Cast Iron Welding Practice:
Place the specimen in a vise
Jobs 9-J45 and J46
The same general welding procedure may be used for
beading and groove welding. The following steps are for
groove welding:
1. Prepare the metal as in other welding. If the mate-
rial is more than 18-inch thick, bevel the edges, leav-
ing about 18-inch thickness at the root face. Clean all
dirt, rust, and scale from the surface. It is assumed
that you are practicing with small pieces of casting
that have been beveled.
2. Select the proper size tip and adjust the torch for a
neutral flame.
3. Play the torch flame over the entire work until the
entire joint has been preheated. Then, starting at
the right edge, direct the flame at the bottom of the
groove until the metal there has been melted.
4. Heat the bottom of the groove and the side walls
until they are molten and the metal flows to the
bottom of the groove. If the metal gets too hot and
the molten pool tends to run away, raise the flame
slightly. Hold the torch at a 90 angle to the work,
using a motion like that for welding steel plate.
Keep the sides and the bottom in a molten condi-
tion. If the torch is held at an angle, the flame
will blow the molten metal ahead of the weld, and
incomplete fusion will result. Make sure that the
surfaces of the groove are fused ahead of the weld
pool so that the molten metal is not forced ahead
to colder plate surfaces to produce incomplete
fusion.
5. Filler rod that has been fluxed should be added to
the weld pool to fill up the groove. Never hold the
filler rod above the weld and melt it drop by drop
into the molten pool.
6. Gas bubbles or impurities can be floated to the sur-
face of the weld by the addition of flux and the use
of the flame. Skim these impurities off the surface
of the weld with the filler rod. Impurities left in the
weld are defects that weaken the joint.
7. After the weld has been completed, heat the entire
casting to the same temperature throughout and
allow it to cool very slowly.
8. Continue to practice until you can make good qual-
ity welds that are satisfactory to the instructor. Be
particularly concerned about fusion along the edges
of the weld, a smooth surface without holes and
depressions, and good penetration and fusion on the
back side.
9. Test one of your completed welds. Use the same
procedure used in testing butt joints with groove
238Chapter 9Braze Welding and Advanced Gas Welding Practice: Jobs 9-J39J49
welds in sheet metal.
with the weld above the vise jaws. Break it in pieces
with a hammer. A sound weld will cause the break
to take place in the casting. You may also wish to
break or saw through the weld to examine the weld
metal. The weld metal should be sound and have no
slag inclusions or blowholes.
A B OU T WEL DIN G
Aluminum
Hot and fast are the key words for
aluminum welding. Hotbecause aluminum has high
thermal conductivity. Fastto avoid, on thin aluminum,
excessive burn-through.
Welding of Aluminum
Aluminum is one of the metals that has become important
to industry. It is light-weight (about one-third as heavy
as steel), yet it has a high strength-to-weight ratio. It is a
good conductor of electricity and has high resistance to
corrosion.
Aluminum can be welded by gas welding and many
other welding processes. It is comparatively easy to fab-
ricate. Much of the aluminum used in industry is welded
with the gas metal arc and gas tungsten arc processes.
It is highly desirable, however, for welding students to
practice welding aluminum with the oxyacetylene pro-
cess so that they can better judge the flow of metal and
heat ranges.
Characteristics of Aluminum
The three categories of aluminum that have the most
welded applications are commercially pure aluminum,
wrought aluminum alloys, and aluminum casting alloys.
Pure aluminum melts at 1,220F, whereas weldable
commercial aluminum alloys have a melting range of
900 to 1,220F. Compare these temperatures with steel,
which melts at about 2,800F, and copper, which melts at
about 1,980F. Aluminum does not change color during
heating, and when the melting temperature is reached,
it collapses suddenly. This characteristic is called hot-
shortness. Because aluminum is hot-short, it requires
support when hot.
Aluminum is a good thermal conductor. It conducts
heat about three times faster than iron, and requires higher
heat input than that used in welding steel.
 Aluminum expands during heating. For this reason,
aluminum welds have a tendency to crack because of the
shrinkage that takes place in the weld metal when cool-
ing. Too much restraint of the parts during cooling may
also result in weld cracking. The speed of welding is also
important. Welding at a slow rate of speed causes more
heat input into the part being welded. This increases the
rate of expansion and contraction.
The aluminum weld pool oxidizes very rapidly. It forms
an oxide with a melting point of 3,700F, which must be
removed either chemically, with a flux, or mechanically,
with a paddle.
Before practice welding, review Chapter 3, pages 9596,
for additional information concerning the nature of
aluminum.
Filler Rod
The selection of the proper filler rod for aluminum weld-
ing depends on the composition of the base metal. The
