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Interference
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we will discuss the phenomena associated with the interference of light waves.
At any point where two or more wave trains cross one another they are said to interfere. In
studying the effects of interference we are interested to know the physical effects of
superimposing two or more wave trains.
It is found that the resultant amplitude and consequently, the intensity of light gets
modified when two light beams interfere. This modification of intensity obtained by the
superposition of two or more beams of light is called interference. In order to find out resultant
amplitude, when two waves interfere, we make use of the principle of superposition. The truth
of the principle of superposition is based on the fact that after the waves have passed out of the
region of crossing, they appear to have been entirely uninfluenced by the other set of waves.
Amplitude, frequency and all other characteristics of each wave are just as if they had crossed
an undisturbed space. The principle of superposition states that the resultant displacement at
any point and at any instant may be found by adding the instantaneous displacements that
would be produced at the point by the individual wave trains if each were present alone. In the
case of light wave, by displacement we mean the magnitude of electric field or magnetic field
intensity.
1
2 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
i.e., A = A2 + A2 + ......
The resultant intensity is the square of the sum of the amplitudes
I = (A1 + A2 + A3 + ......)2 (1.1)
1.2.2 Superposition of Waves of Constant Phase Difference
Let us consider two waves that have the same frequency but have a certain constant phase
angle difference between them. The two waves have a certain differential phase angle . In
this case the crest of one wave does not exactly coincide with the crest of the other wave
(Fig. 1.2). The resultant amplitude and intensity can be obtained by trigonometry.
Amplitude
Resultant
1
2
t
2
2a
5 4 3 2 0 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 1.3 Intensity distribution for the interference fringes from
two waves of same frequency and amplitude
y
y
z x
S1
d
S S2
x
First-order maximum
First-order minimum
S1
Zeroth-order maximum
S2
First-order minimum
First-order maximum
Y
S1
S O
d D
S2
Hence, by measuring the distance between slits, the distance to the screen and the
distance from the central fringe to some fringe on either side, the wavelength of light producing
the interference pattern may be determined.
1.4 COHERENCE
An important concept associated with the idea of interference is coherence. Coherence means
that two or more electromagnetic waves are in a fixed and predictable phase relationship to
each other. In general the phase between two electromagnetic waves can vary from point to
point (in space) or change from instant to instant (in time). There are thus two independent
concepts of coherence namely temporal coherence and spatial coherence.
Temporal Coherence : This type of coherence refers to the correlation between the
field at a point and the field at the same point at a later time i.e. the relation between
E (x, y, z, t1) and E (x, y, z, t2). If the phase difference between the two fields is constant during
the period normally covered by observations, the wave is said to have temporal coherence. If
the phase difference changes many times and in an irregular way during the shortest period of
observation, the wave is said to be non coherent.
Spatial Coherence : The waves at different points in space are said to be space coherent
if they preserve a constant phase difference over any time t. This is possible even when two
beams are individually time incoherent, as long as any phase change in one of the beams is
accompanied by a simultaneous equal phase change in the other beam (this is what happens in
Youngs double slit experiment). With the ordinary light sources, this is possible only if the two
beams have been produced in the same part of the source.
Time coherene is a characteristic of a single beam of light whereas space coherence
concerns the relationship between two separate beams of light. Interference is a manifestation
of coherence.
Light waves come in the form of wave trains because light is produced during deexcitation
of electrons in atoms. These wave trains are of finite length. Each wave train contains only a
limited number of waves. The length of the wave train s is called the coherence length. It is
the product of the number of waves N contained in wave train and their wavelength i.e.,
s = N . Since velocity is defined as the distance travelled per unit of time, it takes a wave
train of length s, a certain length of time t, to pass a given point
t = s/c
where c is the velocity of light. The length of time t is called the coherence time. The degree of
temporal coherence can be measured using a Michelsons interferometer.
It is clear from the above discussion that the important condition for observing
interference is that the two sources should be coherent. The observations of interference are
facilitated by reducing the separation between the sources of light producing interference.
