ionisation energies
for transition elements are greater than
that of calcium.
Co-ordination number 4-
Tetrahedral([Ni(CN)4]2+) or square planar
(very rare) (Ni(CO)4)
Co-ordination number 6-Octahedral
([Cr(H2O)6]2+, [Fe(CN)6]3-)
Previously discussed but light green to red
brown for Fe system.
If the stability constant of the new complex
is greater than the stability constant of the
existing complex the new complex would
haemoglobin and form readily, and the old ligand would be
NH3(aq)/Cu2+(aq) systems. displaced. If the stability constants of both
complexes are similar, then one complex
would predominate over the other, if the
concentration of one ligand is greater than
the other.
Example 1 This occurs with the
CO/O2 haemoglobin complex:-
haemoglobin and CO complex has a
greater stability constant(new
complex) than the O2 and
haemoglobin complex(old complex),
this is why CO can act as a poison.

Example 2 This occurs with the NH3

(aq) and Cu2+ system.
On first addition, copper(II)
hydroxide is produced:-
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ + 2OH-
[Cu(OH)2(H2O)4] (s) + 2H2O

On second addition:-
[Cu(OH)2(H2O)4] + 4NH3
[Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ + 2H2O

The tetraammine complex has a

greater stability constant than the
copper(II) hydroxide complex,
therefore the solid dissolves to form
the deep blue solution
Perform experiments to
demonstrate ligand exchange.
Include reactions involving Co2+
(aq), Cu2+(aq).
Co+ and conc HCl goes from pink to dark
blue, but adding water to the solution
causes it to be pink again.
Cu2+ (aq) and conc HCl goes from pale
blue to green to yellow and this can be
reversed by adding distilled water. pgy

identify cations: K+, Na+, Ca2+, Clean a platinum or nichrome (a nickel-

Ba2+, Cu2+ by their flame tests
Refer to atomic emission spectra,
see Unit 1 Module 1, Specific
Objective 1.7.
chromium alloy) wire by dipping it into
concentrated hydrochloric acid and then
holding it in a hot Bunsen flame. Repeat
this until the wire doesn't produce any
colour in the flame.When the wire is clean,
moisten it again with some of the acid and
then dip it into a small amount of the solid
you are testing so that some sticks to the
wire. Place the wire back in the flame
 again.
Na strong persistent orange
K lilac (pink)
Ca orange-red
Ba pale green
Cu blue-green (often with white flashes)

identify cations Mg2+(aq), Al3+ Pg. 253 of chem explained and pg. 168 of
(aq), Ca2+(aq) Cr3+(aq),, Mn2+ study guide.
(aq), Fe2+(aq), Fe3+(aq), Cu2+(aq),
Zn2+(aq), Ba2+(aq), Pb2+(aq),
NH4+(aq)
and
identify anions: CO32-, NO3-, SO42-,
Include the reactions with HCl(aq),
conc H2SO4,
SO32- (aq) , Cl-, Br-, I-, CrO42-;
Pb2+
(aq), Ag (aq),followed by NH3(aq),
Ca(OH)2(aq),
Ba2+(aq), followed by dilute acid.
For NO3- use copper
turnings and conc H2SO4 or add
aluminium (powder)
or zinc (powder) in the alkaline
solution and
confirmatory tests for gases where
applicable

Key Points
When you look at the flame through
a diffraction grating or
spectroscope, coloured lines of the
emission spectrum in the visible
region are seen. The colours seen in
the flame test are due to the most
obvious lines in the emission
spectrum.
Testing for NH3: Ammonia (NH3) Turns damp red litmus
paper blue.

Testing for CO2: Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Turns limewater

milky

Testing for Cl: Chlorine (Cl2) Bleaches damp litmus paper.

Testing for H2: Hydrogen (H2) 'pops' with a lighted splint.

Testing for O2 : Oxygen (O2) Relights a glowing splint.

Testing for Hydrogen chloride: Forms dense white fumes with ammonia
gas.

Testing for NO2: A reddish brown gas which turns moist blue
litmus red

Testing for SO2: Turns potassium dichromate from orange to

green