AWS-ASTM classification R1100 is recommended for
welding commercially pure aluminum sheet (1100); and
R4043, for other types of aluminum. Castings require spe-
cial rods or consider aluminum brazing.
Aluminum filler rods are obtainable in sizes of 116, 332,
1
8, 532, 316, and 14 inch in diameter. Standard lengths are
36 inches.
As a rule, the diameter of the filler rod should equal
the thickness of the metal being welded. A rod that is too
large melts too slowly. Thus, it retards the fluid action of
the weld pool, and may cause a lack of fusion. On the
other hand, a rod that is too small melts too fast and
may be burned. There is also not enough filler metal for
the weld pool. This overheats the weld and may cause
burn-through.
Flux
The welding of aluminum requires the use of flux to re-
move the aluminum oxides that are on the surface and
those that are formed during welding. The flux-oxide
compound forms a slag, which is expelled from the weld
pool by the action of the flame and the molten metal.
A number of commercial fluxes are available. Those
in powdered form, which are mixed with alcohol or water
to make a paste, are the most practical. Mixing should
be done in a glass, ceramic, aluminum, or stainless-steel
container. Containers of steel, copper, or brass may con-
taminate the flux and should not be used.
When welding sheet aluminum, a brush is normally
used to spread the flux on the welding area and to coat
the welding rod. When welding cast aluminum, the
flux is applied to the end of the filler rod by dipping its
heated tip into the flux. During welding the flux melts
Braze Welding and Advanced Gas Welding Practice: Jobs 9-J39J49 Chapter 9239
and forms a protective coating over the molten metal and
the heated end of the filler rod. The flux is melted in
advance of the weld pool, and thus cleans the base metal
before it is welded. The flux that is applied to the base
metal should be heated slowly before welding to ensure
that excess moisture is driven off. This is done to prevent
spattering and porosity.
Some welders prefer filler rods that are prefluxed.
When such rods are used, it is not always necessary to
apply flux to the base metal. Better results are generally
obtained, however, if flux is applied to the work. The
period between fluxing and welding should not exceed
45 minutes.
Flame Adjustment
Acetylene is the most popular gas to use with oxygen
for welding aluminum because of its high heat and wide
availability. Hydrogen is also used with oxygen for the
welding of aluminum. Because of its lower heat, it is used
chiefly in the welding of the thinnest gauges of alumi-
num sheet.
In order to produce clean, sound welds with maximum
welding speed, a neutral flame is ideal, though a slightly
reducing flame (carburizing) is highly satisfactory. You
will recall that aluminum oxidizes readily. The reason
for the excess acetylene flame is to make sure that the
gas mixture does not stray to the excess oxygen side. An
oxidizing flame causes a bead that balls up. The weld has
poor fusion, poor penetration, and much porosity.
Aluminum may also be welded with the oxyhydrogen
flame. The same torch and type of tip are used. Because
of the lower temperature of the oxyhydrogen flame, a
larger tip size is required. You may have some difficulty
adjusting the flame. It is very similar, however, to the ad-
justment of the oxyacetylene flame, Fig.9-8.
The neutral oxyhydrogen flame is a white to pale violet
color, fairly large, and rather indistinct. The small, well-
defined cone in the center has a bluish tinge.
The reducing flame is larger and ragged. Its color var-
ies from pale blue to reddish-violet, depending upon the
amount of excess hydrogen. There is no well-defined cone
at the center. This flame is usually used for welding.
The oxidizing flame has a very short, blue inner
cone. The flame is thinner than the reducing flame
and ranges in color from white to transparent. Because
these differences are very hard to see, a flowmeter may
be the best means for ensuring the desired hydrogen-
oxygen ratio.
A soft flame is essential in all oxy-gas welding of alu-
minum. A strong or noisy flame causes turbulence and
lowers weld quality. The proper pressure adjustment at the
regulators and precise torch adjustment are a must.
 plate edges should be notched. For aluminum plate 316 to
7
16-inch thick, the edge preparation is like that for a single-
No Well-Defined
Cone at Center Pale Violet Outer Envelope V butt joint with a 90 V. For thicknesses of 12 inch and
over, the double-V butt joint with a 90 V on each side is
Slightly Reducing Flame
used if both sides are accessible. Table 9-2 lists the rod
and tip sizes and gas pressures for welding various thick-
nesses of aluminum.
Small Bluish
Inner Cone White Outer Envelope Cleaning Since grease, oil, and dirt cause weld porosity
Neutral Flame and interfere with welding, they should be removed from
the welding surfaces. Commercial degreasing agents are
available for this purpose. Wire brushing may also be
used to remove heavy oxide films from the plate sur-
Very Short Blue Slender, Indistinct
Inner Cone White Outer Envelope faces. Removal of oxides permits more effective fluxing
action.
Oxidizing Flame