Further, in the Youngs double slit experiment the distance between two sources and the screen
should be large. The contrast between the bright and dark fringes is improved by making
equal the amplitudes of the light sources producing interference. Further, the sources must be
narrow and monochromatic. The concept of coherence is discussed in greater detail in the
chapter on lasers.
(b) interference produced by the division of amplitude. In the first case the incident wavefront
is divided into two parts by making use of the phenomenon of reflection, refraction or diffraction.
The two parts of the wavefront travel unequal distances and reunite to produce interference
fringes. Youngs double slit experiment is a classic examples for this. In Youngs double slit
experiment one uses two narrow slits to isolate beams from separate portions of the primary
wavefront. In the second case the amplitude of the incident light is divided into two parts
either by parallel reflection or refraction. These light waves with divided amplitude reinforce
after travelling different distances and produce interference. Newtons rings is an example for
this type.
2
i
E i
A D
phase change r
d
r
C
No phase change
i.e., = 2d
RS 1 tan r sin rUV = 2d RS 1 sin r UV = 2d.cos r
2
T cos r W T cos r W
where is the refractive index of the medium between the surfaces. Since for air = 1, the
path difference between rays 1 and 2 is given by
= 2d cos r
While calculating the path difference, the phase change that might occur during reflection
has to be taken into account. Whenever light is reflected from an interface beyond which the
medium has lower index of refraction, the reflected wave undergoes no phase change. When the
medium beyond the interface has a higher refractive index there is phase change of . The
transmitted waves do not experience any phase change.
Hence, the condition for maxima for the air film to appear bright is
2d cos r + = n
2
or 2d cos r = n
2
= (2n 1) where n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2
The film will appear dark in the reflected light when
2d cos r + = (2n + 1)
2 2
or 2d cos r = n where n = 0, 1, 2,3 ...
1.6.2 Interference in Plane Parallel Films due to Transmitted Light
Figure 1.9 illustrates the geometry for observing interference in plane parallel films due to
transmitted light. We have two transmitted rays CT and EU which are derived from the same
point source and hence, are in a position to interfere. The effective path difference between
these two rays is given by
= (CD + DE) CP
sin i CP / CE CP
But = = = CP = (QE)
sin r QE / CE QE
or = (CD + DQ + QE) (QE)
= (CD + DQ) = (ID + DQ) = (QI)
= 2d cos r
In this case it should be noted that, no phase change occurs when the rays are refracted
unlike in the case of reflection. Hence, the condition for maxima is 2d cos r = n and the
condition for minima is 2d cos r = (2n 1) .
2
Thus, the conditions of maxima and minima in transmitted light are just the reverse of
the condition for reflected light.
1.6.3 Interference in Wedge Shaped Film
Let us consider two plane surfaces GH and G1H1 inclined at an angle and enclosing a wedge
shaped film (Fig. 1.10). The thickness of the film increases from G to H as shown in the figure.
Let be the refractive index of the material of the film. When this film is illuminated there is
INTERFERENCE 9
I
A
r
Air
i
G F D H
B
d r
r r Q
Dense medium
r E
G1 C i H1
i
P
T U
R
R1
A
F H1
i 90 i D
G1 B E r+ d
r+
r
C
H
G
r+
P
Q
d
Xn
Hence, = 2d cos (r + ) + /2
For constructive interference
2d cos (r + ) + /2 = n
or 2d cos (r + ) = (2n 1) /2 where n = 1, 2, 3 ...
For destructive interference
2d cos (r + ) + = (2n + 1)
2 2
or 2d cos (r + ) = n where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ...
Spacing between two consecutive bright bands is obtained as follows.
