APPLICATION NOTE

An In-Depth Examination of an Energy

Summary
Efficiency Technology
Thermal energy storage (TES) systems
shift cooling energy use to non-peak
times. They chill storage media such as
water, ice, or a phase-change material
Thermal Energy during periods of low cooling demand
for use later to meet air-conditioning
Storage Strategies loads. Operating strategies are gener-
ally classified as either full storage or
partial storage, referring to the amount
for Commercial of cooling load transferred from on-peak
to off-peak.
HVAC Systems TES systems are applicable in most
commercial and industrial facilities, but
certain criteria must be met for eco-
nomic feasibility. A system can be ap-
propriate when maximum cooling load is
significantly higher than average load.
High demand charges, and a significant
differential between on-peak and off-
peak rates, also help make TES sys-
tems economic. They may also be ap-
Summary ............................................. 1 propriate where more chiller capacity is
needed for an existing system, or where
How This Technology back-up or redundant cooling capacity
Saves Energy ...................................... 2 is desirable.

Types of Demand and Energy Besides shifting load, TES systems may
Efficiency Measures ........................... 3 also reduce energy consumption, de-
pending on site-specific design, notably
Applicability ........................................ 7
where chillers can be operated at full
Field Observations to Assess load during the night. Also, pumping
Feasibility ............................................ 7 energy and fan energy can be reduced
by lowering the temperature of the wa-
Cost and Service Life ....................... 11 ter, and therefore the air temperature,
affecting the quantity of air circulation
Laws, Codes, and Regulations........ 13 required.
Definitions of Key Terms ................. 13
Capital costs tend to be higher than a
References to More Information...... 14 conventional direct-cooling system, but
other economic factors can reduce such
Major Manufacturers ........................ 14 costs. In new construction, ductwork

Copyright May 1997, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, all rights reserved. Revised 4/25/97
could be smaller, allowing more usable
space. Or a TES system may enable
reduction in electrical capacity, reducing
the cost of electrical service for a new or
expanding facility.
How This Technology
Saves Energy
In a TES system, a storage medium is
chilled during periods of low cooling
demand, and the stored cooling is used
later to meet air-conditioning load or
process cooling loads.
The system consists of a storage me-
dium in a tank, a packaged chiller or
built-up refrigeration system, and inter-
connecting piping, pumps, and controls.
The storage medium is generally water,
ice, or a phase-change1 material
(sometimes called a eutectic salt); it is
typically chilled to lower temperatures
than would be required for direct cooling
to keep the storage tank size within
economic limits. Figure 1 illustrates the
basic operation of a system that uses
chilled water.
Load shifting is typically the main rea-
son to install a TES system. Cool stor-
age systems can significantly cut oper-
ating costs by cooling with cheaper off-
peak energy, and reducing or eliminat-
ing on-peak demand charges.
These systems have a reputation for
consuming more energy than nonstor-
age systems. This has often been true
where demand reduction was the pri-
mary design objective. Cool storage
1
Bold italicized words are defined in the section
title Definition of Key Terms.
PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage
does require the chiller to work harder
to cool the system down to the required
lower temperatures (for ice storage);
and energy is needed to pump fluids in
and out of storage.
But a number of design options can
make TES systems more energy-
efficient than nonstorage systems. Stor-
age systems let chillers operate at full
load all night , versus operating at full or
part load during the day.
Depending on the system configuration,
the chiller may be smaller than would be
required for direct cooling, allowing
smaller auxiliaries such as cooling-
tower fans, condenser water pumps, or
condenser fans. Pumping energy can
be reduced by increasing the chilled
water temperature range; fan energy
can be cut with colder air distribution.
Storage systems can also make in-
creased use of heat recovery and wa-
terside economizer strategies.
Discharging
Building Load
Distribution
Pump Warm
Storage
Cool
Primary Pump
Chiller
Charging
Figure 1: Thermal Energy Storage
System with Stratified Chilled Water
Storage (Source: ASHRAE)*
Page 2