Preheating Like cast iron, cast aluminum requires careful

Fig. 9-8 A neutral flame (center) tending toward a slightly reduc-
ing flame (top) is recommended for the oxyhydrogen welding of
aluminum.
Aluminum Welding Technique
Edge Preparation As with all other metals, the type of
edge preparation depends upon the thickness of the metal
being welded. On aluminum butt joints up to a thickness
of 116 inch, no edge preparation is necessary. A flange-type
joint may also be used. Material from 116 inch to 532 inch
can be welded in the form of a square butt joint, but the
preheating before welding and slow cooling after the weld
is completed. Preheating is always recommended for gas
welding aluminum when the mass of the base metal is such
that heat is conducted away from the joint area faster than
it can be supplied to produce fusion. A large difference in
temperature between the surrounding metal and the weld
area increases welding difficulties. The preheat temperature
must stay below 700F. Preheat temperature-indicating com-
pounds can be used to advantage. These are available in both
crayon and liquid form. They are accurate and are made in
almost any temperature range.

Table 9-2 Rod Sizes, Tip Sizes, and Gas Pressures for the Welding of Aluminum

Oxyacetylene Welding Oxyhydrogen Welding

Orifice Orifice
Aluminum Filler Rod Diameter in Oxygen Acetylene Diameter in Oxygen Hydrogen
Thickness Diameter Tip of Torch Pressure Pressure Tip of Torch Pressure Pressure
(in.) (in.) (in.) (p.s.i.) (p.s.i.) (in.) (p.s.i.) (p.s.i.)
0.020 3
22 0.025 1 1 0.035 1 1
0.032 3
32 0.035 1 1 0.045 1 1
0.050 3
32 0.045 2 2 0.065 2 1
0.064 3
32 0.045 2 2 0.065 2 1
0.080 1
8 0.055 3 3 0.075 2 1
1
8 1
8 0.065 4 4 0.095 3 2
16
3 5
32 0.065 5 5 0.095 3 2
1
4 3
16 0.075 5 4 0.105 4 2
16
5 3
16 0.085 5 5 0.115 4 2
3
8 3
16 0.095 6 6 0.125 5 3
1
2 1
4 0.100 7 7 0.140 8 6
5
8 1
4 0.105 7 7 0.150 8 6

Source: Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp.

