Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics*

RA Ibrahim and VN Pilipchuk

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202;
ibrahim@mel.eng.wayne.edu

T Ikeda
Faculty of Science and Engineering, Shimane University, Matsue, Shimane 690-8504, Japan

A liquid free surface in partially filled containers can experience a wide spectrum of motions such as planar,
non-planar, rotational, quasi-periodic, chaotic, and disintegration. Civil engineers and seismologists have
been studying liquid sloshing effects on large dams, oil tanks and elevated water towers under ground mo-
tion. Since the early 1960's, the problem of liquid sloshing dynamics has been of major concern to aero-
space engineers studying the influence of liquid propellant sloshing on the flight performance of jet vehi-
cles. Since then, new areas of research activities have emerged. The modern theory of nonlinear dynamics
has indeed promoted further studies and uncovered complex nonlinear phenomena. These include rotary
sloshing, Faraday waves, nonlinear liquid sloshing interaction with elastic structures, internal resonance ef-
fects, stochastic sloshing dynamics, hydrodynamic sloshing impact dynamics, g-jitter under microgravity
field, cross-waves, and spatial resonance. The dynamic stability of liquid gas tankers and ship cargo tankers,
and liquid hydrodynamic impact loading are problems of current interest to the designers of such systems.
This article will address the means of passive control of liquid sloshing and the use of liquid sloshing forces
to control vibratory structures. Other important contributions include the development of digital computer
codes to solve complex problems that were difficult to handle in the past. The purpose of this article is to
review the research work developed in different applications. It will highlight the major achievements and
results reported in the literature. Some early work will be cited very briefly in order to provide an updated
bibliography of liquid sloshing dynamics. This review article contains 1,319 references.

CONTENTS VII. SLOSHING INTERACTION

WITH ELASTIC STRUCTURES 156
I. INTRODUCTION 134
VII. I Sloshing interaction with elastic container 156
II. FREE AND FORCED FREE-SURFACE MOTIONS 135
VII. 1.1 Interaction with tank bottom 156
II. 1 Fluid field equations 135
VII.1.2 Interaction with tank walls 156
11.2 Free sloshing 137
VII. 1.3 Interaction under parametric excitation 157
11.3 Forced sloshing 138
VII.2. Storage liquid tanks 158
11.3.1 Deterministic forced sloshing 138
VII.3 Self-induced sloshing 159
11.3.2 Rotary sloshing 138
VII.4 Sloshing interaction with elastic support structure 160
11.3.3 Random sloshing 140
VIII. NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES 161
11.4 Parametric sloshing (Faraday waves) 141
VIII. 1 Numerical simulation of liquid sloshing 161
11.4.1 Linear parametric stability 141
VIII.2 Numerical simulation of liquid-structure interaction.... 162
11.4.2 Nonlinear phenomena 142
IX. SLOSHING IN ROAD TANKERS AND SHIPS 162
11.4.3 Nonlinear interaction 143
IX. 1 Road liquid tankers 163
11.4.4 Random excitation 144
DC.2 Ship cargo tankers 164
11.4.5 Surface disintegration 145
X. SLOSHING HYDRODYNAMIC IMP ACT 165
11.5 Cross waves 146
X.l Influence of sloshing impact on elastic containers 165
11.6 Spatial resonance 146
X.2 Modeling of sloshing impact forces 165
III. EQUIVALENT MECHANICAL MODELS 147
XI. SLOSHING UNDER LOW GRAVITATIONAL FIELD 167
III. 1 Model parameters for a rectangular tank 148
XI. 1 Natural frequencies and damping 167
111.2 Model parameters for a cylindrical tank 149
XI.2 Liquid handling 168
111.3 Nonlinear modeling 150
XI.3 Free surface shape contact angle and contact line 170
IV. CONTROL OF LIQUID SLOSHING 150
XI.4 g-Jitter effects 174
IV.l Damping and viscosity effects 150
XI.5 Thermocapillary convection 174
IV.2 Baffles and other means 151
XI.6 Cryogenic sloshing 175
IV.3 Tuned liquid dampers 152
XI.7 Hydroelastic oscillations 175
V. LIQUID PARAMETERS IN ROLL OSCILLATIONS 152
XII. CLOSING REMARKS AND CONCLUSIONS 176
V.l Periodic boundary layers over an oscillating plate 153
APPENDIX: COMMON DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS 176
V.2. Periodic boundary layers in cylindrical tanks 153
REFERENCES 177
VI. DYNAMICS OF BODIES WITH LIQUID CAVITIES 154

Transmitted by Associate Editor M Gad-el-Hak

"This article is dedicated to the occasion of the 65th birthday of Prof ADS Barr.
ASM E Reprint No AM R305 $42
Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001 133 2001 American Society of Mechanical Engineers

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 134 Ibrahim ef at. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
I INTRODUCTION
Sloshing means any motion of a free liquid surface inside its
container. It is caused by any disturbance to partially filled
liquid containers. Depending on the type of disturbance and
container shape, the free liquid surface can experience dif-
ferent types of motion including simple planar, non-planar,
rotational, irregular beating, symmetric, asymmetric, quasi-
periodic and chaotic. When interacting with its elastic con-
tainer, or its support structure, the free liquid surface can
exhibit fascinating types of motion in the form of energy
exchange between interacting modes. A modulated free sur-
face occurs when the free liquid surface motion interacts
with the elastic support structural dynamics in the neighbor-
hood of internal resonance conditions. In a low gravity field,
the surface tension is dominant and the liquid may be ori-
ented randomly within the tank depending essentially upon
the wetting characteristics on the tank wall.
A liquid's motion inside its container has an infinite num-
ber of natural frequencies, but it is the lowest few modes that
are most likely to be excited by the motion of a vehicle. Most
studies have therefore concentrated on investigating forced
harmonic oscillations near the lowest natural frequency, pre-
dicted by the fluid field linear equations. However, nonlinear
effects result in the frequency of maximum response being
slightly different from the linear natural frequency and de-
pendent on amplitude. Nonlinear effects include amplitude
jump, parametric resonance, chaotic liquid surface motion,
and nonlinear sloshing mode interaction (internal resonance
among the liquid sloshing modes).
Liquid containers constitute major components in a num-
ber of dynamical systems such as aerospace vehicles, road
tankers, liquefied natural gas carriers, and elevated water
towers. The dynamic behavior of these systems is greatly
affected by the dynamics of the free liquid surface. The basic
problem of liquid sloshing involves the estimation of hydro-
dynamic pressure distribution, forces, moments and natural
frequencies of the free liquid surface. These parameters have
direct effect on the dynamic stability and performance of
moving containers.
Civil engineers and seismologists are concerned with the
problem of liquid sloshing dynamics in studying earthquake
effects on large dams, oil tanks, water reservoirs, and ele-
vated water towers. The problem is also important for aero-
space engineers involved in the design and development of
high-speed aircraft and large rockets (Schy, 1952; Sewal,
1957; Abramson, 1961b, 1965, 1966a; Bauer, 1958d, 1961d,
1962a; Kana, 1964a;, Ring, 1964; Roberts et al, 1966;
Moiseev and Rumyantsev, 1968; and Candless and Walls,
1969). Near zero gravity, the liquid volume takes an almost
arbitrary orientation and creates a problem in handling and
managing liquid flow.
Liquid sloshing in a moving container creates a large va-
riety of problems of practical safety importance, including
tank trucks on highways, and liquid cargo in oceangoing
vessels. In populated cities, gasoline and other flammable
liquid tankers are prone to rollover accidents while entering
and exiting highways. This is a difficult mathematical prob-
lem to solve analytically, since the dynamic boundary condi-
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Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
tion at the free surface is nonlinear and the position of the
free surface varies with time in a manner not known a priori.
Analytical solutions are limited to regular geometric tank
shapes, such as cylindrical and rectangular. The nature of
sloshing dynamics in cylindrical tanks is better understood
than for prismatic tanks. However, analytical techniques for
predicting large-amplitude sloshing are still not fully devel-
oped. Such loads are extremely important in the design stage
of supporting structure and internal components of vehicle
tanks. In addition, much of the sloshing technology developed
for space applications is not applicable to road tankers. The
reason is that more emphasis has been placed on frequencies
and total forces as they relate to control system requirements.
Accordingly, the effects of local peak impact pressure on
structural requirements have not been studied to any extent.
Further, the excitation amplitudes considered in space appli-
cations are too small for road vehicle simulation. To avoid
catastrophic sloshing in space vehicles, the control system
frequencies, the vehicle elastic structure frequencies, and the
fluid-slosh frequencies must be fairly widely separated.
Sloshing phenomena in moving rectangular tanks can
usually be described by considering only two-dimensional
fluid flow. Sloshing in spherical or cylindrical tanks, how-
ever, must usually consider three-dimensional flow effects.
Tanks with two-dimensional flow are divided into two
classes: low and high liquid fill depths. The low fill depth
case is represented by hi a< 0.2, where h is the still liquid
depth and a is the tank width in the direction of motion. The
low fill depth case is characterized by the formation of hy-
draulic jumps and traveling waves for excitation periods
around resonance. At higher fill depths, large standing waves
are usually formed in the resonance frequency range. When
hydraulic jumps or traveling waves are present, extremely
high impact pressures can occur on the tank walls. Impact
pressures are only measured experimentally, and cannot be
estimated theoretically.
Generally, the hydrodynamic pressure of liquids in mov-
ing rigid containers is comprised of two distinct components.
One component is directly proportional to the acceleration of
the tank. This component is caused by the part of the fluid
moving with the same tank velocity. The second is known as
"convective" pressure and represents the free surface liquid
motion. Mechanical models such as mass-spring-dashpot or
pendulum systems can also model the sloshing part, as will
be described later.
Liquid sloshing dynamics encompasses a wide range of
problems depending on the type of application, excitation,
gravitational field, and many other factors. Undoubtedly, the
aerospace technology has promoted the research activities in
many problems pertaining to liquid sloshing and the special
NASA research monograph edited by Abramson (1966a)
documents these problems. This monograph is very highly
recommended for those who are in the early stage of dealing
with liquid sloshing problems. However, it does not address
other issues related to road tankers, liquefied natural gas ship
carriers, ground storage tanks, elevated water towers, sto-
chastic excitation of liquid tanks and numerical techniques.
 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
Early attempts of liquid waves in oscillating containers in-
clude those of Hough (1895), Honda and Matsushita (1913),
Jeffries (1924), Sen (1927), Westergaard (1933), Binnie
(1941, 1955), C Smith (1948), KW Smith (1947, 1956),
Luskin and Lapin (1952), Campbell (1953), Kachigan (1955),
Nakagawa (1955, 1956), Senda and Nakagawa (1954), Taylor
(1950, 1954), Birkhoff (1956), Narimanov (1956, 1957a,b,c),
Okhotsimski (1956), Sretanskii (1956, 1957), Krein and
Moiseev (1957), Heinrich and Kaufman (1956), Moiseev
(1952a,b,c,d, 1953, 1954, 1956, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961,
1962, 1964), Miles (1958a,b, 1959a,b,c), Miles and Young
(1958), Housner (1957, 1963a,b,c), and Shved (1959). The
fundamental theory of liquid surface waves is documented in
several references (see, eg, Lamb, 1945; Stoker, 1957; Kochin
et al, 1964; Thomson, 1965; and Barber and Ghey, 1969).
This article is not intended to repeat early reviews written
by Abramson (1961a, 1963b, 1966a,b, 1968), Abramson and
Kana (1967), Brown (1982), Rammerstofer et al (1990), and
others. Its purpose is to highlight the recent theories and re-
sults in the field as encountered in different applications.
However, in an attempt to make it self-contained and for the
sake of completeness, we briefly cite the early work of criti-
cal value.
Section II presents an overview of free and forced liquid
sloshing. It includes a statement of the fluid field equations
and a summary of the main nonlinear theories used for pre-
dicting liquid behavior in rectangular and cylindrical con-
tainers. The early work dealing with free sloshing and the
corresponding modal analysis, the forced sloshing problems,
and parametric sloshing referred to as Faraday's problem
will be briefly reviewed. Recent results pertaining to nonlin-
ear phenomena and modal interaction, stochastic stability
and random excitation, surface disintegration, cross-waves
and spatial resonance will be discussed. Section II deals with
the development of equivalent mechanical linear models
such as mass-spring-dashpot and pendulum models and how
they can be used to model weakly nonlinear and impact liq-
uid sloshing. Sections III and IV cover the liquid damping
and the problem of periodic boundary layers in roll oscilla-
tions, respectively. Section VI presents a review of the main
analytical theories and results dealing with the dynamics of
bodies with liquid cavities. Section VII gives an overview of
different problems of liquid sloshing interaction with elastic
structures. A brief account of numerical techniques based on
finite element and boundary element methods is given in
Section VIII. The influence of sloshing dynamics on the sta-
bility of road tankers and ships is addressed in Section IX.
Section X presents a critical review of the recent theories and
results pertaining to the problem of hydrodynamic sloshing
impact. Section XI addresses different topics of liquid
sloshing under micro-gravitational field and g-jitter. Finally,
the article will close with some conclusions and recommen-
dations for future research directions.
H FREE AND FORCED FREE-SURFACE MOTIONS
The theory of liquid sloshing dynamics in partially filled
containers is based on developing the fluid field equations.
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Ibrahim et at. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 135
The boundary value problem is then solved either for modal
analysis or for the dynamic response characteristics to exter-
nal excitations. Several analytical formulations have been
developed by Abramson (1961b, 1966a, 1968), Bauer
(1961d, 1962a, 1964b, 1965, 1968a,b), Bauer and Villenueva
(1966), Bonneau (1964), Cooper (1960), Bratu (1971),
Dodge and Garza (1971), Eulitz (1957, 1961, 1963), Eulitz
and Glaser (1961), Ewart (1956), Fontenot (1968), Kornecki
(1983), Lomen (1965a), and Stephens and Leonard (1963).
The study of liquid sloshing dynamics in large liquid tanks
has been studied using small model simulation. The design
of simulation experiments will not be discussed here, but the
reader may refer to Abramson et al (1958), Abramson and
Ransleben (1959a, 1960), Sandorf (1960), Abramson and
Nevill (1963), Mixon et al (1963), Mixon and Catherine
(1964a,b), Dalzell (Abramson, 1966a, Chapter 5), Pinson
and Leonard (1969), and Huther et al (1973). This section
will address the fluid field equations, free and forced liquid
sloshing, parametric liquid sloshing, and other related topics.
II. 1 Fluid field equations
The analytical description of the fluid field equations is
documented for different cases of tank geometries by Ewart
(1956), Abramson (1966a), Bauer (1962a, 1966c, 1969a),
Lomen (1965a); and Kornecki (1983). The general equations
of motion for a fluid in closed containers can be simplified
by assuming that the container is rigid and impermeable, and
the fluid is inviscid, incompressible, and initially irrotational.
Capillary or surface tension effects will be ignored in a
gravitational field. The tank may be displaced along some
trajectory in space. It is convenient to refer the fluid motion
to a moving coordinate system as the variables are measured
by a measuring device that is moving relative to the inertial
frame. It is useful to write the fluid equations of motion with
reference to the stationary and moving coordinates as shown
in Fig 1. The tank is allowed to move in planar curvilinear
motion without rotation in the X-Z plane. Let O'X'Y'Z' be
Fig 1. Schematic diagram of a liquid tank in planar curvilinear
translation motion and the coordinate frames
 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
force and moment for steady state horizontal and pitch exci-
tation of an upright circular cylindrical tank.
A formal solution of liquid motion in tanks of arbitrary
shape undergoing small horizontal oscillations and pitching
was obtained by Trembath (1957) and Chu (1971). The so-
lution was given in terms of certain integrals, which can be
evaluated either algebraically or numerically depending on
the problem. Kimura and Ohashi (1978), Kimura et al (1992,
1993, 1996a,b), Komatsu (1987), and Liu and Huang (1994)
studied the nonlinear liquid motion in an arbitrary axi-
symmetric container, circular cylindrical containers, and
rectangular tanks to lateral and pitching excitations. Yin et al
(1999) used a variational principle proposed by Luke (1967)
to determine the potential function and free surface elevation
of the nonlinear liquid sloshing in a circular cylinder sub-
jected to pitching excitation. They showed the free surface
planar motion surface follows the characteristics of a soft
nonlinear oscillator, while the rotary motion followed a hard
nonlinear oscillator. Liu (1964) experimentally evaluated the
pressure on baffle rings due to liquid sloshing in cylindrical
tank. The liquid response to acceleration off the container
axis was determined by Bowman (1966).
A general treatment of an arbitrarily shaped tank under-
going forced motion was given in terms of the velocity po-
tential function by Brooks (1959). Chu (1960a,b), Rattaya
(1965), and Figarov (1971) obtained some results for an el-
liptic cylindrical tank. A Lagrangian formulation was devel-
oped by Budiansky (1960) to examine the sloshing dynamics
under horizontal excitation of spherical tank and circular
horizontal tank. The same method was also adopted by
Debonginie (1986) for liquid sloshing and related problems.
Machida et al (1998) analyzed nonlinear sloshing with inlet
and outlet flow in a rectangular tank subjected to horizontal
harmonic excitation.
Further studies on lateral nonlinear sloshing including
rotational and vortexing were conducted by Chester (1968),
Chester and Bones (1968), Moody and Reynolds (1972),
Chen (1977), and Ockendon et al (1986, 1996, 2000). For a
rectangular tank, the nonlinear liquid surface elevation was
examined by Hayama et al (1983), Su (1987), and Lepelle-
tier and Raichlen (1988). The nonlinear response was ana-
lyzed using shallow water wave theory by Shimizu and Ha-
yama (1987) and Ishibashi and Hayama (1989). The hystere-
sis phenomena associated with the nonlinear free surface
motion near resonance was studied by Shemer and
Chamesses (1990). The nonlinear liquid response spectra
under horizontal and vertical excitations were determined by
Yamada et al (1987). Large-amplitude motions of a liquid
vapor interface in an accelerating container was studied by
Moore and Perko (1965) and Perko (1969). Sudo and Ha-
shimoto (1986) and Sudo et al (1988) experimentally studied
the nonlinear response of the free liquid surface under hori-
zontal excitation of a cylindrical tank. They observed planar
surface waves, swirl motion and chaotic surface responses
for different excitation amplitudes. Kobayashi et al (1989)
determined the free liquid surface response in horizontal
cylindrical tanks. Magnetic liquid sloshing has experimen-
tally been studied under the combined effect of external ex-
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Ibrahim et ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 139
citation and magnetic field by Sudo et al (1987bc, 1997) and
OhabaeJa/(1995, 1998, 1999).
II.3.2 Rotary sloshing
Under lateral harmonic excitation, the free liquid surface
may exhibit two types of nonlinearities. The first is large
amplitude response, and the second involves different forms
of liquid behavior produced by coupling or instabilities of
various sloshing modes. The most important of these is the
rotary sloshing or swirl motion. This type of motion usually
occurs very near the lowest liquid natural frequency (see, eg,
Berlot, 1959; Graham, 1960; Ransleben and Abramson,
1960; Abramson et al, 1962b, 1966). Hutton (1962, 1964),
Gillard (1963), Weiss and Rogge (1965), and Rogge and
Weiss (1965) reported three types of fluid motion in circular
cylindrical tanks: stable planar, stable non-planar, and unsta-
ble motion near resonance. Stable planar motion is a steady-
state liquid motion with a constant peak wave height with a
stationary single nodal diameter perpendicular to the direc-
tion of excitation. Stable non-planar motion is a steady-state
liquid motion with a constant peak wave height with a single
nodal diameter that rotates at a constant rate around the tank
vertical axis. This motion occurred primarily above the natu-
ral frequency of the free surface. Unstable motion never at-
tains a steady-state harmonic response. The problem was
further investigated by Verhagen and Wijn Gaarden (1965)
and Schilling and Siekmann (1982) who found that the peak
wave height, nodal diameter rotation rate, and direction
change continuously with time.
Zhou and Graebel (1990) employed computational fluid
mechanics techniques to examine the axisymmetric draining
of a cylindrical tank. Su and Lian (1992) observed various
types of instability associated with the development of vor-
tex formation during draining from a tank bottom. Vortex
formation during draining may become unstable enough to
form a reverse flow in its core, yet the vorticity appeared to
diffuse rather uniformly as opposed to chaotically during the
"breakdown."
Waterhouse (1994) discussed a critical liquid depth below
which third-order analysis fails. He provided a detailed as-
ymptotic analysis of the free liquid surface response near
critical depth using a fifth-order theory based on Moiseev's
theory. At the critical depth the response switches from be-
ing a "hard-spring" to a "soft-spring." It was shown that the
branches in the amplitude-frequency plane coincide with a
third-order analysis only for small amplitude. New turning
points on the branches occur at a critical value of the ampli-
tude-frequency response.
The early studies of liquid rotational motion near reso-
nance motivated Narimanov et al (1977), Lukovskii (1990),
and Kubenko et al (1992) to study nonlinear models. They
obtained a set of differential equations describing the free
liquid surface amplitude and phase. Koval'chuk et al (1989),
Koval'chuk and Kubenko (1991), Limarcheno et al (1992),
and Koval'chuk and Podchasov (1996) considered the regu-
lar traveling wave modes of a liquid under quasi-stationary
vibrations of its container. The excitation frequency was al-
lowed to slowly increase with time, passing through the
 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001 Ibrahim etah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 137

ble Fourier series in space and time. This method has II.2 Free sloshing
been applied by Skalak and Yarymovich (1962) and The modal analysis of free liquid oscillations in a partially
Dodge etal (1965). filled container determines the free surface natural frequen-
Hutton's theory (1962) expanded the dynamic and cies and the corresponding free surface mode shapes. These
kinematic free surface equations in Taylor series about a parameters are essential in the design process of liquid tanks
stationary surface position. This method has been used and in implementing active control systems in space vehi-
by Woodward (1966), Woodward and Bauer (1970), and cles. The modal analysis in a circular cylindrical container
Ibrahim and Barr (1975a).
was originally treated by Poisson (1828) but the results were
Note that the analysis can significantly be simplified if the
not interpreted because the theory of Bessel's function was
fluid field equations are linearized for small displacements.
not sufficiently developed at that time. The equations of mo-
In this case, one can determine all dynamical parameters
tion of a liquid in rigid rectangular and circular tanks of uni-
such as natural frequencies, mode shapes, hydrodynamic
form depth and with linearized boundary conditions were
pressure, and sloshing forces and moments. Hydrodynamic
also given by Rayleigh (1887) and Lamb (1945). The solu-
pressure can be estimated in terms of the potential function
tion of the Laplace equation using the method of separation
using Eq (6). The normal mode frequencies can be deter-
of variables is somewhat less powerful for cases when the
mined from the linearized free surface boundary condition,
liquid depth is variable. Closed form solution for the case of
a conical container has been obtained by Green (1957, 1959),
-^+m = o (9) Green and Landau (1957), and Levin (1957, 1963). It has
been noted that when the tank is very deep, the bottom shape
Substituting (7) and (8) into (9) gives the natural frequencies
has no influence on the free liquid surface motion and the
in a rectangular tank
bottom can be treated as flat based on equal liquid volumes
<L = gKm t a n Kk m n h) (10a) (Abramson and Ransleben, 1961a). On the other hand, for
extremely shallow liquid depths, the bottom shape governs
and in a cylindrical container
the fluid motion and the problem is reduced to two-
m2m=^f-Xmh^nmhlR) (10b) dimensional. The two limiting cases were analyzed by Law-
rence et al (1958) using a variational approach to obtain an
For a circular cylindrical tank, under forced sinusoidal excita- approximate solution for tanks of intermediate depth.
tion ScosD; along , 9 = 0, the total force exerted by the fluid The free surface mode shapes for containers with axial
on the tank walls is estimated by integrating the hydrodynamic symmetry were determined by Moiseev and Petrov (1965,
pressure over the wetted area. The force along x-axis is 1966), Pfeiffer (1967a,b), Einfeldt et al (1969), Henrici et al
2
Fx(f) = M&Q. 9mQt (1970), and Pshenichnov (1972). Borisova (1962) and
McNeil and Lamb (1970) determined the normal modes and
J yRlh Q2 2\znh&mnhlR)\ ( H ) natural frequencies of the free liquid surface in an inclined
2 2 cylinder. Trotsenko (1967) studied the liquid oscillations in a
1 ^ m (<-0 ) m-l) J
cylindrical tank with annular baffle. For a spherical tank, the
where M is the total mass of the liquid. The liquid sloshing problem is analytically more complex and approximate solu-
force given by expression (11) is accurate for excitation fre- tions for the natural frequencies were obtained by Bauer
quencies not close to the liquid natural frequency. Rundgren (1958a), Leonard and Walton (1961), Chu (1964a), Riley
(1958) determined analytically and experimentally the water and Trembath (1961), Lukovskii (1961a,b), El-Rahib and
wave forces. Guyett (1967) measured the hydrodynamic Wagner (1981), Boudet (1968), and Bauer and Eidel
forces acting on circular cylindrical tank experiencing har- (1989b). Petrov (1961, 1962a,b,c, 1963) considered different
monic motion. problems of liquid oscillations in horizontal cylindrical tanks
For excitations near resonance, nonlinear analysis should and arbitrary tanks. Kimura et al (1994a) analyzed the free
be performed to calculate the hydrodynamic forces. For ex- surface motion in a rotating cylindrical tank. Further analyti-
ample, the liquid sloshing loads in rocket tanks are docu- cal and experimental investigations were carried out by
mented by Hutton and Yeh (1964), Hutton and Bhuta (1965), McCarty and Stephens (1960), McCarty et al (1960),
and in Bhuta et al (1968). As we shall see in Section IV.3, Mikishev and Dorozhkin (1961), Stofan and Armstead
these loads were introduced as a means to control system (1962), Sumner (1963, 1966), and Barron and Chang (1989).
oscillations by Hagiuda (1989). Mathiessen (1976) deter- Budiansky (1960) used somewhat sophisticated integral
mined the sloshing loads under random pitching excitation. equation technique and obtained the liquid natural frequency
The problem of liquid sloshing due to time dependent for cases of nearly empty, half full and nearly full tank.
boundary was treated by Bhuta and Yeh (1965) and Yeh Bauer (1964b) and Mooney et al (1964a,b) analyzed the
(1965, 1966). Liquid surface free and forced oscillations free liquid oscillations in a quarter tank and a tank with an-
have been the subject of numerous investigations, which will nular sector cross-section. In both cases, the natural fre-
be reviewed in the next subsections. quency of the free surface was found to have the same ex-
pression as the circular cylindrical tank, but with different
roots of the Bessel function. The liquid sloshing frequencies
for different container geometries were evaluated by Kuttler

