MODULE (1) FUNDAMENTALS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

Unit (1) History and nature of science

a) History and development of science (Ancient, Medieval and Modern Period)

b) Meaning and nature of science

c) Values of science in socio-cultural context.

ASSIGNMENT: Contribution of any two scientists in development of the nation.

a) History and Development of Science (Ancient, Medieval and Modern Period)

Development of Science in Ancient Period

Mesopotamia

Astronomy-

-the motions of the stars, planets, and the moon are left on thousands of clay tablets
created by scribes.

-the solar year, the lunar month, the seven-day week.

-arithmetical methods to compute the changing length of daylight in the course of the
year and to predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets and
eclipses of the Sun and Moon.

-By 700 BCE, it was already known that solar eclipses could only be possible during new
moons and lunar eclipses only during full moons.

-They had also calculated the courses of the planets and plotted the orbits of the sun and
the moon.

Egypt

Significant advances in ancient Egypt included astronomy, mathematics and medicine.

The Edwin Smith papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps
the earliest document that attempts to describe and analyse the brain: it might be seen as
the very beginnings of modern neuroscience.

Ancient Egyptian pharmacology, was largely ineffective. Nevertheless, it applies the

following components: examination, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis, to the treatment
of disease, which display strong parallels to the basic empirical method of science.
 Despite their superstitions, Egyptian priests encouraged the development of many
scientific disciplines, especially astronomy and mathematics.

Greeco-Roman

The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge,
in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy.

The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a
heliocentric model of the solar system.

Hipparchus (c. 190 c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalogue.

In medicine, Herophilos (335 - 280 BC) was the first to base his conclusions on
dissection of the human body and to describe the nervous system.

Hippocrates (c. 460 BC c. 370 BC) and his followers were first to describe many
diseases and medical conditions.

Galen (129 c. 200 AD) performed many audacious operationsincluding brain and
eye surgeries that were not tried again for almost two millennia.

Archimedes, is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics and the
explanation of the principle of the lever.

Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the
first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness

Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedia of the natural world in 77 AD.

India

Ancient India was an early leader in metallurgy, as evidenced by the wrought iron Pillar of
Delhi.

-in vivo drilling of human teeth, dated to 7000-5500 BCE.

-The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedasreligious literature
of India.

-Classical Indian astronomy documented in literature spans the Maurya (Vedanga Jyotisha, c. 5th
century BCE) to the Mughal (such as the 16th century Kerala school) periods.

-the Indian alchemist and philosopher Kanada who introduced the concept of 'anu' which he
defined as the matter which cannot be subdivided.
Ayurvedic practice was flourishing during the time of Buddha (around 520 BC), and in this
period the Ayurvedic practitioners were commonly using Mercuric-sulphur combination based
medicines.

Cure for leprosy , Plastic surgery

China and the Far East

-Among the earliest inventions were the abacus, the public toilet, and the "shadow clock".
-
the "Four Great Inventions" of China were gunpowder, papermaking, woodblock printing, the
compass (known as south-pointing needle")

Development of Science in Medieval Period

The Medieval period saw major technological advances

A list of some of the inventions from the Middle Ages

Mechanical artillery

Counterweight trebuchet (12th) - Gravity powers these weapons revolutionized medieval siege
weapons by use of counterweights allowing it to hurl huge stones very long distances.

Missile weapons
Longbow with massed, disciplined archery (13th) - The Longbow was powerful, accurate and
contributed to the eventual demise of the medieval knight class.

Steel crossbow (14th, late) - The first handheld mechanical crossbow.

A list of some of the inventions from the Middle Ages

Agriculture

Heavy plough (5th - 8th) - The heavy wheeled plough first appeared in Slavic lands before it
came to Northern Italy (the Po Valley).
Horse collar (6th - 9th) - The Horse Collar went through multiple evolutions from the 6th to 9th
centuries. It allowed more horse pulling power, such as with heavy ploughs.

Horseshoes (9th) - Horseshoes let horses adapt to rocky terrain, mountains and carry heavier
loads. They may have been known to the Romans and Celts as early as 50 BC.