For nth maxima
2d cos (r + ) = (2n 1)
2
Let this band be obtained at a distance Xn from thin edge as shown in Fig. (1.10). For
near normal incidence, r = 0. Assuming, = 1,
From the figure, d = Xn tan
2Xn tan cos = (2n 1)
2
2Xn sin = (2n 1)
2
For (n + 1)th maxima
2Xn+1 sin = (2n + 1)
2
2(Xn+1 Xn) sin =
or fringe spacing, = Xn+1 Xn = =
2 sin 2
where is small and measured in radians.
M
B L1
45
S
Air Film
G
1 2
L B
C
P D
L L
P
Q N d
A O B
r
Newtons rings set up could also be used to determine the refractive index of a liquid.
First the experiment is performed when there is air film between the lens and the glass plate.
The diameters of the nth and (n + p)th fringes are determined. Then we have
D2n + p D2n = 4pR
Now the liquid whose refractive index is to be determined is poured into the container
without disturbing the entire arrangement. Again the diameter of the nth and (n + p)th dark
fringes are determined. Again we have
4 pR
D2n + p D2n =
from the above equations
D 2 n+ p Dn 2
= .
D 2 n + p D 2n
REFERENCES
1. F.A. Jenkins and H.E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, McGraw Hill Book Company,
New York, 1985.
2. J.R. Meyer-Arendt, Introduction to Classical and Modern Optics, Prentice Hall Pvt.
Ltd., New York, 1984.
3. A Ghatak, Optics, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 1977.
4. R.K. Gaur & S.L. Gupta, Engineering Physics, Dhanpat Rai and Sons, 1987.
5. N. Subrahmanyan and Brijlal. A Text of Optics, Niraj Prakashan, 1968.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
1. Two narrow and parallel slits 0.08 cm apart are illuminated by light of frequency
8 1011 kHz. It is desired to have a fringe width of 6 104 m. Where should the screen
be placed from the slits?
Solution:
d = 0.08 cm = 0.08 102 m, = 6 104 m
frequency = 8 1011 kHz
c 3 10 8
i.e., = = m, D = ?
v 8 10 11 10 3
D d
From = we have D =
d
6 10 4 0.08 10 2 8 10 14
D= = 1.28 m .
3 108
2. In Youngs double slit experiment, a source of light of wavelength 4200 is used to
obtain interference fringes of width 0.64 102 m. What should be the wavelength of the
light source to obtain fringes 0.46 102 m wide, if the distance between screen and the
slits is reduced to half the initial value?
14 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Solution:
In the first case = 4200 = 4200 1010 m
= 0.64 102 m
4200 10 10 D
0.64 102 = (i)
d
In the second case = 0.46 102 m, = ?
D / 2 D
0.46 102 = = (ii)
d 2d
Dividing equation (i) by (ii)
0.64 10 2 4200 10 10 D 2d
=
0.46 10 2 d d
4200 10 10 2 0.46
= = 6037.5 .
0.64
3. In Youngs double slit experiment, the distance between the slits is 1 mm. The distance
between the slit and the screen is 1 meter. The wavelength used in 5893 . Compare the
intensity at a point distance 1 mm from the centre to that at its centre. Also find the
minimum distance from the centre of a point where the intensity is half of that at at the
centre.
Solution:
Path difference at a point on the screen distance y from the central point
Y .d
=
D
Here Y = 1 mm = 1 103 m
D = 1m
d = 1 mm = 1 103 m
1 10 3 1 10 3
Path difference = = 1 10 6 m =
1
2 10 6 2
Phase difference = = = 3.394 radians
5893 10 10
Ratio of intensity with the central maximum
= cos2 /2 = cos2 (1.697) = 0.3372
When the intensity is half of the maximum, if is the phase difference,
we have
cos2 /2 = 0.5 or /2 = 45 or = 90 = /2
Path difference = = = =
2 2 2 4
D
Distance of the point on the screen from the centre = Y = .
d
Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I
UNIT I Interference
1.1 Formation of Newtons rings in reflected light.
2t cos r 2t (since light is falling normally, cos r 1) 1
2 2
At the point of contact t 0 , therefore, effective path difference
2
This is the condition for minimum intensity. Hence, the centre of Newtons rings is
dark.