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 138 Ibrahim et ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
and Sigilito (1969), Miles (1964,1972), Fox and Kuttler
(1983), and Meserole and Fortini (1987). The influence of
movable devices on the natural frequencies of the free liquid
surface was determined by Siekmann and Chang (1971b).
Because of the complexity of liquid sloshing in sector tanks
with perforated walls, the natural frequencies were measured
experimentally. Note that if the tank is under lateral excitation,
the resonance frequency is significantly affected by the exci-
tation amplitude due to liquid intermixing from one sector to
another. To account for the flow of liquids through the perfo-
rations, Abramson et al (1962a), Garza (1964), and Abramson
and Garza (1965) conducted a series of tests and observed a
decrease of resonance frequencies as the size of perforated
holes increases. It was also shown that the values of the reso-
nance frequency could be maintained equal to or greater than
that of solid wall sector up to a Reynolds number of 50,000 for
the 23% open area sector wall, and to Reynolds number of
20,000 for the 30% open area sector wall. Above these num-
bers, the resonance frequencies drop to experimental values
for an uncompartmented cylindrical tank.
Garza and Abramson (1963); and Silverai et al (1961)
measured the effectiveness of annular ring baffle system.
They observed that the liquid resonance frequencies are de-
pendent on the ring baffle area and its location below the free
surface. For ring baffles having a width-to-tank-radius ratio
of 0.157, the liquid resonance frequency exhibits a maximum
value when the baffle is located at the free liquid surface. It
then decreases to a minimum value near a baffle depth of one
tenth of the tank radius. The decrease in frequency may be
caused by a tendency of the baffle to restrict the motion of
the liquid to that of an equivalent shallow tank of the same
diameter. For perforated baffles, the frequency was found to
increase as the percentage of the perforated area is increased.
Based on two-dimensional analysis of liquid motion in
rectangular tanks, the natural frequency depends essentially on
the liquid depth to width ratio. The effect of liquid depth is
decreased as the mode order increases. Graham and Rodriguez
(1952) solved the three-dimensional velocity potential for
which the natural frequency depends on the three major di-
mensions of the fluid. Ghali (1965) determined the nonlinear
dependence of the natural frequencies on the wave motion
amplitude. The fundamental natural frequency in a rectangular
tank was measured experimentally by Addington (1960) and
his measured results were within 5% accuracy from the ana-
lytical values. He also examined the effect of baffles on the
natural frequencies and suggested that the baffles should be
positioned in a region of the highest velocity, such that the
surface waves are trapped but allow dissipation of energy at
the shallowest depth possible. The influence of damping on
the natural frequency was studied experimentally by Ghali
(1965), Scarsi (1971), Scarsi and Brizzolara (1970), and
Schilling and Siekmann (1980). It was found that for higher
viscosities (of kinematic viscosity v = 2.5 poise) the resonance
frequency is slightly higher than the predicted value for an
ideal liquid. Note that the modal analysis is very useful in the
early design stage of liquid containers. The response behavior
of liquid free surface to external excitation near normal mode
frequencies will be discussed in the next subsection.
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Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
II.3 Forced sloshing
77.3.1 Deterministic forced sloshing
The dynamic behavior of a free liquid surface depends on the
type of excitation and its frequency content. In the design
process, it is important to keep the liquid natural frequencies
away from all normal and nonlinear resonance conditions.
The excitation can be impulsive, sinusoidal, periodic and
random. Its orientation with respect to the tank can be lateral,
parametric, pitching/yaw or roll and a combination. Under
forced excitation, it is important to determine the liquid
sloshing dynamic loads acting on the container and their
phase with respect to the excitation. The parametric excita-
tion of free liquid surface will be discussed in Section II.4.
Under impulsive excitation, liquid sloshing dynamics was
studied by Morris (1938), Werner and Sundquist (1949),
Jacobsen (1949), Jacobsen and Ayre (1951), and Hoskins
and Jacobsen (1957). The early work did not consider free
surface motion excited by impulse, ie, when no sloshing oc-
curs. Transient and steady state response to sinusoidal exci-
tation of liquid in a cylindrical tank was studied by Sogabe
and Shibata (1974a,b) by means of linear analysis.
The problem of liquid forced oscillations in rigid circular
upright cylindrical tank of uniform depth experiencing hori-
zontal or pitching motion was analytically and experimen-
tally studied by Wedemeyer and Reese (1953), Brown
(1954), Reese (1955), Reese and Sewal (1955), Chobotov
and Fowler (1957), Schmitt (1956, 1957), Bauer
(1958b,c,g,i, 1959a, 1966d), Bauer and Reinfurfh (1959),
Eide (1964), Huleux (1964), Takahara et al (1995), and Ta-
kahara and Kimura (1997). These studies included estima-
tion of the liquid effective mass moment of inertia and the
forces and moments acting on the tank.
The dynamic sloshing loads are of great importance on
the stability and trajectories of liquid propellant rockets. The
influence of liquid sloshing loads on the stability of aero-
space vehicles was studied by Podesta (1956) Bauer
(1961a,b, 1963d, 1964a, 1966b), Abramson (1966a, Chapter
7 by Bauer), Blacklock (1965), Moiseev (1968), Epperson
and Brown (1957), Lugovskii (1961), and Epperson et al
(1961). They also determined the dynamic loads resulting
from liquid sloshing in missile tanks. The dynamics of cylin-
drical tanks with arbitrary cross sections undergoing transla-
tional and pitching motions was considered by Case and
Parkinson (1956a) and Abramson and Ransleben (1961e).
The nonlinear dynamics of space vehicles with liquid was
treated in a research monograph by Narimanov (1977).
The water pressure distribution on dams subjected to
earthquake motion was determined by Bustamante and Flo-
res (1966), Canard (1956), and Chopra (1967). Momoi
(1965) and Troesch (1967, 1970) studied the fluid motion in
trapezoidal and isoperimetric containers. Case and Parkinson
(1956b, 1957) considered the liquid viscosity or "boundary
layers" effects. Abramson (1961c,d, 1963a,b), Abramson et
al (1962b), Abramson and Garza (1965), and Abramson and
Ransleben (1959a,b, 1961a,b,d) compared analytical and
measured values of the pressure distribution, net horizontal
 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
force and moment for steady state horizontal and pitch exci-
tation of an upright circular cylindrical tank.
A formal solution of liquid motion in tanks of arbitrary
shape undergoing small horizontal oscillations and pitching
was obtained by Trembath (1957) and Chu (1971). The so-
lution was given in terms of certain integrals, which can be
evaluated either algebraically or numerically depending on
the problem. Kimura and Ohashi (1978), Kimura et al (1992,
1993, 1996a,b), Komatsu (1987), and Liu and Huang (1994)
studied the nonlinear liquid motion in an arbitrary axi-
symmetric container, circular cylindrical containers, and
rectangular tanks to lateral and pitching excitations. Yin et al
(1999) used a variational principle proposed by Luke (1967)
to determine the potential function and free surface elevation
of the nonlinear liquid sloshing in a circular cylinder sub-
jected to pitching excitation. They showed the free surface
planar motion surface follows the characteristics of a soft
nonlinear oscillator, while the rotary motion followed a hard
nonlinear oscillator. Liu (1964) experimentally evaluated the
pressure on baffle rings due to liquid sloshing in cylindrical
tank. The liquid response to acceleration off the container
axis was determined by Bowman (1966).
A general treatment of an arbitrarily shaped tank under-
going forced motion was given in terms of the velocity po-
tential function by Brooks (1959). Chu (1960a,b), Rattaya
(1965), and Figarov (1971) obtained some results for an el-
liptic cylindrical tank. A Lagrangian formulation was devel-
oped by Budiansky (1960) to examine the sloshing dynamics
under horizontal excitation of spherical tank and circular
horizontal tank. The same method was also adopted by
Debonginie (1986) for liquid sloshing and related problems.
Machida et al (1998) analyzed nonlinear sloshing with inlet
and outlet flow in a rectangular tank subjected to horizontal
harmonic excitation.
Further studies on lateral nonlinear sloshing including
rotational and vortexing were conducted by Chester (1968),
Chester and Bones (1968), Moody and Reynolds (1972),
Chen (1977), and Ockendon et al (1986, 1996, 2000). For a
rectangular tank, the nonlinear liquid surface elevation was
examined by Hayama et al (1983), Su (1987), and Lepelle-
tier and Raichlen (1988). The nonlinear response was ana-
lyzed using shallow water wave theory by Shimizu and Ha-
yama (1987) and Ishibashi and Hayama (1989). The hystere-
sis phenomena associated with the nonlinear free surface
motion near resonance was studied by Shemer and
Chamesses (1990). The nonlinear liquid response spectra
under horizontal and vertical excitations were determined by
Yamada et al (1987). Large-amplitude motions of a liquid
vapor interface in an accelerating container was studied by
Moore and Perko (1965) and Perko (1969). Sudo and Ha-
shimoto (1986) and Sudo et al (1988) experimentally studied
the nonlinear response of the free liquid surface under hori-
zontal excitation of a cylindrical tank. They observed planar
surface waves, swirl motion and chaotic surface responses
for different excitation amplitudes. Kobayashi et al (1989)
determined the free liquid surface response in horizontal
cylindrical tanks. Magnetic liquid sloshing has experimen-
tally been studied under the combined effect of external ex-
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Ibrahim et ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 139
citation and magnetic field by Sudo et al (1987bc, 1997) and
OhabaeJa/(1995, 1998, 1999).
II.3.2 Rotary sloshing
Under lateral harmonic excitation, the free liquid surface
may exhibit two types of nonlinearities. The first is large
amplitude response, and the second involves different forms
of liquid behavior produced by coupling or instabilities of
various sloshing modes. The most important of these is the
rotary sloshing or swirl motion. This type of motion usually
occurs very near the lowest liquid natural frequency (see, eg,
Berlot, 1959; Graham, 1960; Ransleben and Abramson,
1960; Abramson et al, 1962b, 1966). Hutton (1962, 1964),
Gillard (1963), Weiss and Rogge (1965), and Rogge and
Weiss (1965) reported three types of fluid motion in circular
cylindrical tanks: stable planar, stable non-planar, and unsta-
ble motion near resonance. Stable planar motion is a steady-
state liquid motion with a constant peak wave height with a
stationary single nodal diameter perpendicular to the direc-
tion of excitation. Stable non-planar motion is a steady-state
liquid motion with a constant peak wave height with a single
nodal diameter that rotates at a constant rate around the tank
vertical axis. This motion occurred primarily above the natu-
ral frequency of the free surface. Unstable motion never at-
tains a steady-state harmonic response. The problem was
further investigated by Verhagen and Wijn Gaarden (1965)
and Schilling and Siekmann (1982) who found that the peak
wave height, nodal diameter rotation rate, and direction
change continuously with time.
Zhou and Graebel (1990) employed computational fluid
mechanics techniques to examine the axisymmetric draining
of a cylindrical tank. Su and Lian (1992) observed various
types of instability associated with the development of vor-
tex formation during draining from a tank bottom. Vortex
formation during draining may become unstable enough to
form a reverse flow in its core, yet the vorticity appeared to
diffuse rather uniformly as opposed to chaotically during the
"breakdown."
Waterhouse (1994) discussed a critical liquid depth below
which third-order analysis fails. He provided a detailed as-
ymptotic analysis of the free liquid surface response near
critical depth using a fifth-order theory based on Moiseev's
theory. At the critical depth the response switches from be-
ing a "hard-spring" to a "soft-spring." It was shown that the
branches in the amplitude-frequency plane coincide with a
third-order analysis only for small amplitude. New turning
points on the branches occur at a critical value of the ampli-
tude-frequency response.
The early studies of liquid rotational motion near reso-
nance motivated Narimanov et al (1977), Lukovskii (1990),
and Kubenko et al (1992) to study nonlinear models. They
obtained a set of differential equations describing the free
liquid surface amplitude and phase. Koval'chuk et al (1989),
Koval'chuk and Kubenko (1991), Limarcheno et al (1992),
and Koval'chuk and Podchasov (1996) considered the regu-
lar traveling wave modes of a liquid under quasi-stationary
vibrations of its container. The excitation frequency was al-
lowed to slowly increase with time, passing through the
 140 Ibrahim etah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001

resonance zone. They expressed the free surface wave height Gx ^= bxa(a2 -(d2ia2) + (bl -2b2)a3d:
in the form
X \,h
r\(r,Q,t) = a(t)sw[Q +a(t)]Rl(r) (12) G2 = 2b2a dd, cor g tan /j -1, f(t) = ys
'0 '0
where a(t) and a(t) are the amplitude and phase, both are By making use of a special coordinate, they transformed
unknown functions of time. Ri(r) is the eigenfuction of the the differential equations of motion into the standard system
homogeneous boundary-value problem
of first order differential equations. It w a s shown that the
,2
dzRx{r) [ 1 dR.jr) < traveling waves propagating in the circular direction are pos-
\\-\Rl(r) =0 (13a)
sible for the detuning parameter A = c o 2 - O 2 , which is be-
dr2 r dr
low some critical value. A s the detuning parameter is in-
dRx{r) creased, the motion of the liquid surface becomes "chaotic."
dr => AL (13b)
Further increase of the parameter A leads to the standing
wave vibration. In order to investigate the case of passing
where r0 is the tank radius.
through the resonance zone, they assumed the frequency of
Following Kubenko et al (1992), KovaPchuk and Kubenko
the container to b e a slowly varying function of time, D, = Sl0
(1991) studied the free surface motion under translational
+ et, where e is a relatively small parameter, and Cl0 = 0.9<i.
harmonic excitation, s(f) = ScosQt, (8,Q. = const), along the
Their numerical results showed that the m a x i m u m amplitude
lateral horizontal axis. They obtained the following coupled
decreases to a minimum value amill(E), which is reached at
differential equations of the amplitude and phase
some time instance, T(e).
, 22
<2 + (GO I - d 2 ) a = Gx(a,d,a) + f(t)cosa Figure 2 shows the dependence of the circular wave
(14)
maximum amplitude on the frequency parameter v = ( D 0 +
ad +2aa = G2(a,d,a) - f(t)sina
ef)/tOi. It is seen that the amplitude increases monotonically
where with the external excitation frequency Q and reaches its
minimum value at the time of exact resonance V = 1. With
increasing, (starting from (Q = C0i), the m a x i m u m phase ve-
locity |3=ric/G>i first decreases to a minimum
P 0 (which occurs at (v = 0.95 and 1.07) after
which it begins to increase slightly. Note that
curves 1 correspond to the maximum steady-state
y / amplitudes and phase velocities, while curves 2
0,6 to their minimum values.
Free vibration (ie, b y setting E = 0) with initial

<u // conditions a(0) = 0.2r 0 , a ( 0 ) = 0, and ri(0) = 0 ,
the amplitude and phase velocity time evolutions
o,z are periodic as shown in Fig 3. It is seen that both
> the amplitude and phase velocity are exchanging
energy. The phase velocity assumes only positive
OSS 1,05 1,15 values indicating that the liquid "rotates" in one
direction compatible with the initial condition.
Fig 2. Amplitude (a) and phase (b) frequency response curves near resonance The displacement of the wave crest in the circular
[Koval'chuk and Kubenko, 1991] direction corresponds to a "pulse" mode. W h e n
the wave amplitudes are small, the position of the
crest along the circular coordinate 0 changes
P abruptly and the wave motion is "retarded".
These features also occur in the case of quasi-
periodic motion of the liquid container. Equiva-
lent mechanical modeling of rotary sloshing will
7,05
be given in Section III.3.
4,70 II. 3.3 Random forced sloshing
The deterministic theory of forced liquid sloshing
2,35
uuu J
is very useful in predicting dynamic parameters
U such as normal mode frequencies, damping ratio,
liquid response characteristics, hydrodynamic
2
b loads and other complex response motions. How-
ever, in practice, the excitation is not periodic but
Fig 3. Amplitude (a) and phase (b) time history records near resonance during random in nature. In this case, the excitation must
rotational sloshing [from Koval'chuk and Podshasov, 1996] be modeled by random processes. The analysis of

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
random processes includes probability theory and the theory
of stochastic differential equations. A random process is
specified in terms of statistical functions such as mean
squares, probability density functions, autocorrelation func-
tions, and power spectral density functions.
The prediction of these statistics for nonlinear liquid
sloshing is not a simple task. However, experimental meas-
urements can be processed to estimate these functions. Errors
are usually encountered in the data processing of experi-
mental measurements. Analytical methods include Markov
methods (for which the Fokker-Planck-Kolmogorov equation
and the ltd stochastic calculus are applicable), Gaussian and
non-Gaussian closure schemes, stochastic averaging meth-
ods, equivalent linearization methods, perturbation tech-
niques, Volterra-Weiner functional analysis. These methods
have been well documented in many references (see, eg, Lin,
1967; Ibrahim, 1985; Roberts and Spanos, 1990). They have
been applied to systems with various types of nonlinearities.
The liquid sloshing nonlinearity is essentially of inertia type
and thus some of the mentioned methods cannot be applica-
ble. Numerical simulations are usually applied when analyti-
cal methods fail or are used to verify the validity of analyti-
cal results if experimental results are not available.
The early attempts to study the stochastic excitation of
free liquid surface motion are believed to be experimentally
conducted by Dalzell (1967b). Under very narrow band ran-
dom excitation, the free surface gave expected behavior for
sinusoidal excitation only when the excitation level is high.
Under low excitation level, slight rotation was observed;
however, it was perceptibly less violent. For band pass exci-
tation, very little rotation was observed, and this disappears
when the excitation becomes wide band. Dalzell also meas-
ured the liquid sloshing hydrodynamic forces along and per-
pendicular to the excitation. Under Gaussian random excita-
tion, the liquid sloshing force parallel to the excitation direc-
tion was found to be close to a normal distribution. However,
the distribution of the liquid force component perpendicular
to the direction of excitation (where rotational motion of the
free surface took place under high narrow band excitation)
deviated significantly from normality.
Aslam et al (1979), Sakata et al (1983, 1984a,b, 1991),
Utsumi et al (1983, 1984, 1986, 1987), and Kimura et al
(1995) examined analytically the nonstationary response of
nonlinear liquid motion in a cylindrical tank subjected to
lateral random excitation. The excitation was modeled by an
amplitude modulated non-white random process with a
dominant frequency. The response statistical moment equa-
tions of three liquid sloshing modes formed an infinite hier-
archy of coupled equations and were truncated through a
heuristic approach. The nonlinear solution of these equations
revealed a non-zero mean response of the liquid wave height
although the excitation has a zero mean random process.
II.4 Parametric sloshing (faraday waves)
II. 4.1 Linear parametric stability
In 1831, Faraday observed the fluid inside a glass container
oscillated at one-half of the vertical excitation frequency.
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Ibrahim et at. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 141
Another similar series of experiments conducted by Matthi-
essen (1868, 1870) showed that the fluid oscillations were
also synchronous. The contradiction of the two observations
led Lord Rayleigh (1883, 1887) to make a further series of
experiments with improved equipment and his observations
supported Faraday's results. During that time, Mathieu
(1868) formulated his equations, which helped Rayleigh to
explain this phenomenon mathematically. The problem was
investigated again by Lewis (1950) and Benjamin and Ursell
(1954) who explained mathematically the discrepancy be-
tween Faraday's and Rayleigh's observations and Matthies-
sen's findings. By setting X0 - 0 and Z0 as a sinusoidal
function, in Eq (6), and after linearization , their analysis led
to a system of Mathieu equations in the form
dt2 b m
" "'" dt (15)
+ fflL(l-2Z0cosnf)4=0
where Anm is nondimensional wave height amplitude, com
and L,mn are die corresponding natural frequency and damp-
ing ratio of mode mn, respectively, Q. is the excitation fre-
quency, Z0 is the excitation amplitude parameter. Depending
on the excitation amplitude, frequency, and damping ratio,
the solutions of Eq (15) can be stable or unstable. The re-
gions of instability are given by the inequality
1-TJZ20-4C<1
f 2 V / i (16)
< T
(B
<l + VZo-4m<L
V ^ mn J
It can be shown that if the plane free surface is unstable,
the resulting motion could have frequency k/2 times the ex-
citation frequency, where A: is an integer. Mathematical ex-
pressions of the stability boundaries are well documented
(Abramowitz and Segun, 1968). Since the motion might be a
half-frequency subharmonic, harmonic or superharmonic,
both Faraday and Matthieseen could be correct, however, the
experimental results of Benjamin and Ursell only showed the
half frequency subharmonic.
Sorokin (1957), Bolotin (1956), Woodward (1966), Ra-
jappa (1970b), Goldberg (1972), Henstock and Sani (1974),
and Hasegawa et al (1983) found the domains of instability
could be slightly reduced if linear viscous damping was in-
troduced in Eq (15). Brand and Nyborg (1965) carried out a
series of experiments to measure the minimum value of the
parametric excitation amplitude required to produce half-
frequency surface waves. The measured values of excitation
amplitude were found to be much greater than those pre-
dicted analytically. They attributed tiiis difference to the lack
of development in the previous theories of the damping coef-
ficient of the free surface. Considerable efforts were given
by Miles (1967) and Mei and Liu (1973) to improve the
damping theories taking into account the most possible
sources of energy dissipation.
Because of some mathematical difficulties involved in
analyzing tanks of various geometrical shapes, Kana (1966)
conducted an experimental investigation of parametric exci-
tation of liquid surface in 90 sector cylindrical and spherical
 142 Ibrahim etat. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001

tanks. The liquid response in both containers was found to be II.4.2 Nonlinear phenomena
essentially similar to its behavior in a cylindrical tank espe- Recent studies reported complex free liquid surface motions,
cially the half frequency subharmonic response. The free which occur in the presence of nonlinear resonance condi-
surface modes in a spherical tank are dependent on the fluid tions such as internal resonance and parametric resonance
depth. It was anticipated that the first mode motion of the conditions. Internal resonance implies the presence of a lin-
liquid in the 90 sector tank could exert a net torque about ear algebraic relationship among the natural frequencies of
the longitudinal axis, if the proper phase relationships exist the interacted modes. These problems were studied by Gol-
in the motion. Such a torque cannot occur in a non-sectored lub and Simonelli (1989), Simonelli and Gollub (1989), Feng
tank, or even in a sectored tank under lateral excitation. Lo- and Sethna (1989), Funakushi and Inoue (1991), and many
men and Fontenot (1967), Woodward (1966), and Wood- others. The disordered structure of the free-surface flow un-
ward and Bauer (1970) considered parabolic containers and der relatively large harmonic excitation amplitude was also
annular sector cross-section tanks. They showed that the sta- experimentally observed by Gollub and Meyer (1983). Their
bility consideration would make the occurrence of harmonic measurements showed a sequence of symmetry-breaking
and superharmonic responses very difficult. instabilities leading to chaotic state. Under parametric har-
The influence of parametric excitation on the discharge of monic excitation, chaotic sloshing was experimentally ob-
liquid propellant from tanks of space vehicles has experi- served by Ciliberto and Gollub (1984, 1985a,b), Gollub and
mentally been determined by Schoenhall et al (1967) and Meyer (1983), and Virning et al (1988). They conducted a
Nevolin (1983). A remarkable flow retardation was found series of experimental investigations on a fluid layer in a
when the acceleration amplitude level increases. On the other circular tank with depth-to-radius ratio of 0.16. For such
hand, the flow retardation was found to decrease as the ex- fluid depth, the sloshing natural frequency is strongly de-
citation frequency increases for a fixed acceleration ampli- pendent on the fluid depth. They measured the regions of
tude. The problem of parametric excitation of a spinning parametric instability of two sloshing modes. Above the sta-
liquid was considered by Bauer (1989a). bility boundaries, the fluid surface oscillates at half the
Non-traditional sources of parametric excitation include driving frequency in a single stable mode. However, another
electrostatic forces and convective temperature gradient. The region of mode competition emerged in which the fluid sur-
parametric response of the interface between two dielectric face can be described as a superposition of the two modes
liquids under an alternating electrostatic force was studied by with amplitudes having a slowly varying envelope. These
Reynolds (1965), Devitt and Melcher (1965), Briskman and slow variations can be either periodic or chaotic. At the in-
Shaidurov (1968), and Yih (1968a,b). Their studies showed tersection of the two stability boundaries, both modes oscil-
the stability of the interface required the applied voltage must late simultaneously. Meron and Procaccia (1986a,b) derived
be high enough to suppress surface tension effects and lower amplitude equations based on symmetry considerations to
than a certain analytically determined critical value. For volt- provide a theoretical basis for the experimental results. Miles
ages greater than this critical value, Reynolds (1965) indicated (1993) addressed some features of Faraday waves.
that the interface is unstable. Similar studies were carried out Faraday waves were observed to be especially versatile
by Raco (1968) to determine the stability of a liquid jet in a (Bechoefer et al, 1995; Bechoefer, 1996; Kurdolli and Gol-
time-dependent electric field. The effects of the frequency and lub, 1996). They exhibit the common patterns familiar from
the strength of the electric field on jet stability were deter- convection (stripes, squares, hexagons, spirals), as well as
mined from a stability analysis of the Mathieu equation. Ger- more exotic patterns. These patterns include triangles (Mul-
shuni and Zhukhovitskii (1963) discovered a parametric reso- ler, 1993), quasi-patterns (Kurdolli et al, 1998; Edwards and
nance called convective instability in a fluid body subject to a Fauve, 1994; Christiansen et al, 1992), super-lattice patterns
periodically varying temperature gradient. The stability of the (Kurdolli et al, 1998; Arbell, 1998; Wagner et al, 1999),
equilibrium was found to depend not only on the mean tem- time-dependent rhombic patterns (Arbell and Fineberg,
perature gradient, as in Rayleigh's problem (1892), but also on 2000a) and localized waves (Wagner et al, 1999; Arbell and
the amplitude and frequency modulation. The free surface Fineberg, 2000b). Miiller et al (1998) presented a review on
oscillations of a magnetic liquid was studied by Dodge and Faraday wave pattern formation.
Garza (1972). Gershuni and Zhukhovitskii (1964) found that
the modulation of the vertical temperature gradient had the More recently, it has been shown that waves, which are
same influence as the modulation of the angular velocity of synchronous with the excitation, can be excited in thin layers
rotation of the fluid as a rigid body. Briskman et al (1976) of fluid vibrated at low frequency (see, eg, Kumar, 1996;
provided further analysis of parametric excitation of liquids in Miiller et al, 1997; Cerda and Tirapegui, 1997). They also
communicating vessels. The global stability of liquid motion occur in certain viscoelastic fluids (Wagner et al, 1999) and
in ellipsoid containers was studied by Leonov and Morozov in fluids forced periodically, but with more than one fre-
(1988). Bessem et al (1996) examined the stability of surface quency component (Edwards and Fuave, 1994; Beyer and
waves under two-frequency parametric excitation. The nonlin- Friedrich, 1995; Bessem et al, 1996). For each case, it is
ear phenomena associated with Faraday waves will be dis- possible to tune the forcing parameters in order to access the
cussed in the next subsection. transition between subharmonic and harmonic response. At
this codimension-two point, both instabilities set in simulta-
neously, but with different spatial wave numbers.