Architecture and construction

Artesian well (1126) - A thin rod with a hard iron cutting edge is placed in a bore hole and
repeatedly struck with a hammer. Underground water pressure forces the water up the hole
without pumping. Artesian wells are named for Artois in France, where the first was drilled by
Carthusian monks in 1126.

Wheelbarrow (1170s) - Useful in construction, mining, and farming.

Blast furnace (1150-1350) - Cast iron first appears in Middle Europe around 1150. The
technique was considered to be an independent European development.

Hourglass (1338) - Hourglasses are a medieval innovation first documented in Siena, Italy.

Mechanical clocks (13th -14th) - A European innovation, these weight-driven clocks were used
primarily in clock towers.

Plate armour (14th, late) - Large and complete full plates of armour appear by the end of the
14th century.

Vertical windmills (1180s) - Invented in Europe as the pivot able post mill it was efficient at
grinding grain or draining water. The first mention of one is from Yorkshire in England in 1185.

Spectacles (1280s) - From Florence, Italy, convex lenses to help far-sighted people. Concave
lenses for near-sighted people weren't developed before the 15th century.

Spinning wheel (13th) - Brought to Europe probably from India.

Chess (1450) - The earliest predecessors of the game originated in 6th century AD India and
spread through Persia and the Muslim world to Europe. The game evolved to its current form in
the 15th century

Mirrors (1180) - First mention of a mirror was made in 1180 by Alexander Neckham

Oil paint (ca. 1410) - As early as the 13th century by Flemish painter Jan van Eyck around 1410
who introduced a stable oil mixture.

Quarantine (1377) - Initially a 40-day-period, the Quarantine was introduced by the Republic of
Ragusa to prevent the spreading of diseases like the Black Death. Venice began quarantines, then
the practice spread around in Europe.
Here's a short list of a few of the great minds of the Middle Ages

About 900, Al-Battani improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the
Earth's axis.

Physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), an 11th-century Muslim is considered the father of modern
optics.

Al-Kindi wrote the De Gradibus, where he demonstrated the application of quantification and
mathematics to medicine and pharmacology. He used mathematics to measure the strength of
drugs and to determine in advance of the most critical days of a patient's illness.

The contribution of great thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, Grosseteste, Francis Bacon, and
William of Ockham to the creation of the Scientific Method cannot be underestimated.

Roger Bacon is one of the great minds behind the formation of the scientific method. He
described the method of observation, prediction (hypothesis), and experimentation, also adding
that results should be independently verified, documenting his results in fine detail so that others
might repeat the experiment.

Jean Buridan challenged Aristotelian physics and developed the idea of impetus, a concept that
predated Newtonian physics and inertia.

Thomas Bradwardine investigated physics, and his sophisticated study of kinematics and
velocity predated Galileo's work on falling objects.

Oresme proposed a compelling theory about a heliocentric, rather than geocentric, universe, two
centuries before Copernicus, and he proposed that light and colour were related, long before
Hooke.

India

Biology- Hamsadeva compiled a work in the field of Biology entitled Mrga-paksi-sastra in the
thirteenth century. This gives a general, though not always scientific, account of some animals
and birds of hunting.

Chemistry - production of paper, gun powder

Development of Science in Modern Period

One thing that happened during the Renaissance that was of great importance was the birth of
modern science.

The Scientific Revolution established science as a source for the growth of knowledge.
During the 19th century, the practice of science became professionalized and institutionalized in
ways that continued through the 20th century.

Major breakthroughs came in biology, especially in Darwin's theory of evolution, as well as

physics (electromagnetism), mathematics (non-Euclidean geometry, group theory) and chemistry
(organic chemistry).

Nicolaus Copernicus- revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described
by Aristarchus of Samos.

Kepler- the first known model of planetary motion which proposed that the planets
follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.

Galileo- ("Father of Modern Physics") also made use of experiments to validate physical
theories, a key element of the scientific method.

Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful
physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law
of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity.

