Electrics - DC

021 Airframe & Systems
Electrics-DC
Basic Principles of DC Electricity

Magnetism and Electricity
Electro-Magnets
Relays
Solenoids
Electro-Magnetic Induction
Control and Protection
Monitoring Devices
Wheatstone Bridge
DC Motors
Electrical Consumers
Bonding and Screening
G LONGHURST 1999 All Rights Reserved Worldwide

Electrics-DC
7 Electrics-DC
Basic Principles of DC Electricity
1. All matter is made up of atoms, which consist of a positively charged nucleus and negatively
charged orbiting electrons. The nucleus is formed by an equal number of protons and neutrons, the
protons being positively charged and the neutrons having no charge. An oxygen atom, for example,
comprises eight electrons (negative), eight protons (positive) and eight neutrons (no charge). Hence
such an atom is electrically neutral, since the total negative charge of the electrons is balanced by the
total positive charge of the protons.
2. An electrical current is quite simply a flow of electrons through a conductor. When matter
gives up electrons it becomes positively charged, and when it gains electrons it becomes negatively
charged.
3. During the early experiments with electricity the true nature of electrical current flow was not
fully understood and the direction of current flow was arbitrarily assumed to be from positive to
negative, as illustrated at Figure 7-1. This convention with regard to current flow has persisted,
although it was subsequently proved that a current flow involves the transference of negatively
charged electrons to a positively charged atom (that is, an atom which has a deficiency of electrons).
For the sake of conformity, these Notes will maintain the convention of current flowing from positive
to negative, preferably through a load or resistance, which will limit the rate of current flow.
Chapter 7 Page 1 G LONGHURST 1999 All Rights Reserved Worldwide

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-1
Direction of
Current Flow
4. A substance consisting of atoms that readily give up their electrons is called a conductor, and
will offer little resistance to a flow of electricity. Copper and Gold are both particularly good
conductors. Conversely, a substance consisting of atoms that are reluctant to release electrons is
called an insulator, because it offers a very high resistance to the flow of electrical current. Insulators
are used to protect conductors, insulating them from other conductors. For example, electrical
current-carrying cables are covered with insulating material if they are to be located where other
conductors, such as the metal case of a device or a human being, might otherwise come into contact
with them. Natural rubber and most thermoplastic materials are good insulators. Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) is a well-known example. A semiconductor is a material whose resistance is midway between
that of a good conductor and that of a good insulator. Commonly used semiconductor materials
include silicon and germanium. (diodes, transistors and integrated circuits.

Electrics-DC
5. Static electricity occurs when an excess of electrons are induced into a body, which then stores
this electrical charge until able to discharge itself to another body. A good example of this occurs
with an aircraft in flight. Since the airframe is used as the earth for all of the aircraft electrical
systems it develops its own static electrical potential. An attempt is made to discharge this potential
during flight to atmosphere via static wick dischargers. On the ground it is discharged to the tarmac
via a conducting bead in the tread of the tyres (usually on the nosewheels).
6. It is because of static electricity that it is necessary to bond an aircraft and a fuel bowser to
each other during refuelling, and to bond the fuel pipe nozzle to the tank filler pipe. Were this not
done, static electricity could build up and cause a spark with obviously disastrous consequences. For
the same reasons it is necessary to bond together the various parts of the aircraft structure to provide
a low resistance path for static discharge and to dissipate the effects of a lightning strike.
7. Electricity may be produced by heat or temperature differences, as in thermocouples; by
friction, as in static electricity; by light, as in photo-electric cells; by pressure, as in carbon
microphones; by rotating mechanical forces in magnetic fields, as in generators; and by chemical
action, as in batteries.
Definitions
8. As already stated, an electric current is simply a flow of electrons through a conducting
element and it is measured in amperes (amps) by means of an ammeter. The lower the resistance to
current flow, the greater the current flow and vice versa. Maximum current will flow when a short
circuit exists (a direct connection between supply and return), and this causes an overload. No
current will flow when an open circuit exists (when the circuit is broken, for example by opening a
switch). The break in the circuit has created a condition of infinite resistance.

Electrics-DC
9. The basic units of electrical measurement are often inconvenient in that they are either too
small or too large for practical circumstances and consequently prefixes are added. For example;
Prefix Meaning Examples

Micro One millionth (10 ) -6 Microvolt, microamp
Milli One thousandth (10-3) Millivolt, milliamp
Kilo One thousand (103) Kilowatt, kilovolt
Mega One million (106) Megohm, megawatt
10. Potential difference (PD) is the way in which the magnitude of the surplus of electrons at one
point in an electrical circuit, when compared with the deficiency of electrons at another point is
expressed. Potential difference is often referred to as electrical pressure, and is measured in volts
using a voltmeter.
11. Electromotive force (emf) is the force that causes electrons to flow, and is effectively the same
as potential difference. The unit of measurement of emf is the volt. One volt is defined as the emf
required to cause current to flow at the rate of one ampere through a resistance of one ohm.
12. Resistance is the reluctance of any material, electrical component or electrical machine to
permit the flow of electricity. Resistance is measured in ohms using an ohmmeter. The usual
consequence of a circuit offering resistance to current flow is the generation of heat.