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001 Ibrahim etah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 143

Kumar and Tuckerman (1994) considered the fluid vis- tion of an interface with finite- and large-amplitude defor-
cosity and found that when viscous effects are included, the mations.
linearized evolution equations can no longer be reduced to a Miles and Henderson (1990) reviewed the dynamics of
single ordinary differential equation. Furthermore, an eigen- the interface under the influence of a harmonic acceleration.
value problem involving partial-differential equations must Recent experimental studies conducted by Edwards and
be solved. The effect of viscosity was discussed by Fauve (1994) and Kurdolli and Gollub (1996a,b) indicated a
Henderson and Miles (1994), Henderson (1998), and Cerda harmonically forced system might sustain finite-amplitude
and Tirapegui (1998). They found that the nature of the in- waves over a broad range of frequencies and amplitudes of
stability for slightly viscous fluid is fundamentally different the container motion. The spatial form and temporal evolu-
from highly viscous fluids. In this case, the dynamics of the tion of these waves were affected by the geometry of the
free surface in the presence of dominant viscous stresses may container, fluid's viscosity, and the behavior of the contact-
be described by a Mathieu equation. Wright (1999) and angle or motion of contact-line. Under most conditions, it
Wright et al (2000) numerically studied the parametric exci- was found that the waves have a square pattern and oscillate
tation of two-dimensional standing periodic waves at the at half the frequency of the external excitation with modu-
interface between two inviscid fluids. The fluid possessed lated amplitude. Many other patterns were observed espe-
different densities near normal and reduced gravity condi- cially for polychromatic accelerations.
tions. They used a boundary-integral method, applicable Zhang and Vinals (1997a) developed a weakly nonlinear
when the density of one fluid is negligible compared to that analysis for the dynamics of small amplitude surface waves
of the other. They also used a vortex-sheet method for the on a semi-infinite weakly inviscid fluid layer. Kurdolli et al,
more general case of arbitrary densities. They reported non- (1998) experimentally observed that two-frequency paramet-
linear effects such as the formation of complex interfacial rically excited waves produce an intriguing "super-lattice"
structures, entrainment and ejection mixing of droplets from wave pattern near a codimension-two bifurcation point
one fluid into the other. where both superhamonic and harmonic waves onset simul-
Boyarshina et al (1987) studied the stability and critical taneously, but with different spatial wave numbers. The su-
forms for the fluid free under axial harmonic excitation. The per-lattice pattern is synchronous with forcing, spatially pe-
differential equations of motion were obtained based on the riodic on a large hexagonal lattice, and exhibits small-scale
Hamilton-Ostrogradsky principle (see Lukovskii, 1967). It triangular structure. Silber and Proctor (1998) have shown
was shown that under parametric resonance conditions, some that similar patterns can exist and may be stable if the non-
complex spatial motions of traveling wave type may propa- linear coefficients of the bifurcation problem satisfy certain
gate in a circumferential direction. Quantitavely, resonance inequalities. Silber et al (2000) used the spatial and temporal
mode equations and their coefficients are subject to the in- symmetries to indicate that weakly damped harmonic waves
fluence of non-resonant modes. However, the influence of may be critical to understanding the stabilization of such
instability of these modes on the dynamic characteristics of pattern in the Faraday system.
resonance modes is eliminated and the complexity of the
II. 4.3 Nonlinear interaction
problem is significantly diminished. When this is applied to
the fluid motion in cylindrical or spherical containers, the The nonlinear modeling of three coupled sloshing modes
procedure yields differential equations with two coupled was developed for the case of harmonic parametric excita-
modes having the same natural frequencies corresponding to tion by Dodge et al (1965). Miles (1976a,b) presented a
eigenfunctions in the angular coordinate as shown by variational analysis based on the Lagrangian and Hamilto-
Kubenko et al (1984). When the natural frequencies, corre- nian for weakly coupled free oscillations of different liquid
sponding to modes with different wave parameters, are close sloshing modes. In the presence of internal resonance among
to one another, the procedure yields four equations involving different sloshing modes, Miles (1976a, 1984a,b) showed
the coupling and mutual influence of resonance modes. that the coupled modes may experience modulated behavior
Kimura et al (1994b, 1997) examined the influence of in amplitudes and phases.
higher-order radial modes on nonlinear sloshing for circular The modern theory of nonlinear dynamics has attracted
cylindrical and rectangular tanks subjected to parametric and several investigators to revisit Faraday's problem. This inter-
pitching excitations. Sudo and Hashimoto (1987a) and Ya- est has been focused on the study of weakly nonlinear phe-
mada et al (1987) determined the liquid response spectra due nomena associated with surface waves (see, for example,
to horizontal and vertical excitations. Jacqmin and Duval Keolian et al, 1981; Kuz'ma and Kholopova, 1983). The
(1988) and Jacqmin (1990) determined the instability condi- most interesting phenomena, including chaotic behavior, are
tions of fluid-fluid interface and fluid with a uniform density due to internal resonance, which occurs when the ratios of
gradient due to an oscillatory parametric acceleration. natural frequencies of two or more modes of motion are near
Houghton (1968) studied the particle motion in vertically small positive integers. Modal interaction is an avenue by
oscillating fluid. Craik and Aritage (1995) revisited the Fara- which the free surface acquires strange attractors because the
days problem and were able to describe the wavelength se- averaged equation for one mode (not coupled with other
lection and hysteresis observed experimentally. Jiang et al modes) does not have stabilized states of the chaotic attractor
(1996) performed boundary-integral simulations of two- type. For coupled modes, when one mode is directly excited,
dimensional motion to determine the highly nonlinear mo- the amplitude-frequency response of the excited mode has an

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 144 Ibrahim et ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
additional region of instability besides the standard one. This
new region arises from the zeroth solution instability of the
second coupled mode, which is not directly excited. Krasno-
pol'skaya and Shvets (1992) analyzed the oscillations of a
free liquid surface in a cylindrical tank taking into account
the effects of interaction with the energy source. They ex-
tended the work (1993) to investigate the behavior of para-
metric resonance. They derived the differential equations of
motion based on the works of Ciliberto and Gollub (1985b),
Crawford and Knobloch (1991), Kamke and Umeki (1990),
Meron and Procaccia (1986b), Miles (1984a,c,d), and Miles
and Henderson (1990). The Lagrangian averaging procedure
with respect to the motor shaft phase angle was used in order
to obtain a system of equations for amplitudes of the domi-
nant modes. The resulting equations were solved numeri-
cally. A control parameter, which characterizes the slope of
the performance curve of the motor, was adopted as the bi-
furcation parameter. They reported a series of transitions
between different limit cycles and chaotic motions when
gradually increasing the control parameter. The results were
given as phase space projections and power spectra. It was
found that the transition from regular to chaotic motions ad-
heres strictly to the Feigenbaum scenario or through inter-
mittency. They showed that the interaction with the excita-
tion mechanisms can generate chaos.
Miles (1984b,d) studied such wave phenomena when two
modal frequencies are nearly equal (circular containers).
Miles (1984a), Holmes (1986), Gu and Sethna (1987), and
Gu et al (1988) also studied the case of the vertical excita-
tions when the modal frequencies are in the ratio of 1:2. Gu
and Sethna (1987) studied periodic, almost periodic, and
chaotic wave motions in a rectangular tank subjected to ver-
tical sinusoidal excitation. The internal resonance condition
1:2 requires the fluid height to be relatively small, which
causes excessive energy dissipation. Such energy dissipation
suppresses nonlinear phenomena making it impossible to
verify the analytical results experimentally. When the fre-
quencies are nearly equal, the free oscillation in a nearly
square container was discussed by Bridges (1987) for the
case of standing waves. Note that in the case of a nearly
square container all non-symmetric modes have nearly equal
natural frequencies independent of the fluid depth. Silber and
Knobloch (1988) and Feng and Sethna (1989) considered the
case of 1:1 internal resonance and showed that the system is
capable of exhibiting periodic and quasi-periodic standing
and traveling waves. They were able to identify parameter
values at which chaotic behavior can occur.
The pattern selection problem of the free surface was ex-
amined in terms of a symmetric-breaking bifurcation of the
trivial fixed-point using the methods of equivalent bifurca-
tion theory (Golubitsky et al, 1988). The application of the
equivalent bifurcation theory to hydrodynamic pattern for-
mulation problems has been reviewed by Crawford and
Knobloch (1991).
Nonlinear modal interaction was also studied for the case
of spatio-temporal resonant triads in a horizontally un-
bounded fluid domain. The interaction takes place such that
each critical wave number from linear analysis actually cor-
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Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
responds to a circle of critical wave vectors. In this situation
it has been argued that resonant triads may play a central role
in the Faraday's wave pattern selection problem as indicated
by Binks and Van de Water (1997), Binks et al (1997),
Zhang and Vihals, (1997b), and Lifshitz and Petrich (1997).
Resonant triads are comprised of three critical wave vectors
that sum to zero, ie, 3 = k\ k2, where \k\\ = \k2\ is the wave
number of one critical mode and \k^\ is the wave number of
the other critical mode. Crawford et al (1990), Crawford,
(1991a,b), Crawford et al, (1993), Silber and Skeldon
(1999), and Silber et al (2000) formulated the bifurcation
problem using a stroboscopic map and estimation of Floquet
multipliers. It was shown that there is a fundamental differ-
ence in the pattern selection problems for subharmonic and
harmonic instabilities near the codimension-two point. Many
experimental (see, eg, Binks and Van de Water, 1997; Arbell
and Fineberg, 1998) and theoretical studies (Lifshitz and
Petrich, 1997; Chen and Vinals, 1999) attributed the forma-
tion of exotic patterns near the codimension-two (or "bicriti-
cal") point to resonant triad interactions involving the critical
or near-critical modes with different spatial wave numbers.
II. 4.4 Random excitation
The stochastic stability of a liquid surface under random
parametric excitation can be studied in terms of one of the
stochastic modes of convergence. These modes include con-
vergence in probability, convergence in the mean square and
almost sure convergence (see, eg, Ibrahim, 1985). The linear
stability analysis is based on the stochastic differential equa-
tion of the sloshing mode mn, ie,
Amn +2CA, +[l+S"CO] Amn = 0 (17)
where Amn is a dimensionless free liquid surface amplitude of
mode mn, a prime denotes differentiation with respect to the
nondimensional time parameter % = (dmt, u)m is the natural
frequency of the sloshing mode mn, C,mn is the corresponding
damping ratio, and "t, (x) is a dimensionless vertical random
acceleration of spectral density 2D.
Fontenot and Lomen (1964), Fontenot et al (1965), and
Mitchell (1968) determined the mean square stability condi-
tion of the response of Eq (17), which is given by the ine-
quality
DI2^mn<\ (18a)
On the other hand, the sample stability condition is
DI2^mn<2 (18b)
measure the spectral density of the free liquid surface height
under narrow and wide-band random excitations. The narrow-
band excitation was centered on twice the frequency of the
first axi-symmetric mode. Both harmonic and subharmonic
responses were observed, but the acceleration defining the
onset of such responses was not bracketed. As the excitation
level decreases, the response changes to predominantly har-
monic. The wide-band excitation covers the first fifteen sym-
metric modes and two excitation levels were applied. The
higher level exhibited subharmonic response. An abrupt tran-
sition between harmonic and subharmonic responses was ob-
served when the excitation acceleration level was reduced. An
 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
important feature of the results showed that low-level har-
monic response to random Gaussian excitation was nearly
Gaussian. However, when large amplitude subharmonic re-
sponse was excited, the probability distribution changed
abruptly into a double-exponential distribution. Unfortunately,
Dalzell did not report the influence of liquid damping on re-
sponse or stability. This would help in correlating with the
analytical results. However, he described his findings as a
"stab in the dark" in the absence of theoretical background.
The nonlinear motion of the free liquid surface under ran-
dom parametric excitation involves the estimation of sto-
chastic stability and response statistics of the free surface
(Dalzell, 1967a; Mitchell, 1968; Ibrahim and Soundararajan,
1983, 1985; and Ibrahim and Heinrich, 1988). The free liq-
uid surface height of a sloshing mode mn in a cylindrical
container was found to be governed by the nonlinear differ-
ential equation
mn
+ 2C [l+S"(T)]
X Amn(1 - K l A n m -K 2 A 2 m n ) + K,Al,
+ K4AmnAmn +K5AmnAm +K6AlAmn = 0.
The last four terms in Eq (19) represent quadratic (for sym-
metric modes) and cubic (for asymmetric modes) inertia
nonlinearities. Equation (19) represents the nonlinear mod-
eling of any mode mn and does not include nonlinear cou-
pling with other sloshing modes. Douady et al (1989) ex-
amined the phase modulation of parametrically excited sur-
face waves. Ibrahim and Heinrich (1988) experimentally
observed that the free liquid surface might follow one of the
possible regimes:
i) Zero free liquid surface motion, which is characterized
by a delta Dirac function of the response probability
density function.
ii) On-off intermittent motion of the free liquid surface. In
deterministic bifurcation theory, the bifurcation point
may be well defined as separating two different states of
the system. However, if the control parameter experi-
ences time variation, the bifurcation point may be sub-
ject to different scenarios (Haberman, 1979; Erneux and
Mandel, 1986) and one scenario is "on-off intermit-
tency." In fluid mechanics (Townsond, 1976), the term
on-off intermittency describes a flow alternating be-
tween long, regular laminar phases, interrupted by the
shedding vortices. The mechanism of on-off intermit-
tency is different from those reported by Pomeau and
Manneville (1980) and Grebogi et al (1982, 1987). For
example, the fixed point in the Pomeau and Manneville
model corresponds to a periodic orbit in the continuous
time system. Accordingly, intermittency is generally not
of the on-off type for continuous systems. When a burst
starts at the end of a laminar phase, this periodic motion
instability is due to the modulus of at least one Floquet
multiplier being greater than one. This may occur in
three different ways (Pomeau and Manneville, 1980): a
real Floquet multiplier crosses the unit circle at +1 (in-
termittency of type I), or at - 1 (type II), or two complex
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Ibrahim etat. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 145
conjugate multipliers cross simultaneously (type III). To
each of these three typical crossings there is one type of
intermittency.
iii) Partially developed random sloshing. This regime is
characterized by undeveloped sloshing where significant
liquid-free surface motion occurs for a certain time-
period and then ceases for another period. At higher ex-
citation levels, the time-period of liquid motion exceeds
the period of zero motion. Ibrahim and Heinrich (1988)
observed the development of circular motion of a central
spike for the case of first symmetric mode excitation.
Occasionally, the spike is displaced from the center of
the tank and precesses in such a way that preserves the
azimuth symmetry in a time-average sense. This motion
was first reported by Gollub and Meyer (1983) who
studied the amplitude dependence on the presession fre-
quency under harmonic parametric excitation.
iv) Fully developed sloshing is characterized by continuous
random liquid motion for all excitation levels exceeding
the previous regime. When the first symmetric sloshing
(19) mode is excited, higher sloshing modes are excited as
well. This is why the bandwidth of the symmetric mode
excitation was narrowed in the test. The same observa-
tion of the interaction with other modes was reported by
Dalzell (1967a).
Note that the excitation spectral level was limited to a
lower level within a narrow-band in order to avoid paramet-
ric excitation with other modes. Mixed mode interaction un-
der random excitation has not been treated in the literature.
The measured probability density function of the liquid re-
sponse was found to be non-Gaussian for regions of large
subharmonic motion with non-zero mean.
II.4.5 Surface disintegration
Under relatively high-frequency parametric excitation, large
amplitude surface waves with excitation frequencies of the
order of 1/25 to 1/50 were observed by Yarymovich (1959)
and Kana (1963a,b, 1966). This motion usually occurs in the
form of typical spray-formed waves. Sometimes the surface
motion becomes very violent at larger excitation levels with
small vapor bubbles entrained in the liquid. The bubbles can
become negatively buoyant and sink to the tank bottom.
Bleich (1956b), Baird (1963), Ponder et al (1964), Abramson
(1966a), Kana and Dodge (1966), and Gerlach (1968) re-
ported analytical and experimental studies to examine the
occurrence of surface disintegration with liquid particles
spray and the wave characteristics of spray-excited low-
frequency waves. The surface disintegration and bubble for-
mation in a vertically excited liquid column was theoretically
and experimentally investigated by Buchanon et al (1962),
Chiou and Peeble (1968), Dodge (1963, 1968), Schoenhals
and Overcamp (1965), Schoenhals et al (1967), Hashimoto
and Sudo (1980, 1982, 1984, 1985, 1987, 1988), Sudo and
Hashimoto (1987a), and Sudo and Ohaba (1998). These
studies showed the smaller fluid height the larger is the
minimum excitation amplitude required for the surface dis-
integration. It was also shown that the frequency of a spray-
excited low-frequency wave is independent of the liquid
 146 Ibrahim etat. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
height-to-diameter ratio. The parametric instability of a liq-
uid-vapor interface was studied by Fauve et al (1992).
A series of experiments conducted by Crawford et al
(1993) revealed that as the excitation amplitude increases,
spatially periodic regular patterns with square hexagonal and
triangular cells yield disordered and fluctuating states. Wu et
al (1984) and Miles (1984e) indicated that under certain
conditions soliton-like deformations develop adding to the
diversity of the nonlinear motion. When the amplitude of
oscillations exceeds a critical threshold value cusped interfa-
cial waves, ejection of droplets, intense mixing, and temporal
period tripling arise as reported by Mesquita et al (1992),
Goodrich et al (1996, 1997), and Jiang et al (1998). Fauve et
al (1992), Edwards and Fauve (1993), and Kumar and Bajaj
(1995) indicated that two-dimensional striped patterns domi-
nate as viscosity effects become important.
Wright et al (2000) provided interpretations pertaining to
interface instability during vertical excitation of the free sur-
face. They indicated that during one cycle of the oscillation
the fluid on either side of an interface is subjected to stabi-
lizing and destabilizing acceleration directed from the light
to the heavy fluid and vice versa. The interplay between the
Rayleigh-Taylor instability prevails during the first half-
cycle of the vibration. The stabilizing influence of the fluid
acceleration directed from the heavy to the light fluid, pre-
vailing in the second half cycle of the vibration, is responsi-
ble for temporal symmetry of the wave profiles during a
complete cycle. This asymmetry should be contrasted with
the symmetry of the unforced gravity or capillary waves. If
the frequency of oscillations is small, the interface is sub-
jected to destabilizing acceleration for a sufficiently long
period. This allows the Rayleigh-Taylor instability to pro-
ceed into its nonlinear stages causing the development of
spikes and bubbles. Lakiza (1995) and Kubenko and Lakiza
(1996) studied experimentally the formation process of gas
bubbles in cylindrical and spherical tanks undergoing the
action of vibrations in different frequency domains and some
resonance phenomena were observed.
II.5 Cross-waves
Cross-waves are standing waves with crests at right angles to
the wave maker. They generally possess half the frequency of
the wave maker and reach a steady state at finite amplitude.
Surface waves may be generated by applying parametric ex-
citation using a plane wave maker at subharmonic frequency
(Miles, 1985). Lin and Howard (1960), Garrett (1970), Bar-
nard and Pritchard (1972), and Lichter and Shemer (1986)
conducted experimental and analytical investigations on cross-
waves generated in a tank with a rigid wall opposite to a wave
maker. Standing surface waves of finite amplitude were stud-
ied by Tadjbakhsh and Keller (1960), Mack (1960, 1962),
Verma and Keller (1962), Mack et al (1967), and Rajappa
(1970a). Parametric instability in this case is interpreted in
terms of the work done by the wave maker against transverse
stresses associated with cross-waves. Linear theory of sloshing
waves fails to describe correctly the wave response in the vi-
cinity of the cutoff frequencies (Shemer et al, 1987). In order
to account for the finite wave amplitude (observed experi-
mentally) at the cut-off frequency nonlinear effects have to be
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Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
considered although dissipation can be crucial under certain
circumstances (Kit et al, 1987). Barnard et al (1977) showed
that resonance waves with crests parallel to the channel walls
and with wavelengths A, = 2bln (n is the mode number) may
appear in a semi-infinite channel of depth h and width b.
Shemer (1990) and Tsai et al (1990) obtained averaged equa-
tions for the resonant standing waves in the form of Duffing
oscillators. They observed the occurrence of chaotic motions
near resonance in some cases.
II.6 Spatial resonance
A special type of free liquid surface instability, referred to as
spatial resonance, was observed by McGoldrick (1970), Hun-
tly (1972), and Huntly and Smith (1973). Spatial resonance
describes a strong interaction between two classes of waves,
which have related modal shapes but greatly different frequen-
cies. Acoustic fields can generate standing waves of large am-
plitude in the water. These waves have frequencies about two
orders of magnitude lower than that of the acoustic field.
Similar waves were generated by Huntley (1972) by exciting a
beaker of water in its natural bell modes. Large amplitudes
with very low frequency were observed to be generated.
Waves with various mode patterns could also occur and some
were maintained indefinitely. Moreover, different surface
wave patterns could be generated by exciting higher order bell
modes. Mahony and Smith (1972) developed a model that
describes the onset of low frequency waves in a system when
high frequency waves are driven at a frequency close to reso-
nance. It was shown experimentally that under constant exci-
tation amplitude and slowly varying frequency the steady state
amplitude of the low frequency wave exhibits hysteresis. Note
that this type of resonance is not of the class parametric reso-
nance since the phenomena are not sensitive to the frequency
ratio of the two natural modes. Accordingly, these phenomena
must be explained in terms of resonant nonlinear coupling.
Ockendon and Ockendon (1973) addressed some aspects of
resonant surface waves.
Mahony and Smith suggested the following mechanism for
such phenomena. Because the acoustic field is driven at an
angular frequency GO close to resonance for a particular mode,
whose spatial variation over the water surface is described by
X(x), this mode may dominate the acoustic field. Further, let
there be present a small amount of standing surface wave
whose spatial variation over the surface is given by
Y(x)Exp(iai). It is necessary that X2^), when expanded by a
modal decomposition, has a significant amount of the mode
Y(x) and that X(x)Y(x) has a significant amount of the mode
X(x). The acoustic field drives a surface wave field of the form
X(x)Exp(i(dt), but this has small amplitude because its fre-
quency is so much greater than the natural frequency of
standing waves with modal form X(x). The nonlinear surface
conditions couple the two standing waves, so that very small
amounts of the modes X(x)Exp(i((d a)t) appear in the surface
displacement. Now, if at least one value of (co o) lies within
the resonant bandwidth of the acoustic mode X(x), the acoustic
field will contain the modal response X(x)Exp (/(co a)t).
Moreover, the resonant amplification of the surface displace-
ment at one or both of these frequencies may compensate for
 172 Ibrahim etah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001

number, the equilibrium interface can be assumed spherical curs at the contact-line if a moving contact-line is forced to
(Satterlee and Chin, 1965) and can be expressed by the shape obey the no-slip boundary condition. A popular model,
function f{f) = R- for Bo 1. As BQ increases, which avoids the singularity that allows the contact point to
the interface becomes flatter and a modified shape was sug- move along the solid surface, was originated by Navier. He
gested by Satterlee and Chin (1965) for values of Bond postulated the resistant stress at a fixed solid surface is pro-
number in the range 10 < B0 < 100. Further studies on the portional to the relative velocity or (30F= \idVldn, where p 0
nature of contact-angle were given by Ngan and Dussan is a constant, V is the velocity parallel to the fixed solid sur-
(1982). face, n is the distance normal to the solid surface, and JO. is
Dussan (1979) studied the contact-line behavior in terms the liquid dynamic viscosity. Goldstein (1938) provided a
of the relationship between the contact-angle and the relative systematic description of this boundary condition.
motion of the contact-line. She gave a thorough discussion of The boundary conditions at the oscillating contact-line for
static and dynamic contact-angles for uni-directional relative high Reynolds number were examined experimentally on a
velocities. Her results were representative for experiments vertically oscillating plate by Ting and Perline (1995). Os-
with small Reynolds number, small Weber number, and cillatory contact-line boundaries are important in wave and
small Froude number. The capillary number characterizes other flow interactions with a solid boundary. Benjamin and
Dussan's work and her work essentially dealt with uni- Scott (1979) and Graham-Eagle (1983, 1984) investigated
directional flow. It was shown that the contact-angle is a waves propagating in a narrow open-channel with pinned-
function of the contact-line velocity only, ie, 0C = f(Vr) as end (fixed contact-line position) edge conditions. Hocking
shown in Fig 20, where ar represents the receding angle de- (1987) demonstrated the importance of surface tension ef-
fined when Vr > 0~ where the contact point moves toward fects at a contact-line and showed that the damping of grav-
the liquid, and oca represents the advancing angle defined as ity-capillary waves at a rigid boundary is primarily due to
Vr 0+, where the contact point moves away from the liq- capillary effects. Several other studies demonstrated the im-
uid. The contact-line boundary condition is nonlinear due to portance of capillary effects in wave motion and damping,
the occurrence of hystersis, at low Reynolds number uni- see, eg, Miles (1967, 1990, 1991), Hockeng and Mahdmina
directional, steady motion (Perlin and Schultz, 1996). Figure (1991), Joo et al (1990), and Cocciaro etal (1991,1993).
20 reveals a feature similar to the friction coefficient de- Based on the relationship of uni-directional contact-lines
pendence on the relative sliding velocity, known as the dif- given by Dussan (1979), Young ad Davis (1987) proposed
ferential inclusion. Differential inclusions can be regarded as four possible relationships between contact-angle and con-
differential equations that consist of set-valued or multi- tact-line velocity for an oscillating contact-line boundary.
valued terms. Accordingly, the existence and uniqueness of These relations deal with (a) contact-angle hysteresis; (b)
solutions are no longer guaranteed, except in a few cases fixed contact-line; (c) fixed contact-angle; and (d) smooth
(Filippov, 1964 andDupont, 1992). contact-angle variation (no contact-angle hysteresis). Using
The presence of the inherent liquid viscosity creates some these relationships and a force balance at the contact-line,
difficulties in the solution of the fluid flow field even with a they presented a solution to the oscillatory contact-line in the
(uni-directional) moving contact-line. Dussan and Davis creeping-flow limit. They considered small motion of the
(1974) showed that a non-integrable-stress singularity oc- plate so that the inertial effect is small. Accordingly, the
contact-line behavior is governed by a relationship similar to
that of Dussan (1979). They found the contact-angle hystere-
sis and steepening of contact-angle with increasing contact-
line speed resulted in dissipation effects. They also found
that the contact-line motion tends to lag behind the plate
motion due to inertia effects.
Hocking (1987) used an oscillatory contact-line boundary
condition to calculate the waves generated by a vertically

oc

ar
R

0
Fig 19. Configuration of undisturbed free liquid surface showing
the contact-line region Fig 20. Dependence of contact-angle on the relative velocity

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 148 Ibrahim et ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001

Expressions for sloshing forces and moments are available Similarly, the resulting moment about the center of mass
for a number of simple tank shapes such as rectangular, cylin- yields the following constants: The mass moment of inertia
drical, and ellipsoidal (see Abramson, 1966a, Chapter 6). of the frozen mass is

HI.l Model parameters for a rectangular tank In=Ip -m0H2-^m(H-)2. (22a)

For a rectangular tank with cross section dimension a x b, n=i

and liquid depth h, the free liquid surface wave height, r\(x, Ip is the fluid mass moment of inertia and is given by the
v), and natural frequencies, (dmn, are given by the following expression
expressions
mn rm pabhl +
1
n^'J7) = X X A C O S <z x cos i~y y
Lb \
(20a) 12 16
(22b)
m=0 =0
2 16 1 ?fl_toi Jrt
i f2 -2a Y
\{m2 n2 ( 2\) J
* B1H =JC 1 in
,1
K. '
bvl*J (20b) tf(2n-l)V
jLad (2n-l)Kh

With reference to Fig 5, mn is the -th pendulum mass, and /

2a

where m and n are integers and a and b are the tank width
and breadth, respectively. For specific tank dimensions a and
b, the liquid natural frequencies increase with the liquid
depth up to hla = 1 then it becomes constant as the liquid
depth increases.
i. The Pendulum Model: For the pendulum model shown
in Fig 5, each pendulum represents one sloshing mode. A
rigidly attached mass is chosen to represent the effect of the
liquid that moves in unison with the tank as a frozen mass.
represents the n-th pendulum length. H0 is the distance of the
tank center of mass to the center of mass of the frozen fluid
portion of mass mn. Hn is the distance of the n-th pendulum
support-point to the tank center of mass.
ii. The Mass-Spring Model: The mass-spring equivalent
model parameters shown in Fig 6 are
%PSba(i:mhK{2n-\)h
K.
K

Comparing the expression for hydrodynamic force due to 8pa2b ,( ^nh}

P
lateral excitation of the tank to the total force expression due tann ( 2 - l )
T^(2n-1)
to the system of pendulums and rigid mass gives the follow-
ing model parameters
Spba2 %h
Ktl v-i
mn =m X
n=l
m =
( 2 - r / 73 t 3 t a n / z ( 2 n - l ) , m0 = pbh- / > where mT is the total mass of the liquid,
n=i
2a
H =^ tan[(2-l)
coth(2n 1 ) , (21) " 2 (2n-l)Jt
(2n-l)jt a (23)
h 2a nh
H + tan h(2n 1)
2 (2n-l)n =i

Liquid free
Liquid undisturbed level
undisturbed level

a or 2R a 'or2R
<^ ijj.