Faraday, Ohm, and others- The behaviour of electricity and magnetism.

James Clerk Maxwell - electromagnetism, known as Maxwell's equations.

Max Planck, Albert Einstein,Niels Bohr and others developed quantum mechanics theories to
explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels.

Albert Einstein- the theory of general relativity,

Georges Lematre- the Big Bang theory

The atomic bomb ushered in "Big Science" in physics.

Ernest O. Lawrence (1930s) the invention of the cyclotron

Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann (1938) nuclear fission with radiochemical methods

Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission
process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler.

Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application
of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb.

Sir Chandrashekhara Venkata Raman - Raman effect- "change in the wavelength of light that
occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules
Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly by Shanti Swarup
Bhatnagar and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference
Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.

Indian nuclear physicist Homi J. Bhabha - performed the first calculation to determine the cross
section of electron-positron scattering. Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha
scattering, in honor of his contributions in the field.

Satyendranath Bose - Mathematician and physicist; best known for his collaboration with Albert
Einstein in formulating a theory related to the gas like qualities of electromagnetic radiation.

Jagdishchandra Bose -Physicist, biologist and archaeologist who pioneered the investigation of
radio and microwave optics.

Chemistry

Robert Boyle publishes The Sceptical Chymist, a treatise on the distinction between chemistry
and alchemy. It contains some of the earliest modern ideas of atoms, molecules, and chemical
reaction, and marks the beginning of the history of modern chemistry

William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer - the gravimetric
experimental practices .

Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) - oxygen , the law of conservation of mass.

John Dalton -The theory that all matter is made of atoms, the law of mass relationships.

Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements

Robert Boyle -Boyle's law, an experimentally based description of the behaviour of gases,
specifically the relationship between pressure and volume

Joseph Black the concept of latent heat to explain the thermochemistry of phase changes

Alessandro Volta devises the first chemical battery, thereby founding the discipline
of electrochemistry

Henry Cavendish discovers hydrogen as a colorless, odourless gas that burns and can form an
explosive mixture with air

William Prout classifies biomolecules into their modern

groupings: carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
Louis Pasteur discovers that the racemic form of tartaric acid is a mixture of the levorotatory and
dextrotatory forms, thus clarifying the nature of optical rotation and advancing the field
of stereochemistry

William Ramsay discovers the noble gases, which fill a large and unexpected gap in the periodic
table and led to models of chemical bonding

J.J. Thomson discovers the electron using the cathode ray tube

Maria Curie and Pierre Curie isolate radium and polonium from pitchblende

Friedrich Whler - The synthesis of urea opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by
the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds.

Pauling - the physical modelling of DNA.

Meghnad Saha- Saha ionization equation

Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesized NH4NO2 in its pure form, and became the first scientist to
have done so.

Har Gobind Khorana- demonstrating how the nucleotides in nucleic acids control the synthesis
of proteins.

John Ray provides first systematic classification of animals

Reaumur's research on digestion and isolation of gastric juices

Von Haller classifies the thyroid, thymus, and spleen as "ductless glands

Priestly observes that plants release oxygen

Jan Ingenhousz describes carbon cycle, respiration in plants

Edward Jenner: first smallpox vaccination

DeSaussare demonstrates role of water in photosynthesis

Oken suggests primitive form of cell theory

Shirreff begins series of experiments on hybridization of wheat

Prout demonstrates presence of HCl in gastric juice

Robert Brown identifies the nucleus of a cell

Felix Dujardin describes cytoplasm

Pringsheim observes cellular fussion

Virschow's Cellular Pathology

Darwin & Wallace report theory of evolution

Julius Sachs demonstrates role of sunlight in photosynthesis

Casimir Davaine identifies bacillus anthracis as cause of anthrax

Joseph Lister: antiseptic surgery

Louis Pasteur -linked microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised
one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced
a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the
spread of disease through milk and other foods.