240Chapter 9Braze Welding and Advanced Gas Welding Practice: Jobs 9-J39J49
Jigs and Fixtures Aluminum and many of its alloys are weak
when hot. Aluminum parts, especially thin stock, should be
supported adequately. Jigs and fixtures maintain alignment
and reduce buckling and distortion. It is especially important
for the edges of the joint to be spaced and aligned correctly.
Tack welding before final welding also aids in maintaining
alignment and minimizing distortion. Tack welds should be
placed carefully. They must be small enough not to inter-
fere with welding, and they must have good penetration and
fusion.
Welding Positions Aluminum welding with gas can be
done in all positions. Overhead welding, however, is dif-
ficult and should be attempted on the job only by highly
experienced welders. The flat position is preferable and
should be used whenever possible.
The horizontal welding technique is similar to that for
flat welding. Special manipulation of the rod and torch is
necessary, however, to offset the tendency of molten metal
to sag and build up the lower edge of the weld bead. Butt
joints are not practical in the horizontal position.
Vertical welding is usually performed on materials
1
4 inch or thicker. It is almost impossible to keep thin-
ner materials from burning through, and the weld pool
becomes too fluid and spills over. Torch and welding
rod angles are about the same as for all other vertical
welding.
Postweld CleaningThorough cleaning after welding
aluminum is very important. Flux residues on gas-welded
sections corrode aluminum if moisture is present. Small
sections may be cleaned by a 10- to 15-minute immersion
in a cold 10 percent sulfuric acid bath, or a 5- to 10-minute
immersion in a 5percent sulfuric acid bath held at 150F.
Acid cleaning should always be followed by a hot or cold
water rinse. Steam cleaning also may be used to remove
flux residue, particularly on parts that are too large to be
immersed. Brushing may also be necessary to remove ad-
hering flux particles.
JOB T I P
Finding Work
Finding work when you are just starting out
can be easier if you take advantage of the career centers
at vocational schools and colleges, and at job fairs spon-
sored by government and nonprofit groups. Some centers
also provide listings of businesses that offer job shadow-
ing, apprenticeships, or internships, which often lead to
full employment.
Braze Welding and Advanced Gas Welding Practice: Jobs 9-J39J49 Chapter 9241
Sheet Aluminum Welding Practice:
Jobs 9-J47J49
1. Prepare, clean, and tack the joint. It is recommended
that you practice on aluminum sheet ranging from
14 gauge to about 3 16-inch thick. Select the proper
tip size for the thickness of the metal being welded.
Select the filler rod according to the type of alumi-
num being welded.
2. Apply flux to the filler rod and the work.
3. The welding technique used to weld aluminum is
not much different than that used in the welding of
steel. Remember that aluminum does not change
color when heated, it burns through readily, it forms
oxides rapidly, and it has a high rate of expansion
and contraction. Start welding about 11 2 inches from
the edge of the sheet and travel to the opposite edge.
Heat the entire plate or joint evenly.
4. After a small pool has been formed, point the flame
in the direction of welding at an angle of about 30,
Fig. 9-9. This position heats the plate ahead of you,
reduces the problem of burning through, and in-
creases the welding speed. Do not let the cone of the
flame touch the weld pool. A distance of 18 to 14 inch
is advised. Make sure the weld pool is in a molten
state before adding filler rod. Stir the filler rod in the
weld pool. This action causes the oxides to rise to the
surface of the weld pool and reduces porosity. Side-
to-side movement depends upon the thickness of the
plate and the size of the weld bead desired. Side-to-
side movement should not be used for thin sheets.
On heavier sheets the amount of movement depends
upon the size of the weld bead desired.
As the end of the joint is approached, flatten out
the angle of the torch until the flame is reaching
mainly the welding rod. This is particularly recom-
mended for the thinner gauges of aluminum.
Direction of
Welding
3045
3045
Fig. 9-9 Typical angles for torch and filler rod range from 30 to 45
in the welding of aluminum.

Fig. 9-10 A corner weld in aluminum sheet. The ripples should
be smooth, and the weld should show no overhang.
5. Return to the beginning of the short weld and re-
start the weld. Weld toward the other edge of the
plate.
6. Clean the weld and base metal by brushing with
hot water.
7. Continue to practice these welds on various thick-
nesses of aluminum until you can make welds of
satisfactory appearance that are a cceptable to your
instructor. Note the weld characteristics shown in
Fig. 9-10. Be particularly concerned about fusion
along the edges of the weld; a smooth surface with-
out pits, holes, or depressions; and good penetration
on the back side.
The beads should not be too wide, and their edges
should be parallel.
8. Test a few of these welds as you did for steel by
bending the plates back. The weld should not frac-
ture or peel off the surface of the metal.
S H OP TAL K
Squeeze Time
Squeeze time means the time between
when the electrode is told to advance the part and when
most of the force of the electrode has been reached. It
is how fast the electrode clamps down on the workpiece
during resistance welding operations.
Welding Other Metals with the
Oxyacetylene Process
Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium is used extensively by the aircraft industry.
It is two-thirds as heavy as aluminum and less than one-
quarter as heavy as steel. It has a melting point of 1,202F.
242Chapter 9Braze Welding and Advanced Gas Welding Practice: Jobs 9-J39J49
It burns with a brilliant light and is used for flares and
photographic flashes. When magnesium is used in a fabri-
cation that is to be welded, it is usually alloyed with alumi-
num. Magnesium may be welded by the gas process, but
gas metal arc and gas tungsten arc are widely used today.
Magnesium has a high coefficient of expansion that in-
creases as the temperature increases. Distortion and inter-
nal stresses are conditions that must be provided for. Sheet
metal should be welded with one pass.
Pure magnesium has little strength. Its strength is in-
creased when alloyed with aluminum, manganese, or
zinc. It has a high resistance to corrosion.
The following factors must be taken into consideration
in the welding of magnesium alloys with the oxyacetylene
flame:
Joint design is similar to that for a corresponding
thickness of aluminum. Thicknesses up to 18 inch do
not need to be beveled. Thicknesses above 18 inch
should have a 45 bevel.
Lap and fillet welds are not recommended because of
the possibility of flux entrapment.
Magnesium alloys have low strength at a temperature
just below the melting point. The joints must be well
supported so that they will not collapse.
The filler rod must be of the same composition as the
base metal.
A flux is used to prevent oxidation. It is a powder,
and must be mixed with water to form a paste. The
filler rod and both sides of the base metal should be
coated with flux. Use flux sparingly, since too much
may cause flux inclusions in the weld and make final
cleaning much more difficult.
A neutral flame is recommended for welding. The
flame must never enter the oxidizing stage.
Oil, grease, and dirt near the weld should be removed
by a degreasing solvent that does not contain fluo-
rides. The oxide film on the surface of the base metal
should be removed by wire brushing or by filing. Pre-
heating is not recommended.
Welding technique is similar to that used in the weld-
ing of aluminum. The inner cone of the flame should
be just above the weld pool. The tip should be held
at an angle of 30 to 45, depending on the thickness
of the material being welded. Thin materials require
a smaller angle than heavier materials do. The heat
should be concentrated in order to prevent buckling
and cracking.
When the weld is completed, the flux should be
removed by brushing with hot water. Welded parts
should be treated with a solution of 0.5 percent
sodium dichromate. Small parts are boiled in the
 solution for two hours. Large parts are heated to about
150F and brushed with the hot solution. The parts
should be rinsed with clear water and dried with a hot
air blast. This treatment gives the material a yellowish
appearance.