Fig 5. Pendulum equivalent modeling Fig 6. Mass-sprine equivalent modeling

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 178 Ibrahim et at. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
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 150 Ibrahim et ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001

tally analytical models and damping of liquid sloshing in IV CONTROL OF LIQUID SLOSHING
spherical, oblate-spheroidal and cylindrical tanks. Dodge and
Kana (1966) determined the mass moment of inertia and IV.l Damping and viscosity effects
damping coefficient of liquid in baffled cylindrical tank. Un- Under free oscillations, the motion of the free liquid surface
ruh et al (1986) developed a computer algorithm to extract decays due to damping forces created by viscous boundary
equivalent model parameters. layers. It is necessary to measure the reduction of the peak of
hydrodynamic forces during forced oscillations. Keulegan
III.3 Nonlinear modeling (1959) estimated the energy dissipation due to standing waves
The previous models are very useful in studying the sloshing in rectangular containers. Case and Parkinson (1956a,b, 1957)
dynamics for the linear case. For nonlinear sloshing dynamics applied boundary layers approximation techniques to the case
the amplitude of motion of these elements can be extended to of standing waves where the viscous dissipation in an assumed
include the model inherent non-linearities. The nonlinear rota- laminar boundary layer was taken to be the primary cause of
tional motion of the free liquid surface can be understood by damping. The analysis was based on successive approximation
studying the stability of the spherical pendulum under forced of a vector potential function, A, such that the velocity vector
excitation (see, for example, Berlot and Freed, 1956; Miles, is given in the Helmholtz form
1962a, 1984c, 1989). Bauer et al (1965) and Bauer (1966e,
1967) developed a nonlinear mechanical to describe the free V=-V+VxA (31)
liquid surface motion. Sayar and Bauengaten (1981) studied where the first expression is the velocity component due to
nonlinear fluid oscillation in spherical containers. They indi- the irrotational flow while the second expresion takes into
cated that the pendulum model could not duplicate the nonlinear account the effect of rotational flow adjacent to the walls.
response of the fluid motion except at a particular fluid height. Note that the normal velocity at the boundaries must vanish,
They also found that the mathematical prediction agreed fa- ie, 0 = - VO + V x A Most of the damping takes place at the
vorably with the experimental results after including the cubic rigid walls and the damping in a circular cylinder is only
spring in the pendulum model. Kana et al (1985) and Unruh et 18% less than that for a square tank of the same cross-
al (1986) developed simple pendulum analytical models for sectional area. Berlot et al (1957) indicated that the damping
representing liquid slosh in a Centaur rocket tank. However, it depends on a parameter similar to Reynolds number. Miles
was found that at low liquid levels under harmonic excitation, (1956), Bauer (1957, 1958f), Stephens et al (1962), and Cole
the slosh response also contained a rotary-type wave motion in (1966a) examined the dependence of the damping on the
addition to the usual anti-symmetric slosh in the plane of excita- liquid depth in a cylindrical tank. Miles (1967) and Mei and
tion. Kana (1987, 1989) developed analytical modeling of a Liu (1973) considered all possible sources of energy dissipa-
spherical pendulum emulating nonlinear rotary sloshing. He tion of surface waves in closed containers. The problem of
showed that a compound pendulum could predict rotary slosh- viscous fluid motion in rigid containers was analyzed by
ing in a scale model Centaur propellant tank. A portion of the Krein (1964), Krushinskaya (1965), Victorov (1965), Krein
liquid behaved as a spherical pendulum, which experienced and Kan (1969a,b), and Krein and Laptev (1968). The effects
rotary motion throughout a frequency range below, at, and of liquid draining efflux on damping were analytically stud-
above first mode resonance. The remainder of the fluid behaved ied by Nelson (1960), Lindholm et al (1962b), Miles
as an ordinary linear pendulum. Phasing of the rotary motion (1962b), and Hara (1990). Miles showed that the liquid
was such that it subtracts from the effects of normal slosh below draining produces a small, but stabilizing damping of the
resonance and adds to the effects above resonance. It was also free surface oscillations. The oscillations of immiscible liq-
shown that the compound pendulum experienced bi-valued uids in a rectangular tank were analyzed to determine the
states and jump phenomena, in a range just above resonance. damping effectiveness by Bauer (1984a).
Another feature was that a significant magnitude cross-axis It is not difficult to measure the logarithmic decrement of
force exists for the rotary motion, which can only be predicted the first asymmetric sloshing mode. Basically, the damping
by the compound pendulum. factor depends on the liquid height, liquid kinematic viscos-
Mclvor (1989) estimated sloshing frequencies for hori- ity, and tank diameter (or tank width for rectangular cross-
zontal cylindrical and spherical containers filled to an arbi- section). We will focus on viscous damping in containers
trary depth. For a horizontal circular container he considered without baffles. Dimensional analysis and empirical correla-
a two-dimensional sloshing model, and for spherical con- tions showed that the damping ratio of the first asymmetric
tainers he used a three-dimensional model. The linearized mode in circular cylindrical tank is given by the empirical
theory of water waves was used to determine the frequencies relationship, Abramson (1966a),
of free oscillations under gravitational influence by an arbi-
trary amount of fluid. The problem was formulated in terms _ 2.89
of integral equations that were solved numerically for the
eignvalues. Liquid chaotic motion can also be explained by (32a)
the chaotic motion of a swinging pendulum (Tritton, 1986). 0.318 R - +1
Mechanical models for sloshing hydrodynamic impact will sinh(U4h/R) cosh(l.84h/R)
be discussed in Section X.

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001 Ibrahim etah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 151

where V is the kinematic viscosity, R is the tank radius, g is and damping ratio of a sloshing mode are increased. On the
the gravitational acceleration. For h/R > 1 relation (32a) other hand, the natural frequencies and mode shapes in fluid-
takes the form structure interactions were independent of the liquid viscos-
2.8 ity. Generally, the seismic response of the coaxial cylinder
S= ^3/2^1/2
(32b) was influenced by the liquid viscosity. However, in practice,
7t
the liquid viscosity did not have a particular effect on the
This relation can be generalized for other tank shapes seismic design of the coaxial cylinder in the horizontal di-
rection. The seismic response of the pressure in the vertical
C=q (32c) excitation increased as the liquid viscosity increased.
d"24i
IV.2 Baffles and other means
where d is the characteristic dimension of the tank, the width
of a rectangular container or the radius for cylindrical or The inherent liquid viscosity in tanks without baffles has a
spherical containers. The constant Cx and the exponent riy very limited effect in reducing the sloshing amplitude. Ring
take the following values for the indicated tank geometry. and vertical cruciform baffles, floating lids and mats, and
flexible baffles are very effective in liquid wave control. The
Tank shape C, i effectiveness of damping devices should not be characterized
Circular cylinder: h/R> 1.0 0.79 0.5 by the amplitude decrement only. Miles (1958b), Cole
0.5 1.11 0.5 (1966b), and Schwind et al (1964, 1967) obtained semi-
0.1 3.36 0.5 empirical relationships for the damping contributed by a flat
Rectangular h/w> 1 =1.0 0.5 annular ring baffle. Buchanon (1968) and Shih and Bucha-
Spherical: %full 0.66 0.359 non (1971) determined the drag force acting on an oscillating
1/2 full 0.39 0.359 plate in liquids at low Reynolds numbers.
1/4 full 0.32 0.359 Experimental and a few analytical studies were carried
Upright conical 0.81 0.5 out to determine the damping in tanks of various shapes fit-
ted with various types of baffles by Bauer (1959b, 1960b,
Stofan and Pavli (1962), Stofan and Irvine (1963), and Sum-
1962c, 1963c,e, 1964b), Cole and Gambucci (1961a,b),
ner and Stofan (1963) measured the viscous damping coeffi-
Howell and Ebler (1956), Silveria et al (1961), Stephens et
cient in spherical tanks. For other tank shapes, it is recom-
al (1963), and Stephens and Scholl (1967). These studies
mended to use C\ ~ 1 and ri\ ~ 0.5.
presented the total damping of the fundamental anti-
In order to minimize the sloshing hydrodynamic forces
symmetric mode caused by two main sources. The first is
acting on the tank, it is desirable to suppress the liquid
due to the relative motion between the liquid and the tank
sloshing amplitude. Popov et al (1993b) studied numerically
wall and the second is due to the relative motion between the
the sloshing dynamic characteristics of a viscous liquid in
liquid and baffles. Langner (1963) and Schwind et al (1967)
arbitrary tank geometry. Shemer and Kit (1988) determined
considered the design optimization of sloshing suppression
the energy dissipation of nonlinear sloshing waves in rectan-
devices. The total fluid sloshing force should not exceed a
gular channel.
certain prescribed maximum value under all possible combi-
The influence of liquid viscosity on the sloshing response
nations of liquid level, tank orientation, acceleration, and
of tanks containing heavy liquid was studied numerically and
external tank excitation. Another important requirement is to
analytically by Mieda et al (1993) and Tang et al (1993).
suppress sloshing effects throughout certain designated fre-
Uras (1995) used a FE computer code and found that the
quency ranges over which the liquid oscillations might influ-
dynamic response reaches the steady state faster as the vis-
ence the fundamental vibration mode of the vehicle.
cosity value becomes larger. The fundamental sloshing fre-
Silveria et al (1961), Stephens (1966), Stephens and Scholl
quency for different cases stayed virtually unaffected by the
(1967), and Dodge (1971) showed that a flexible baffle might
liquid viscosity. For the case of a small tank, a 5% difference
be more effective than rigid baffles to damp sloshing in mov-
was reported in the fundamental frequency of the smallest (1
ing containers. Sumner (1964) found that the flexible baffle in
cP) and the highest (1000 cP) viscosity cases. The experi-
a spherical tank is more effective than the equivalent rigid
mental measurements by Chiba et al (1995) confirmed these
baffle. Garza (1963, 1964, 1966), Garza and Abramson
numerical results. They measured the liquid natural fre-
(1963), Abramson (1964), and Garza and Dodge (1967) car-
quency, damping ratio, harmonic and seismic liquid response
ried out a series experimental tests to find out the effect of
amplitude for 1 cP, 10 cP, 200 cP, and 1000 cP viscous flu-
different types of slosh suppression devices on the liquid natu-
ids. The damping factor and liquid sloshing response ampli-
ral frequencies, damping, and liquid forces. Scholl et al (1972)
tude were significantly affected by the viscosity especially
measured the hydrodynamic pressure distribution acting on a
for small tank sizes. As the tank size becomes larger, high
ring-baffle. Abramson et al (1962b, 1963) and Abramson and
viscous liquid behaves like water.
Garza (1965) conducted a series of tests on baffles with perfo-
Jitu et al (1994) presented experimental and analytical re-
rated holes of different sizes and various open area percentage.
sults of modal parameters of coaxial cylinders with a viscous
Their results indicated a large nonlinear effect on the liquid
liquid in the horizontal and vertical orientations. They found
damping ratio. The damping provided by a cruciform was
that as the liquid viscosity increases, the natural frequency

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 152 Ibrahim et ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
measured by Silveria et al (1961) for two orientations of the
baffle with respect to the motion of the tank.
Liquid sloshing loads on tankers and water towers is usu-
ally reduced through the partitioning the tank. The optimal
compartment length is half the length of the free surface
wave. This concept was proposed by Berlamont and Vander-
stappen (1979) for water tower tanks and by Popov et al
(1993a) for road containers.
The literature considered other types of suppression de-
vices such as annular ring tank, floating cans, floating lids;
and sound suppressors (Eulitz, 1958; Abramson and Ransle-
ben, 1959b, 1961d; Bauer, 1966a). Sayar (1971) and Sayar
and Baumgarten (1982) studied different types of linear and
nonlinear liquid slosh dampers. Hara and Shibata (1986,
1987) and Hara (1992) introduced an active control of liquid
sloshing using intermitted gas-bubble injection. Agrawal
(1987) discussed the possible interaction of liquid slosh
modes with attitude control system in a dual-spin spacecraft.
Other methods included an inverse U-tube (Hayama and
Iwabuchi, 1985; Hayama et al, 1989; and Fujita et al, 1991),
wire rope (Kobayashi, 1982), and moving baffles using ac-
tive feedback control (Su and Wang, 1991). Kobayashi et al
(1995) studied the effectiveness of bulkhead in suppressing
the liquid sloshing in cylindrical and co-axial double cylin-
drical vessels. The bulkhead is hung vertically from the ves-
sel top so as to divide it into two equal sectors (in the annu-
lus part for the latter type but leaving enough space under its
lower end for free flow (through somewhat perturbed). Ko-
bayashi et al showed that the sloshing mode is dissociated
into two non-coupling modes of the U-tube mode and the
bulkhead mode, both contributing to suppressing sloshing.
Huerta et al (1989) and Hiramatsu et al (1989a,b) analyti-
cally and experimentally studied the influence of immersed
tubes and blocks in cylindrical water tanks. Huerta et al used
the arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian FE formulation while Hi-
ramatsu et al used three-dimensional boundary element
method to determine the liquid mode shapes. Numerical and
experimental results revealed that the immersed tubes re-
duced the sloshing phenomenon and decrease the velocity of
the sloshing flow.
The interaction of liquid sloshing with membrane rubber,
which acts as anti-sloshing system was studied numerically
and experimentally by Nishino and Mochio (1995). Their
analysis was based on the assumption of membrane large
deformation and its material nonlinearity, taking the viscos-
ity of the fluid and convective terms into account. The de-
pendence of the liquid sloshing amplitude response on the
excitation base acceleration was found to be less than the
linear values, while and the sloshing frequency increases.
IV.3 Tuned liquid dampers
Liquid sloshing forces can be used for suppressing the vibra-
tion of elastic structures. The Tuned Liquid Dampers (TLD)
are based on exciting maximum sloshing motion of the liquid
by tuning the liquid frequency to the system frequency. Ac-
cordingly, these devices use the sloshing resonance in a tank
as a vibration suppression of structural systems such as satel-
lites (Anzai et al, 1981), marine vessels (Matsuura et al,
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Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
1986), towers and tall buildings (Tamura et al, 1988; Tamura
et al, 1992; Fujii et al, 1988; and Wakahara et al, 1991), and
pylons of cable-stayed bridges (Hagiuda, 1989; Yoneda et al,
1991; Steel Structure and Civil Engineering Division, 1991).
These devices are characterized by their effectiveness for
small amplitude vibrations, and their ability to tune to the
natural frequency of the structural system. An optimum design
of such devices can be achieved by adjusting the damping
factor. The damping factor can be adjusted by using rough
tank walls (Fujino et al, 1988a,b), adding surface contamina-
tion (Fujino et al, 1990), using submerged nets (Noji et al,
1988,1990), or inserting poles (Nakagaki et al, 1990).
Modi and Welt (1987, 1988), Modi et al (1988), Welt and
Modi (1989a,b), Chaiseri et al (1989), Fujino et al (1989,
1991), Kaneko (1992), Lepelletier and Reichlen (1988), Sun
et al (1989), Sun and Fujino (1994), Williams and Wang
(1992), Kaneko and Ishikawa (1999), and Kaneko and Yo-
shida (1994) developed different analytical and computa-
tional models of shallow and deep water types of TLD. The
purpose of these models was to determine the energy dissi-
pation and the effectiveness of each TLD. Kaneko and
Mizota (1996) presented an analytical model describing the
effectiveness of a deep water type cylindrical TLD with a
submerged net for suppressing the horizontal vibration of
structural systems. Specifically, they analytically and ex-
perimentally studied the effect of hydraulic resistance pro-
duced by a submerged net and the liquid depth ratio. In the
presence of the net, the system response was reduced to less
than 40%. Miyata et al (1988, 1989) and Fujino et al (1988,
1989) conducted experimental investigations to determine
the effectiveness of tuned liquid dampers. Under large am-
plitude excitation, Fujino et al (1992) and Reed et al (1996)
examined the efficacy of TLD systems. Yalla and Kareem
(1999) developed analytical models of TLD experiencing
sloshing-slamming.
Kareem (1993) and Modi et al (1995) presented literature
reviews of the application of TLD devices in suppressing of
wind-induced instabilities. Seto (1996) and Modi and Seto
(1998) studied the effectiveness of rectangular nutation
dampers in controlling vortex resonance and galloping type
of wind-induced instabilities encountered in industrial aero-
dynamic problems. They found that liquid sloshing provides
an efficient mechanism for energy dissipation. For a given
amount of liquid, energy dissipation can be improved
through the optimal partitioning of a rectangular damper in
the direction of wave motion.
V. LIQUID PARAMETERS IN ROLL OSCILLATIONS
(Periodic Boundary Layers)
When a liquid container experiences roll oscillations, Q(t) =
90sinco?, where G0 is the angular amplitude and a> is the fre-
quency of roll oscillation, the effective liquid inertia and
damping forces should be considered in the system roll dy-
namics. The effect of liquid forces on the stability of roll
oscillations of missiles was examined by Clark (1959), Ro-
senblat (1959), Chautard (1963), Chermukh (1966), and
Chernous'ko (1965, 1966, 1967a,b,c). These forces are usu-
 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001 Ibrahim et at. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 153

ally determined by solving the Navier-Stokes equations sub-
ject to the inherent boundary conditions. The resulting solu-
tion gives an account for the boundary layers thickness par-
ticipated in container roll oscillations. One also may be in-
terested in determining the thickness of the boundary layers
over an infinite flat plate, which oscillates horizontally. This
problem is well documented by Schlichting (1960) and Ro-
senhead (1963). The unsteady flow behavior over an oscil-
lating flat plate was first examined by Stokes (1851), Lord
Rayleigh (1883), and Kestin and Persen (1954), and has been
referred to as "Stokes' second problem."
V.l Periodic boundary layers over
an oscillating flat plate
The basic background of unsteady flow of a viscous fluid
has been outlined in Rosenhead (1963). The kinematic vis-
cosity, v, is used as a fundamental parameter for measuring
the rate of vorticity and momentum by molecular transport.
In fact, it is known that the vorticity is present at a distance
8 outside the boundary of the body, whereas the time re-
V.2 Periodic boundary layers in cylindrical tanks
Reisenman (1958), Bauer (1959c), Rashed (1960), and Ibra-
him and Latorre (1988) analytically and experimentally in-
vestigated the periodic boundary layers of liquid propellant
inside a cylindrical tank subjected to roll harmonic excita-
tion. The results of Reisenman revealed that both the liquid
inertia and damping coefficients are functions of the effec-
tive boundary layers thickness. For an upright circular cylin-
drical tank, filled with a viscous fluid and subjected to roll
oscillation, 9(0 = 9osinco/, the fluid inertia and damping are
mainly due to the flat bottom and tank walls. The torque Tb
acting due to the fluid boundary layers on the bottom is
Tb=IbQ + Cbe (36)
where the Ib and Cb are the corresponding effective mass mo-
ment of inertia and damping of the fluid participating with the
tank bottom motion. They are given by the expressions
H"*4 |'2C0A cb = vR\&
* 2 V2v
(37a,b)

quired to diffuse the vorticity or momentum through this The cylinder wall effect is also given by the following inertia
distance is of order (52/v), which is referred to as the diffu- and damping coefficients
sion time. For the case of periodic boundary layers, the dif-
fusion time is of order (1/co) and the boundary layers thick-
ness is proportional to -Jv /(d . In the particular case, when
'-^fc Cw = 2K\iR5h
*2v R
(38a,b)

the boundary layers thickness 8 is very small compared with Note that both inertia and damping coefficients are dependent
a reference length / and the Reynolds number co l2N 1 the on the excitation frequency such that the inertia decreases with
boundary layers approximation is applicable. the frequency while the damping increases with the frequency.
Bluff bodies immersed in liquid and experiencing har-
For the case of an oscillating horizontal flat plate, the ve-
monic oscillation usually give rise to another class of un-
locity profile V(Z, t), where Z is the vertical distance meas-
steady flow. If the spatial amplitude of the oscillating body is
ured from the plate surface, has the form of a damped har-
small compared with its nominal dimension (say the diame-
monic oscillator (Schlichting, 1960),
ter of the body) then the linearization is permissible. How-
f i A
(33) ever, the boundary layers approximation should not be em-
v -ZVw/(2v)
V(Z,t): COS (dt-
ployed, even for large values of Reynolds number. This is
because one needs to determine the pressure distribution,
It is obvious that two fluid layers, a distance
which leads eventually to the forces acting by the fluid. This
Z = 2%yj2v /co apart will move in phase. This distance is
problem was originally considered by Stokes (1851, 1905)
known as the depth of penetration of the viscous wave. The
who derived an expression for the force on the cylinder. His
layer that is moving with the plate surface has a thickness of result was shown (Rosenhead, 1963, p 169) to be valid if
order -Jv /co, which decreases as the frequency increases. either (i) the amplitude of oscillation is much smaller than
The case of a randomly oscillating plate has recently been the radius of the cylinder, and the viscous penetration depth
examined by Drolet and Viiials (1998). They assumed that Z is much smaller than the radius R; or (ii) the ratio of radius
the velocity of the plate is Gaussian white noise with auto- to the penetration depth is of order 1 and the Reynolds num-
correlation function Rv{%) = 2D&(i) and obtained the fol- ber is much less than 1. Williams and Hussey (1972) indi-
lowing expression for the fluid velocity mean square cated that if end effects of the cylinder are considered both
r2 \ 2 observations and Stokes' predictions agree very well. They
-Z /2v(
E[V2(Z,t)] = ^ - 1+- (34) also reported the measurements of the fluid forces in the
KZ 2vt
range 0.286 < ZIR < 4.13. Within this range their results
The velocity disturbance propagates into the fluid diffu- were found in a good agreement with Stokes' theory when
sively with a diffusion coefficient v. For long times the ve- the Reynolds number is greater than 1.
locity does not decay exponentially away from the wall but Morison et al (1950) developed a formula for the hydro-
rather as a power law, dynamic forces acting on a pile from the liquid surface
2Dv waves. The forces acting on a cylinder oscillating in water
E\V\Z,t ->)] = - (35) were estimated by Jen (1968), and Hamann and Datton
TO,'-
(1971). The surface waves introduce two types of hydrody-
It is seen the mean square velocity is linearly proportional
namic forces, inertia and drag. The inertia force is the sum of
to the intensity, D, of the excitation.
two components. The first is a buoyancy force acting on the