Fol sees union of sperm & ovum in animal

Berthelot demonstrates fixing of nitrogen by bacteria

Henking discovers the "X-chromosome

Bucher learns that extracts from yeast cells cause fermentation

Benda describes mitochondria

Sutton and Boveri: chromosomal theory of inheritance

Landsteiner announces four "blood types"

Walter Sutton suggests that genes are physical units on chromosomes

Bayliss and Starling demonstrate existence and behavior of hormones

Thomas Hunt Morgan: Gene theory of inherritance

Discovery of vitamin A

Yamagiwa and Ichikawa discover chemical carcinogens

Banting and Best isolate insulin

Alexander Flemming's discovery of penecillin

Kroll and Ruska: first electron microscope

Dr. Christian Bernard: first heart transplant

First totaally successfu
ful fertilizatioon of humann ovum outsiide human body

(b) Mean
ning and Na
ature of Scieence

The wordd science has its roots inn the latin woord Scientia, meaning knnowledge".

Definitioon:

Science is a systemattic and organnized body of knowledge.

Science is
i not only mass
m of know
wledge but ultimate
u source of such accumulated knowledge.

Science can
c be defineed as a systeematic attem mpt to discover, by meanss of observattion and
reasoningg, particular facts about the world, and
a to establiish laws connnecting facts with one
a in some cases, to maake it possibble to predictt future occuurrences.
another and,

Science is
i a body of empirical, thheoretical, annd practical knowledge about the naatural world,
producedd by scientistts who emphhasize the obbservation, explanation,
e and prediction of real
world phhenomena

In its brooadest sense science refers to the systematic acquuisition of knnowledge orr a prescribedd
practice that
t is capab ble of predicttion in a conntrolled envirronment.

In this seense science may refer too a highly skkilled techniqque or practiice.

In its brooadest sense science refers to the systematic acquuisition of knnowledge orr a prescribedd
practice that
t is capab ble of predicttion in a conntrolled envirronment.

In this seense science may refer too a highly skkilled techniqque or practiice.

Science Inveestigation an
nd exploratiion of facts : Process

Building of a system
matic and orgganized bod
dy of facts : Product

Science as a Product

Facts, priinciples, con

ncepts, laws,, relationshipps

Science asa Process observationn, quantificaation, classifi

fication, meaasurement, innferring,
predictinng
Science as a process -In modern use, "science" more often refers to a way of pursuing
knowledge, not only the knowledge itself.

Experimentation - It is a process in the sense it helps to explore the truth and involves certain
systematic procedures and mental faculties as reasoning, analysis and synthesis.

The process of science is the scientific method. This is the process of constructing an accurate,
reliable, repeatable model of the real world, by scientists collectively working towards this goal
over time.

Scientific ideas are developed through reasoning.

The process of science is not predetermined.

1. Science is a Process as well as Product

It is a process in the sense it helps to explore the truth and involves certain systematic procedures
and mental faculties as reasoning, analysis and synthesis.

It is a product because it results in an organized body of systematic knowledge.

2. Science helps to make descriptions

It answers questions like how , where, when, under what circumstances.

3. Science makes predictions

Extending knowledge to further situation is prediction. It involves the use of generalizations or

application of knowledge in new situations.

4. Science is based on observation

Meticulous observation followed by inference drawing is an essential part of science. These

observations and their conclusions are objective in nature. Unbiased approach is followed in
science.

5. Science is concerned with past, present and future

Science answers questions about the past.eg why could the dinosaurs have become extinct?

It is involved with the present.

eg search for remedies to diseases.

It also dwells in the future.eg what fuels can be used in the future?
6. Scientific ideas are subject to change

It is never a finished product. There is a lot more to be discovered. The quest in science is
unending. Scientific laws are tentative and may be changed with further research . Science is an
eternal quest for truth.

Science in its nature is dynamic.

Values of science in socio-cultural context.

Science has immense value in an individuals life and his life in society.

INTELLECTUAL VALUE

MORAL VALUE

AESTHETIC VALUE

CULTURAL VALUE

VOCATIONAL VALUE

UTILITARIAN VALUE

SOCIAL VALUE

SCIENTIFIC TEMPER

TRAINING in SCIENTIFIC METHOD

It is science alone that can solve the problems of hunger and poverty, of insanitation and
illiteracy, of superstition and deadening custom and tradition, of vast resources running to
waste, of a rich country inhabited by starving people. . . . Who indeed could afford to
ignore science today? At every turn we have to seek its aid.