2t n n = 0, 1, 2, 3..
2
Or 2t 2n 1 2
2
2t 2n 1 n = 0, 1, 2, 3. .
2 2
Or 2t n 3
Therefore, ON 2 PN 2 OP2
R tn
2
Or rn2 R 2
By:- Manvendra Singh
Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I
rn2
Or 2tn neglecting tn2 , since tn is small 4
R
Or effective path difference 2t
2
2
r
and from eq4 2tn n
R
for nth bright fringe, 2t n
2
2n 1
Or 2t
2
rn2 2n 1
Or
R 2
2n 1
Or rn2 R 5
2
2 2 n p 1
then, d n2 p R 7
4p R
Or d 2
n p d n2 liquid
8
d 2
np d 2n
air
10
d 2
np d 2
n liquid
By measuring diameters of nth and n pth rings for medium as air and liquid and
substituting the values in the eq10, refractive index of the liquid can be
determined.
therefore, when liquid is introduced between the lens and the plate, the
diameters of the rings decrease, that is, rings are contracted.
Form of fringes
In Michelsons interferometer, the form of fringes depends on the separation d
between M1 and M2 and the shape of hypothetical air film formed between M 1
and M2, which is virtual image of M2.
Circular fringes are produced when the mirrors M1 and M2 are perpendicular
to each other and thickness of air film between M1 and M2 is not equal to zero,
that is d 0 . If d 0 then, the whole pattern becomes dark.
Appearance of fringes in the Michelsons interferometer as the mirrors are moved away
from each other. Arrows on the far right figure indicate motion of the fringes.
If thickness of air film is d , the light waves reflected from the mirror M1 and M2
and reaching towards the telescope will coming parallel from M1 and M2 and will
be equal to 2d . If these parallel waves make an angle with the normal, the path
difference between them will be 2d cos .
We know that when a wave is reflected from a denser medium and another wave
are reflected from a rarer medium, path difference of is created between them.
2
Hence, effective path difference between these waves will be 2d cos .
2
If 2d cos n n = 1, 2, 3
2
Or 2d cos 2n 1 1
2
Then a bright fringe will form due to constructive interference. Same condition will
be at all points on the circle of inclination and bright fringe will appear circular.
If the effective path difference 2d cos 2n 1 n = 0, 1, 2
2
Or 2d cos n 2
Then a dark fringe will form due to destructive interference. Same condition will
be at all points on the circle of inclination and dark fringe will appear circular.
Hence, alternate bright and dark circular fringes are observed.
we move away from it. For central fringe 0 and order is n , then order of the
successive fringes from the central fringe are n 1 , n 2 , n 3 ... and so on.
If 1st, 2nd, 3rd mth circular fringes subtend semi-angles 1 ,2 ,3 ...m respectively
from the telescope, then
2d cos 1 n 1
2d cos 2 n 2
4
2d cos 3 n 3
2d cos m n m
Thus, if fringes are counted from the central fringe (assuming its order zero), then
subtracting eq4 from eq3, we get
2d 1 cos m m m = 1, 2, 3 5
m
Or cos m 1 6
2d
D m
cos m 1
r D
2
m
2d
2
1
m 2 2
Or rm D 1 1 7
2d
m
rm D 8
d
That is, near the central fringe, radius of fringes is directly proportional to square
root of natural numbers.
Localized fringes are formed when mirrors are not orthogonal, that is, M1 and
M2 are not exactly parallel. A wedge shaped air film is formed between them
giving rise to fringes of equal thickness. The path of the two waves reflected from
mirrors M1 and M2 and originating from a single wave, are no more parallel but
intersect near M1 as shown in the figure below and so fringes are localized near
By:- Manvendra Singh
Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I
M1. The shapes of these fringes are curved with convex side towards thin edge
of the wedge. As mirror M2 is moved gradually the air film wedge varies
successively and fringes change the shape and when mirrors M1 and M2
intersect each other, fringes become straight as shown in the figure.