Electrics-DC
13. The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to temperature and to conductor length
and is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor. As the temperature of a
conductor rises the atoms gain energy and they become excited. Any electron flow in the circuit will
now experience difficulty in moving through the conductor. That is, increase in temperature causes
an increase in conductor resistance. The change of resistance of the conductor as the temperature
changes expressed as a fraction of its original resistance is called the temperature co-efficient of
resistance referred to the original temperature. If the resistance of a conductor increases with increase
in temperature it has a positive temperature co-efficient and a negative co-efficient if the resistance
decreases with increase in temperature. Positive temperature co-efficient (PTC) and negative
temperature co-efficient (NTC) resistors are used in aircraft systems for measurement of temperature.
An example of this is a thermistor which is a thermally sensitive resistor with either a positive or
negative temperature co-efficient.
14. For electrical current to flow there must be a path, or circuit, for it to follow and there must
be a potential difference (voltage/pressure) to cause it to flow. The amount of current flow will
depend upon the resistance of the circuit. The unit of measurement of current flow is the ampere,
usually abbreviated to amp. One ampere is defined as a rate of current flow of one coulomb per
second, the coulomb being the unit of measurement of electrical quantity. Current, or rate of flow of
electricity, is symbolised by the letter I.
Ohm's Law
15. Ohm's Law gives the relationship between emf (V), current flow (I) and resistance (R). It
states that the current in an electrical circuit is directly proportional to the voltage (emf) and
inversely proportional to the resistance.

Electrics-DC
16. In other words, an emf of 1 volt will cause a current of 1 amp to flow through a circuit having
a total resistance of 1 ohm. Equally, an emf of 25,000 volts will cause a current of 10 amps to flow
through a circuit having a total resistance of 2,500 ohms.
V
The equation for Ohm's Law is: I = ----
R
This is usefully given diagrammatically as shown at Figure 7-2.
FIGURE 7-2
Ohms Law
17. This simplifies transposition of the Ohm's Law equation viz:
V = IR
V
I = ----
R
V
R = ----
I

Electrics-DC
18. Power is defined as the rate of doing work or, to put it another way, the rate of dissipation of
energy. Since voltage is the measure of electromotive force and amperage is the measure of rate of
current flow it follows that electrical power is the product of the two. The unit of measurement of
power is the watt and is defined as the power expended when one volt moves a quantity of one
coulomb per second through a conductor.
1 Watt = 1 Volt x 1 Amp

19. By combining the power equation above with the Ohm's Law equation it is possible to derive
alternative power equations.
Power (W) = V I
and
2
Since V = I R it follows that W = ( I R ) I = I R
2
Since I = ---- it follows that W = V ---- = ------
V V V
R R R
20. Electrical power is the rate at which work is done when electrical energy is expended.
Electrical work is a measure of the amount of electrical energy expended and is measured in units
called Joules. 1 Joule represents the work done by 1 watt of power in 1 second

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-3
Electrical Power =
Watts
21. At Figure 7-3 a current of 2 amps is flowing through a resistance of 6 ohms, thanks to an emf
produced by the battery of 12 volts (V = I x R). The power consumed in the circuit is therefore:
V I = 12 2 = 24 Watts
or
2
I R = 4 6 = 24 Watts
or
2
V 144
------ = --------- = 24 Watts
R 6

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-4
Short Circuit
22. At Figure 7-4 the battery has been short-circuited across its terminals by a conductor of low
resistance (0.1 ohms). The current flowing through the short circuit will be:
V 12
I = ---- = ------- = 120 amps (an overload)
R 0.1

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-5
Open Circuit
23. At Figure 7-5 the circuit has been open-circuited by a switch, introducing an infinite
resistance. Current flow will now be:
V 12
I = ---- = ------ = 0 amps
R
Series Loads
24. Up to this point the simple circuit diagrams have shown only one load, or resistance, for
simplicity. Practical electrical circuits usually contain several separate loads, such as a number of
light bulbs, for example. One method of connecting a number of loads is to place them in series with
one another, as shown at Figure 7-6.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-6
Series Loads
25. When loads are connected in series, since the current must flow through each load or
resistance sequentially the total resistance (RT) of the circuit is the sum of all the resistances:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
26. Applying Ohm's Law to the circuit:
V 12
I = ---- = ------ = 2 amps
R 6
27. Taking this further, the voltage drop across the circuit as a whole must equal the sum of the
voltage drops across each resistance. Viz:
R 1 ( 1ohm )V = IR = 2 1 = 2 volts

Electrics-DC
R 2 ( 2ohm )V = IR = 2 2 = 4 volts
R 3 ( 3ohm )V = IR = 2 3 = 6 volts
Total 12 volts
28. Circuits in which the loads are connected in series have few practical applications since it is
impossible to switch off supply to one load without affecting the entire circuit. Similarly, if one load
fails causing an open circuit, the entire circuit fails. Consequently such circuits are rarely used in
aircraft systems.
Parallel Loads
29. Figure 7-7 shows a more conventional electrical circuit in which the loads are connected in
parallel with each other and with the source of emf. In such a circuit each load may be individually
disconnected without disrupting the flow of electricity to the remaining loads.
FIGURE 7-7
Parallel Loads
30. In order to determine the equivalent total resistance of this circuit it is necessary to use the
formula:

Electrics-DC
1 1 1 1
---------------- = ------ + ------ + ------ and so on
R total R1 R2 R3
31. In a parallel circuit the total resistance is always less than the smallest individual resistance in
the circuit.
32. In this case the total resistance is:
1 1 1 1
---------------- = --- + --- + ---
R total 1 2 2
1 1
---------------- = --- + 0.5 + 0.5 = 2
R total 1
1
R total = --- = 0.5 ohm
2
33. The total current flow in a parallel circuit is found using Ohm's Law:
V 12
I T = ------- = ------- = 24 amp
RT 0.5
34. Ohms law may be used to find the current flowing through each load in the normal way, and
the current drawn from the battery will be the sum of the currents flowing in each load.
V 12
In R 1 ;I = ------ = ------ = 12 amps
R1 1

Electrics-DC
12
In R 2 and R 3 ;I = ------ = 6 amps in each
2
I T = 12 + 6 + 6 = 24 amp
35. The voltage drop across each load, or resistor in a parallel circuit is always the same as the
supply emf (in this case 12 volts). This too can be demonstrated using Ohm's Law.
R 1 ( 1ohm )V = IR = 12 1 = 12 volts
R 2 and R3 ( 2ohms )V = IR = 6 2 = 12 volts across each
36. When only two resistances are connected in parallel an alternative formula, derived from the
general formula for the total resistance of a parallel circuit, may be used. This is given as:
R1 R2
RT = -------------------
R1 + R 2
Series/Parallel Loads
37. A series/parallel circuit is one in which some of the loads are connected in series with the
source of supply and some in parallel with it. An example of such a circuit is shown at Figure 7-8.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-8
Series / Parallel
Loads
38. The total resistance (RT) of this circuit may be found by resolving it into the equivalent of
three resistances in series and adding them together. To do this, it is first necessary to find the total
resistance of R3 and R4, the two paralleled loads, and add the result to the sum of the series
resistances.
R3 R4 42 8
R(3,4) = ------------------- = ------------ = --- = 1.33 ohms
R3 + R 4 4+2 6
The total resistance of the circuit (RT) is given by:
R1 + R 2 + R (3,4) = 0.5 + 2 + 1.33 = 3.83 ohms

Electrics-DC
Circuit Protection
39. It is essential that any electrical circuit should be protected against current flows that are in
excess of the maximum rated value of the circuit in question. Apart from damage to the circuit
components, a short circuit to the airframe (for example) would cause a very high current flow which
would generate a great deal of heat and pose a serious fire hazard. The standard safety devices take
the form of fuses and circuit breakers.
Fuses
40. Fuses are thermal devices whose primary function is to protect the distribution cables of a
circuit against excess current flow due to short-circuit or overload. The fuse is placed in series with
the load (component) it protects. If a current that exceeds the rated value of the fuse flows through
it, the fuse wire overheats and melts, resulting in an open circuit. The fuse wire is normally made of
a zinc alloy, which has the desired low melting point.
41. All fuses are rated in amperes (amps). In general fuses are selected on the basis of the lowest
rating which will ensure reliable operation of the system, given the known thermal characteristics of
the cables, but which will not be prone to nuisance failure.
42. In emergency circuits, failure of which may affect safe operation of the aircraft, fuses are of
the highest rating possible consistent with cable protection. When replacing a blown fuse it is
important that the new fuse be of the correct rating. Under no circumstances should a fuse of a
higher value be used, since the rating has already been calculated at a value slightly in excess of the
normal maximum load of the circuit, to accommodate the surge loads of initial switching on.

Electrics-DC
43. Aircraft fuses are of the cartridge variety, consisting of a ceramic tube with the fusible element
(wire) passing through it and connected at either end to conducting caps. The caps fit into the inlet
and outlet terminals of the fuse holder. Examples of typical aircraft cartridge type fuses are shown at
Figure 7-9.
FIGURE 7-9
Cartridge Fuses

Electrics-DC
44. Heavy Duty (High Rupturing) fuses are often installed at power distribution points. These
are of the cartridge type, but contain a number of fusible elements that rupture successively under
overload conditions. The elements are packed in a medium that absorbs the explosive effects of
rupture. These fuses are fixed in position by means of mounting lugs and bolts, as opposed to the
spring-clip attachment of lighter-duty fuses. In some aircraft the fuse holders incorporate an
indicator lamp which illuminates when the fuse ruptures.
45. Current Limiting Fuses are also used to protect high power, heavy-duty, circuits. They have a
high melting point and will thus carry a considerable overload current before rupturing. This ensures
that power to the whole circuit is not lost in the event of a surge, or transient, overload. The fusible
element is typically a strip of tinned copper, "waisted" in its centre to the dimension required for the
fusing area. The ends of the strip are formed into attachment lugs. The central, waisted, portion of
the fuse is enclosed in a ceramic housing with an inspection window. Examples are shown at
Figure 7-10.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-10
Current Limiting
Fuses