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru

ASSIGNMENT: Contribution of any two scientists in development of the nation.

Unit (2) Bases of science Education

(a) Aims and Objectives of teaching science at upper primary, secondary and higher secondary
level (NCF 2005).

(b) Approaches. 1. Curriculum Organization Topical, Concentric. 2. Co-relation of science in

the curriculum, Internal and external.
(c) Global Perspectives in science teaching (Meaning and Infusing global perspectives in the
science curriculum)

ASSIGNMENT: Compare the objectives of teaching Science in India with the objectives of
teaching Science in developed countries (e.g. U.S.A.)

a) Aims and Objectives of teaching science at upper primary, secondary and higher secondary
level (NCF 2005).

NCF-2005 states that .good science education is true to the child, true to life and true to
science..

In the context of NCF- 2005 .

True to child - means that the science we teach should be understandable to the child and be
able to engage the child in meaningful and joyful learning.

True to life - means that the science we teach should relate to the environment of the child,
prepare her for the world of work and promote in her concerns for life and preservation of the
environment.

True to science - means the science we teach should convey significant aspects of science
content at appropriate level and engage the child in learning the processes of acquiring and
validating scientific knowledge.

OBJECTIVES at UPPER PRIMARY STAGE

1. At the upper primary stage, the child should be engaged in learning the principles of science
through familiar experiences, working with hands to design simple technological units and
modules (e.g. designing and making a working model of a windmill to lift weights)

2. The students should continue to learn more about the environment and health, including
reproductive and sexual health, through activities and surveys.

3. Scientific concepts are to be arrived at mainly from activities and experiments. Science
content at this stage is not to be regarded as a diluted version of secondary school science.

4. Group activities, discussions with peers and teachers, surveys, organisation of data and their
display through exhibitions, etc. in schools and the neighbourhood should be important
components of pedagogy.

Objectives at Secondary stage

1. The students should be engaged in learning science as a composite discipline.

2. The students should be engaged in working with hands and tools to design more advanced
technological modules than at the upper primary stage.

3. The students should be involved in activities and analysis on issues concerning the
environment and health, including reproductive and sexual health.

4. The students should be engaged in systematic experimentation as a tool to discover/verify

theoretical principles.

5. The students should work on locally significant projects involving science and technology.

OBJECTIVES at HIGHER SECONDARY STAGE

1. At the higher secondary stage, science should be introduced as separate disciplines, with
emphasis on experiments/technology and problem solving.

2. The curriculum load should be rationalised to avoid the steep gradient between secondary
and higher secondary syllabi.

3. The core topics of a discipline, taking into account recent advances in the field, should be
identified carefully and treated with appropriate rigour and depth.

4. (b) Approaches.

1. Curriculum Organization Topical, Concentric.

Concentric Approach

In this approach the topics will find a place in different classes of different years of a course
in a progressive manner. The content will be included from simple to complex as the pupils
understand the content according to capabilities that present in chronological and mental
ages.

The concentric approach is a way of organizing a curriculum by laying out basic concepts,
covering other related material, and then circling back around to the basic concept and filling
in more complexity and depth.

Instead of life science, earth science, physics, biology and chemistry being separated and
studied in sequence, each year's curriculum revisits the sciences studied earlier.

It's believed that starting with fundamentals that are then regularly revisited, built on,
deepened and broadened each time leads to a better understanding of a subject's
interconnections.

The organization of curriculum using concentric approach is useful in primary and secondary
school levels.
Merits-

1. It proceeds from simple to complex and whole to part.

2. Greater opportunity for revision of topic.

3. It takes into consideration mental growth of the pupil.

4. Continuity can be maintained.

Limitations-

1. Repetition is sometimes cumbersome. Some facts

are repeated again and again.