2d cos 00 n
Or 2d n 1
2d n 1
Or 2 d n 1 2
2
From the above eq2, it is observed that when d becomes d , the nth
2
fringe at the center is replaced by n 1
th
fringe. We can also say that if M1 is
moved by distance , one fringe is displaced in the telescope. Now the mirror M 1
2
is gradually moved and number of fringes displaced is counted and reading of
micrometer screw is say x2 . If M1 is moved through distance x x2 x1 and the
number of fringes displaced is N . That is, by moving the mirror by , the number
2
of fringes displaced is one.
Therefore, on moving the mirror by distance x x2 x1 , the number of fringes
displaced will be
2x
N
2x
Or wavelength 3
N
bright fringe due to 1 falls on the bright fringe due to 2 , or vice-versa, the result
is maximum distinctness.
n1 n 1 2
x
2 2
2x
Or n 1
1
2x
And n 1 2
2
1 1
1 2x
2 1
Or 1 2x 1 2
12
12
Or 1 2
2x
2
Or 1 2 3
2x
If 1 and 2 are refractive indices of the two media, then reflectance, R is given
by
2
1
R 2 1
2 1
It is clear from the above eq1 that reflection will not occur if 1 2
The idea behind anti-reflection coatings is that the creation of a double interface
by means of a thin transparent film gives two reflected waves. If these waves are
of nearly equal amplitude and out of phase, they partially or totally cancel. If the
coating is of quarter wavelength thickness and has refractive index less than that
of the glass then the two reflections are 180 degrees out of phase and complete
destructive interference occurs and no reflected waves will emerge from the film.
The thickness of coating and refractive index is chosen in such a way that light
waves reflected from the two layers have the same amplitude and out of phase
so as to cancel one another.
2
0
R1 c 2
c 0
and the amplitude of reflected wave from the second surface (coating to glass) is
given by
2
g c
R2
g c
3
The condition of equality of amplitude, that is, R1 R2 , at two reflections yield,
2
c 0 g c
2
4
c 0 g c
c 0 g c
Or
c 0 g c
Or c g c2 0 g 0 c c g c2 0 g 0 c
Or 2c2 20 g
Or c 0 g 5
2c t 2n 1 7
2
Or 2 c t
2
Or t 8
4 c
Incident light is passed through two coated reflecting surfaces. The distance
between the reflective coatings determines which wavelengths destructively
interfere and which wavelengths are in phase and will ultimately pass through the
coatings. If the reflected beams are in phase, the light is passed through two
reflective surfaces. If, on the other hand, the multiple reflections are not in phase,
destructive interference reduces the transmission of these wavelengths through
the device to near zero. This principle strongly attenuates the transmitted
intensity of light at wavelengths that are higher or lower than the wavelength of
interest.
By:- Manvendra Singh
Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I
2t n n = 1, 2, 3
n
Or t
2
If the effective thickness of the spacer is integral multiple of half of the desired
wavelength, then other wavelengths will be attenuated by destructive
interference and wavelength , 2... will be transmitted through the filter. If for a
particular thickness there are two maxima in the visible region, one of them can
be eliminated by using colored glass filter. However, if the angle of incidence is
and angle of refraction in the spacer is , then, the wavelength of light passing
through the filter can be obtained from
2t cos n
sin 2 sin
2t 1 n using and sin 2 cos2 1
2
sin
sin 2
For n 1 , 2 t 1
2
sin 2
Or 0 1 where 0 2 t
2
Figure 4.11
Interference
fringes in a soap
film
When light strikes one boundary of the film, some of it will be reflected and some will be
transmitted through the film to the second boundary where another partial reflection will occur
(figure 4.10). This process, partial reflection back and forth within the film and partial transmission,
continues until the reflected portion of the light gets too weak to be noticed. The interference effects
come about when parts of the light which have travelled through different optical paths come
together again. Usually that will happen when the light enters the eye.* Thus for example, light
* When light rays are brought to a focus either by the eye or a lens, there is no extra optical path
difference introduced so the focussing has no effect on the conditions for the location of the
interference fringes.