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 154 Ibrahim etah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
structure in the fluid due to a pressure gradient generated
from the flow acceleration. The buoyancy force is equal to
the mass of the fluid displaced by the structure multiplied by
the acceleration of the flow. The second inertia component is
due to the added mass, which is proportional to the relative
acceleration between the structure and the fluid, and ac-
counts for the flow entrained by the structure. The drag force
is the sum of the viscous and pressure drags produced by the
relative velocity between the structure and the flow. This
type of hydrodynamic drag is proportional to the square of
the relative velocity. Carrier and Di Pima (1956) studied the
torsional oscillations of a sphere in a viscous fluid. Keulegan
and Carpenter (1958) estimated the forces on cylinders and
plates in an oscillating fluid flow. Chen (1981) reviewed the
results of fluid damping force for circular cylinders vibrating
in stationary fluid, cross flow, and parallel flow.
Ibrahim and Latorre (1988) carried out analytical and ex-
perimental investigations to determine the fluid inertia and
damping introduced by an immersed circular rod at a dis-
tance r\ from the center of the tank filled with a viscous
fluid. Under sinusoidal roll excitation of the tank and very
small spatial amplitude, ie, ri9 0 R, they were able to solve
the linearized Navier-Stockes equations along r and 0 axes.
Their analysis yielded the following expressions for the in-
ertia and damping due to the rod, respectively,
"4
Ir = npa2hr2 )
a 1 V2to
(39a)
Cr =npa hen
4 rv 2v"
a\ 2tt) C0(72_
where a is the radius of the rod. Again, these results reflect
the dependence of inertia and damping coefficients on the
excitation frequency. Note that the amount of liquid partici-
pating with the tank motion is proportional to the thickness
vV /2oo . The above results were found in good agreement
with those measured experimentally. In order to have reliable
experimental results the experimental tank should not be
mounted on ball bearings since the resulting friction of the
bearing is higher than the effect of the fluid. The tank was
suspended by a thin shaft in a form of torsional pendulum,
which avoided additional friction when adding the fluid to
the empty tank.
VI DYNAMICS OF BODIES
WITH LIQUID CAVITIES
The dynamics of rigid bodies containing liquid cavities in-
volves estimation of stability and bifurcation of steady rota-
tion. Kelvin (1877, 1880) described some experiments in
which a liquid-filled sphere became violently unstable when
it was slightly deformed into a prolate form. He also ob-
served that a top is stable if the cavity is oblate. The spin axis
was taken as the axis of symmetry. Lamb (1945) and Parks
(1979) obtained a criterion for the stability which requires
that cla < 1 or cla < 3, while the system is unstable within
the range 1 < cla < 3, where a, a, c are the semi-axes of the
spheroid with c-axis is taken as the spin axis. Parks (1979)
proposed a conjecture that viscosity will destabilize spinning
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Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
spheroids with c/a<3. This problem has further been studied
by Chetayev (1957), Gortler (1957), Stewartson (1959), So-
bolov (1960), Miles and Troesch (1961), Winch (1962),
Rumyantsev (1954, 1955, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1966), Ishlin-
skiy and Temochenko (1960), Kolesnikov (1962), Kuipers
(1964), Wedemeyer (1964), Skalak and Conley (1964), Ack-
erberg (1965), Kumok and Novgorodtseva (1965), Levleva
(1964, 1966), and Wichterle and Wicterle (1970).
The problem is encountered in the study of stability and
control of rockets, space vehicles, and road tankers. Another
class of problems deals with the dynamics and stability of
rotating rigid bodies as applied to the evolution of celestial
bodies and astronavigation control. There are two methods
for studying the stability of the steady state motion of these
systems. The first is the spectrum analysis (Sobolov, 1960;
Zhu, 1988; Liu, 1992), and the second is based on the Ly-
apunov's method (Pozharitskiy, 1962, 1964; Pozharitskiy
and Rumyantsev, 1963; Rumyantsev, 1964a,b; Moiseev and
Rumyantsev, 1968; Li, 1983a,b; Zhu, 1984, 1992).
Rumyantsev (1964a,b) and Moiseev and Rumyantsev (1968)
developed three theorems dealing with the stability of the
steady rotation of a solid body with liquid-filled cavity pos-
sessing a conservative component of the angular momentum.
They introduced what is known as the motive potential de-
fined by the expression,
w=-_+n (40)
2
k
where II and 1^ are the potential energy and moment of iner-
tia about axis , respectively, Mf' is the angular momentum
of the steady state rotation 2(e). The three theorems are:
Theorem I: If the expression of motive potential Whas an
isolated minimum e\ then O w is stable.
Theorem IT. If the liquid is viscous and the steady rota-
tion 2(e) is isolated and if in the neighborhood of 2(e), W has
some values less than the value W^e) at Q(e) then the unper-
turbed rotation fi(e) is unstable.
Theorem IT. If the liquid is viscous and there exist no
other steady motions satisfying the condition Mr =Mlf)
near Q(e) and if in the neighborhood of D,(e\ Whas some val-
ues less than the value W^1 at 2W then the unperturbed rota-
tion 2(e) is unstable.
Moiseev and Rumyantsev (1968) derived the equations of
motion of fluid-containing rigid bodies. The derivation is
based on the principle of least action in the Hamilton-
Ostrogradsky form. According to this principle, for the ab-
solute motion (ie, measured with respect to an inertial refer-
ence frame O X Y Z) of any mechanical system with ideal
geometric constraints, one can write
uf ^
8r+
J I> 8r', dt = Q (41)
<oV
where T is the kinetic energy of the system, Fj is the vector
of the given applied force at they'th point of the system, rV is
the radius vector of this point with the origin O , and t0 and tx
are the initial and current times. Let G5be the volume of the
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 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
Bauer (1970, 1971, 1981), Bauer et al (1967, 1968a,b), and
Lakis and Paidoussis (1971), while shallow cylindrical tanks
were considered by Gupta and Hutchinson (1989) and Gupta
(1995). The axi-symmetric vibrations of cylindrical hemispheri-
cal and spherical liquid tanks were analyzed by Anisimov
(1963), Samoylov and Pavlov (1964), Gossard, (1965), Hwang
(1965), Balabukh and Molchanov (1967), Coale and Nagano
(1969), Engin (1969) Balakirev (1967), Pozhalostin (1967),
Rand and DiMaggio (1967), and Kana et al (1971). As the tank
wall thickness increases the coupling effect diminishes and the
liquid frequency approaches the case of a rigid tank.
The nonlinear interaction of liquid with elastic tank dy-
namics has been experimentally examined by Kana et al
(1966), Pih and Wu (1969), Chu and Brown (1981), Liu and
Lam (1983), Sudo et al (1985), and Chiba (1993d). Analytical
studies were presented by Kana (1967), Chu and Kana (1967),
Yu et al (1987), Goncalves and Batista (1988), Bauer and Ei-
del (1988), and Ortiz and Barhorst (1997). It was shown that
for laterally excited simply supported full shells the response
was linear up to excitation amplitude above which some slight
nonlinear softening took place. If the free liquid surface is not
in the vicinity of an axial node, and particularly if it is in the
vicinity of an axial anti-node of the shell motion, then a
marked nonlinear softening response occurs for the shell.
Other cases were considered by Mololkov and Krauklis
(1967). Some approximate and exact solutions of liquid oscil-
lation in thin elastic containers were obtained by Pshenichnov
(1969, 1971). SS Chen et al (1994) developed velocity bound-
ary conditions for simulating the free surface liquid flow. Sa-
kata et al (1986) studied the interaction of liquid sloshing with
elastic walls of a rectangular tank. Soedel and Soedel (1994)
studied the free and forced vibration for a plate supporting a
sloshing liquid. Kuz'ma and Kholopova (1983) considered
nonlinear oscillations of a cylindrical container containing a
liquid under harmonic and random longitudinal perturbations.
VII. 1.3 Interaction under parametric excitation
Longitudinal excitation of elastic shells partially filled with
liquid was considered in many studies (see, eg, Bleich, 1956a;
Kana and Gormley, 1967; Kana and Kraig, 1968; Kana et al,
1966, 1968; Kana and Abramson, 1966; Kana and Chu, 1969,
1970; Grigoriv, 1967; Abramson and Kana, 1967, 1970;
Shkenev, 1970; Koleshov and Shveiko, 1971; Liu and
Belytchko, 1983). For moderate and high frequency excita-
tion, the dynamic response can follow one of the following
scenarios:
i) Direct linear harmonic response in axi-symmetric modes
occurs primarily as large pressure amplifications and ac-
companied by very small wall deflections.
ii) Response in non-axi-symmetric modes appears in the
form of only small pressure amplitudes but with rather
large harmonic wall motions.
iii) The dominant form of response occurs as parametric
modes in which large symmetric harmonic pressure os-
cillations in the fluid are accompanied by large-
amplitude '/j-subharmonic shell wall motions in non-axi-
symmetric modes. This nonlinear response results from
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Ibrahim etat. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 157
instabilities of the linear response and is usually ob-
served in shells with little circumferential stiffening.
The shell-liquid dynamic behavior is complex in nature and
the reported results indicated that most parameters considered
have a significant influence on initial-state axi-symmetric re-
sponse, dynamic instability, and subsequent nonlinear re-
sponses. Druz and Magula (1967), and Clary and Turner (1970)
analytically and experimentally studied the parametric excita-
tion of elastic liquid containers. Other studies were considered
by Grigorev (1967), Khandelwal and Nigam (1981), Obraztsova
(1976), Obraztsova and Shklyarchuk (1979), Pavlovskii and
Filin (1979, 1985), Zhu and Huang (1984), Chiba and Tani
(1987), and Chiba et al (1987). It was found that the presence of
the flexible base has the effect of reducing the regions of insta-
bility of the free liquid surface. The dynamic stability of liquid
shells was studied experimentally by Bublik and Merkulov
(1960), Chiba (1986, 1993a,b, 1994, 1995, 1996a), Chiba et al
(1989), and Uras (1989). The frequency of the normal modes in
a hydroelastic system was analyzed mathematically by Agano-
vic (1981). Okazaki et al (1993, 1995) studied the parametric
excitation of a partially liquid-filled cylindrical shell and ob-
served chaotic responses of the shell and the liquid free surface.
The sloshing and chaotic motion of the liquid free surface were
found to appear in the lower frequency range than the paramet-
ric resonance and chaotic motion of the shell walls. Parametric
resonance in axi-symmetric shells under horizontal excitation
was examined by Takayangi et al (1990).
The hydroelastic vibration of coaxial cylindrical shells par-
tially filled with liquid was studied by Au-Yang (1976), Chu
et al (1979), Brown (1980), Chu and Brown (1981), Kobaya-
shi and Chiba (1983), Fujita (1985), and Tani and Haiji
(1986). These studies did not take into account the effects of
the motion of the liquid free surface. Tani et al (1989c) con-
sidered the free linear vibration of clamped coaxial cylindrical
shells partially filled with an inviscid liquid. They found that
the natural frequency decreases as the liquid depth increases.
Under vertical excitation, Tani et al (1989b) determined the
instability regions where the parametric resonance takes place.
They found that the principal instability resonance and the
combination summed type resonance of two natural frequen-
cies, which have the same circumferential wave number and
different axial mode of vibration, are the two major instability
sources. However, when the annular gap increases, it was dif-
ficult to observe the occurrence of the combination resonance
of two separate vibrations dominated by the deflection of ei-
ther the inner or outer cylinder. Yoshida and Miyoshi, (1987,
1989), Okazaki et al (1990), and Okazaki and Tani (1991)
studied the response of multi-walled coaxial cylindrical tanks
under horizontal and vertical excitations using the FE method.
They included the static liquid pressure in their analysis but
did not consider the effect liquid sloshing dynamics.
Tani et al (1989a) studied the free vibration of a finite
length rotating cylindrical shell partially filled with liquid.
They found that the magnitude of the initial tension due to
the centrifugal force depends on the rotation speed and liquid
density and volume. The frequency was found to increase as
the initial tension increases.
 158 Ibrahim et at. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
Boyarshina (1984) examined the nonlinear interaction be-
tween liquid sloshing modes and a circular shell vibration in
the neighborhood of three internal resonance cases. These are
(i) the natural frequency of the shell is close to one of the
sloshing natural frequencies, (ii) the natural frequency of the
shell is twice the natural frequency of the sloshing modes, and
(ii) a 3:1 internal resonance. Amabili (1996) and Amabili et al
(1998) reviewed some work pertaining to the nonlinear vibra-
tion of shells filled or surrounded by quiescent fluid.
VII.2 Storage liquid tanks
Large-sized unanchored tanks with flat base usually experi-
ence different kinds of damage under the action of ground
motions. The most known damages are the elephant foot
bulge, which takes the form of buckling at the bottom part of
the tank, and crack at the corner of the bottom plate-shell.
Both classes are related to the uplifting of bottom plate and
thus involve strong nonlinearity due to the associated large
displacement and the separation between the bottom plate
and foundation for unanchored tanks. The failure and dam-
age of liquid tanks under earthquake excitations have re-
ceived many studies by civil engineers (see, for example,
Shibata et al, 1965, 1986; Shepherd, 1969; Hanson, 1973;
Clough, 1977; Clough and Niwa, 1979; Fujita, 1981; Shih,
1981; Haroun and Housner, 1981a,b, 1982; Haroun, 1983).
Hatano and Konno (1966) numerically estimated the hydro-
dynamic pressure on an arch dam during earthquakes.
Sakai (1985) and Shimizu (1983, 1990) presented a re-
view of seismic studies of cylindrical liquid storage tanks.
Shimizu (1990) classified the main interests of seismic stud-
ies of storage tanks into the following categories:
i) Understanding the correlation between sloshing dynam-
ics and the characteristics of long-period earthquake
ground motions.
ii) Understanding the interaction between tanks elastic dy-
namics and liquid sloshing under vertical ground motion.
iii) Understanding the interaction between liquid tanks and
soil.
iv) Understanding the motions of rocking and uplifting of
tanks.
Earthquake damages and failure modes caused by differ-
ent earthquakes were analyzed by Kobayashi (1986) and
summarized as follows:
i) Much damage and failures caused by liquid sloshing
were observed in roof and shell walls for tanks of over
5000 m3 capacity.
ii) Much damage and failures caused by liquid sloshing were
observed in lower parts of tanks of less 5000 m3 capacity.
iii) Much damage and failures caused by inertia forces and
overturning moments were observed around comer
joints of the shell wall plate and bottom plate.
The behavior of anchored tanks, for which no separation
of the base from the foundation, has been studied by Velet-
sos and Yang (1977), Fischer (1979), Balendra et al (1982),
Ma et al (1982), and Haroun (1983). Veletsos (1974)
adopted a simple procedure for evaluating the hydrodynamic
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Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
forces induced in flexible liquid-filled tanks. His procedure
was based on the assumption that the tank vibrates in a pre-
scribed single mode and remains circular during vibrations.
Veletsos and Yang (1977) presented simplified formulas to
obtain the fundamental natural frequencies of liquid-filled
shells using the Rayleigh-Ritz energy method. Haroun and
Housner (1981) studied the dynamic behavior of deformable
anchored cylindrical tanks. Ishida and Kobayashi (1985),
Auli et al (1985), Zui and Shinke (1985), Manos and Clough
(1985), Manos and Talaslidis (1986), Sakai and Isoe (1989),
Sakai et al (1989), Uras and Liu (1990), and Yi and Nat-
siavas (1990) conducted different computational and ex-
perimental studies to determine the uplifting effects on liquid
containers. These studies were carried out based on the static
tilt developed originally by Clough (1979), Clough and Niwa
(1979), and Clough et al (1979). Manos (1989, 1990) studied
the behavior of a cylindrical liquid tank subjected to lateral
earthquake loading using tilt-test conditions. Rammerstofer
et al (1989) estimated the maximum loads of nonlinear mo-
tion of uplifting liquid storage tanks by using the response
spectrum method together with an iterative procedure. Nash
et al (1989) considered large amplitude motion of the liquid
free surface and their effect on shell dynamics.
Note that the strong nonlinearity associated with the un-
anchored tanks, results in a reduction in the effective beam
type stiffness of the tank. Accordingly, the tank predominant
frequency response affects the fluid pressures through the
fluid-structure interaction. Furthermore, large amplitude
sloshing can be induced by the long period components of
ground motion. Shih (1981) and Natsiavas (1987) indicated
that the shell flexibility effects may be neglected when
evaluating seismic loads for the tall unanchored tanks. Nat-
siavas (1989) considered two simplified models for studying
the dynamic response of tall-unanchored fluid-filled tanks
based on neglecting the shell flexibility. He found that the
sloshing effects on the overall tank dynamics were negligible
for both models. Lau and Zeng (1992) developed a time-
history analysis procedure to evaluate the nonlinear dynamic
uplift response of unanchored cylindrical liquid tanks to
horizontal earthquake support excitation. Contrary to previ-
ous results, the time history analysis of Lau and Zeng (1992)
revealed that the base uplift has significant effect on the hy-
drodynamic forces generated from the vibrating liquid, par-
ticularly the convective component. Furthermore, the flexi-
bility of the tank system was found important.
Natsiavas and Babcock (1988) developed analytical models
of unanchored liquid tanks and analyzed the buckling behavior
statically using the maximum value of pressure induced by
dynamic and static loadings. Chiba et al (1986), Chiba and
Tani, (1987), Liu and Uras (1989a,b), and Fujita et al (1990)
included the dynamic interaction of liquid and structure, and
the modal coupling in both axial and circumferential direc-
tions. Experimental results of Liu and Uras did not reveal the
higher-order buckling loads, which were attributed mainly to
the presence of cylindrical shell imperfections in the actual
experimental tests. Later, Uras et al (1990) and Tsukimori et
al (1991) were motivated to develop the equations of motion
of cylindrical liquid shells taking into account the influence of
 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
imperfections. The FE formulation of Tsukimori et al (1991)
included the additional higher-order modal couplings, which
depend mainly on the imperfection pattern.
Ogawa et al (1996) studied the sloshing behavior of worm
tanks (tanks with a series of incomplete circular cross-
sections). For this type of tanks the fluid-structure interaction
and the sloshing dynamics can take place simultaneously. It
was found that the natural frequency of the worm tank can be
calculated using the formula of the frequency of a cylindrical
tank or a rectangular tank for the lower modes. Ogawa et al
estimated the surface behavior and the impact mode using the
rectangular tank results. Under seismic excitation along the
tank short side, the tank slip occurred and the amplitude of the
response in the seismic direction was twice than that of the
long side excitation. Later, Ogawa et al (1997) experimentally
examined the fluid-structure-interaction behavior of the worm
tank and observed the acceleration in the lateral excitation is
ten times larger than the one in the longitudinal excitation.
If the tank is supported near its top and becomes separated
from its foundation, then a 3-dimensional FE analysis should
be used. Chen (1991) used the 3D FE analysis of a sodium-
filled tank subjected to seismic loading to study the liquid
sloshing effects on the tank structure. For the fluid depth-
diameter ratio considered in the study, it was found that the
sloshing motion participation was negligible.
The liquid-structure interaction of a reactor vessel subjected
to a horizontal excitation was studied using combined com-
putational schemes. The FE method was used for the structure
and Boundary element method for the liquid (Chang et al,
1987; Yasiro et al, 1987; Kondo, 1989; Kondo et al, 1989).
The problem of recovery and purification of fuel dis-
charged from the integral fast reactors involves the dynamic
response of tanks containing two liquids (Burris et al, 1987
and Bandyopadhyay, 1991). Tang et al (1991) showed that
the sloshing motion in a tank containing two liquids is quite
different from that containing only one liquid, and the
sloshing wave height computed based on one liquid may lead
to some errors. Tang (1992, 1993) and Tang and Chang
(1993a,b) analytically and numerically studied the dynamic
responses of both rigid and flexible tanks containing two
liquids subjected to lateral and rocking base motions. They
determined the hydrodynamic pressure, base shear, and base
moments. Tang (1994) studied the effect of the soil-structure
interaction on the dynamic response of tanks containing two
liquids. His results indicated that the soil-structure interac-
tion reduces the dynamic response.
VII.3 Self-induced sloshing
Two types of self-excited oscillations of a structure coupled
with internal fluid were observed in breeder reactors. The first
type occurs at the natural frequency of sloshing and is known
as coupled sloshing mode oscillation, see, eg, Aita and Gerbert
(1986), Aita et al (1986), Fujita et al (1993, 1996), Kaneko et
al (1993), and Nagakura and Kaneko (1995). These problems
were analytically investigated by Nagakura and Kaneko
(1998a) for a flexible plate weir. Nagakura and Kaneko
(1998b, c), and Kaneko et al (1999) analyzed the case of a
cylindrical weir while Tanaka et al (1999, 2000) considered
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Ibrahim et at. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 159
the case of a dual cylindrical weir. They found that dual cylin-
drical shells oscillate in and out of phase with each other with
an oval vibration mode under certain conditions.
The second type takes place in breeder reactors in a form
of interaction between the sodium coolant free surface and a
neighboring jet, or high-speed flow, and is referred to as self-
induced sloshing. Self-induced sloshing was studied by
Madarame et al (1992, 1993a,b, 1995), Okamoto et al
(1992), Fukkaya et al (1993), Takizawa and Kondo (1993,
1995), and Someya et al (1995). These studies established
the dependency of the sloshing motion growth on geometri-
cal and operational parameters. Iida et al (1993) observed
self-induced sloshing in a cylindrical tank with a round jet on
the tank axis impinging on the free surface. Madarame et al
(1995) conducted experimental investigation to define the
characteristics of liquid sloshing in cylindrical and rectan-
gular tanks. They found that the induced mode had only one
diametrical node, which was accompanied by the lateral mo-
tion of the swell. The mode was replaced by a lower one
with increasing the inlet-surface distance and velocity. The
jet-flutter was coupled with the liquid sloshing and supplied
energy to the liquid. Another form of flow-induced sloshing
is due to overflow coupling with elastic oscillations.
Lu et al (1995) conducted numerical simulation and
showed that the stability of the free surface was never vio-
lated. The results showed also the occurrence of scope insta-
bility similar to that observed experimentally. The oscillation
of the overflow rate was found to be the principal cause of
instability. The flow-induced damping has the effect of re-
ducing the instability if the flow rate is too large or the fall
height is too high. Furthermore, the delay time of overflow
causes mismatch of the phase shift if the fall height is too
high so that the instability is suppressed by the mismatch.
Hara and Suzuki (1992) analyzed the dynamic instability
induced in a flexible weir, which separates a fluid into two
volumes and subjected to fluid discharge. Chiba et al (1997)
experimentally studied the liquid oscillations in a thin cylin-
drical weir and observed three types of instability in the form
of traveling waves, which travel either clockwise or counter-
clockwise, or standing waves. They found that the velocity
of the traveling waves is nearly constant and is independent
of the flow rate and the falling height.
VII.4 Sloshing interaction with
an elastic support structure
This type of interaction takes place between the free liquid
surface motion and the supported elastic structure dynamics
based on the assumption that the liquid container is rigid.
Under the base motion of the supporting structure, the fluid
container experiences motion in a certain trajectory governed
by the excitation and the liquid response. The free liquid
surface motion will result in hydrodynamic forces that are
fed back to the supporting structure. The dynamics of ele-
vated water towers under seismic excitation was examined
by Ifrim and Bratu (1969), Sonobe and Nishikawa (1969),
Van Erp (1969), Shepherd (1972), Yang (1976), and Niwa
(1978). The nonlinear interaction in elevated water towers
subjected to vertical sinusoidal ground motion was examined
in the neighborhood of internal resonance by Ibrahim and
 160 Ibrahim et ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
Barr (1975a,b), Ibrahim (1976), and Ibrahim et al (1988). In
these studies, the free liquid surface sloshing modes and the
elastic support structure were coupled through inertia non-
linearity, which results in internal resonance conditions
n
among the interacting modes (ie, y / o y - = 0, where kj are
integers and co^ are the natural frequencies of the coupled
modes). This type of coupling is referred to as auto-
parametric interaction when an externally excited mode can
act as a parametric excitation to other modes. The problem of
internal resonances in nonlinearly coupled oscillators is of
interest in connection with redistribution of energy among
the various natural modes. This energy sharing is usually
brought about by resonant interactions among the natural
modes of the system. The coupling among these modes plays
a crucial role in such interactions. In a straightforward per-
turbation theory, internal resonances lead to the problem of
small divisors.
In Hamiltonian autonomous systems, the simultaneous
presence of several internal resonance relationships may re-
sult in an instability caused by certain nonlinear terms in the
system equations of motion. Stability analysis of such sys-
tems has been considered for different cases of internal reso-
nance conditions (see, for example, Aa and Sanders, 1979;
Kunitsyn, 1971; Kunitsyn and Matveyev, 1991; Khazina,
1974; and Goltser and Kunitsyn, 1975). Kunitsyn and Mat-
veyev (1991) formulated the normal form of a system that
contains the first nonlinear terms for an arbitrary number of
non-interacting resonances of odd-order. They classified the
internal resonance conditions as weak and strong. Weak
resonance preserves the stability of the system, while strong
resonance results in system instability. However, the interac-
tion of several weak internal resonances linked by more than
one common frequency can result in system instability. The
stability of the steady state responses of dynamic systems
with multiple odd and even order internal resonances was
considered by Kunitsyn and Markeev (1979), and Kunitsyn
and Perezhogen (1985), respectively. These studies have
shown that the problem of stability of systems with fourth-
order internal resonances is more complicated than for third-
order internal resonances. The stability of the equilibrium
position of multi-dimensional Hamiltonian systems was de-
termined for multiple independent and interacting resonance
conditions. Interacting resonances imply that one or more
frequencies are common in two internal resonance condi-
tions. Kunitsyn and Tuyakbayev (1992) found that if among
resonance conditions there exists at least one strong reso-
nance, then the trivial solution of the system is unstable. On
the other hand, if all independent resonances are weak, then
the trivial solution is stable (Kunitsyn and Muratov, 1993).
Zhuravlev (1992) considered different types of oscillation
shapes in the configuration and manifold spaces in the pres-
ence of multiple internal resonances. In the absence of per-
turbation, a subspace exists in which every trajectory is a
closed curve. These trajectories become unstable under in-
finitesimally small perturbations.
Under the principal internal resonance condition (ie, when
one of the normal mode frequencies is twice one of the other
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Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
mode frequency), the system possesses a steady-state response
(Ibrahim and Barr, 1975a). Ibrahim and Barr (1975b) found
that under the summed or difference internal resonance condi-
tions (ie, one of the normal mode frequencies equals the sum
or difference of another two mode frequencies) the system
does not achieve a constant steady-state response.
Nonstationary responses of cases including violent system
motion, which can lead to collapse of the system, were re-
ported in the neighborhood of multiple internal resonances
(Ibrahim, 1976). The multiple internal resonances may occur
when two or more sloshing modes are interacting with the
vertical and horizontal motions of the structure. In the neigh-
borhood of the summed internal resonance and one-to-one
internal resonance, the structure and free liquid surface si-
multaneously oscillate with a continuous increase in their
amplitude. This growth could lead to structural failure if the
shaker excitation is not stopped. In the presence of one-to-
two and one-to-one internal resonance conditions, experi-
mental observations showed a steady-state response over a
frequency range defined by the regions of instability. The
regions of instability were indicated by the occurrence of
collapse in response amplitudes. Another type of instability,
manifested by a jump in amplitudes, was caused by a weak
energy flow between the fluid modes and structure modes for
a few cycles. Within a short period of time, the system
achieves a steady state response.
Ibrahim and Li (1988) studied liquid-structure interaction
under horizontal periodic motion. Ikeda and Nakagawa
(1995, 1997), Ikeda (1997), and Ikeda and Murakami (1999)
considered the nonlinear interaction of liquid sloshing in
rectangular and cylindrical tanks with an elastic structure
whose motion is orthogonal to the tank vertical walls. They
showed that the response frequency curves experience
change from soft to hard response characteristics as the water
depth decreases. Under vertical sinusoidal excitation of an
elastic structure carrying a rigid rectangular tank, Ikeda
(1997) determined the response of the coupled system when
the structure natural frequency is about twice the liquid
sloshing frequency. As the excitation frequency approached
the structure natural frequency the free liquid surface was
excited through the autoparametric resonance and energy
was transferred from the structure to the free liquid surface.
An asymptotic expansion of the wave height and velocity
potential of the liquid coupled with structural dynamics was
developed by Limarchenko and Ysinsky (1996) and Lukov-
skii and Timokha (1995) for simplified models of spacecraft.
In the absence of internal resonance, Haroun and Elliathy
(1985a,b) and Haroun et al (1989) combined a finite element
model of a tower with a mechanical model of an elevated
vessel. They included the hydrodynamic forces due to liquid
sloshing and its interaction with the motion of the supporting
tower. They found that the fundamental mode of sloshing
combined with the lateral translation and the global rotation
at the top of the supporting tower, yield maximum values for
the shearing force and overturning moment on the tower.
The flexibility of the tank wall would definitely increase
these maximum forces, through such an effect can be ne-
glected in small capacity tanks. Kareem and Sun (1987)
 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
studied the stochastic response of structures with liquid tanks
in the absence of internal resonance.
Soundararajan and Ibrahim (1988) examined more realis-
tic cases such as simultaneous random horizontal and verti-
cal ground excitations in the presence of 1:3 internal reso-
nance. They used a Gaussian and non-Gaussian closure
schemes to determine the system response statistics. They
found that both Gaussian and non-Gaussian solutions deviate
appreciably from the linear solution as the system ap-
proaches internal resonance but they converge when the
system is detuned away from the exact internal resonance.
The autoparametric interaction was identified by an irregular
energy exchange between the two modes.
In closing this section, one may notice that the interaction
of liquid sloshing dynamics, elastic container dynamics, and
the supporting elastic structure dynamics has not been ad-
dressed in the literature.
V m NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES
VIII.l Numerical simulation of liquid sloshing
Analytical approaches used to predict the dynamic response
of liquid-filled tanks cannot handle special types of tank ge-
ometry. Numerical methods are useful when the container
walls are not vertical and straight or when the liquid wave
heights are large. Three computational methods are in com-
mon use. These are the finite difference (FD, see, eg, Harlow
and Welch, 1965), finite element (FE, see, eg, Hughes et al,
1981), and boundary element {BE, see, eg, Nakayama and
Washizu, 1981). Under the assumption of small displace-
ments, an inviscid fluid can be modeled by a degenerate
solid finite element with no shear resistance. This approach
is referred to as the "mock" fluid element or pseudo elastic
element (Kalinowski, 1975; Hamdi and Ousset, 1978; Shi,
1987). The BE method is convenient for studying liquid
sloshing behavior because both FD and FE methods require
very long computational time and large amount of input data.
Shiojiri and Hagiwara (1990) applied the BE method to
compute the two-dimensional nonlinear sloshing in contain-
ers with inclined walls. Under sinusoidal excitation with
frequency near resonance, the FE method results fairly
agreed with the experimental measurements for a container
with two inclined opposite walls.
The new developments of FE and BE methods have pro-
moted the study of liquid sloshing in regular and arbitrary
tank geometries. Luke (1967) developed a variational ap-
proach for the free liquid surface motion. It is based on es-
tablishing a mathematical formulation of the superlative,
which is usually taken by minimizing the integral of some
potential function of the system, and its gradient. Other
variational formulations were developed by Bogoryard
(1962), Shmakov (1964), Shklyarchuk (1966), Limarchenko
(1978a,b, 1980, 1981, 1983a,b), Liu and Uras (1988), and
Lui et al (1991). The precise form of the potential function is
determined by the distribution of the various "sources" (or
scalar potential functions) in space and by the boundary con-
ditions. The solution of the boundary value problem, using
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Ibrahim etah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 161
the Green's function, establishes the variational formulation
of the liquid sloshing modes for which the discretization by
finite elements can be introduced. This approach is well
documented in Morand and Ohayon (1995, see references).
A pseudo-variational principle was originally developed
by Ikegawa (1974). Nakayama and Washizu (1980, 1981)
and Washizu et al (1984) applied this principle to two-
dimensional problems, including rectangular tanks experi-
encing translational or pitching motions. There are, at least,
three different methods available to implement the FE ap-
proach to handle liquid motion in solids. These are:
1) the surface source distribution method, which results in
a two-dimensional grid,
2) subdivision of the total liquid into small volumes, which
produces a three-dimensional mesh,
3) representation of liquid behavior by a series of general-
ized functions weighted by unspecified coefficients.
Bermudez and Rodriguez (1994) computed the vibration
modes of a fluid-solid system using FE method.
It is believed that Guyan et al (1968) were the first to in-
troduce a FE formulation for the axi-symmetric modes of a
hemispherical tank. Their approach utilized the simple
source distribution representation on the free liquid surface.
Luk (1969) and Khabbaz (1971) extended the analysis to
develop a non-axi-symmetric FE by dividing the liquid into
triangular annular elements and, therefore, subdividing the
entire volume of liquid. Tokuda and Sakurai (1994) used
exciting structural FE methods to determine the fluid free
surface motion. A numerical method based on Moiseev's
theory (1958) for two-dimensional sloshing in a general tank
shape was developed by Solaas and Faltinsen (1997) to de-
termine the velocity potential function.
Ikegawa and Washizu (1973) and Ikegawa (1974) origi-
nally developed a pseudo-variational principle. Washizu et al
(1977), Nakayama and Washizu (1980) and Washizu et al
(1984) implemented the principle to two-dimensional prob-
lems with application to rectangular tanks experiencing
translational or pitching motions. Takahara et al (1993a,b,
1994a,b,c) and Pawell (1997) conducted different studies on
the liquid sloshing interaction with cylindrical tanks sub-
jected to pitching excitation.
VHI.2 Numerical simulation
of liquid-structure interaction
As stated in Section VII, analytical techniques used to de-
scribe liquid structure interaction are based on simplified
assumptions and restricted to certain regular container ge-
ometry. In order to better describe this type of problems,
computational algorithms are very useful and powerful, es-
pecially with the advent of high-speed computer machines.
Haroun and Tayel (1984, 1985a,b,c) studied different cases
of the axi-symmetric vibrations of tanks subjected to seismic
excitations. Natsiavas (1987, 1988, 1989), and Natsiavas and
Babcock (1988) developed analytical models of unanchored
liquid tanks and analyzed their dynamic characteristics under
ground excitation. Peek (1986, 1988) and Peek and Jennings
(1988) analyzed the dynamic response of unanchored liquid
 162 Ibrahim et ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
storage tanks to seismic lateral excitations. Fu (1993) used
triangular elements to study the lateral sloshing dynamics in
axi-symmetric tanks. Wu et al (1998) developed a numerical
simulation of sloshing waves in a 3-dimensional tank based
on FE methods.
Siekmann and Schilling (1974) discretized the boundary
of the fluid domain in developing boundary integrals to de-
termine the natural frequencies of the free liquid surface in a
container of arbitrary geometry. Morand and Ohayon (1995)
noted that the ra-th approximate eigenvalue is higher than the
exact eigenvalue. A paradoxical result by Morand (1977)
was that the -th frequency of the liquid in a large tank is
higher than the -th frequency in a smaller tank. Numerical
and experimental investigations were carried out by Chiba et
al (1984a,b, 1985) to determine the free vibration of circular
cylindrical shells partially filled with liquid. Their studies
focused mainly on the normal mode shapes of the coupled
system. Tanaka and Nakayama (1991) and HH Chen et al
(1994) employed the boundary element method to determine
the liquid sloshing dynamics in three-dimensional containers.
Finite-difference methods were also used by Anisimov
(1968) and Morand and Ohayon (1975, 1989) to study the
symmetric vibrations of liquid shells. Boujot (1973) and
Berger et al (1975) estimated numerically the natural fre-
quencies of elastic tanks partially filled with liquid. A series
representation was used by Housner (1980) to study the hy-
droelastic vibration characteristics of partially filled shells.
Unlike aerospace engineers, civil and earthquake engi-
neers treated the dynamics of ground storage tanks via FE
techniques. In the standard procedure of using FE methods,
the unknown function was approximated by trial functions,
which did not satisfy the continuum equations exactly either
in the domain or, in general, on the boundaries. The un-
known nodal values were determined by approximately satis-
fying both the differential equations and the boundary con-
ditions in an integrated mean sense. Various FE treatments
of earthquake-loaded-liquid filled elastic tanks have recently
been developed by Edwards (1969), Veletsos (1974), Velet-
sos and Kumar (1984), Veletsos and Yang (1977), Veletsos
and Turner (1979), Veletsos and Tang (1986), Brown (1980,
1982a,b,c) Fisher and Rammerstofer (1984), and Rammer-
stofer et al (1990). Shaaban and Nash (1975), Haroun
(1980), Balendra and Nash (1978, 1980), Balendra et al
(1982), and Yi and Natsiavas (1990) used FE approaches to
determine the natural frequencies and associated mode
shapes of a coupled liquid-elastic tank subjected to arbitrary
base excitation. A number of investigators (Hsiung and
Weingarten, 1973; Shaaban and Nash, 1975; Brown and
Hsu, 1978; and Brown and Chu, 1983) solved the liquid re-
gion using the boundary element technique and the elastic
structure using the FE method. The FE displacement method
was used by Hori et al (1994) to investigate the two-
dimensional coupling between liquid and elastic structures.
Most of the reported FE techniques for ground storage
tanks did not consider large displacement fluid flow (Wilson
and Khalvati, 1983). For a cylindrical tank under two-
dimensional horizontal earthquake excitation, no direction
can be determined in which a horizontal earthquake is par-
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Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
ticularly dangerous. If a real earthquake excitation is consid-
ered, a dominant direction of excitation is hard to find.
Scharf (1990) indicated that, by using a simple model and
time integration, the maximum pressure due to two-
dimensional excitation does not necessarily occur at an angle
corresponding to the angle of maximum acceleration. De-
spite of the fact that vertical excitation does not produce
overturning moments, its influence on structural behavior
with respect to stresses and stability may become very sig-
nificant. The coupled oscillations of a liquid and a cylindri-
cal shell subjected to vertical excitations were studied for
small motions by Kondo (1981b) by using a variational prin-
ciple for the linear behavior liquids and solids. This analysis
led to a Rayleigh quotient that gives natural frequencies and
mode shapes. Yamamoto (1981), Fileppa (1991), and
Fileppa and Ohayon (1990) introduced mixed variational FE
formulations to analyze the problem of elasto-acoustic inter-
action with liquid sloshing.
Note that it may be difficult to find water impact loads
and local structural response using these numerical tech-
niques. One reason of these difficulties is that liquid impact
often requires a very fine discretization in time and space.
Hydroelasticity may also have to be considered. The hydro-
dynamic impact will be discussed in Section X.
IX SLOSHING IN ROAD TANKERS AND SHIPS
Some of the main problems encountered in the design of
liquid propellant rockets include the motion of the center of
mass, the vehicle attitude, and lateral bending of vehicle
structure. As stated in the Introduction, the sloshing technol-
ogy developed for space applications is not applicable to
road tankers, because emphasis has been placed on frequen-
cies and total forces as they relate to control system require-
ments. Therefore, the effects of local peak impact pressure
on structural requirements have not been studied to any ex-
tent. Further, excitation amplitudes considered in space ap-
plications are too small for road vehicle simulation.
In road tankers, the free liquid surface may experience
large excursions for even very small motions of the container.
This is an undesirable feature, which may considerably endan-
ger the stability and maneuvering quality of the vehicle. This
problem is common for fuel or cargo tanks of automotive ve-
hicles, railroad tank cars, fuel tanks of large ships and tankers.
The study of liquid sloshing dynamics within a moving vehi-
cle involves different types of modeling and analyses. Gustaf-
son and Gustafsson (1969) presented an extensive survey per-
taining to the overturning problem of heavy vehicles. Iser-
mann (1970) computed the overturning limit for some tank
semi-trailers during steady state cornering. Bauer (1972) pro-
vided a mathematical treatment for different container geome-
tries partially filled with liquid. The analysis includes esti-
mates for liquid natural frequencies, forces, and moments.
Slibar and Troger (1975, 1976, 1977) analyzed the lateral
wheel-load transfer ratio of a tractor semi-trailer system. The
forces and moments from the liquid load for harmonic oscilla-
tion steering were introduced via a mechanical model ap-
proach. Each compartment includes one rigid and one moving
 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001 Ibrahim etat. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 163