2. The presentation lacks novelty and freshness.

3. Less appealing and fails to arouse interest.

4. Pupil develops a sense of familiarity without

the fullness of knowledge.

Topical Approach:

Topical arrangement means that a topic should be finished entirely at one stage. It takes the
topic as a unit. Topical arrangement requires that easy and difficult portions of a topic should
be dealt with at one stage only which is psychological.

In topical approach all relevant material is covered in linear fashion and concepts are not
revisited.

In this system the topic which is dealt with earlier receives no attention later and so there is
every likelihood of its being forgotten

They are introduced with a view to make the teaching of the topic complete and thorough.
Hence topical method demands that a topic once taken should be finished entirely.

This is not much useful for lower classes.

Merits-

1. Integrated knowledge is imparted to the pupils.

2. In-depth , thorough knowledge of the topic.

 3. Pupils interest and motivation is sustained.

4. Correlation of subjects.

5. This approach can be adopted according to the age, ability of the students.

Limitations-

The main defect in the topical method is that it introduces in the curriculum a largeness of
irrelevant material for which the pupil finds no time and no immediate need or the use of
which cannot be appreciated by the pupil at that stage.

. 2. Co-relation of science in the curriculum, Internal and external.

Correlation

Internal External

Within the subject other subjects- geo,his,

Physics

Chemistry

Biology

c) Global Perspectives in science teaching (Meaning and Infusing global perspectives in

the science curriculum)

DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION

PUTTING GLOBAL DIMENTION IN THE CURRICULUM

Developmental education is an approach to the curriculum, which promotes equity and social
justice, both locally and globally and enables pupils to develop skills and attitudes and values
needed for a sustainable future.

It is a process of challenging negative assumptions about other countries and people and
promoting positive attitude to diversity and differences.
Meaning-

An attitude that develops a sense of shared humanity towards the overall goal of world
harmony.

Awareness that we live in an interdependent world and that we cannot ignore the problems
faced by mankind.

It involves taking a broader and more critical view of experiences, learning and knowledge
and includes seeking to understand the links between our own lives and those of people
throughout the world.

Through issues like pollution, global warming, depletion of natural resources, energy crisis,
extinction of some species Science can highlight the aspect of global perspective in more
natural way to learners.

Global Perspectives aim at:

Encouraging empathy and mutual understanding by exposing students to different

worldviews.

Developing skills and attitudes among students to bring about effective change leading to
more just and peaceful world.

Preparing students to live in the world of increasing interdependence.

Developing students ability to think critically and have independence of mind in order to
undertake whatever constructive action is appropriate.

Infusing GP in the science curriculum

I. Incorporating a range of key concepts as appropriate

citizenship

social justice

interdependence

sustainable development

human rights

values and perceptions

diversity
 conflict resolution

II. Incorporating a range of perspectives from different countries/communities:

Feel for real world problems

Increasing students sensitivity to local needs and problems and putting them in the
global concerns, constraints and opportunities. Examples of solutions arrived at in
different contexts.

Eg. Nile Purification Project successfully carried out in Egypt can be related to Ganga
Purification Project.

III. Including action for change

Small actions to bring about change.

Personal local global

Strategies used for sensitization: games, role-play, stories, scientific inquiries or simple
activities.

IV. Developing sustainable practices

--- encourage those practices that are enduring

--- incorporate into the curriculum

---focus on exposing the students to socio-cultural realities of life, bringing in a new

dimension of social relevance.

STEPS TO INTRODUCE GP THROUGH THE SCIENCE CURRICULUM: (with

example)

Identify two to three key concepts

Locate plug points in the science curriculum

Collect data/ information (both local and global)

Design participatory methods/approaches

 Use appropriate strategies to further sensitize students to the issue

Decide on small action- student initiative.

Unit (3) Classroom processes

a) Maxims of Teaching Science

Known to Unknown,

Whole to Part,

Empirical to Rational,

Simple to complex,

Concrete to abstract,

particular to General

b) Trends in teaching of science

Concept Mapping,

Problem based learning,

Constructivism (7E approach)

c) Use of technology in teaching of science-

Virtual lab and simulation

ASSIGNMENT: Preparation and execution of lesson plan with any one of the following.