Electrics-DC
46. After a fuse has first blown it should be replaced once only. Repeated replacement of the fuse
could eventually result in overheating of the circuit.
47. When replacing fuses, ideally the power to the circuit in question should be switched off. The
person replacing the fuse does not then have to worry about touching the live terminals of the fuse
holder.
48. If a fuse of the correct rating is not available, then a fuse of a lower rating may be tried, but of
course it is likely to blow again.
49. The number of spare fuses to be carried in an aircraft is stipulated by Joint Aviation
Requirements.
50. Spare fuses for all electrical circuits, the fuses of which can be replaced in flight, consisting of
50% of the number of each rating.
Circuit Breakers
51. A circuit breaker or thermal trip is designed to isolate a circuit by means of a mechanical trip
that opens a switch whenever a surge of current, or overload, occurs. The advantage of a circuit
breaker over a fuse is that a circuit breaker can be reset once the overload situation has been
remedied. Circuit breakers make use of bimetallic strips, which bend by an increasing amount as the
temperature of the strip increases. At the temperature matched to the rated current flow for that
particular circuit the bimetallic strip bends sufficiently to break the circuit.
52. The linkage between the bimetal element and the trip mechanism can be adjusted at
manufacture to achieve very close tolerance trip-time characteristics. Thus, the circuit breaker can
be matched not just to current, but to a specific maximum time for a given current. The ratings for
circuit breakers are established in much the same way as for fuses.

Electrics-DC
53. There are two types of circuit breaker, the trip-free and the non trip-free. In the trip-free
system depressing the reset button will not remake the circuit, nor will it reset the circuit breaker,
until the overload condition has been cleared. It has an internal safety device that ensures that no
harm will be caused if the reset button is held in.
54. With a non trip-free circuit breaker it is possible to remake the circuit by holding the button
in. Once the button is released the circuit will be broken again, since the circuit breaker cannot be
reset until the overload has been cleared. Some circuit breakers are equipped with manual trip
buttons so that they can be also used as a manually operated switching device.
55. In the past, non trip-free circuit breakers were installed in some essential service circuits to
permit emergency manual reconnection of supply under overload conditions, despite the fire hazard
involved. Nowadays this practice is not permitted by the CAA, who require that it must not be
possible for circuit breaker contacts to be re-made under overload conditions. Figure 7-11 shows a
schematic diagram of a non trip-free thermal circuit breaker operation.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-11
Thermal Circuit
Breaker
Switches
56. A basic switch consists of two contacting surfaces which can be connected together by a link
or isolated by the reverse action (open the link). The connecting link is commonly referred to as a
pole and there are various combinations i.e. single pole, single throw or double pole, double throw.
There are a number of different type switches used in aircraft electrical systems namely push, toggle,
thermal, pressure, mercury, time, rotary, micro and proximity switches. Most of these switches are
explained in the following text apart from the following :

Electrics-DC
(a) Toggle Switch. A tumbler type switch which is regarded as a general purpose switch. A
guard cap can be incorporated which is a device to prevent accidental operation of the
switch. The guard has to be physically lifted before movement of the switch is
possible.
(b) Thermal Switch. The priciple of operation is based on the effects of differences of
expansion between dissimilar metals typically INVAR and steel. The different heat
sensitivity can be used where automatic temperature control is required, typically the
operation of control valves in thermal de-icing systems.
(c) Time Switch. The principle of operation varies, but in general it is based on an electric
motor driving a cam assembly which in turn contacts microswitches or operates spring
driven mechanisms. This will produce a programmed sequence of operations at
limited intervals.
The Capacitor
57. Capacitors are electrical storage devices which, in a DC circuit, behave in some ways like a
battery. They will accept and store an electrical charge if voltage is applied in one direction. A fully
charged capacitor will discharge, in the opposite direction to the original charging supply, when the
charging supply ceases and a suitable circuit is provided.
58. A capacitor comprises two plates of conducting material, separated by a non-conducting

material called a dielectric. Figure 7-12 shows a capacitor in parallel with a 6v DC source. If the 3-
position switch is placed in position A, the potential difference across the capacitor is the same as
that across the battery (6v).

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-12
Capacitor
Operation
59. This is because the plate connected to the negative source has an excess of electrons whilst the
plate connected to the positive source has a deficiency of electrons. In other words, one plate is
negatively charged and the other is positively charged. The result of this is to put the dielectric under
strain establishing an electric field between the two plates. Comparison can be made with a
magnetic field which has lines of force with definite direction and strength. However the electrical
field is achieved as a result of opposing positive and negative polarities, whereas a magnetic field is
achieved naturally from a permanent magnet or by passing a current through a conductor.
60. If the switch is now moved to position B, the capacitor will store its electrical charge, there
being no circuit through which it can discharge. The ability of a capacitor to store an electric charge
is called capacitance and is measured in units known as farads. The capacitance of a given capacitor
is determined by three factors, the area of the capacitor plates, the thickness of the dielectric and the
material of which the dielectric consists. The dielectric qualities of a material are measured against
the dielectric property of air, which is given a constant value of unity (1).