L4: Interference 63
reflected back from the top surface of the film can interfere with light which has been reflected once
from the bottom surface and is refracted at the top surface.
The interference effect for monochromatic light, light or dark or somewhere in between, is
determined by the amplitudes of the interfering waves and their phase difference. The conditions for
a maximum or minimum in the irradiance are the same as before: a phase difference of m(2) gives a
1
maximum and a phase difference of (m + 2 )(2) produces a minimum.
Monochromatic light
The other example is a thin film interference pattern called Newton's rings which are formed
using a curved glass lens resting on a flat glass slab (figure 4.12). The thin film is the air between
the lens and the slab. The important feature is that where the optical path difference is zero, right in
the middle of the pattern where the lens actually touches the slab, there is darkness instead of a
bright fringe. The dark spot can be explained by saying that there is a phase change of in the light
reflected at the boundary between air and glass.
L4: Interference 64
n b
Monochromatic light
Glass
Wire
Glass
Incident light
Figure 4.16.
Thin film contour
fringes
Blooming of lenses
A common application of thin film interference is in anti-reflection coatings on lenses that are used
in cameras, microscopes and other optical instruments. A modern lens system may have as many as
ten glass surfaces each with a reflectivity of about 5%. Without some kind of treatment about half
the light entering such a lens system would be reflected instead of going on to form the final image.
Apart from the loss of brightness involved, multiple reflections in an optical system can also degrade
the quality of an image.
The amount of light reflected from each surface can be greatly reduced using the technique of
blooming, that is the deposition of an anti-reflection coating. Interference in the reflected light
means that light is transmitted instead of being reflected. The choice of material for the coating is
important. Clearly it must be transparent, but it should also result in approximately equal
reflectivities at both surfaces, so that the reflected waves (at a chosen wavelength) can completely
L4: Interference 67
cancel each other. Cancellation is achieved exactly when the refractive index of the coating is equal
to the geometric mean of the refractive indices of the air and the glass: n2 = n1n3 . See figure
4.17. However it is not easy to find materials with exactly the right properties, so in practice a
compromise is needed. Magnesium fluoride, which has a refractive index of 1.38, is often used.
The thickness of the coating is chosen to work best for light of a wavelength near the middle
of the visible spectrum, for example a wavelength of 500 nm corresponding to yellow-green light. In
that case the lens still reflects some light in the blue and red so it looks purple in reflected light. The
refractive index of the coating is between that of air and glass so there is a phase change at both
l
reflections. At the chosen wavelength we require 2n2b=(m+2 ) for no reflection. With
m=0, the film thickness is a quarter of a wavelength.
n1 n2 n3
Front surface
Lens
Coating
THINGS TO DO
Look for examples of interference in your environment. The colours in oil slicks are an example of
thin-film interference. Next time that you see one make a note of the colours and their sequence.
Are they the same as the colours of the rainbow? Can you explain the differences or similarities?
Other examples of thin-film interference may be found in soap bubbles, the feathers of some birds
and opals.
You can make a thin film using two sheets of transparency film like that used on overhead
projectors. Just place the sheets together and look at the reflected light. A dark background behind
the sheets will help. You should be able to see coloured contour fringes which map the thickness of
the air between the sheets. To enhance the effect place the two sheets on a hard surface and by
rubbing something like a handkerchief over them, try to squeeze the air out of the gap. What do you
see now? See what happens when you press your finger on one part of the top sheet. Does the
angle at which you look make any difference? Does the angle of the incident light matter? Look
through the sheets and try to see the interference in the transmitted light; why is that harder to see?
Observe the colour of the light reflected from various camera lenses. Can you explain the
colour? Is the colour the same for all lenses?