Concept mapping,

Problem based learning.

Use of technology

Constructivism.

Unit (4) Methods of teaching science (Procedure, Advantages and

Limitations)

Lecture cum demonstration method

Inductive Deductive method

 Project method

Problem solving method

Laboratory method

ASSIGNMENT:

Setting of the apparatus for any one experiment in the laboratory and
demonstrating the same.

Choosing and execution of any one project and preparing its report.

a) Maxims of Teaching Science

Meaning, Explain with examples

Maxims of teaching are pearls of wisdom, which teacher should follow for
making teaching-learning process interesting and for facilitating learning.

Known to Unknown,

Whole to Part,

Empirical to Rational,

Simple to complex,

Concrete to abstract,

particular to General

Trends in teaching of science

Concept Mapping, Problem based learning, Constructivism (7E approach)

Meaning

Steps

Characteristics

Advantages and disadvantages

Concept mapping
 Definition of a Concept Map

A concept map is a type of graphic organizer used to help students organize and represent
knowledge of a subject. Concept maps begin with a main idea (or concept) and then
branch out to show how that main idea can be broken down into specific topics.

Concept mapping is a diagram showing hierarchy and relationship among concepts .

Concept mapping is a graphical tool for organising and representing knowledge.

Steps of Concept mapping

1. Brainstorming phase

2. Organising phase

3. Layout phase

4. Linking phase

5. Finalizing concept map

Advantages

Child centered

Helping students brainstorm and generate new ideas

Encouraging students to discover new concepts

Helping students integrate new concepts with older concepts

Help identify incorrect ideas and concepts

 Problem Based Learning

Meaning

This principle of learning can be summed up by the old Chines proverb:

Hear and forget....see and remember.....do and understand.

Problem based learning is an instructional, learner centered approach that empowers

learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and
skills to develop a viable solution to a defined problem. (J.R Savery, 2006, p12)

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn

about a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem. Students learn
both thinking strategies and domain knowledge.

Steps in PBL

1. Presentation of the Problem:

2. Action plan for working on the problem

3. Independent study Independent study

4. Working together on the problem Working together on the problem

5. Discussion of Solution Discussion of Solution

6. Review of PBL process Review of PBL process

Advantages:

Active process

The way we make decisions anyway

Increases tolerance of uncertainty

Stimulates self-learning

Trainee-directed/trainer-monitored

Increases motivation

Encourages "experience" / "intuition

Effective collaboration skills

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Meaning

Constructivism can be described as a theory that deals with the way people create
meaning of the world through a series of individual constructs. (Wikipedia)

It signifies that teaching involves giving opportunities for learners to explore and
discover.

Learners construct their own meaning and generate insights

c) Use off technology
y in teachingg of science-

Virtual lab
l and simulation

Meaningg
 The Virtual Laboratory is an interactive environment for creating and conducting
simulated experiments: a playground for experimentation. It consists of domain-
dependent simulation programs, experimental units called objects that encompass data
files, tools that operate on these objects.

The Virtual Laboratory is an interactive environment for creating and conducting

simulated experiments: a playground for experimentation. . (The Virtual Laboratory
Environment @ Algorithmic Botany retrieved 11:48, 30 June 2006 (MEST) )

Objectives of the Virtual Labs:

To provide remote-access to Labs in various disciplines of Science and Engineering.

These Virtual Labs would cater to students at the undergraduate level, post graduate level
as well as to research scholars.

To enthuse students to conduct experiments by arousing their curiosity. This would help
them in learning basic and advanced concepts through remote experimentation. To
enthuse students to conduct experiments by arousing their curiosity. This would help
them in learning basic and advanced concepts through remote experimentation.

To provide a complete Learning Management System around the Virtual Labs where the
students can avail the various tools for learning, including additional web-resources,
video-lectures, animated demonstrations and self evaluation.