Electrics-DC
61. A material that has five times the electric charge storing ability of air in a capacitor is said to
have a dielectric constant of 5. A material commonly used is mica, which has a dielectric constant of
5.5.
62. When the switch in the circuit at Figure 7-12 is moved to position C, the capacitor will
discharge its stored charge through the circuit that is made. Capacitors are discussed in depth in the
chapter on AC Electrics.
63. When cacitors are connected in series the total capacitance is given by the formula:
1 1 1 1 1
-------------------- = ------ + ------ + ------ + ------ and so on
C TOTAL C 1 C 2 C 3 C4
When capacitors are connected in parallel the total capacitance is given by the formula:
C TOTAL = C 1 + C 2 + C 3 + C 4 and so on
Batteries
64. Chemical action produces electricity in an electric cell. A single cell, or more commonly a
number of cells connected together, is known as a battery. All battery cells produce direct current,
because they are of constant electrical polarity.
65. A cell that cannot be recharged once it has become discharged is known as a primary cell.
Conversely, a cell that is rechargeable is known as a secondary cell.

Electrics-DC
66. The principle of any electric cell is simple. The cell consists of two plates made of different
metals and placed in a solution termed the electrolyte. An electrolyte is a solution of water and a
chemical compound that will conduct electricity. It is capable of conducting current because it
contains atoms having a positive or negative charge, known as ions.
67. The chemical action of the electrolyte acting on the dissimilar plates causes an electron flow
from one plate to the other. Consequently, one plate becomes positively charged (a deficiency of
electrons) and the other negatively charged (a surplus of electrons). There is thus a potential
difference (voltage) between the two plates.
68. Connecting the two plates via a conductor will allow electrons to flow from the negatively
charged plate to the positive an electrical current flow. This will eventually balance the charge
between the plates, so that there is no potential difference and current flow ceases the cell is said to
be discharged and a reversal of the chemical action will be required to restore the differential (or
electrical pressure).
Primary Cells
69. In the case of the conventional primary dry cell the positive core is made of carbon, the
negative case is made of zinc, and the electrolyte is ammonium chloride in paste form, hence the
name dry cell. Dry cells are mainly used in flashlights and similar low voltage portable devices.
Diagrams of a simple primary and secondary cell are shown at Figure 7-13.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-13
Primary &
Secondary Cell
Secondary Cells
70. The principal function of the battery or batteries in an aircraft electrical system is to provide
electrical power when the primary source of electrical power, the engine-driven generators, is not
available. A basic electrical supply system for a single engine aircraft is shown at Figure 7-14.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-14
Basic Aircraft
Electrical Supply
System
71. Secondary cells are clearly necessary when a battery is to be used as the emergency source of
electrical power, as is the case in all aircraft electrical systems. It must be possible to recharge the
battery after use, from the aircrafts primary electrical source (the generators) so that it is available
when subsequently required. Two types of secondary cell batteries are currently in common use in
aircraft, the lead-acid battery and the Nickel-Cadmium battery.

Electrics-DC
Lead-Acid Batteries
72. Secondary cells are usually grouped together to form a battery of cells, known as a storage
battery. In the case of the lead-acid battery this consists of positive plates made of lead peroxide and
negative plates made of lead. Each pair of positive and negative plates, comprising a cell, is
connected in series with the next and the whole immersed in an electrolyte of 30% sulphuric acid and
70% water.
73. As the battery is discharged the chemical action changes both plates to lead sulphate, and the
strength of the electrolyte is reduced. As a consequence the specific gravity of the electrolyte also
reduces. As the battery accepts a charge the plates revert to their original compositions, and the acid
of the electrolyte strengthens. This results in a higher electrolyte specific gravity.
74. In order to optimise the performance of a lead-acid cell, the plates of dissimilar metals
described previously are sandwiched alternately, as shown at Figure 7-15, to present the greatest
possible surface area for a given volume of electrolyte. Separators, made of insulating material, are
fitted between the positive and negative plates to prevent internal short-circuiting.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-15
Secondary Cell
(Lead Acid)
Construction
75. A lead-acid cell will produce a maximum of 2.1 volts when in a fully charged state. It is
therefore necessary to connect 6 such cells together in series to produce a battery that has a nominal
charge of 12 volts, since cell voltage falls to approximately 2 volts when connected to a substantial
load. Aircraft batteries of the lead acid type are usually rated at 12v (6 cells in series) or 24v (12 cells
in series).
76. Batteries are rated according to their voltage and capacity. Battery capacity is measured in
terms of ampere-hours at a five-hour discharge rate; that is to say the battery was discharged to zero
voltage in five hours to determine its capacity. Battery capacity is checked every 3 months, if it falls
below 80% of its rated capacity the battery is removed from aircraft service.