Types of Demand and
Energy Efficiency Measures
TES systems can be characterized by
storage medium and storage technol-
ogy. Storage media include chilled wa-
ter, ice, and phase-change materials,
which differ in their operating charac-
teristics and physical requirements for
storing energy. Storage technologies
include chilled water tanks, ice systems,
and phase-change materials.
Chilled Water Storage
These systems use the sensible heat
capacity of water (1 Btu per pound per
degree Fahrenheit) to store cooling.
Tank volume depends on the tempera-
ture difference between the water sup-
plied from storage and the water re-
turning from the load, and the degree of
separation between warm and cold wa-
ter in the storage tank. Where most
conventional nonstorage HVAC systems
operate on temperature differentials of
10 to 12F, chilled water systems gen-
erally need a differential of at least 16F
to keep the storage tank size reason-
able. A difference of 20F is the practi-
cal maximum for most building cooling
applications, although a few systems
exceed 30F.
Chilled water is generally stored at 39F
to 42F, temperatures directly compati-
ble with most conventional water chillers
and distribution systems. Return tem-
peratures of 58 to 60F or higher are
desirable to maximize the tank tem-
perature difference and minimize tank
volume.
PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage
Tank volume is affected by the separa-
tion maintained between the stored cold
water and the warm return water. Natu-
ral stratification has emerged as the
preferred approach, because of its low
cost and superior performance. Colder
water remains at the bottom and
warmer, lighter water remains at the top.
Specially designed diffusers transfer
water into and out of a storage tank at a
low velocity to minimize mixing.
The figure of merit (FOM) is a measure
of a tanks ability to maintain such sepa-
ration; it indicates the effective percent-
age of the total volume that will be
available to provide usable cooling.
Well-designed stratified tanks typically
have FOMs of 85 to 95 percent.
The practical minimum storage volume
for chilled water is approximately 10.7
cubic feet per ton-hour at a 20F tem-
perature difference.
Chilled Water System Example
Application
Needing an additional 3,750 tons of
peak cooling capacity for a 250,000-
square-foot addition to its Dallas head-
quarters, Texas Instruments chose a
chilled water thermal storage system:
Adding chiller capacity would have cost
about $10 million, while the TES system
cost about $7 millionand a $200/kW
utility rebate reduced this to about $5.75
million. The new system also has cut
operating costs about $1.5 million per
year and allowed postponement of an
expansion of the facilitys high-voltage
substation.
The TES system uses a 5.2-million-
gallon, thermally stratified chilled water
storage tank, built under a parking lot.
Page 3
This pre-stressed, cylindrical concrete
reservoir, 140 feet in diameter and 45
feet in height, has a design discharge
rate of 7,500 tonsdelivering 40F wa-
ter at 12,000 gallons per minute (gpm)
which returns to the tank at 55F.
This system shifts 5.1 MW (35 percent)
of existing electric chiller load to off-
peak hoursabout 8.5 percent of total
facility demand. Five existing chillers
with total capacity of 6,500 tons now
remain off during the day. Mechanical
cooling systems now operate more effi-
ciently because they are more fully
loaded (0.85 kW/ton versus the previ-
ous 0.95 kW/ton) and produce 13 per-
cent more annual ton-hours of cooling.
Ice Storage
Ice thermal storage uses the latent heat
of fusion of water (144 Btu per pound).
Storage volume is generally in the
range of 2.4 to 3.3 cubic feet per ton-
hour, depending on the specific ice-
storage technology.
Thermal energy is stored in ice at 32F,
the freezing point of water. The equip-
ment must provide charging fluid at
temperatures of 15 to 26F, below the
normal operating range of conventional
cooling equipment for air-conditioning.
Depending on the storage technology,
special ice-making equipment is used or
standard chillers are selected for low-
temperature duty. The heat transfer fluid
may be the refrigerant itself or a secon-
dary coolant such as glycol with water
or some other antifreeze solution.
The low temperature of ice can also
provide lower temperature air for cool-
ing. The lower-temperature chilled water
supply available from ice storage allows
PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage
Building Ice Harvester
Load Chiller
Chilled Ice-water
Ice / Water
Water Pump
Mixture
Pump
Figure 2: Ice Harvesting
(Source: ASHRAE)*
a higher temperature rise at the load, up
to 25F. The following technologies are
used:
Ice harvesting. Ice is formed on an
evaporator surface and periodically re-
leased into a tank partially filled with
water. Cold water is pumped from the
tank to meet the cooling load. Return
water is then pumped over ice in the
tank. Refer to Figure 2.
External melt ice-on-coil. Ice is
formed on submerged pipes or tubes
through which a refrigerant or secon-
dary fluid is circulated. Storage is dis-
charged by circulating the water that
surrounds the pipes, melting the ice
from the outside.
Internal melt ice-on-coil. Ice is
formed on submerged pipes or tubes,
as in the external melt system. Cooling
is discharged by circulating warm cool-
ant through the pipes, melting the ice
from the inside.
Page 4
 Encapsulated ice. Water inside
submerged plastic containers freezes
and thaws as cold or warm coolant is
circulated through the tank holding the
containers.
Ice slurry. Water in a water/glycol
solution is frozen into a slurry like the
ice in a Sno-Cone and pumped to a
storage tank. Slurries can be pumped
from the tank to heat exchangers or di-
rectly to cooling coils, resulting in high
energy transport rates.
The most common commercial technol-
ogy today is internal melt ice-on-coil.
External melt and ice-harvesting sys-
tems are more common in industrial ap-
plications, and can also be applied in
commercial buildings. Encapsulated ice
systems are also suitable for many
commercial applications.
Ice Storage Example Application
The Seafirst Building in Bellevue,
Washington uses an ice storage system
and cold air distribution with smaller-
than-typical ducting. An Electric Power
Research Institute comparison showed
that this increased gross construction
costs but reduced construction cost per
square foot by about $4, because re-
duced floor-to-floor heights allowed 21
stories within a height that would nor-
mally accommodate only 20thus
adding 13,000 square feet of rentable
space. Smaller mechanical rooms
added another 4,000 square feet. This
provides about $340,000 per year of
additional income.
Phase-Change Material Storage
Phase-change materials, or eutectic
salts, are available to melt and freeze at
PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage
selected temperatures. Most common is
a mixture that stores 41 Btu per pound
at its melting/freezing point of 47F.
This material is encapsulated in rectan-
gular plastic containers, which are
stacked in a storage tank through which
water is circulated. The net storage vol-
ume of such a system is approximately
six cubic feet per ton-hour.
The 47F phase-change point of this
material allows the use of standard
chilling equipment. Discharge tempera-
tures are higher than the supply tem-
peratures of most conventional cooling
systems, so operating strategies may be
limited.
Phase-change materials are also avail-
able for lowering the storage tempera-
tures of ice systems. Additives on the
market reduce freezing temperatures to
28 and 12F in ice storage tanks; they
reduce the latent heat capacity of water,
as well as lower the freezing point. The
material is highly corrosive, so care
must be used in applying it.
Operating and Control
Strategies
TES operating strategies are generally
classified as either full storage or par-
tial storage, referring to the amount of
cooling load transferred from on-peak
periods. Strategies for operation at less
than design loads include chiller priority
and storage priority control.
The period during which a system must
reduce electric demand is generally
called on-peak, often but not neces-
sarily synonymous with on-peak hours
defined by the electric utility. In some
facilities the period may actually be
shorter than the utility on-peak period.
Page 5
 Load
Peak electric demand from cooling also Chiller On
may not occur simultaneously with the Chiller Charging Storage
peak facility demand. Chiller Meets Load Directly
Storage Meets Load