To share costly equipment and resources, which are otherwise available to limited
number of users due to constraints on time and geographical distances

Uses

Virtual laboratories can be used to overcome health and safety concerns, time or location
constraints, or ethical and legislative issues

Likewise, web-centric or computer-centric learning is best delivered using virtual

laboratory tools.

VL provide active, enquiry-based learning rather than passive learning.

Enhance learning experiences by enabling experimental manipulations at the click of a

mouse.

VL receive instant online feedback

Virtual laboratory tools enable students to focus on the underlying scientific concepts.

Enabling active engagement in construction of knowledge

 Making available real-world situations

Providing representations in multiple modalities

Drilling students on basic concepts to reach mastery

Facilitating collaborative activity among students

Seeing interconnections among concepts

Simulation

Meaning

Simulation means to imitate conditions of (situation etc.) with a model, for convenience
of training as defined in the concise oxford dictionary of current English.

Simulation is the use of a model to conduct experiments which convey an understanding

of the behaviour of the system modeled. (Gogg and Mott,1993)

Uses of simulation

Simulations can help students translate among multiple representations.

Simulations contain physical systems represented in many different ways in two or three-
dimensions: pictures, graphs, words, equations, diagrams, data tables, contour maps, etc.
The students can make sense of the concepts by seeing the connection between the
representations and how one variable affects another.

Simulations can help students build mental models of physical, chemical or biological
systems.

Simulations allow students to visualize concepts that appear on textbooks or hear from
their teachers in lectures. By using the simulation they can see a concrete situation that
helps them build a mental model.

Simulations can help students understand equations as physical relationships among

measurements.

Simulations are great tools to help students recognize how equations relate observations
and measurements. Using a simulation where the students are able to vary parameters and
see the effect of these variations, the role of equations is powerfully enriched.

Simulations can serve as a vehicle for collaboration.

 Students working in groups can use a simulation to explain and describe their
understandings to each other.

Simulations can allow students to investigate phenomena that would not be possible to
experience in a classroom or laboratory.

Simulations can give students engaging, hands-on, active learning experiences.

Simulations give students control when exploring scientific concepts and phenomena.

Unit (4) Methods of teaching science

(Procedure, Advantages and Limitations)

a) Lecture cum demonstration method

b) Inductive Deductive method

c) Project method

d) Problem solving method

e) Laboratory method

ASSIGNMENT:

Setting of the apparatus for any one experiment in the laboratory and demonstrating the
same.

Choosing and execution of any one project and preparing its report.

References

http://vlab.co.in/http://vlab.co.in/

https://www.google.co.in/search?q=virtual+lab+download&revid=1757162973&sa=X&v
ed=0CFUQ1QIoAGoVChMIlo2mva3mxgIVkgWOCh0zdgxD&biw=1600&bih=767#htt
ps://www.google.co.in/search?q=virtual+lab+download&revid=1757162973&sa=X&ved
=0CFUQ1QIoAGoVChMIlo2mva3mxgIVkgWOCh0zdgxD&biw=1600&bih=767#

https://sites.google.com/site/virtuallabsadvantages/https://sites.google.com/site/virtuallab
sadvantages/

http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Virtual_laboratory

http://www.mii.lt/informatics_in_education/pdf/INFE044.pdf
 http://www.tojet.net/articles/v13i4/13418.pdf

file:///D:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator.HOME/My%20Documents/Dow
nloads/EDICT-2010-1103.pdf

https://www.heacademy.ac.uk/sites/default/files/resources/The%20pedagogical%20benef
its%20and%20pitfalls%20of%20virtual%20tools%20for%20teaching%20and%20learnin
g%20laboratory%20practices%20in%20the%20Biological%20Sciences.pdf

http://www.thelabsimexperience.com/2011/01/difference-between-virtual-labs-and.html

http://www.stevens-tech.edu/jnickerson/ACMComputingSurveys2006MaNickerson.pdf

http://plpnetwork.com/2011/04/01/science-simulations-a-real-way-to-learn/

http://learningandteaching.vu.edu.au/our_approach/approaches_to_learning/problem_bas
ed_learning