mass. The moving masses are restrained by linear springs and
dashpots. It is speculated that liquid-carrying vehicles have
more accidents than other vehicles in part because of the large
movement of the liquid cargo and related forces and moments.
Liquid sloshing in a highway manoeuvre can lead to lateral
and roll instabilities, decreased controllability/ maneuverabil-
ity, and increased stress on tank structures. The dynamic
analysis of articulated tank vehicles during turning was studied
using equivalent mechanical models by Rakheja et cd (1988)
and Ranganathan et al (1989a,b).
IX.1 Road liquid tankers
The influence of large-amplitude liquid sloshing on the
overturning and skidding stability of road tankers is very
serious during dynamic maneuvers (Lidstrom, 1976, 1977).
Strandberg (1978) conducted experimental investigations to
measure the liquid sloshing force in laterally oscillated
model tanks with or without baffles and cross walls. The
effects of liquid forces on overturning and skidding tenden-
cies were evaluated from simplified computer vehicle mod-
els (no roll, no yaw). Strandberg's study includes compari-
sons with the effects from liquid motion during steady state
cornering and with roll influence. The poorest lateral stabil-
ity arises mainly due to a combination of two factors. First,
the value of dynamic forces from liquid sloshing can reach
twice the rigid load force. Second, the liquid center of mass
can experience large displacement, which can reach about 40
cm. The ratio between the center of mass height and effec-
tive width is often higher for heavy than for light tankers.
This results in poor lateral stability and less capacity to per-
form escape manoeuvres than for automobiles. Heavy vehi-
cles often overturn during a less severe manoeuvre than
during a skid. In fact, poor overtoiling stability contributes
to the skidding tendency due to lateral load transfer and non-
linear tire characteristics. In conventional road tankers the
free liquid surface motions can be more severe longitudinally
than laterally if no transversal walls or baffles are dividing
the tank. Liquid impact loading is more severe to the
structure for longitudinal than for lateral sloshing.
When the steering frequency is close to the natural fre-
quency of the free liquid surface, the liquid mass will act like
a pendulum swinging with the vehicle. This will result in a
distinct increase in load transfer and the overturning risk
factor. The overturning factor 9t is defined by the expression
F,
91 = (46)
tank and stabilize the vehicle. Unfortunately, this stabiliza-
tion is not effective in real practice because the actual high
steering frequencies are very rare. Furthermore, roll motions
act like a low-pass filter suppressing high frequency motions
in chassis before they reach the tank.
Large liquid displacement inside the tank will cause larger
overturning moment due to pure displacement of the center
of mass and larger overturning forces when the relative mo-
tion of the liquid is reversed by the tank wall. With reference
to Fig 11, Standberg (1978) defines the side force coefficient
(SC) by the expression
'leul p
y
SC^- (47)
(me+m,)g-Fz
where me is the empty vehicle mass, % is the liquid mass, Fy
is the resultant force to the left from the liquid load, F, is the
resultant upward force from the load after subtracting the
weight, and ae is the lateral acceleration.
Lidstrom (1977) examined the distinct stabilization effect
from cross walls under harmonic excitation and for a half
filled tank. The overturning limits are compared for different
tank partitions in Fig 12. Figure 13 shows the side force co-
efficient in terms of the oscillation frequency for different
baffle orientations.
Consideration of tank cross sectional shape, while main-
taining the tank bottom at the same level shows the center
height is higher for the circular horizontal tank than the el-
liptic tank. The overturning limit minimum value and the
worst oscillation frequency are found to be smaller for the
elliptic tanks than for the circular horizontal one.
< *

where Fi is the instantaneous wheel load on the left side, and

Fi0 is the static wheel load on the left side. As 9t > 1, the
vehicle is close to inner wheel lift and overturning.
9? depends on the lateral acceleration whose critical value,
known as the overturning limit, is reached when 9t = 1.
If the steering frequency is greater than the natural fre- M/g
quency, the liquid pendulum motion will lag the tank motion.
Close above resonance, this may be especially dangerous if
the risk factor with sloshing load is still close to its resonance
level and thus will exceed the corresponding peak for rigid Fig 11. Schematic diagram of liquid displacement in a moving
loads. Above resonance, the liquid will oscillate against the tanker [from Strandberg, 1978]

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 164 Ibrahim etah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001

IX.2 Ship cargo tanks
By considering sea wave effects on ships, it is realistic that
wave-induced ship motions can cause resonant fluid oscilla-
tions. This can lead to large local structural loads on the tank
and has an important effect on the global ship motions.
When hydraulic jumps or traveling waves are present, ex-
tremely high impact pressures can occur on the tank walls in
gasoline tankers and ship cargo tanks (see, eg, Akita, 1967
Brathu et al, 1972; Filstead, 1972; Faltensin, 1974, 1978
Faltensen et al, 1974; Abramson et al, 1974; Bass, 1975
Cox et al, 1980; Mikelis et al, 1984; Arai, 1984). Vasta et al
(1961) and Dalzell et al (1964) studied the stabilizing effect
>:
OSCILLATION FREQUENCY
Fig 12. Dependence of overturning limits on the frequency for
different tank baffles [from Strandberg, 1978]
of liquid tanks on the roll motion of ships. The liquid slosh-
ing can be more severe longitudinally than laterally if no
transverse baffles are introduced. The longitudinal accelera-
tion peaks are larger than the lateral ones. Due to the com-
mon tank shape the liquid impact is probably more severe to
the structure for longitudinal than for lateral sloshing. Ye and
Birk (1994) measured the fluid pressure in horizontal par-
tially filled cylindrical tanks with different length to diameter
ratios (L/2R) when suddenly accelerated by impact along the
longitudinal axis. Different types of pressure time histories
were obtained and it was revealed that the pressure profile
changes with fill level. The peak pressure on the end of the
tank was strongly affected by the fill level and the tank
length-diameter ratio. For a certain value, the pressure in the
tank acted either like a water hammer or like an accelerated
fluid column, depending on the duration of the impact rela-
tive to the pressure wave transient time. For other values of
height-diameter ratio the pressure at the end of the tank was
a function of liquid dynamic pressure. This change also
caused the location of the maximum peak pressure to move
from the impact end of the tank to the tank top. In some
cases, the pressure on the tank top was two times larger than
that at the tank impact end. The maximum pressure observed
from the tests was on the top of the tank.
Several efforts have been devoted to develop numerical
methods that accurately describe the fluid loading and cou-
pling between the ship dynamics and liquid sloshing. Faltin-
sen et al (2000) used a discrete modal system to calculate
various kinematic and dynamic characteristics occurring due
to interaction between the free liquid surface and its con-
tainer. They considered the example of ship tank dynamic
response to wave-induced ship motion. They used a linear

Rigid

dJD Load

SC

.4
50%
.3
/ '
lo.id A

.2
a
.1
H

1.0 HZ .5.6 .6 1.0 Hz

SC

754
load

.4 .5 . . 8 Hz .3 .4 .5 .6 .8 l.Ollz .4 .5 .6 .6 1.0KJ - 5 -6 .8 l.CKz

Fig 13. Side force coefficient (SC) as function of the oscillationfrequencyfor different baffle orientation [from Strandberg, 1978], lateral
acceleration peaks U \mls , 2m/s andZ 3m Is