Cool storage systems are usually sized

to generate enough cooling in 24 hours
to meet all the loads occurring during

Tons
that period, but some applications use
longer cycles.

Full Storage
24-hour Period
Full-storage, or load-shifting (shown in
Figure 3), shifts the entire on-peak
Figure 4: Partial-storage Load-
cooling load to off-peak hours and usu- Leveling Operating Strategy
ally operates at full capacity to charge (Source: ASHRAE)*
storage during all non-peak hours. On-
meets the rest. Such operating strate-
Load
Chiller On gies can be further subdivided into load-
Chiller Charging Storage leveling and demand-limiting, Figures 4
Chiller Meets Load Directly
Storage Meets Load
and 5.

In a load-leveling system, the chiller

typically runs at full capacity for 24
hours on the design day. When the load
Tons

is less than the chiller output, the ex-

cess charges storage. When the load
exceeds chiller capacity, the additional
requirement is discharged from storage.
24-hour Period
Load
Chiller On
Figure 3: Full Storage Operating Chiller Charging Storage
Strategy (Source: ASHRAE)* Chiller Meets Load Directly
Storage Meets Load

peak, all cooling loads are met from

storage, and the chiller does not run. A
full-storage system requires relatively
Tons

Reduced On-peak
large chiller and storage capacities and Demand
is most attractive where on-peak de-
mand charges are high or the on-peak
period is short.
24-hour Period
Partial Storage
Figure 5: Partial-storage Demand-
With this strategy chiller capacity is less
Limiting Operating Strategy
than design load. The chiller meets part (Source: ASHRAE)*
of the on-peak cooling load and storage

PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage Page 6
This approach minimizes required
chiller and storage capacities and is
particularly attractive where peak cool-
ing load is much higher than average
load. In many systems, cooling loads
during off-design periods are small
enough that partial-storage systems
may be operated as full-storage sys-
tems. This can increase savings but
care must be taken to not deplete stor-
age before the on-peak period is over.
A demand-limiting partial-storage sys-
tem operates the chiller at reduced ca-
pacity on-peak. The chiller may be con-
trolled to limit the facility demand at the
billing meter. This strategy falls between
load shifting and load leveling. Demand
savings and equipment costs are higher
than for load-leveling, and lower than
for load-shifting. Here too care must be
taken not to deplete storage before the
end of the on-peak period.
Additional variations on the full- and
partial-storage strategies are possible
by scheduling the operation of multiple
chillers.
Partial-storage systems use one of two
control strategies to divide the load
between chiller and storage. A chiller-
priority strategy uses the chiller to di-
rectly meet as much of the load as pos-
sible. Cooling is supplied from storage
only when load exceeds chiller capacity.
Storage-priority meets as much of the
load as possible from stored cooling,
using the chiller only when daily load
exceeds total stored cooling capacity.
Some systems use combinations of
these strategies. For example, chiller
priority during off-peak daytime hours,
and storage priority during on-peak
hours.
PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage
Applicability
Thermal energy storage can be used in
virtually any building; the merits are
compelling in the right situations. The
main issues are the type of storage
system and the amount of cooling load
to be shifted. Before embarking on a
cool storage project, however, one
should consider the field observation
guidelines below. In addition, alternative
approaches should be considered for
each project.
Field Observations to
Assess Feasibility
This section discusses observations
and checks that can ensure a TES sys-
tem is appropriate and is installed and
working properly.
Related to Applicability
The many successful TES systems op-
erating today demonstrate that the
technology can provide significant
benefits. However, many cool storage
systems have failed to perform as pre-
dicted because they did not meet the
criteria for applicability cited below.
Cool storage systems are most suitable
where any of the following criteria apply:
The maximum cooling load of the
facility is significantly higher than the
average load. The higher the ratio of
peak load to average load, the greater
the potential.
Page 7
 The electric utility rate structure
includes high demand charges,
ratchet charges, or a high differential
between on- and off-peak energy rates.
The economics are particularly attrac-
tive where the cost of on-peak demand
and energy is high.
An existing cooling system is be-
ing expanded. The cost of adding cool
storage capacity can be much less than
the cost of adding new chillers.
An existing tank suitable for cool
storage use is available. In some ret-
rofits, particularly in industrial applica-
tions, using existing tanks can reduce
the cost of installing cool storage.
Electric power available at the site
is limited. Where expensive trans-
formers or switchgear would otherwise
have to be added, the reduction in
electric demand through the use of cool
storage can mean significant savings.
Backup or redundant cooling ca-
pacity is desirable. Cool storage can
provide short-term backup or reserve
cooling capacity for computer rooms
and other critical applications.
Cold air distribution can be used,
is necessary, or would be beneficial.
Cool storage technologies using ice
permit economical use of lower-
temperature supply water and air. Engi-
neers can downsize pumps, piping, air
handlers, and ductwork, and realize
substantial reductions in first cost.
If one or more of the following are true,
TES may not be an appropriate tech-
nology:
PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage
The maximum cooling load of the
facility is very close to the average
load. A TES system would offer little
opportunity to downsize chilling equip-
ment.
On-peak demand charges are low
and there is little or no difference be-
tween the costs of on- and off-peak en-
ergy. There is little economic value for
customers to shift cooling to off-peak
periods.
The space available for storage is
limited, there is no space available, the
cost of making the space available is
high, or the value of the space for some
other use is high.
The cooling load is too small to
justify the expense of a storage sys-
tem. Typically, a peak load of 100 tons
or more has been necessary for cool
storage to be feasible.
The design team lacks experience
or funding to conduct a thorough de-
sign process. The design team should
be capable of TES design, which differs
from standard HVAC system design. If
this is not the case, or if funding for de-
sign fees is limited, the chances for a
successful system are reduced.
Performance testing of a new thermal
storage plant is particularly important.
Each system should be tested for
charge capacity, discharge capacity,
and scheduling and control sequences.
The charge capacity test verifies that
the system can fully charge storage
within the available time. The discharge
capacity test verifies its ability to pro-
vide the required cooling, at or below
Page 8
the maximum usable supply tempera-
ture, for each hour over the design load
profile. Of primary concern is that stored
thermal energy is used at a rate con-
sistent with the design. Especially in
chilled water systems, if oversized
pumps circulate water at higher than
design flow rates, a smaller supply-
return temperature difference will re-
duce the capacity of the storage system.
A test of scheduling and control se-
quences confirms the proper operation
of valves, resetting of setpoints, and
starting and stopping of equipment, ac-
cording to scheduled operating modes.
A TES system operates differently from
a nonstorage system, in that the inven-
tory of stored cooling must be properly
managed. Operators of TES systems
must receive training in basic concepts
as well as the intended operating se-
quences and specific operating proce-
dures for their systems. As operators
gain experience they can improve sys-
tem performance and minimize operat-
ing costs by refining the design operat-
ing strategies and control setpoints.
Related to Energy Savings
In new construction, TES systems can
reduce overall energy consumption
even though there may be increased
use in the chiller: distribution of colder
chilled water can allow use of smaller
pumps and less fan horsepower to cir-
culate a smaller quantity of air through
the cooling coils.
In retrofits it also is possible to reduce
energy consumption but generally less
so than in new construction. Here en-
ergy savings result from chillers oper-
ating at full load nearly all the time, po-
PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage
tentially at higher efficiency. And opera-
tion is generally at night when lower
ambient temperatures make for cooler
condenser temperatures, reducing en-
ergy use.
However, TES systems do not always
save energy. A retrofit using ice storage
that fails to take advantage of the colder
water available from the ice system may
consume more energy than a direct
cooling system. Yet this system can
make economic senseconsuming
more off-peak, lower cost energy at
night can still significantly reduce ex-
pensive electrical demand and expen-
sive on-peak electricity use.
Related to Implementation Cost
Most TES systems cost more up front
and (if cost-effective) pay off through
reduced electricity bills. But carefully
designed systems neednt cost more
or much morethan conventional
HVAC systems.
Sometimes cool storage systems can
cost less and save energy. The Texas
Instruments case study discussed ear-
lier describes one of three chilled-water
storage installations in Dallas that have
reduced energy consumption by more
than 10 percent compared to nonstor-
age alternatives. The TI installation also
reduced capital costs millions of dollars
by deferring the need for added chiller
capacity. Other factors that may help
reduce cost of implementation include:
Smaller air flows will provide ade-
quate cooling in new construction or
major retrofits, especially for ice stor-
age. This can decrease the duct di-
ameter, reducing not only the cost of the
Page 9
ductwork, fans, and pumps but also the
installation labor cost.
Smaller ducts may increase rent-
able space in new construction.
System sizing is critical. For ex-
ample, a careful assessment of the
number of hours that peak load must be
met with stored cooling could show that
a considerably smaller storage system
may only minimally affect demand re-
duction.
Estimation of Energy Savings
Demand costs are the main considera-
tion in determining the economics of a
TES system. Energy savings may be
achieved, particularly in new construc-
tion or major renovation projects, but
typically are a small percentage of op-
erating cost savings. In fact, energy
consumption may increase and still al-
low for an economically viable project.
To determine economic feasibility, accu-
rate cooling load data from the existing
chiller plant is always best. If data are
not available, not considered reliable or
incomplete, or if only a short time period
of data has been collected, an hourly
computer simulation model must be de-
veloped by a reputable energy analysis
professional. Available data, even for
only a short period, can be used to help
calibrate the simulated building model
and improve its accuracy.
Back-of-the-envelope calculations can
give a rough estimate of possible sav-
ings but must not be used for the final
economic analysis, or chiller or storage
tank sizing.
PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage
Standard Savings Calculation
The following equation can be used in
estimating demand savings from TES
systems. While energy consumption
may increase or decrease, the change
generally has only a minor impact on
project economics. The time period
when the energy is consumed has a
significant impact; i.e. on-peak demand
reduction or displacing expensive on-
peak energy with less expensive off-
peak energy use. In general, system
economics depend heavily on the de-
mand savings and/or on-peak/off-peak
rate differential. Demand savings must
be calculated for each month of chiller
operation.
kWsavings = # tonsshifted
(kW/ton)chiller performance
Energy shifted to off-peak is more diffi-
cult to calculate without monitored field
data or a calibrated, hourly computer
simulation. A rough estimate can be
calculated as follows:
kWhshifted = # tonsshifted
(kW/ton)chiller performance
on-peak hours
load shape factor
The load shape factor is a needed mul-
tiplier because peak cooling load typi-
cally is not constant. This factor, used in
the above equation, is for the on-peak
period only (the time when cooling load
will be shifted) and for the peak cooling
load for that day. Typical load shape
factors are in the range of 60 to 90 per-
cent for a variety of building types and
climates. Annual energy shifted is the
sum of daily energy shifted. At this
point, an estimate can be made using
Page 10
an average cooling load for each month
and the number of cooling days in the
month, then summing the monthly to-
tals.
Cost and Service Life
Factors That Influence Service
Life and First Cost
Typically, a TES system increases costs
compared to those for a direct cooling
system. But a much larger picture needs
to be looked at. Additional issues in-
clude:
Floor Height: In new construction,
can low-temperature air distribution
which uses smaller, less expensive
ductworkreduce floor-to-floor height?
Electrical Capacity: Can using
TES reduce the capacity and therefore
the cost of the electrical service to a
new project, or avoid increasing the
service in the case of a building expan-
sion?
Useable Space: Can using TES,
with an underground storage tank, such
as under a parking lot, free up space in
an existing chiller plant or reduce the
size of a new structure?
Costs given in Table 1 are general
guidelines for initial economic evalua-
tions of storage systems. They include
the cost of storage tanks and any re-
quired internal diffusers, headers, or
heat transfer surface. Costs will vary
depending on the size of the project and
site-specific considerations, among
other things. Accurate cost estimates for
PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage
a specific application can be obtained
from contractors or vendors.
Costs for chilled water tanks are based
on volume, so the cost per ton-hour de-
pends on the chilled water temperature
range. Unit storage costs decrease as
tank size increases. The cost of chillers
or refrigeration equipment must be con-
sidered along with the cost of storage
capacity. Chilled water and phase-
change material storage are compatible
with typical conventional HVAC tem-
peratures, and can often be added to
existing systems with no chiller modifi-
cations. For ice-harvesting systems, low
storage cost is offset by a relatively high
cost for the ice-making equipment.
Typical Service Life
In addition to all equipment in a tradi-
tional cooling system, a TES system
has a storage tank, pumps, piping and
possibly an interface heat exchanger.
The service life of each component
(except the actual storage tank) has
been estimated and can be found in
Reference 1. All TES-specific compo-
nents are rated at a 20-year minimum
service life. Storage tanks, generally
concrete or steel, also have service
lives of at least 20 years.
Operation and Maintenance
Requirements
Factors that tend to increase mainte-
nance costs for cool storage systems
compared to nonstorage systems in-
clude:
Annual tests to ensure solutions
contain proper coolant concentration,
levels of corrosion inhibitors, and other
Page 11
 Chilled Ice External Internal Encapsulated Phase-change
Water Harvester Melt Ice Melt Ice Ice Material
Pre-packaged or
Low-temperature Low-temperature Low-temperature
built-up ice-
Chiller Cost Standard water coolant or built-up secondary secondary Standard water
making
refrigeration plant coolant coolant
equipment
Chiller Costa
$/ton 200-300, 1,100-1,500 per 200-300,
200-500 200-500 200-500
or use existing ice-making ton or use existing