Electrics-DC
77. A 12 volt battery with a capacity rating of 30 ampere-hours (Ah) is capable of supplying 30
amps for 1 hour, 3 amps for 10 hours or any multiple thereof. An alternative capacity rating is often
applied to aircraft storage batteries, known as the 5-minute discharge rate. This is based upon the
maximum current a battery will supply over a 5-minute period at an initial temperature of 26.7C
and a final average cell voltage of 1.2 volts. This provides a useful indication of a lead-acid battery's
engine starting performance.
78. The health of a fully charged battery is checked before it is installed by placing a rated, or
known, load across the battery terminals in parallel with a voltmeter. The voltmeter should show the
rated voltage of the battery, and should continue to do so for 15 seconds. If it fails to do so this is a
good indication that the internal condition of the battery has deteriorated and it should not be placed
in service.
79. During charging some of the water in the electrolyte solution tends to break up into its
constituent elements, hydrogen and oxygen, which are given off in gaseous form from vents in the
top of the battery casing. Hence the proportion of water in the electrolyte solution diminishes and
the specific gravity of the solution increases. Hence a battery requires topping up with water from
time to time.
80. It is possible to determine the state of charge of a lead-acid cell by using a hydrometer to
check the specific gravity (SG) of the electrolyte. When fully charged the SG should be between 1.25
and 1.30, depending upon the age and condition of the cell. When fully discharged the SG is likely to
have fallen to approximately 1.17. 1.275 to 1.3 indicates a high state of charge; 1.24 to 1.275
indicates a medium charge state; 1.2 to 1.24 indicates a low charge state.

Electrics-DC
81. A hydrometer check is not usually practical on an installed battery, because of the risk of acid
spillage and resultant airframe corrosion. An alternative way of checking the state of charge of an
installed battery is by checking the battery open-circuit voltage (OCV) and closed-circuit voltage
(CCV), in other words checking the battery voltage off-load and on load.
82. Off-load voltage (OCV) is virtually unaffected by battery state of charge until the battery is
almost fully discharged, but CCV will fall significantly as state of charge diminishes.
83. Batteries are recharged by connecting them to a source of direct current of greater emf than
the battery itself. The rate at which the battery accepts the charge must be kept reasonably low,
otherwise overheating and subsequent buckling of the plates will result. There are a number of
precautions to be observed when charging lead-acid batteries, other than during the trickle charge
received from the aircraft generators, and these are summarised below:
(a) Charging must be carried out in a well-ventilated area, to disperse vented gas.
(b) The battery charger should be switched off before disconnecting the charging leads; to
avoid sparks at the battery terminals.
(c) Ensure the battery vents are clean and working correctly.
(d) Remove the battery from the aircraft before charging as the electrolyte tends to
vaporise during charging and it is highly corrosive.
(e) When removing the battery from the aircraft disconnect the negative lead first; when
replacing it reconnect the negative lead last. This helps avoid accidental short-circuits
between the airframe and the positive terminal of the battery.

Electrics-DC
84. As a lead-acid battery is being charged it gives off an explosive mixture of oxygen and
hydrogen. It is for this reason that the battery compartment in an aircraft is vented to atmosphere.
Lead-acid batteries should not be left in a discharged state for any significant period. If they are, the
plates will become coated with lead sulphate and the battery will not subsequently accept a charge.
85. Battery fluid spillage will cause problems, both to the aircraft structure and to human tissue.
Bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) is an effective neutralising agent for dealing with deposits in lead-
acid battery compartments. Acid burns to the skin should be First Aid treated with a copious flow of
water, followed by treatment with a dilute solution of bicarbonate of soda.
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
86. The lead-acid battery is by no means the only type of secondary cell in use. Another common
type of cell in aircraft use is the Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad) battery. In this the positive plates are
made of nickel hydroxide and the negative plates of cadmium hydroxide. The electrolyte is a
solution of 70% distilled water and 30% potassium hydroxide. During charging the negative plates
give up oxygen and become cadmium, whilst the positive plates pick up oxygen to form nickel
oxides. During discharge the process is reversed.
87. NiCad batteries are lighter and more robust than lead-acid cells, they have a longer life, they
are easier to store and they do not give off gases whilst charging. They also have a greater power-to-
weight ratio. However, they are more expensive and they are only capable of producing 1.2 to 1.25
volts per cell. Consequently, a nickel-cadmium battery with a rated voltage of 24 volts may have 19
cells or 20 cells connected in series, depending upon the maximum total voltage required.

Electrics-DC
88. The specific gravity of the electrolyte is no indication of the state of charge of this type of
battery, nor can the state of charge be determined by a voltage check against rated load, since voltage
remains substantially constant over most of the discharge period. The only check that a NiCad
battery is fully charged is the value of battery voltage when on charge. As the state of charge
reaches full charge the battery voltage rises to a maximum level, typically about 28 volts in a nominal
24-volt battery. As soon as the charging current is removed the battery voltage falls to about 25
volts.
89. Construction of NiCad batteries is fundamentally similar to that of Lead-Acid batteries, in

that the cells are made up of interleaved alternate positive and negative plates immersed in the
electrolyte and joined at their upper ends to the positive and negative terminals. A continuous woven
nylon separator insulates the plates from each other. The cells comprising the battery are assembled
within a container made of fibreglass or steel coated with epoxy resin. A diagram showing the
construction of a typical nickel-cadmium cell is at Figure 7-16.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-16
90. A Nickel-Cadmium battery may indicate overcharging by the formation of white crystals on
the top of the battery. This is due to expelled electrolyte vapour reacting with the carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere to produce potassium carbonate.