Lead
Environmental and health concerns mandate proper use
of lead base metal and lead filler metal while welding.
Care should be taken in their application, particularly
with respect to fume inhalation and ingestion.
Pure lead is a heavy, soft metal with a dull gray surface
appearance. When cut, the cross section has a bright metal-
lic luster. Lead is highly malleable and highly ductile. It has
very little tensile or compression strength. Antimony may be
added to increase the strength of pure lead. Lead is a poor
conductor of electricity.
Lead is used in making pipe and containers for cor-
rosive liquids. It is an element in many useful alloys in-
cluding solder, antifriction, and antifriction metals. Lead
is also widely used in oil refineries, chemical plants, paper
mills, and the storage battery industry.
Lead welding is commonly referred to as lead burn- Fig. 9-11 Midget welding and brazing torch for lead welding.
ing. This term is incorrect, however, because the lead is TM Technologies
not burned. The welding process produces true fusion
of the base metal. Lead has a low melting point, about
Various tools for uniformly cutting the lead.
600F. It can be welded with oxyacetylene, oxy-propane,
Metal molds for use on vertical butt seams.
oxy-natural gas, or oxyhydrogen. A special small torch,
Fig. 9-11, with small tip sizes, is used for welding lead The following factors must be taken into consideration
with oxyacetylene. in the welding of lead with the oxyacetylene flame:
Other tools that would be of use for the lead welder
Lead is suitable for all of the standard welded joints,
are:
Fig. 9-12. Edge preparation is easy, since the metal
Welding torch tips ranging in drill size from 78 to is soft. The main problem is to make sure that the
68. The smaller tips are for use with 6-pound lead surface to be welded is clean. This is done with a spe-
(lead sheet is sized by pounds per square foot; this cial scraping tool. Welding may be done in all posi-
would be 110 -inch thick) and lighter, and the larger tions. Overhead welding is most difficult. If required,
tips for heavier lead. Depending upon conditions use lap joint and no filler metal. The pressure of the
and the welders experience, torch tips larger than flame and molecular tension will hold the molten
68 drill size are sometimes used. Light fingertip pool in place. The vertical position is accomplished
torches with valves easily accessible are preferred by with mostly lap joints. If butt joints are to be welded,
the welder. molds must be used. It is more of a casting operation
Mallets and dressers, of materials that will not dent than welding, starting at the bottom of the joint and
or mar the lead, for dressing the sections of lead moving upward.
to be joined so that they are properly aligned for Because of the soft nature of the material, the work
welding. must be well supported to prevent collapse and severe
Wooden turn pins for expanding one end of a length distortion.
of pipe so it can easily be inserted into another section Edge and flange joints may be welded without the
of pipe to form a cup or lap joint. addition of filler rod. When filler rod is necessary, it
Shave hooks, scrapers, and wire brushes for cleaning can be made by cutting lead sheet into strips. Special
or removing oxide from the lead in the areas that are molds are also available for casting rod. The V of an
to become part of the joint. angle iron can be used as a mold.

Braze Welding and Advanced Gas Welding Practice: Jobs 9-J39J49 Chapter 9243