$/kW 57-85 313-427 57-142 57-142 57-142 57-85

Tank Volume
ft/ton-hr 11-21 3.0-3.3 2.8 2.4-2.8 2.4-2.8 6.0
Storage Installed
Costb $/ton-hr 30-100 20-30 50-70 50-70 50-70 100-150
$/kWh 8.50-28 5.70-8.50 14-20 14-20 14-20 48-43
Charging Temperature (oF) 39-42 15-24 15-25 22-26 22-26 40-42
Chiller Charging
Efficiency kW/ton 0.60-0.70 0.95-1.3 0.85-1.4 0.85-1.2 0.85-1.2 0.60-0.70
COP 5.9-5.0 3.7-2.7 4.1-2.5 4.1-2.9 4.1-2.9 5.9-5.0
Discharge 1-4 above
Temperaturec (oF) charging 34-36 34-36 34-38 34-38 48-50
temperature
Secondary Secondary
Discharge Fluid Water Water Water Water
coolant coolant
Open or closed
Tank Interface Open tank Open tank Open tank Closed system Open tank
system
Use existing High High Modular tanks
Tank shape Use existing
Strengths chillers; fire instantaneous instantaneous good for small or
flexible chillers
protection duty discharge rates discharge rates large installations
Separate charge
Storage capacity Requires
and discharge
increases with clearance above
Comments circuits. Charge
larger temperature tank for ice
with coolant or
range. maker.
liquid refrigerant.
Notes:
a: Costs are for chiller or refrigeration plant only, and do not include installation. All costs, except ice harvesters, are per nominal ton.
Derating for actual operating conditions may be required.
b: Costs are for storage only, and include tank, internal diffusers, headers, and heat transfer surface.
c: Typical minimum temperatures, with appropriate sizing of storage capacity. Higher temperature can be obtained from each medium.