Electrics-DC
91. The capacity of a nickel-cadmium battery is much greater than that of a lead-acid battery of
similar size and weight and thus it will deliver far more power and for a longer period. The battery
voltage remains essentially constant over almost the whole of the discharge cycle, falling markedly
only as the battery becomes fully discharged. This characteristic makes the NiCad battery
particularly suitable for gas turbine engine starting, where a long start cycle requires protracted
battery discharge before the engine-driven generators can supply power to recharge the battery.
92. The capacity of a NiCad battery is a direct function of the total plate area within the cells and
may be up to 80-ampere hours (Ah) in a typical 24-volt battery. The Ah rating is always determined
at a 5-hour discharge rate unless otherwise specified.
Thermal Runaway
93. Batteries will perform to their rated capacities so long as temperature conditions and charging
rates are kept within the specified limits. If either is exceeded a condition known as thermal runaway
may occur, which causes boiling of the electrolyte, violent gassing and eventual melting of the plates
and battery casing.
94. Thermal runaway, or vicious cycling, is a condition to which Nickel-Cadmium batteries are
particularly susceptible at high charging rates. During overcharging, oxygen is formed at the positive
plates of the battery. If this oxygen reaches the negative plates it will re-combine with the cadmium
and generate heat as a result. If this process is allowed to continue the battery may be seriously
damaged, or even explode.
95. The condition is avoided by keeping charge rates within safe limits and by monitoring battery
temperature. Some aircraft NiCad batteries incorporate a temperature sensor that activates an
overheat-warning indicator, or a temperature gauge, in the cockpit.

Electrics-DC
96. If the temperature rises above a prescribed level the battery must be disconnected from the
bus bar by opening the battery master switch.
Connecting Batteries
97. Two or more batteries of the same rating may be connected in series or in parallel as shown at
Figure 7-17 and Figure 7-18. In series the voltage is the sum of all the battery voltages, but the
ampere-hour capacity remains the same as for a single battery. When connected in parallel the
voltage remains the same as for a single battery, but the ampere-hour capacity is the sum of the
capacities of all the batteries.
FIGURE 7-17
Batteries
Connected in
Series

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-18
Batteries
Connected in
Parallel
FIGURE 7-19
Comparison of Lead Acid Nicad
Lead Acid and
Voltage 2.1 volts per cell 1.2 volts per cell
Nicad Batteries
Load Behaviour Close circuit voltage (CCV) CCV remains constant during entire
falls gradually from full charge discharge cycle
to end of discharge cycle
Thermal Runway Not normally affected This can present a big problem if
battery is overcharged internal cell
resistance is low and a high charge
current can cause overheating
Storage Life Best stored for short periods Can be stored for long periods of time
in a charged or discharged state

Electrics-DC
98. An advantage of the nicad battery is that it contains a greater power-to-weight ratio than the
lead acid and it also has a higher capacity. It can accept high charge rates and can discharge at
equally high rates without the voltage drop associated with lead-acid batteries. It also has a lower
susceptability to very low temperatures. A disadvantage of the nicad battery is that it develops a
memory which must be periodically erased.
99. Either lead-acid or nicad batteries are used in aircraft electrical systems. They provide uses
ranging from main engine or APU starting, emergency lighting back-up supply to some navigation
equipment (INS) through to an emergency DC supply in the event that all power generating sources
fail.
Magnetism and Electricity

100. Magnetism and electricity are inseparable. When an electrical current flows through a
conductor a magnetic field is created around the current-carrying conductor. The greater the current
flow through the conductor, the greater the strength of the magnetic field surrounding it. This is the
principle upon which electro-magnets work.
101. When an electrical conductor is placed within a magnetic field, providing that there is relative
movement between the two such that the conductor cuts across the lines of magnetic force, electrical
energy is induced in the conductor. This is known as electro-magnetic induction and is the principle
upon which a generator works.
102. Before considering these principles it is necessary to discuss the basic principles of magnetism.

Electrics-DC
Magnetism
103. The name is derived from magnetite, an iron-oxide material that from early times was found
to have the property of attracting iron and similar materials. The early explorers used this
"lodestone" as a primitive compass since, when suspended freely, one end always points in a
Northerly direction.
104. The composition of soft iron is such that groups of its atoms or molecules appear to combine
to produce small permanent magnets, each known as a magnetic domain. Each domain has a north
(N) pole and a south (S) pole. In a demagnetised piece of soft iron these domains will be randomly
aligned as at Figure 7-20.
FIGURE 7-20
Domains - De
Magnetised Soft
Iron
105. When an external magnetic field is applied to a piece of soft iron the magnetic domains begin
to align themselves with the polarity of the external field. Repeated application of the external
magnetic field will result in more and more of the domains becoming aligned until, ultimately, they
are all aligned in the same direction.

Electrics-DC
106. A bar of soft iron can be magnetised by stroking it along its length in one direction with one
pole of a permanent magnet. Repeated application of an electro-magnetic field will have the same
effect. At this point the soft iron bar is producing its maximum magnetic field strength and it is said
to be magnetically saturated. This situation is illustrated at Figure 7-21.
FIGURE 7-21
Soft Iron -
Magnetically
Saturated
107. However, once the source of magnetism is removed most of the molecules of the soft iron will
revert to their random polarisation and the material is no longer magnetised, or at best only a few
remain aligned and the material retains a small amount of residual magnetism. This is because soft
iron has high permeability, the ability of a material to become magnetised. It becomes magnetised
easily because there is little internal friction between its molecules, but for the same reason it equally
easily loses its magnetism.
108. Hard iron and some steel alloys have low permeability. The internal friction of their
molecules makes them difficult to magnetise, but once the molecules have become aligned, or
polarised, the same internal friction keeps them aligned. When such a material is removed from the
magnetising source it retains its magnetism to become a permanent magnet.