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
time domain analysis to describe external hydrodynamic
loads acting on the ship. The combined equations of motion
for the global rigid ship motions and the equations describing
sloshing dynamics gave complex fluid-structure interaction.
X SLOSHING HYDRODYNAMIC IMPACT
An impulsive acceleration to a liquid container can result in
impact hydrodynamic pressure of the free liquid surface on
the tank walls. It can also occur during maneuvering or
docking of spacecraft in an essentially low gravity field.
Methods for estimating liquid impact and the associated
pressure are not well developed and are only identified by
experimental studies (Pinson, 1963; Dalzell and Garza, 1964;
Stephens, 1965; Abramson, 1966a). It was found that when
hydraulic jumps or traveling waves are present, extremely
high impact pressures can occur on the tank walls. Typical
pressure traces recorded under this sloshing condition were
reported by Cox et al (1980). Feng and Roberts (1971,
19872) studied the liquid propellant dynamics during dock-
ing. Rumyantsev (1969a) analyzed the collision of a body
containing a viscous liquid with a rigid barrier. It is note-
worthy that Rumyantsev had an extensive amount of results
published before 1966 on the dynamics of rigid bodies with
fluid-filled cavities.
X.l Influence of sloshing impact on elastic containers
The influence of fluid sloshing impact forms a serious prob-
lem in underground radioactive waste storage tanks when
subjected to earthquakes. Some tanks were damaged at the
roofs due to sloshing impact caused by strong earthquakes.
The hydrodynamic pressure distribution of such impact loads
is an important factor in studying the integrity of the tanks
and resolving related safety problems. Milgram (1969) stud-
ied the sloshing impact pressure in roofed liquid tanks. They
carried out a series of experiments to distinguish some non-
linear sloshing phenomena in the reactor vessel of a pool
type, which may cause damage to the vessel or inner struc-
tures. Test results for three types of models using a long pe-
riod large amplitude shaking table provided information on
how the scales and the configurations of the method affect
the sloshing wave crest impact pressure.
The sloshing roof impact problem was studied by Koba-
yashi (1980), Minowa (1980), and Kurihara et al (1992).
Minowa et al (1994) conducted a series of shaking table tests
of a rectangular tank to measure roof impact pressures, natu-
ral frequencies and modes of bulging vibrations. Their meas-
ured results showed that the roof impact pressures possess
great potential damage to tank as the pressure reached as
high as 30 psi, under 400 gal El-Centro seismic excitation.
The liquid viscosity effects on sloshing response were found
to be significant. Su et al (1982) studied the nonlinear be-
havior and damping characteristics of liquid sloshing in par-
tially filled prismatic tanks subjected to a large amplitude
excitation. For large amplitude excitations, the liquid be-
haves violently, for which numerical solutions become un-
stable. An improved numerical algorithm, which permits
repeated liquid impacts, was developed by Su and Kang
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Ibrahim ef ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 165
(1984a,b, 1986). Later, Su and Wang (1989, 1990) devel-
oped a three-dimensional finite difference scheme based on
the volume of fluid technique for large liquid amplitude mo-
tion in rectangular and cylindrical containers subjected to
vertical and arbitrary excitations. Minowa (1989) studied the
large sloshing amplitude under impulsive earthquake inputs.
He observed that the high sloshing waves were produced in
the vicinity of surface centers. Under a step type displace-
ment input, the deformations of sidewalk produced a heav-
ing type sloshing mode.
Park and Rezvani (1995) used the two-dimensional com-
putational algorithm SOLA-VOF (SOLution Algorithm-
Volume Of Fluid, developed originally by Hirt and Nichols,
1981 and Nichols et al, 1980) to determine the motion of
waves in rectangular tanks subjected to pre-measured earth-
quake acceleration records. The numerical solution revealed
large liquid amplitude that reached the lid of the tank with
secondary surges. Amano et al (1989) developed a three-
dimensional analysis method using the boundary element
method. The method was found to be within 15% accuracy
when compared with experimental measurements for the
impulse case when the liquid surface collided with the ceil-
ing of the container. Recent earthquakes in Japan, such as the
1995 Hyogoken-nabu earthquake, caused enormous bulging-
type damage of water tanks. Minowa and Kiyosumi (1997)
conducted shaking table tests of an actual water tank and
analyzed the sloshing impacts on the tank roof using nonlin-
ear theories developed by Kaneko and Kimura (1994) and
Kurihara et al (1992). They obtained a closed form expres-
sion for the roof impact pressure for cylindrical tanks.
X.2 Modeling of sloshing impact forces
Sloshing impact loading cannot be viewed as a single load-
ing event since it can be repeated due to the inertia and re-
storing forces. This type of impact is known as vibro-impact
(Babitsky, 1998). Systems involving the vibro-impact of
masses colliding with rigid or elastic barriers during their
oscillation constitute a specific class of strongly non-linear
systems. The non-linearity is mainly due to extremely rapid
velocity changes during impacts. These changes are usually
treated as being instantaneous (velocity jumps) and they lead
to various strongly non-linear features of system behavior. If
the system is linear with constant coefficients and is sub-
jected to impact loading it will experience non-linear be-
havior. Liquid pressure impacts are a source of strong non-
linearity in a liquid tank system.
When a particle impacts against a rigid barrier, its normal
velocity changes direction. The implication of such a finite
change is that if the impact is regarded as being instantane-
ous then the governing differential equations of motion
should be supplemented with finite relations between the
values of the generalized coordinates and velocities just be-
fore and after impact. These finite relations, which should be
satisfied at the instants of impact, are in fact responsible for
various specific strong nonlinear features of a vibro-impact
systems behavior. The time instants of impacts are not speci-
fied a priori but governed by the equations of the vibro-
impact system. This non-linearity becomes clear when trying
 166 Ibrahim ef ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
to exclude the impact finite relations by using the Dirac
delta-functions in the equations of motion. This can be easily
done for the case of linear equations of motion between the
impacts. In this case, the complete equations of motion in-
volve delta-function terms. A thorough description of vari-
ous methods for the analysis of vibro-impact systems is well
documented in Kobrinksy and Kobrinsky (1973) and Babit-
sky (1998). Briefly these methods include:
i) Step-by-step integration method, which is also known as
the point-wise mapping method.
ii) Approximate methods established for the theory of non-
linear oscillations (Nayfeh and Mook, 1979; El-Sayad et
ol 1999; Ibrahim and El-Sayad, 1999). These methods
include perturbation techniques, asymptotic approxima-
tion methods, and averaging methods.
iii) Non-smooth coordinate transformation originally pro-
posed by Zhuravlev (1977). This transformation assumes
rigid barriers and converts the vibro-impact system into
an oscillator without barriers such that the equations of
motion do not contain any impact terms. This technique
has recently been used by Pilipchuk and Ibrahim (2000)
to analyze the dynamic response behavior of a system in-
volving hydrodynamic sloshing impact.
iv) Saw-tooth-time-transformation (STTT) method devel-
oped for non-rigid barriers. This technique is based on a
special transformation of time and gives explicit form of
analytical solutions for the power non-linearities. The
physical and mathematical principles of the STTT have
been formulated by Pilipchuk (1985, 1988, 1996). This
technique has also been used to analyze the response of
systems involving liquid sloshing impact by Pilipchuk
and Ibrahim (1997).
Let m be the equivalent sloshing mass of the first asym-
metric mode of the liquid. The free fluid surface is modeled
as a pendulum of length I. The pendulum can reach the
1
i > i
I ' I '
1.00
- -
J
0.50 n=1 /
CD
0.00
o
ffF n = 10
' f//
0.50
1.00
A . , . I . I
-1.00 -050 Q00 Q50
Fig 14. Variation of liquid impact force between the tank walls for
different values of the exponent n
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Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
walls of the tank if its angle with the vertical axis is 6 = 9 0 .
Considering the pendulum and the tank walls as rigid bodies,
one must introduce the constraint |6| < 0O. From the point
of view of analytical techniques in nonlinear mechanics such
constraints essentially complicate the analysis because one
must match solutions at points of interaction {t:Q(t) = 6 0 ,
which is a priori unknown. Hence, it is useful to avoid op-
erations with constraints. One can phenomenologically de-
scribe the interaction between the pendulum and the tank
walls with a special potential field of interaction, which is
very weak in the region |01 < Go, but becomes fast growing
in the neighborhood of the points |0| = 0O. For example,
the desirable properties of the potential field can be provided
by means of the following potential energy function, (Hunt
and Grossley, 1975; Pilipchuk and Ibrahim, 1997),
In
^
H impact (48)
V e oy
where n 1, is a positive integer, and b is a positive con-
stant parameter.
The force of interaction is
,2n-l
<Klimpact (0)
Fimpact
h =b (49)
dQ
One has a limit of absolutely rigid bodies interaction, if n
- . For this case, the potential energy (48) takes the square
well form. If the exponent 2n-l is large and finite, then the
interaction field is not absolutely localized at the points 0 =
0O. This means that the tank walls and the pendulum mass
are not rigid, but admit a small deformation about the points
of contact 0 = 0O. Accordingly, a finite value of n seems
more realistic than the rigid body limit; see Fig 14, yet the
approach considered includes the rigid body limit as a par-
ticular case. Suppose that the energy dissipation of the pen-
dulum results from the pendulum interaction with the con-
tainer walls. This means that the dissipation is spatially lo-
'I//
calized around the points 0 = 0o- The localized dissipative
- force will be approximated by the expression
>2p
_0
Fd 0 (50)
v e oy
where d is a constant coefficient, p 1 is a positive integer
(generally/? ), and a dot denotes differentiation with respect
to time t. Note that the constants b and d are determined ex-
perimentally. Pilipchuk and Ibrahim (1997) introduced this
modeling into the equations of motion of a nonlinear system
simulating liquid sloshing impact in tanks supported by an
- elastic structure. They employed the saw-tooth time transfor-
mation to describe the in-phase and out-of phase nonlinear
periodic regimes. Based on explicit forms of analytical solu-
tions, all basic characteristics of nonlinear free and forced re-
-
sponse regimes were estimated. It was found that a high fre-
i
quency out-of-phase nonlinear mode takes place with rela-
1.00
tively small tank amplitude and is more stable than the in-
phase oscillation mode under small perturbations. The in-
phase mode has relatively large tank amplitudes and does not
preserve its symmetry under periodic parametric excitation.
 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
The same system was later examined using the multiple
scale method by El-Sayad et al (1999) in the neighborhood
of three parametric resonance conditions. When the first
normal mode was parametrically excited the system exhibits
hard nonlinear behavior and the impact loading reduced the
response amplitude. On the other hand, when the second
mode was parametrically excited, the impact loading results
in complex response behavior characterized by multiple
steady-state solutions where the response switches from soft
to hard nonlinear characteristics. Under combined parametric
resonance the system behaves like a soft system in the ab-
sence of impact and as a hard system in the presence of im-
pact. Under simultaneous parametric and internal resonance
conditions the system response was studied using the multi-
ple scales method by Ibrahim and El-Sayad (1999) and by
applying the Lie group transformations by Pilipchuk and
Ibrahim (1999). Both studies lead to the same system re-
sponse characteristics. For example under first- and mixed-
mode parametric excitation, the normal modes interact
through internal resonance. Depending on the initial condi-
tions and internal detuning parameter, the response can be
quasi-periodic or chaotic with irregular jumps between two
unstable equilibria. In the presence of impact forces, the
system preserves fixed response amplitude response within a
small range of internal detuning parameter. Beyond that
range, the response exhibits quasi-periodic motion mainly
governed by the initial conditions, internal detuning pa-
rameter, damping ratios and excitation level. Under second
mode parametric excitation the second mode reaches fixed
response amplitude, depending on initial conditions, with no
energy sharing with the first mode. However, the phase an-
gles were found to vary with time. Under combination para-
metric resonance, and in the absence of impact forces, the
response was found to be sensitive to initial conditions.
Pilipchuk and Ibrahim (2000) employed the Zhuravlev non-
smooth coordinate transformation to determine the system
response under parametric resonance conditions. They found
that the system response can be either bounded or un-
bounded, depending on the system's parameters. The ability
of the system to absorb energy from an external source was
found to be essentially dependent on the modal inclination
angle, which is related to the principal coordinates.
Faltinsen et al (2000) determined the hydrodynamic loads
in a rectangular tank under translational (surge) motion
AsinQ?, using direct pressure integration and obtained the
following x- and z-force components
N .
Fx Im, = Ail c o s ^ + - 4 - T i , . ( 0 - [ l + (-l)' +1 ]
2 Nlcm), and p is the liquid density (grams/cm3). The maxi-
(=1
N
1 close to 0.001. The experimental results of Salzman and Ma-
i-\
where mi is the total fluid mass, a is the tank width, and Aj(f)
is the r'-th modal wave height. The analysis of Faltinsen et al
(2000) was based on the assumption that the water waves do
no hit the ceiling. Analytical and experimental results of the
liquid wave height for the case of forcing impact did not
agree possibly because the energy dissipation due to impact.
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Ibrahim et ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 167
As the liquid hits the ceiling, a jet is formed and eventually
the free surface overturns causing the liquid jet to hit the free
surface. This also causes energy dissipation. An estimate of
this energy loss was calculated by Faltinsen and Rognebakke
(1999) who assumed that the kinetic and potential energies in
the jet are dissipated.
XI SLOSHING IN A LOW GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
Regular gravitational potential has a stabilizing effect in that
it brings the liquid volume toward the bottom of its con-
tainer. When this body force diminishes, the liquid volume
can assume any location inside its container in an unpredict-
able manner. Liquid sloshing dynamics under a microgravity
field experiences different problems from those encountered
under regular gravitational field. These problems include the
reorientation of the liquid in its container and the difficulty
of moving and handling it, since the body forces are almost
negligible. Under microgravity, surface tension forces be-
come predominant. The Bond number, given by the ratio of
the gravitational to capillary forces, plays a major role in the
free liquid surface characteristics. For very small values of
the Bond number 1, capillary forces predominate and the
free liquid surface will not be flat in its container, but will
rise around its vertical walls.
Reynolds and Saterlee (Abramson et al, 1961; Abramson
1966a, Chapter 11) addressed different problems of liquid
behavior at a low and zero g. These include the mechanics
and thermodynamics of capillary systems, heat transfer in
cryogenic tanks and mechanisms of energy transport, capil-
lary hydrostatics, low-g sloshing and some related problems,
and fluid handling at low g. The early work of free liquid
surface behavior under low gravity field considered different
problems of the surface vapor interface (Petrash and Nelson,
1963; Petrash and Otto, 1962, 1964; Petrash et al 1962,
1963; Neu and Good, 1963; Paynter, 1964a,b; Zenkevich,
1965; Reynolds and Satterlee, 1966; Abramson, 1966a;
Hastings and Rutherford, 1968).
XI. 1 Natural frequencies and damping
Maulrad and Jourdin (1966) and Salzman et al (1967, 1968,
1969, 1973) experimentally examined the natural frequen-
cies, mode shapes, and damping coefficient of the free liquid
surface under low Bond number conditions. For a cylindrical
tank, the Bond number is B0 = gi?2/((j/p), where g is the
equivalent gravitational acceleration (cmls2), R is the tank
radius (cm), a is the surface tension (dynes/cm, or 10~5
mum Bond number during a free-fall drop was 0.002, while
the majority of free-fall drops resulted in Bond numbers
sica (1967), using the 5-seconds free-fall facility, revealed
that the value of the centerline liquid depth depends on the
magnitude of the Bond number and the liquid volume. For
large liquid depth hIR > 2 and zero static contact-angle, they
obtained empirically the following relationship for the liquid
first mode natural frequency u)i
 168 Ibrahim et at. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001

computational algorithms to study the stability of axisym-

of =(2.6 + 1.8450)- a (51)
P* J metric annular free surfaces.
The damping coefficient c was obtained, by Clark and
where the constant 2.6 represents the capillary contribution
Stephens (1967) and Dodge and Garza (1967b), in the form
to the lateral natural frequency. Equation (51) reveals that
C ! / , , \l/4
capillary effects begin to appear for Bond numbers less than Kd(2.6 + UB0) (53)
20. The dependence of the nondimensional natural frequency (c) Bn=0 35.7
Q.* aiji? 3 / | 3 , where P = o7p, on the Bond number pa- where
rameter (B0 + 1.4) is plotted on a log-log graph as shown in >l/4
Fig 15. 28.1
(c) B=0 2.6-
For shallow liquid depth hIR > 2 and zero Bond number, 2% P*Z PR*
the following relation was obtained
is the damping coefficient at zero Bond number, Kd is an
2.6P , 2h explicit function of Bond number, and \i. is the liquid viscos-
OK r-tan (52)
R3 R ity. The measured results showed that the normalized damp-
Salzman and Masica (1967) plotted a set of graphs showing ing coefficient cl (c)B =0 remained constant for all Bond
the dependence of the liquid natural frequency on the fluid numbers below 100. The decrease in the natural frequency
depth and Bond number in spherical tanks. compensates for the increase in the damping coefficient. It
The fundamental sloshing mode shape exhibited a similar was concluded that for identical radii and liquids, the damp-
dependence on Bond number. In the fundamental mode, the ing coefficient c is relatively independent of acceleration in
vertex of the liquid surface remains at the centerline of the the 0 to 100 Bond number region. Bauer (1984a, 1989b,
cylinder and maximum displacement occurred at the cylinder 1990) and Bauer and Eidel (1990) analytically estimated the
wall. Free lateral sloshing was observed to occur on a thin linear motion of immiscible liquids in cylindrical containers
layer of liquid rather than on an unwetted surface. The initial under low gravity field.
slosh wave deposited a film of liquid on the wall and subse- Yeh (1967) extended the variational formulation of Sat-
quent oscillation occurred on this liquid film. terlee and Reynolds (1964) and obtained an additional inte-
The influence of surface tension of the free liquid surface gral, which emerged as a result of the application of the
on the natural frequencies was estimated by Schilling and Green's theorem. Yeh obtained the liquid eigenvalues and
Siekmann (1981) and Bauer (1991). Bauer (1982) deter- mode shapes for the free surface using the Ritz method. Chu
mined the natural frequencies of an inviscid liquid in an an- (1970) developed a semi-numerical approach for an arbitrary
nular cylindrical container. He (1984b) numerically deter- axi-symmetric tank subjected to both pitching and transla-
mined the natural frequency of a viscous liquid and a rigid tional oscillations and estimated the resulting sloshing forces
container. Schulkes and Cuvelier (1991) computed the nor- and moments. Concus et al (1968, 1969) and Coney and
mal modes of a rotating viscous liquid with a capillary free Salzman (1971) considered the lateral sloshing in hemi-
boundary. Albright (1977) developed mathematical and spherically bottom and spheroidal containers under low
gravity conditions. Dodge and Garza (1967a) used relation
(52) to develop an equivalent mechanical model to describe
i o 4_^ - -
^ the sloshing characteristics (natural frequencies, forces and
- O Normal gravity moments exerted on the container). They found that the
" A Low gravity
D Averaged zero Bond number amount of liquid taking part in low-g sloshing is less than
D Th Mr etica
that for high-g sloshing for the same tank size and same liq-
JP 103 / ' uid volume. Note that more of the liquid is in contact with
?----
3 t r. < 6 the walls under low-g conditions, thus more of the fluid must
.....
A-) follow the motion of the tank. In other words, more of the
F^ liquid must be assigned as rigidly attached mass in the me-
->& chanical model.

i
J0
XI.2 Liquid handling
^
V The problem arises during liquid drainage where the free liq-
,<r uid surface experiences distortion (Bhuta and Koval, 1965;
Gluck and Gille, 1965; Gluck et al, 1966; Gold et al, 1967;
P
W
Easton and Carton, 1970). A major problem in the design of
/ orbital propellant transfer is vapor pull-through caused by
&
large-amplitude deformation of the liquid surface during out-
10 flow. Pull-through results in a portion of the propellant in the
101 10' 103
Bond number + 1.4 tank being unstable, either for transfer to another tank for en-
gine supply. It is a serious problem in systems incorporating
Fig 15. Dependence of liquid natural frequency on the Bond num- turbo-pumps, because of the potential danger of pump cavita-
ber for liquid depth ratio >2 [from Salzman, et al, 1967] tions and destruction if gas is introduced into the system. Saad

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
and Oliver (1964) and Bhuta and Koval (1965) analytically
examined the interaction between the surface deformation and
the average flow rate. Lubin and Springer (1967) established a
momentum balance at the outlet and were able to relate the
parameters of the problem with the help of experimental data.
They were able to obtain an empirical relationship between
critical fluid height and outflow rate. Experimental investiga-
tions were conducted in a low gravitational field by Nussle et
al (1965); Derdul et al (1966); Gluck et al (1966); and Grubb
and Petrash (1967) using a drop tower. Most of the data on
pull-through depths have been found to correlate quite well
with Froude numbers for the range of conditions most suitable
to the transfer of propellants in large vehicles. At low Bond
numbers, the experimental results of Gluck et al (1966) indi-
cated that either the Bond number or Weber number must be
included as another parameter. Easton and Carton (1970) con-
sidered the full nonlinear dynamic and kinematic boundary
conditions in addition to the influence of surface tension. They
established the range of applicability of the linear theory.
Dodge (1991) discussed the fluid management technology and
control of liquid sloshing.
Ward et al (1991) outlined three possible interfacial con-
figurations of a vapor-fluid system in an isothermal cylindrical
container subjected to a reduced gravitational intensity. The
first one is the "single interface" which is normally observed
under the regular gravitational field. The curvature of the in-
terface would be altered at the reduced gravitational field. If
the gravitational intensity were reduced sufficiently, this con-
figuration could become metastable, and as a result the system
makes a transition out of this configuration based on the Bond
number criterion.. The second takes place in the form of "two-
interface" configuration in which a portion of the liquid phase
would be above the vapor phase and a portion below. The
third possibility is for the system to adopt the "bubble-
configuration" in which a vapor volume is present and is sur-
rounded by the liquid phase. Ward et al conducted thermody-
namic analysis with the purpose of predicting the equilibrium
configuration for the liquid to adopt when subjected to near
zero-gravitational intensity. They found that when the system
is at zero-gravity, the thermodynamic theory leads to certain
values of the contact-angle (less than 35.83), the single-
interface configuration is metastable and either the two-
interface or the bubble-configuration is the stable configura-
tion. Ward (1995c) studied the bubble center of mass and fluid
feedback force fluctuations under constant lateral impulse and
variable thrust.
McCaughan and Bedir (1992) studied the influence of the
Capillary number (Ohnesorge number) \iv/(oL), where L is the
fluid layer mean depth), which measure the ability of the free
surface to deform, on the linear stability of a single layer of
fluid with double diffusion. When viewed in the space of the
Marangoni temperature and concentration numbers, the base
conduction solution is stable when both of these numbers are
negative. Usually, increasing Capillary number decreases the
size of the stable region. Non-zero Capillary number also has a
strong effect on the value of critical wave number, which in
turn influences the nature of the new flow that will develop
when the base conduction solution loses stability.
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Ibrahim etak Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 169
The influence of surface tension and viscosity on Taylor
instability was analyzed by Bellman and Pennington (1954).
Schultz et al (1998) found that the presence of surface ten-
sion prevents the formation of cusped waves. Wright et al
(2000) indicated that the presence of higher harmonics in the
case of strong parametric excitation is associated with the
formation of paired waves traveling within each period. The
constructive interference of these waves yields momentary
geometrical peaks with high curvature. When the curvature
of the interface becomes large, sudden local acceleration
occurs due to the effects of surface tension. In the case of a
free surface, but not an interface, weak viscous effects at
high Reynolds numbers may be accounted for by means of a
boundary-layer analysis. However, there are difficulties as-
sociated with the seaming of the boundary layers at free-
surface stagnation points. In this case direct numerical
simulation based on the Navier-Stockes equations is con-
venient for studying large-amplitude motions.
Kalinichenko et al (1995) experimentally studied the sur-
face waves under Faraday resonance excitation of a fluid
layer. Wave breakdown and the onset of unstable oscillation
modes were considered. In view of highly developed reso-
nance oscillations, the spouting of droplets from the free
surface of the oscillating liquid may occur (Sorokin, (1957).
In low or zero gravity cases, the dynamics of drops presents
practical and important problems, which are also reasonable
in certain fields of chemical engineering. In mathematical
terms, one must consider the three dimensional boundary
value problem with free moving boundaries. In the case of
sufficiently large droplets, the surface tension may appear to
be relatively low so that the droplets will perform very large
vibration amplitude. Some experiments clearly show this
qualitative feature of droplets dynamics.
In a recent work, Azuma and Yoshinara (1999) experi-
mentally studied three-dimensional large-amplitude oscilla-
tions of a mercury drop under electrical excitation in low
gravity using a drop tower. The large-amplitude mode shapes
were obtained. Multi-lobed (from three to six lobes) and
polyhedral oscillations were observed as well as axi-
symmetric oscillation patterns, see Fig 16. Zinchenko et al
Tetrahedron Tetrahedron
< ^ I U ^ ^ N
Hexahedron Octahedron
Dodecahedron Icosahedron
Fig 16. Spatial mode shapes of oscillating mercury drops associ-
ated with symmetric bodies [from Azuma and Yoshinara, 1999]
 170 Ibrahim et at. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
(1999) numerically studied interacting deformable drops by
means of a boundary-integral algorithm. The code was ap-
plied to study relative motion of two bubbles or droplets un-
der gravity for moderately high Bond numbers. They inves-
tigated different situations as those shown in Figs 17 and 18.
Under microgravity field, the fluid can be reoriented in-
side the tank and may be located close to the other end or can
be distributed around the walls. Concus (1963, 1964), Con-
cus et al (1965) and Levy et al (1964) examined the stability
of free liquid surface in an inverted tank. Madsen et al
(1970) used numerical analysis to predict the fluid flow un-
der low gravity since the weak nonlinear theory fails to pre-
dict such motion. Dodge and Garza (1968, 1970) carried out
a simulated low-gravity sloshing in tanks of different
geometries. Scholl et al (1971) studied the anomalous be-
havior of liquid propellant in Apollo lunar module propellant
gage including the order-disorder transitions in capillary rip-
ples (Tufillaro et al, 1989). Experimental investigations were
carried out by Saterlee (1962), Hollister and Saterlee (1965),
Masica (1967), Masica and Salzman (1965, 1969), Masica et
al (1964a,b), and Salzman et al (1973) to examine the stabi-
t=8
t=9.5
t= 1 0 . 2 5
Fig 17. Relative buoyancy-driven motion of two bubbles [from Zinchenko, et al, 1999]
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Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
lization of the liquid. It was found that the insertion of ring
baffles drastically changed the reorientation flow profiles
(see, eg, Hung, 1995b). The problem of stabilization of the
liquid profile needs more investigation to explore the possi-
bility of stabilization by imposing a random field mechani-
cally. Concus and Finn (1991a) studied capillary surfaces in
nontraditional containers. Hurwitz and Melcher (1968) used
the dielectrophoretic to control liquid sloshing in a low
gravitational field.
XI.3 Free liquid surface shape at a low g field
The most important force is the capillary force usually meas-
ured in terms of Bond number. Under low gravitational field
the Bond number is much greater than 1. Furthermore, the
shape of the free surface of the liquid will no longer be flat
but will have some curvature. The characteristics of capillary
waves were examined by Siegel (1961), Siegert et al (1964,
1965), Habip (1965), Koval (1968), and Koval and Bhutta
(1968). The shape of the free surface of rotating fluid at zero
g was analyzed by Slobozhanin (1966). The theory of capil-
lary surface waves is well documented by Finn (1986) and
t=10
t=10
 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001 Ibrahim etat. Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 171

Myshkis et al (1987). For axi-symmetric meniscus, the cur- the slope remains constant for which dynamic contact-angle
vature K was given by the following expression, (Chu, hysteresis is absent (free-edge condition), ii) the edge of the
1964b, and Satterlee and Reynolds, 1964), interface remains fixed (stuck-edge condition), or iii) some
A intermediate condition prevails. The third scenario was con-
sidered by Reynolds and Satterlee (1966). It was assumed that
rfr the contact-angle measured in the liquid of undisturbed surface
r dr is zero, which is typical of several liquid tank systems. How-
i+fr+^rfi ever, it is possible that the angle at which the moving wave
(54) meets the wall is not the same as the static contact-angle. This
phenomenon is called contact-angle hysteresis. Recently,
LA.
2
/e Chao et al (1992) studied numerically the lateral g-jitter ef-
r ae fects on free surface deformation using a finite difference
i+/;+^/e scheme. It was assumed that the influence of hysteresis can be
represented by the relationship
where a subscript denotes differentiation with respect to the
subscripted variable, and/(r, 9) is the undisturbed free sur-
\r=R=CXT\ (56a)
face height of the meniscus, see Fig 19. The role of curvature
K is very important in establishing the free surface boundary If Ci is a constant then relation (56a) does not explain the
condition. The associated normal pressure across the free damping or energy dissipation caused by the hysteresis.
surface experiences discontinuity by an amount proportional Rather than introducing an arbitrary functional relationship,
to the product of the interfacial tension and the mean surface hysteresis will be neglected in the analysis, and the contact-
curvature, assuming inviscid fluid, ie, line is assumed to slide easily along the tank walls (the free-
3r)
P -P- OK (55) edge condition). In other words 0, and in this case
g dr
where Pg is the gas pressure outside the free liquid surface and the contact-angle r>c is defined by the expression
P is the pressure just inside of the interface. Jahsman (1961)
determined the equilibrium shape of the free liquid surface in a cofd. 1+ (56b)
cylindrical tank. Blakhear and Eide (1964) determined the dr rd \r=R
shape of the free surface under low gravitational field and This means that the static equilibrium free surface shape
centrifugal force. Fung (1965) and Hastings and Toole (1968) should be defined a priori. For very low values of Bond
studied the dynamic response of
the free liquid surface experienc-
ing sudden weightless field.
Christiansen et al (1992) studied
three states of capillary waves:
quasi-crystals, hexagons and ra-
dial waves. Veldman and Vogels
(1984) and Utsumi (1988, 1989,
1997, 1998) considered different
cases of liquid sloshing in an axi-
symmetric containers in a low
gravitational field. The shape of
the liquid surface for low Bond
number was determined using FE
solution by Wohlen et al (1975).
Edge constraint effects on the
capillary waves were examined
by Benjamin and Scott (1979).
Contact-angle and contact-line
Under low gravity, the meniscus
will have large curvature and
some conditions must be applied
to the slope of the interface at the
tank wall. The angle between the
tangent to the fluid interface at the
contact-line and water-gas inter-
face is known as the angle of
contact r) c . Three possibilities of
Fig 18. The stretching and breakup of the smaller drop (the gravitational force is directed from left
the slope at the tank wall are: i) to right) [from Zinchenko, et al, 1999]