Table 1: Comparative Costs and Performance of Cool Storage Systems (Source: ASHRAE )*

additives for ice storage systems using Added maintenance for cool stor-
glycol or other secondary coolants. age system components, such as addi-
Some glycol manufacturers provide free tional pumps, heat exchangers, and
laboratory analysis of samples. There control valves.
may also be an expense associated
with replacing glycol lost during mainte- Factors that tend to decrease mainte-
nance procedures and through leaks. nance costs for cool storage systems
include:
Increased water treatment ex-
pense in chilled water storage and Smaller components, such as chill-
some ice storage systems, which con- ers, pumps, and cooling towers, for typi-
tain large volumes of chilled water in the cal systems.
tanks.

PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage Page 12
 Glycol or other secondary cool-
ants in the system provide coil freeze
protection, and eliminate the need to
drain the cooling system in the winter,
or to use special controls to prevent coil
freeze-ups.
Cooling loads can be met from
storage while some equipment is taken
out of service for maintenance in some
storage systems.
Laws, Codes, and
Regulations
All equipment and components used for
a TES system should conform with the
same laws, codes, and regulations re-
quired for traditional cooling systems.
Large tanks may pose a problem. Zon-
ing requirements, particularly height re-
strictions, should be checked early. If
height is an issue, it is possible to com-
pletely or partially bury it. It is also pos-
sible that a levee will be required
around the tank in case of a rupture.
If a fire-protection storage tank is re-
quired on site, as it would be at some
manufacturing facilities, it may be pos-
sible to use this tank to store chilled
water for the cooling system. If this is
available, it should be carefully checked
to ensure code compliance.
Definitions of Key Terms
Condenser: The container in a
cooling system where gas changes
phase to liquid, releasing heat to the
surroundings.
PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage
Demand Charge: A tariff added to
a customers electric bill that increases
in proportion to maximum kilowatts
used.
DX (direct expansion): Refers to a
heat exchanger that contains the refrig-
erant inside its tubing rather than water,
antifreeze, or other fluid. Heat from the
surroundings is directly absorbed into
the refrigerant, which is pumped by
the compressor.
Figure of Merit (FOM): A measure
of a storage tanks ability to maintain
separation between warm and cool wa-
ter.
Full Storage: Refers to a TES sys-
tem that stores sufficient cooling to meet
an entire peak day cooling capacity, al-
lowing chillers to be off during the on-
peak period.
Off-Peak: A time period, defined by
the utility, when the cost of providing
power is relatively low, because the
system demand for power is low. The
off-peak period is often characterized by
lower costs to the customer for energy
costs, and either no or low demand
charges.
On-Peak: A time period, defined by
the utility, when the cost of providing
power is high because the system de-
mand for power is high. The on-peak
period is typically characterized by
higher costs to the customer for energy
and/or demand charges.
Partial Storage: Refers to a TES
system that contains sufficient cool
storage to meet part of the cooling load
of a facility. Such systems are used in
Page 13
conjunction with a chiller system to pro- 4. E Source, State of the Art Technol-
vide required cooling capacity. ogy Atlas: Commercial Space Cool-
ing and Air Handling, Chapter 11,
Phase Change: As a substance 1995.
changes between its solid, liquid, and
gaseous forms, it is said to change 5. International Thermal Storage Advi-
phase. During transitions in phase sory Council (ITSAC), 3769 Eagle
freezing, melting, condensing, boiling Street, San Diego, CA 92103, Tel:
the material releases or absorbs large (619) 295-6267.
amounts of thermal energy without
changing temperature. The energy as-
sociated with this is called latent heat. A Major Manufacturers
material that can store thermal energy
as latent heat is called a phase-change Chicago Bridge & Iron Co.
material. 1501 N. Division Street
Plainfield, IL 60544-8929
Sensible Heat: Heat that can be Tel (815) 439-6000
perceived by the human senses, as op- Fax (815) 439-6010
posed to latent heat (see phase change E-mail: www.chicago-bridge.com
definition).
San Luis Tank & Piping Co.
825 26th Street
References to More Paso Robles, CA 93447
Information Tel (805) 238-0888
Fax (805) 238-5123
1. American Society of Heating Refrig-
Cryogel
eration, and Air-Conditioning Engi-
P.O. Box 910525
neers, ASHRAE Handbook HVAC
San Diego, CA 92191
Applications, June 1995.
Tel (619) 792-9003
2. American Society of Heating Refrig- Fax (619) 792-2743
eration, and Air-Conditioning Engi- E-mail: tes@cryogel.com
neers, Design Guide for Cool
Thermal Storage, 1994. For more information on companies who
make TES components see Reference
4 above. In addition, you may contact
3. Electric Power Research Institute the International Thermal Storage Advi-
(EPRI) HVAC & R Center (formerly sory Council (Reference 5) or the EPRI
the Thermal Storage Air Condition- HVAC & R Center (Reference 3).
ing Center), University of Wisconsin,
150 East Gilman Street, Suite 2200,
Madison, WI 537093, Tel: (800) 858-
3774, Fax: (608) 262-6209.
*Reprinted with permission. Copyright, 1994 by
ASHRAE. All rights reserved.

PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage Page 14
 November 6, 2009
GP #8
Cut the Tip off the ENERGYberg:
Thermal Ice Storage and the LEEDv3 Green Building Rating System

Peak Electrical Utility Peak Electrical Load Flattened

Load Profile using Thermal Ice Storage

Green Piece #8 specifically addresses Thermal Ice Storage and its LEED credit opportunities. In
addition to energy cost savings credits in Energy and Atmosphere, there are categories in Water Efficiency and
Indoor Environmental Quality for schools that may have the potential to earn additional credits.
Take the initiative and go for those hard to obtain credits that push the LEED rating from Gold to
Platinum! Ice thermal storage provides an energy efficient cooling system that is economically responsible to the
end-user and diminishes the demand on the utilitys electrical infrastructure. The benefits of ice storage include:

Reduced greenhouse gas emissions and source fuel required to generate electricity.

Lower energy costs made possible by shifting power usage to night time when rates are lower.

Smaller chillers required for partial ice storage systems-resulting in lower refrigerant charge on site.

Quiet building operation with a full ice storage system-towers and chillers turned off during the day.

Zero water consumption when Thermal Ice Storage is combined with air-cooled chillers.

1
 Water Efficiency
Credit Title LEED LEED LEED EVAPCO Product
Category NC for Core & Contribution
Schools Shell

WE Credit 4 Process Water Use NA 1 Point NA EVAPCO Thermal Ice

Reduction Storage with Extra-Pak Ice
Coils and Air Cooled
Chillers.1

Energy & Atmosphere

EA Credit 1 Optimize Energy 1-19 Points 1-19 Points 3-21 Points EVAPCO Thermal Ice
Performance Storage with Extra-Pak Ice
Coils help earn credits in
this category by reducing
energy costs ice is made
during off-peak power rates.2

EA Credit 4 Enhanced Refrigerant 2 Points 1 Point 2 Points Partial ice storage systems
Management utilize 40% smaller chillers
compared to conventional
chilled water plants,
therefore holding a smaller
refrigerant charge.3

Indoor Environmental Quality-Schools Only

IEQ Prerequisite 3 Minimum Acoustical N/A Required N/A Design a full storage system
Performance to provide chilled water
during school hours and
special events, allowing the
school to turn off their
chillers and cooling towers.4

IEQ Credit 9 Enhanced Acoustical N/A 1 Point N/A Design a full storage system
Performance to provide chilled water
during school hours and
special events, allowing the
school to turn off their
chillers and cooling towers.4

Innovation in Design
ID Credit 1 Innovation in Design 1-5 Points 1-4 Points 1-5 Points Thermal Ice Storage
reduces carbon emissions,
peak demand and the need
for new power plants.5

2
Foot Notes:
1. EVAPCO Thermal Ice Storage Systems that utilize air cooled chillers to build ice will reduce
water and energy used for air conditioning schools. If the design consultant prefers to use air-
cooled chillers, Thermal Ice Storage will provide the end-user, not only with significant water
savings, but with incremental energy savings when compared to a conventional system design
with air cooled chillers. Energy is saved by operating the chiller at night to build ice when dry
bulb temperatures are typically 20F to 30F lower than during the day.

2. The primary benefit of thermal storage is its ability to substantially reduce total operating costs,
particularly for systems using electricity as the primary energy source. Thermal storage systems reduce
the demand for expensive on-peak electric power, substituting less expensive nighttime power to do the
same job. ASHRAE Handbook-2008 HVAC Systems and Equipment

To receive Energy & Atmosphere points in the Optimize Energy Performance credit category,
LEED guidelines specify increasing percentages of energy cost savings in the proposed building
design when compared to a baseline building. For an Optimize Energy credit, the HVAC system
design must show a 12% energy cost savings for new buildings and an 8% energy cost savings for
existing buildings, using the performance rating method in Appendix G of ASHRAE Standard
90.1-2007. This energy cost savings calculation must be supported using a computer simulation
model such as E-Quest, DOE-2, Visual DOE-4 or DOE Energy Plus.

For example, Figure 1 below is a current rate graph (September 2009) for Southern California
Edison (SCE) using the Real Time Pricing (RTP-2) schedule for customers with a demand greater
than 500kW. On days defined as Very Hot Summer Weekday (91F to 94 F day time
temperature), the average cost of electricity is 42.4 cents/kWh. However, on those same days
the average night time cost of electricity is 5.6 cents/kWh. a 7.5 to 1 energy cost
differential!

Data for Graph Courtesy of Southern California Edison

Figure 1- Typical Rate Structure Beneficial to Thermal Ice Storage

3
2 continued)
Thermal ice storage reduces peak electrical cost therefore reducing the overall electric cost for
the entire building. This electrical cost saving is recognized by the USGBC and the LEED rating
system. Energy and Atmosphere Credit 1 has up to 21 points available for energy cost saving
strategies based on the energy cost budget method as defined by ASHRAE 90.1.

Energy and Atmosphere, Optimize Energy Performance Credit 1

Figure 2

There are other tangible material cost and energy saving benefits of a Thermal
Ice Storage system. For example, an ice storage system design using chilled water
at 36F and an 18F delta t compared to a standard chiller system with a 45F
chilled water temperature and 10F delta t, will have smaller pumps, piping, air
handling cooling coils and ductwork!

4
3. Ice storage systems may be sized for full or partial storage. A partial storage system is
defined as A cool storage sizing strategy in which only a portion of the on-peak cooling
load is met from thermal storage, with the rest being met by operating the chilling
equipment. (ASHRAE-2008 HVAC Systems and Equipment Chapter 50 Thermal
Storage).

A partial storage system will typically require a chiller that is 10-40% smaller in size than
a conventional chilled water system. Smaller chillers equate to lower refrigerant
charges, resulting in less impact to the environment from potential leakage during the
operating span of the equipment.

4. In another LEED for Schools strategy, using a full storage ice system sized for
complete on-peak cooling capacity would allow a school to run silent during the day or
special off hour event by melting ice without turning on noisy chillers and condenser
cooling equipment. The only components of the chilled water cooling plant that would
operate during the day are the small chilled water pumps.

Ice storage will enable HVAC system designers to use lower temperature air and water
to size smaller air handlers with reduced HP fan motors and slower duct velocities
resulting in lower sound levels, a requirement of IEQ Prerequisite 3 and IEQ Credit 9
shown below:

IEQ Prerequisite 3

Achieve a maximum background noise level from heating, ventilating and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems in classrooms and other core learning spaces of 45 dBA.

IEQ Credit 9:

Reduce background noise level to 40 dBA or less from heating, ventilating and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems in classrooms and other core learning spaces.

5. Thermal ice storage systems have received positive recognition and LEED points from
the USGBC for its ability to reduce green house gas emissions as a result of lower
energy use at the power plant. It has been well documented that power plants run
more efficiently and electricity is easier to distribute to the grid at night due to lower
ambient temperatures.

In order to receive the LEED Innovation Point, according to the USGBCs latest
Credit Interpretation Request dated 2/23/2005, the ice storage system must be sized to
shift 5% of the total building energy use. In addition, the designer must prove that there
is a reduction in air emissions compared to a standard chilled water system.

5
 There are two studies available that quantify air emission reductions by shifting electrical
demand to off peak: one by the California Energy Commission (CEC) completed in
February 1996 (P500-95-005) and a Florida Light and Power (FPL) Study presented at
the 2008 ASHRAE Summer Meeting in Salt Lake City (Seminar 69).

The CEC study evaluated the two largest electricity suppliers in California: Pacific Gas &
Electric (PG&E) and Southern California Edison (SCE). The fuel source energy savings
depends on air conditioning usage patterns, the design and operating strategy for the
thermal storage system-Full or Partial and the source of the electricity supplied (i.e.
Hydro, Coal, Natural Gas or Nuclear).

In the study, Thermal Energy Storage systems in the regions served by PG&E and SCE
shifted 40-80% of the annual kWhs of electricity used for A/C from Day to Night.
The result was an 8 to 43% reduction in source fuel use. Since the fuel source was
reduced, it also has the added benefit of reducing greenhouses gas emissions.

In the FPL study, it was shown in their evaluation of its power and Thermal Energy
Storage (ice and chilled water) plants in their portfolio, that by shifting power to off
peak, it reduced CO2 output by .43 lbs per kWh shifted, based on 500 tons per peak
day per average installation

FPL was able to achieve this level of carbon reduction because Thermal Ice Storage
allowed them to shift from Oil and Gas fired power plants (34% efficient) to more
efficient Combined Cycle plants using natural gas (50% efficient).

The benefits to the environment and energy costs are significant with Thermal Ice
Storage. Incorporate Thermal Ice Storage ice into the chilled water plant design on your
next LEED project.

EVAPCO will present the benefits of ice storage at GreenBuild 2009 in Phoenix. Our Thermal
Ice Storage systems are designed for commercial HVAC, industrial cooling and district energy
projects using our Extra-Pak Ice Coils for internal or external melt applications.

EVAPCO Thermal Ice Storage Installation

6
To learn more about EVAPCOs Thermal Ice Storage systems go to
http://www.evapco.com/ice-video.asp to view the Thermal Ice Storage video and to download
our Bulletin 401F-Ice Coils. For information on how to incorporate Thermal Ice Storage into
your new or existing system design contact me at EVAPCO or send an e-mail to
ice@evapco.com.

Keep it Green!

Daryn S. Cline

Senior Manager,
Environmental Technologies

References:
1) Source: ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Systems and Equipment-2008 Chapter 50 Thermal Storage
2) Source: Department of Energy E-Quest software-free energy evaluation download at: http://www.doe2.com/
3) Source: ANSI/ASHRAE 90.1-2007, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
4) Source: USGBCs LEEDv3 http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1970
5) Source: Southern California Edison RTP-2 Rate Structure
6) Source: Source Energy & Environmental Impacts of Thermal Energy Storage, California Energy Commission (CEC),
P500-95-005, Feb 1996.
7) Source: FPL Study 2008 ASHRAE Summer Meeting in Salt Lake City, UT, Seminar 69.
8) For large scale District Energy applications of Thermal Ice Storage, consult these documents published by the USGBC

District Energy and LEED NC/Schools: http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=4176

Guidance on Combined Heat and Power: http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=1354

LEED NC Guide for Multiple Buildings: http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=1097