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 172 Ibrahim etah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001

number, the equilibrium interface can be assumed spherical curs at the contact-line if a moving contact-line is forced to
(Satterlee and Chin, 1965) and can be expressed by the shape obey the no-slip boundary condition. A popular model,
function f{f) = R- for Bo 1. As BQ increases, which avoids the singularity that allows the contact point to
the interface becomes flatter and a modified shape was sug- move along the solid surface, was originated by Navier. He
gested by Satterlee and Chin (1965) for values of Bond postulated the resistant stress at a fixed solid surface is pro-
number in the range 10 < B0 < 100. Further studies on the portional to the relative velocity or (30F= \idVldn, where p 0
nature of contact-angle were given by Ngan and Dussan is a constant, V is the velocity parallel to the fixed solid sur-
(1982). face, n is the distance normal to the solid surface, and JO. is
Dussan (1979) studied the contact-line behavior in terms the liquid dynamic viscosity. Goldstein (1938) provided a
of the relationship between the contact-angle and the relative systematic description of this boundary condition.
motion of the contact-line. She gave a thorough discussion of The boundary conditions at the oscillating contact-line for
static and dynamic contact-angles for uni-directional relative high Reynolds number were examined experimentally on a
velocities. Her results were representative for experiments vertically oscillating plate by Ting and Perline (1995). Os-
with small Reynolds number, small Weber number, and cillatory contact-line boundaries are important in wave and
small Froude number. The capillary number characterizes other flow interactions with a solid boundary. Benjamin and
Dussan's work and her work essentially dealt with uni- Scott (1979) and Graham-Eagle (1983, 1984) investigated
directional flow. It was shown that the contact-angle is a waves propagating in a narrow open-channel with pinned-
function of the contact-line velocity only, ie, 0C = f(Vr) as end (fixed contact-line position) edge conditions. Hocking
shown in Fig 20, where ar represents the receding angle de- (1987) demonstrated the importance of surface tension ef-
fined when Vr > 0~ where the contact point moves toward fects at a contact-line and showed that the damping of grav-
the liquid, and oca represents the advancing angle defined as ity-capillary waves at a rigid boundary is primarily due to
Vr 0+, where the contact point moves away from the liq- capillary effects. Several other studies demonstrated the im-
uid. The contact-line boundary condition is nonlinear due to portance of capillary effects in wave motion and damping,
the occurrence of hystersis, at low Reynolds number uni- see, eg, Miles (1967, 1990, 1991), Hockeng and Mahdmina
directional, steady motion (Perlin and Schultz, 1996). Figure (1991), Joo et al (1990), and Cocciaro etal (1991,1993).
20 reveals a feature similar to the friction coefficient de- Based on the relationship of uni-directional contact-lines
pendence on the relative sliding velocity, known as the dif- given by Dussan (1979), Young ad Davis (1987) proposed
ferential inclusion. Differential inclusions can be regarded as four possible relationships between contact-angle and con-
differential equations that consist of set-valued or multi- tact-line velocity for an oscillating contact-line boundary.
valued terms. Accordingly, the existence and uniqueness of These relations deal with (a) contact-angle hysteresis; (b)
solutions are no longer guaranteed, except in a few cases fixed contact-line; (c) fixed contact-angle; and (d) smooth
(Filippov, 1964 andDupont, 1992). contact-angle variation (no contact-angle hysteresis). Using
The presence of the inherent liquid viscosity creates some these relationships and a force balance at the contact-line,
difficulties in the solution of the fluid flow field even with a they presented a solution to the oscillatory contact-line in the
(uni-directional) moving contact-line. Dussan and Davis creeping-flow limit. They considered small motion of the
(1974) showed that a non-integrable-stress singularity oc- plate so that the inertial effect is small. Accordingly, the
contact-line behavior is governed by a relationship similar to
that of Dussan (1979). They found the contact-angle hystere-
sis and steepening of contact-angle with increasing contact-
line speed resulted in dissipation effects. They also found
that the contact-line motion tends to lag behind the plate
motion due to inertia effects.
Hocking (1987) used an oscillatory contact-line boundary
condition to calculate the waves generated by a vertically

oc

ar
R

0
Fig 19. Configuration of undisturbed free liquid surface showing
the contact-line region Fig 20. Dependence of contact-angle on the relative velocity

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001 Ibrahim et ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 173

oscillating vertical plate. He included capillary effects at the
contact-line. Miles (1990) considered the effect of viscosity
and a non-zero initial free-surface meniscus. A slip length, ls
(defined as slip velocity divided by shear at the wall), was
adopted to replace the no-slip boundary condition along the
entire plate. Based on a phenomenological hypothesis, he
introduced the slip boundary condition (equivalent to
Navier's slip model with 4 = (i/p0)
dV
v-vsoM = i dn (57)
where V is the vertical velocity along the plate (3r)/30 at the
contact-line). Miles assumed 4 as a function of position
along the plate surface and vanishes at a distance given by
the viscous length scale lv = Jlv 10) away from the contact-
line (see Section V). This means that the flow obeys the no-
slip boundary condition at some distance 4 away from the
contact-line. According to Miles (1990) the slip length is not
constant in the oscillatory case. Ting and Perlin (1995) indi-
cated that the edge condition at an oscillatory boundary
(triad-junction) is not well developed but they provided some
qualitative description pertaining to the contact-line move-
ment changes as the amplitude of the plate changes, shown
in Fig 21. The dependence of the mean slip coefficient on the
oscillation amplitude is shown in Fig 22. Hocking (1987),
and Henderson and Miles (1990) indicated that a one to three
order-of-magnitude increase in the viscosity is required to
match numerical results with measure dissipation. Perlin and
Schultz (1996) proposed what is so-called effective viscosity
is the result of contact-line-generated dissipation.
Jiang et al (1996) performed boundary-integral simula-
tions of two-dimensional motion to the contact-line effects
on Faraday waves. They discussed the competition between
viscous effects, which tend to decrease frequency and con-
tact-line effects that tend to increase frequency. They meas-
ured the threshold forcing amplitude for the fundamental
mode and obtained a stability Ince chart for three slightly-
different fluids and two tank-aspect ratios.
Bauer and Eidel (1989c) found that small amplitude liquid
oscillations have a pronounced influence of liquids with
small contact-angle on the dynamics of the containers. Hung
et al (1991) showed that resettlement of the liquid can be
achieved by rotating the tank.
For a cylindrical container of general cross-section in zero
gravity the surface change can be discontinuous or "nearly
discontinuous," leading to large shifts of the liquid mass
arising from small changes in contact-angle. Concus and
Finn (1974, 1987, 1990a, 1990b, 1991b, 1992) and Finn
(1983, 1984) were able to develop some analytical studies
dealing with the design basis of the container cross-sections.
For particular cylindrical cross-sections, a discontinuous
kind of change can be realized as the contact-angle crosses a
critical value. Above that critical value, there exists an equi-
librium configuration of liquid that covers the base of the
cylindrical container. For contact angles smaller than the
critical value, no such equilibrium configuration can exist.
Concus and Finn (1974, 1990a, 1991b) studied the behavior
of the interface for a near-rhombus section where the be-
havior can be nearly discontinuous.
Recently, Concus et al (1999) reported experimental re-
sults dealing with the interface configuration experiments
performed aboard the Space Shuttle and the Mir Space Sta-
tion. The "exotic" containers used are rotationally symmetric
and have the property that for a given contact-angle and liq-
uid volume a continuum of distinct rotationally symmetric
equilibrium configurations can appear, all of which have the
same mechanical energy. The symmetric equilibrium con-
figurations were found unstable and deformations that are
not rotationally symmetric can be shown mathematically to
yield configurations with lower energy. It was shown ex-
perimentally that distinct locally stable configurations can

minimum plate position

70 (zero plate velocity)

60 - zero plate position zero plate position

( m a x i m u m piate velocity) (maximum plate velocity)

50

>

30 -

m a x i m u m plate
position
V
-0.5 O 0.5
_
tf
maximum plate
position

i r

1.5
2 3 4
Srate amplitude (mra>
v /v

Fig 21. Dependence of the contact-angle on the nondimensional rela- Fig 22. Dependence of mean slip length on stroke amplitude [from
tive velocity [from Ting and Perlin, 1995] Ting and Perlin, 1995]

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 174 Ibrahim ef al: Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001

form and have different dynamic characteristics, confirming neglected, hi the linearized FE study of free surface, Curve-
analytical and numerical results. This phenomenon of lier (1985) showed that the free surface natural frequency is
asymmetric local energy was found to occur if conditions for dependent on the liquid viscosity. However, in Curvilier's
an exotic condition are not entirely met. Other recent re- study, the contact-angle was assumed fixed at 90 and no
search activities have included the mechanics of contact-line other contact-line conditions and nonlinear effects were con-
and the associate boundary conditions. The contact-line is sidered. Veldman and Vogel (1984) showed that, using the
the intersection of two distinct fluids with a solid. Marker-and Cell dimensional calculation of the axisymmet-
rical sloshing in a low gravity condition, the liquid free sur-
XI.4 g-jitter effects face natural frequencies are dependent on the contact-angle.
During space missions, microgravity experiments revealed However, no variation of the dynamic contact-angle was
significant levels of residual accelerations referred to as g- allowed during the sloshing in their calculations.
jitter (Walter, 1987; Nelson, 1991; Thomson et al, 1996). Chao et al (1992) studied the effects of the lateral g-jitter
The residual acceleration field can be decomposed into a on the free surface deformation of liquid in open containers.
quasi-steady or systematic component and a fluctuating They incorporated a hysteresis parameter into the SOLA-
component known as g-jitter. Typical values of the quasi- SURF FE scheme in order to allow for different contact-line
steady component \\gs\\ are around 10~6g fe is the gravita- conditions. It was shown that, for all conditions of the con-
tional acceleration on the earth's surface). The fluctuating tact-line, the g-jitter effect is most intense only in the free
contribution g(t) is random in nature and has characteristic surface layer then the effect diminishes very fast as the liquid
frequency of 1 Hz or higher. Alexander (1990) provided ex- depth increases. As the Ohnesorge number increases the free
perimental results pertaining to the sensitivity to residual surface deformation decreases.
acceleration at low gravitation field. The effects of g-jitter on
the capillary surface motion was studied by Chao et al XI.5 Thermocapillary convection
(1992) and the current state of knowledge of g-jitter prob- Thermocapillary convection plays an important role in micro-
lems in microgravity has recently been compiled by Nelson gravity fluid dynamics (see, NASA Microgravity Fluid Physics
(1991). Zhang et al (1993) described the free surface motion Conference Proceedings, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2000). Thermo-
by a linear differential equation with a random coefficient capillary flows are driven by temperature-induced surface
and examined the stochastic stability boundary of the equi- tension gradients at the interface between two immiscible flu-
librium state. Analytical results for the stability of the re- ids. For most liquids, the surface tension decreases with in-
sponse second moment were presented in the limits of low- creasing temperature. Thus, when the interface experiences a
frequency oscillations and near the region of subharmonic
positive temperature gradient the bulk fluids on each side of
parametric resonance.
the interface must balance an effective negative shear stress.
In a series of papers, Hung et al (1993a-1995) considered
Through this mechanism, the thermal fields in the fluids are
Coriolis force, angular acceleration, and centrifugal, viscous,
coupled to the velocity fields (Vrane and Smith, 1994). Sur-
and surface tension forces in their numerical algorithm. They
face tension driven convection and its instabilities have been a
solved the liquid sloshing dynamics using a FE approach
subject of great interest in resent years. For example, Maran-
based on the method of marker-and cell. Hung and Pan
goni flow (or thermo-capillary convection of the Benard type)
(1995a,b) examined three different cases of liquid responses
occurs in a fluid layer with at least one free surface. It starts
in a spinning spacecraft: i) when gravity gradient is the
dominant driving acceleration, ii) when g-jitter is the domi- once there is a temperature gradient established along the free
nant acceleration, and iii) when g-jitter and gravity gradient surface such that there is no first transitions. Along the free
accelerations are comparable. Their numerical simulation surface, surface tension can act to drive convection if the sur-
showed that large-amplitude fluctuating fluid forces and tor- face tension varies in magnitude along the surface due to its
ques can be exerted on a spacecraft. dependence upon a spatially varying temperature associated
Bauer (1984c) indicated that both oscillatory thermo- with a thermal disturbance.
capillary flow and g-jitter generated flow are related to free For higher flow transition, a Hopf bifurcation similar to
surface motion and they might interact with each other. Both the Benard-Marangoni flow instability could exist in this
may have also a detrimental effect on the material process- configuration. Transition from steady state to oscillatory
ing. The susceptibility of melts to g-jitter disturbance not flow was experimentally observed in various container
only enhances the displacement of the free surface, but also geometries (Ostrach et al, 1985; Monte and Fortezza, 1989;
changes the steady heat transfer during the material proc- Velten et al, 1991). Hsieh et al (1994) studied the onset of
essing to an irregular one, which may be harmful to the oscillations in terms of a modified dynamic Bond number
crystal growth process (Kamotani and Ostrach, 1987). Theg- and the container aspect ratio.
jitter is generated from a number of sources outlined by Os- If a horizontal, unidirectional shear flow exists in the fluid
trach (1982). layer that is heated, convection begins at the same value of a
Spradley et al (1975), Kamotani et al (1981) and Danaba- critical Rayleigh number (Rac) as without shear, but a well-
soglu and Biringen (1988) studied different problems dealing defined pattern of rolls with axes in the flow direction,
with g-jitter induced convection in a completely enclosed known as "longitudinal rolls", is predicted to be the preferred
container. However, in microgravity containerless materials pattern of convection as experimentally observed by Kelly
processing, the dynamics of free surface can no longer be (1994). This means that the shear has a stabilizing effect

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
upon all disturbances that have a nonzero wave number in
the direction of the shear. Kelly and Hu (1993) and Hu and
Kelly (1994) studied the case of oscillatory shear for small
values of Reynolds number and concluded that stabilization
does indeed occur. The degree of stabilization was found to
increase with the Prandtl number. Kelly and Or (1994) indi-
cated that the general problem of a deformable surface in-
volves several non-dimensional parameters such as the Ma-
rangoni number (Ma), the Prandtl number (Pr), the Bond
number (Bo), and the Crispation number (Cr) which tends to
characterize the deformability of the surface. They showed
that the non-planar flow oscillations could have a significant
effect upon the onset of Marangoni convection. In contrast to
Rayleigh-Benard convection, the effect can be stabilizing or
destabilizing, depending upon the operating conditions.
In an effort to control the oscillatory thermocapillary con-
vection in microgravity, Neitzel (1994) conducted laboratory
and numerical experiments in a thin layer of silicone oil. He
was able to characterize the flow state in a limited range of
Bond number-Marangoni number space of interest. Numerical
studies have shown transitions in the pure thermocapillary
problem where Grashof number (Gr) vanishes (Ohnishi and
Azuma, 1992, Chen and Hwu, 1993 and Peltier and Biringen,
1993). For high Ma convection in a square cavity, only steady
states were numerically predicted by Zebib et al (1985), Car-
penter and Homsy (1990), and Buckle and Peric (1992).
Bergman and Keller (1988) and Hadid and Roux (1992) in-
cluded buoyant effects in addition to thermocapillary effect
and reported steady and unsteady flow behavior. Mundrane
and Zebib (1994) studied thermocapillary and buoyant
thermo-capillary in rectangular cavities. They showed that
while pure buoyant convection exhibits oscillatory behavior
for Grashof number greater than the critical value (for pure
buoyant problem), pure thermocapillary convection is steady
within the range of parameters tested. They considered the
behavior of Hopf bifurcation, which exists in the pure buoyant
case (when Reynolds number vanishes) but subsequently dis-
appears under pure thermocapillary conditions.
XI.6 Cryogenic sloshing
In 1898, James Dewar first liquefied hydrogen (Scurlock,
1991 and Weisend, 1998). Dewar also developed the vac-
uum-insulated flask with reflective walls for containing
cryogenic liquids. His design is still at the heart of cryogenic
containers today, which attribute are frequently called
Deawrs. A comprehensive state-of-the-art of various cryo-
genic sub-fields is well documented in a handbook edited by
Weisend (1998). In space technology, cryogenic is found in
the liquid hydrogen and oxygen fuels used in rocket engines
and in applications such as Cosmic Background Explorer
(COBE) satellite.
The motion of helium II in low-gravity environment of an
orbiting satellite is of critical importance for the design of
the satellite attitude and translation control systems. Space
vehicle designers are particularly interested in the frequency
of oscillation and damping rate of the fundamental slosh
mode as well as the cross-axis coupling induced by rotation
of the satellite. There is concern and uncertainty about the
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Ibrahim et ah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 175
potential for persistent fluid slosh motion due to the absence
of viscosity in the super-fluid component of helium II (Ross,
1994). Ross (1994) performed low-gravity verification ex-
periments on the slosh behavior of He II to use in the devel-
opment of a CFD model that incorporates the two-fluid
physics of He II. He found that the two-fluid code predicts a
different fluid motion response in low-gravity environment
from that predicted by a single-fluid model, while \g re-
sponse is identical for both types of model. Hung (1993b)
conducted a simulation study to determine the forces and
torques induced by cryogenic sloshing in a Dewar container.
Hung (1994a,b, 1995a, 1996, 1997) presented a series of
comprehensive studies dealing with the sloshing of cryo-
genic helium driven by different forms of excitations in the
micro-gravity field.
XI.7 Hydroelastic oscillations
The influence of container elasticity on the free liquid oscil-
lations under microgravitational field has recently been con-
sidered by some investigators. Chiba and Bauer (1998) ana-
lyzed the free vibration of a liquid surface in a cylindrical
sector shell under a zero-gravity field. The influence of
flexible tank bottom on the hydroelastic sloshing was ana-
lytically examined by Chang (1966) and Shih (1966). Re-
cently, Bauer and Komatsu (1998) examined the coupled
modes of a sector elastic shell with viscous liquid near zero
gravity. The nonlinear coupling between liquid dynamics
and spacecraft structural dynamics in a low gravitational
field was studied by Peterson (1987). The nonlinear oscilla-
tions of inviscid liquid-elastic cylinder system under zero
gravity was studied analytically by Bauer and Eidel (1989a).
Van Schoor et al (1990) and Van Schoor and Crawley
(1992) experimentally studied the lateral sloshing dynamics
and its nonlinear interaction with the spacecraft structural
system on the shuttle Middeck. The nonlinear, non-planar
and multiple response slosh behavior observed in the silicone
oil ground experiments, was found essentially linear in
space. This was attributed to the very high damping ratio of
the first slosh mode in space. However, both the space un-
coupled and coupled water experiments exhibited nonlinear
and non-planar characteristics similar to that observed in the
ground experiments. This is due to the relatively high re-
storing force for water, which originates from the contact-
angle hysteresis.
Peterson et al (1989) and Chiba et al (1998) studied the
dynamics of linear spacecraft mode coupling with the non-
linear low-gravity liquid sloshing in a cylindrical container.
The coupling includes two fundamental sloshing modes and
three secondary sloshing modes. Under harmonic resonance
the response exhibited a softening nonlinear behavior. Three
additional stable nonlinear, coupled responses were ob-
served: i) a secondary planar resonance, ii) a skewed non-
planar motion, and iii) a completely asymmetrical periodi-
cally modulated liquid-spacecraft motion. Weislogel (1992)
designed an apparatus consisting of a programmable shaker
table and a high-speed motion picture and video camera for
viewing the fluid surface as drop tower tests were conducted.
 176 Ibrahim etah Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics
The purpose was to observe the stability of a variety of sur-
face/vessel configurations.
Bauer (1985, 1987a,b) analyzed the coupled frequencies
of hydroelastic systems in zero gravity. He (1985) found that
the interaction of the structure and the liquid with a viscous
liquid may well be unstable, a fact that does not appear for
an inviscid liquid. This surprising case indicates that the vis-
cosity provides instability whereas for an ideal liquid there is
always stability. Small perturbations of the structure lead to
disturbances of the liquid surface and vice versa. In the case
of a viscous liquid, for which different phase relations ap-
pear, the flow is quite different from that of an ideal liquid.
An inviscid liquid exhibits slippage in the angular direction
while a viscous liquid adheres to the wall and moves with it
in the angular direction. Perturbations always result in liquid
surface displacements that change the surface tension re-
storing force. For the case of a viscous liquid the additional
disturbance in the angular direction due to the motion of the
elastic shell is not adequate to damp out the perturbations.
These effects, ie, phase shifts followed by additional excita-
tion of the liquid through angular motion of the elastic shell
and vice versa, are not present in the system with an inviscid
liquid and are responsible for instabilities.
XII CLOSING REMARKS AND
FURTHER RESEARCH NEEDS
Liquid containers constitute major components in a number of
multibody systems such as aerospace vehicles, road tankers,
and liquefied natural gas carriers. Unfortunately, the basic
theory of multibody dynamics does not take into account the
effect of liquid sloshing dynamics on the overall system dy-
namics. Furthermore, the available multibody dynamics codes
cannot handle systems with liquid containers. These codes
should be modified by incorporating the influence of liquid
sloshing using equivalent mechanical models. Equivalent me-
chanical models have been used in modeling the dynamics of
liquid motion in road tankers, space vehicles and storage liq-
uid tanks. These models are very useful to model the linear
dynamic behavior of liquids. However, to account for nonlin-
ear behavior, one should use nonlinear models such as a
spherical pendulum or compound pendulum.
The influence of sloshing hydrodynamic impact can be
introduced through a phenomenological high power potential
as given by relation (48). Experimental measurements of
liquid sloshing impact forces, using 3D load cells, will
greatly help in developing phenomenolgical models.
There is no doubt that a significant progress in the area of
liquid sloshing dynamics has been done since the publication
of the monumental research monograph of Abramson
(1966a). Thanks for the modern theory of dynamics as it has
promoted our understanding of the free liquid surface motion
under different types of parametric and nonlinear resonance
conditions. The observed rotational motion near normal
resonance and reported in earlier investigations has been
recently described analytically and numerically in the litera-
ture. The influence of complex free surface motion on the
system dynamics has not been examined. Note that these
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Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001
fluid motions have been examined in the absence of their
interaction with the system dynamics.
FE and boundary element algorithms have been devel-
oped to determine the fluid motion in rigid containers and to
simulate the hydroelastic coupling of elastic tank with the
free liquid surface dynamics. However, these algorithms
could not handle the problem of liquid-structure interaction
in the neighborhood of internal resonance. The most signifi-
cant contributions have dealt with the influence of sloshing
loads on the stability and behavior of moving liquid tankers,
ships, liquid storage subjected to earthquakes, and near zero-
gravity liquid behavior. Most of the published literature has
been devoted to deterministic aspects; however, few attempts
have considered some stochastic cases. The difficulty arises
when the excitation spectral density exceeds a certain level
above which other sloshing modes exist and the liquid may
experience different response regimes such as large ampli-
tude motion and surface disintegration. This problem may be
understood by studying the stochastic bifurcation of the liq-
uid surface motion. Stochastic analysis needs to be applied to
studies of regular and micro gravitational fields in order to
establish the possibility of stabilizing the free surface
through a multiplicative noise. Under microgravity, there are
several problems of great importance and have been recently
promoted by NASA Fluid Physics Program. These problems
include thermo-capillary flows, interfacial phenomena, g-
jitter induced and stochastic flows, and dynamics and stabil-
ity of liquid bridges. The differential inclusion techniques
should be considered in studying interfacial phenomenon.
APPENDIX: COMMON DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
Biot Number, Bi, is the ratio of internal thermal resistance of
a solid to the convective boundary layer thermal resistance,
and is defined by the expression
hL
Bi =
Bond Number, Bo, is the ratio of gravitational to surface
tension forces, and is defined by the expression
5o = P8?
Froude Number, Fr, is the ratio of inertia to body (gravita-
tional) forces, and is defined by the expression
v2 v
Fr = -
Grashof Number, Gr, is the ratio of buoyancy to viscous
forces
v
Marangoni Number, Ma, is the ratio of the imbalance in
surface tension forces to liquid tangential forces, and is de-
fined by the expression
da (LAT^
Ma-
dT au. J
 Appl Mech Rev vol 54, no 2, March 2001 Ibrahim etak Recent advances in liquid sloshing dynamics 177

Marangoni Temperature Number

P volumetric thermal expansion coefficient =
OTLAT
MaT - PVoTJp
k[i [l is the dynamic viscosity (Pa s = Ns/m1 = kgl(ms)
Marangoni Concentration Number v kinematic viscosity m2/s
Mac =
!CAC0L o surface tension MM = kgls2
p density kglm1
Nusselt Number, Nu, is the ratio of the surface heat transfer
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RaoufA. Ibrahim is a Professor ofMechanical Engineering at Wayne State University. He received

his BSc and MSc in Aeronautical Engineering in 1963 and 1969, respectively, from Cairo University
(Egypt). He received his PhD in Mechanical Engineering from the University ofEdinburgh in 1974,
and continued as a postdoctoral Fellow for two years. From 1963 through 1971, he worked as a re-
search engineer at the Aerospace Research Center of the rockets industry in Egypt. From 1976
through 1979, he was appointed as a Senior Research Specialist at the Sakr Factory in Cairo and
worked as an Adjunct Assistant Professor at Cairo University. In 1979, he moved to United States
and worked at Shaker Research Corporation, in Ballston Lake, NY, then in 1980 he joined Texas
Tech University as Assistant, Associate, and then full Professor. While at Texas Tech, he was a re-
cipient of Outstanding Professor Award in Teaching in 1982, two Halliburton Awards ofExcellence
in 1983 and 1986, and the Texas Tech Presidential Award in Research 1987. In 1987, he joined
Wayne State University and continued his research activities in nonlinear random vibration, liquid sloshing dynamics, fric-
tion-induced vibration, andflutter ofaeroelastic structures. In 1994 he was named the Arthur Carr Professor ofEngineering
and in 1995 he was awarded the Board of Governors Outstanding Professor Award. He has published more than 70 papers
in refereed journals, and a research monograph entitled Parametric Random Vibration (Wiley, 1985). He is registered engi-
neer in the State ofTexas, and a Fellow ofASME, Fellow ofthe Society for Design and Process Science (SDPS), and Associ-
ate Fellow ofAIAA.

Valery N Pilipchuk is a Professor ofApplied Mathematics at Technology University of Ukraine. He re-

ceived his PhD in Mechanics of Solids from Dnepropetrovsk State University, former Soviet Union, in
1979, and then joined the Technology University as Associate Professor. In 1992, he received his DrSci.
degree in Physics and Mathematics with a major in Theoretical Mechanics from Moscow Institute for
Problems in Mechanics ofRussian Academy of Sciences. The degree was certified also by the Kiev In-
stitute of Mathematics of Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences in 1993. He is a co-author of two
books Method of Normal Vibrations for Essentially Non-Linear Systems (Nauka, Moscow, 1989) and
Normal Modes and Localization in Non-Linear Systems (Wiley, New York, 1996). Since 1994 he has
worked mostly in the United States on research projects in different fields of nonlinear dynamics at the
University ofIllinois (1994) and then at Wayne State University (1995-1996, 1997-present.)

Takashi Ikeda received his MS and Doctor of Engineering degrees in Mechanical Engineering in
1977 and 1982, respectively from Nagoya Institute of Technology and Nagoya University, Japan.
From 1977 until 1987 he worked on nonlinear rotor dynamics with Professor T Yamamoto and Pro-
fessor Y Ishida ofNagoya University. He received the Encouraging Awardfrom JSME (the Japan So-
ciety ofMechanical Engineers) for his contribution to rotor dynamics, in 1986. Between 1989-1977,
he worked as an Associate Professor at the Department ofMechanical Engineering, Hiroshima Uni-
versity (Japan), and began to research on structure-fluid interaction problems and nonlinear random
dynamics. In 1997, he moved to the Department ofElectronic and Control Systems Engineering, Shi-
mane University (Japan) as a Professor. He has collaborated on liquid surface behavior in a con-
tainer with ProfRA Ibrahim, of Wayne State University, for five months between 1999 and 2000. His
current interests lie in nonlinear deterministic vibrations and random vibrations, rotor dynamics and noise suppression in
machinery.

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