Electrics-DC
109. The magnetic field, or flux, pattern of a permanent magnet is shown at Figure 7-22.
FIGURE 7-22
Permanent Magnet
- Flux Pattern
110. When unlike or like magnetic poles are placed adjacent to each other flux patterns are
produced as shown at Figure 7-23. Magnetic force, or flux, is considered as travelling from north to
south in invisible lines. Whilst this is not literally the case it provides a useful reference by which
calculations can be made and effects considered. Ferromagnetic materials that can be used for
permanent magnets are:
(a) Hard steel
(b) Nickel
(c) Cobalt
(d) Alnico (alloy of iron, nickel and cobalt)
(e) Remalloy
(f) Permandur

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-23
Polar Flux Patterns
Magnetic Fields Surrounding Current Carrying Cores

111. When an electric current flows through a conductor a magnetic field is produced around that
conductor due to the movement of electrons through it. The direction of the magnetic flux is
dependent upon the direction of current flow and can be determined by application of the screw
rule. This is shown at Figure 7-24.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-24
Scew Rule
112. If you visualise a simple wood screw pointing in the direction of current flow the direction of
the magnetic flux is given by the direction in which the screw must be rotated in order to propel the
screw in the direction of the current flow.
113. When the current-carrying conductor is formed into a loop, the combination of two circular
flux patterns produces a field having a north and south polarity, as illustrated at Figure 7-25.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-25
Loop Flux Patterns

Electrics-DC
114. Figure 7-25 shows a plan view of the current-carrying loop and the direction of current flow.
Figure 7-25 shows a section through the loop at A and B. With current flowing into A and out of
B the two circular fields combine to produce a polarised field as shown. The strength of this
magnetic field will depend upon the strength of current flow.
115. The dot and cross convention used in Figure 7-25 is another way of indicating the direction
of current flow and the associated flux direction. The cross represents the tail, or flight of an arrow
entering the paper, the dot the point of the arrow coming out of the paper. The arrow indicates
conventional current direction (+ to -) and flux flow is always clockwise around the cross and anti-
clockwise around the dot. Flux flow is always out of the magnetic field, from north to south.
116. The magnetic polarity at either end of a current-carrying loop can be determined by looking
at the end of the loop and using the method shown at Figure 7-25.
117. The effect can be concentrated, to produce a stronger magnetic field, by using a number of
loops in the form of a coil of wire. The magnetic field produced by a coil of wire is shown at
Figure 7-26.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-26
Magnetic Field
from Current
Carrying Coil
118. The magnetic field intensity, or strength, produced by a conducting coil is directly
proportional to the current strength and the number of turns in the coil and inversely proportional
to the length of the magnetic circuit. If it is imagined that the coil is wound around a cylindrical
core, the length of the magnetic circuit is, effectively, the length of the core.

Electrics-DC
Electro-Magnets
119. If a soft iron rod, or core, is placed within the current-carrying coil shown at Figure 7-27 the
magnetic flux will traverse the iron core and its domains will align with the flux direction so that it
becomes a magnet with polarity the same as the electro-magnetic field. Soft iron is used because of
its high permeability, or ability to become magnetised or demagnetised. That is to say the magnetic
domains will readily align with the external (coil-produced) field, but will take up random alignment
when the external field is removed.
120. Since the external field requires current flow to produce it, the electro-magnet can be switched
on or off by switching the coil current on or off. Furthermore, the strength of the electro-magnet can
be increased (up to saturation level in the soft iron core) by increasing the current flow in the coil.
Thus, the number of turns in the coil and the permeability of the core determine the strength of an
electro-magnet. An example of an electro-magnet is shown at Figure 7-27.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-27
Electro Magnet
Relays
121. The flux field of the magnetism induced in the core of an electro-magnet may be used to
create mechanical movement, which subsequently can be made to operate a piece of equipment, such
as a switch. An electro-magnet having a fixed core and a magnetically operated mechanical linkage
is called a relay and is often used for the remote operation of low-current switching devices. The
principle is illustrated at Figure 7-28.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-28
Relay

Electrics-DC
122. Attached to the mechanical linkage of the relay is an armature made from a material that
responds to a magnetic field and which is therefore attracted by the field of the electro-magnet. The
movement of the armature is used to open or close a set, or in some cases several sets, of contact
points. In the example at Figure 7-28 the action of the electro-magnet closes the relay contact points
to complete an electric circuit. The coil circuit is insulated from the contact circuit by means of
insulated arms or insulated stops. The fuctional requirement of a relay will determine its type. A
normally open relay will not activate a circuit until its coil is energised. A normally closed relay will
de-activate a circuit when its coil is energised. A relay can employ a changeover contact which will
function to activate one circuit and de-activate another when its coil is energised.
Solenoids
123. In some electro-magnets the soft iron core is movable, in which case the device is known as a
solenoid. When the coil of the electro-magnet is energised the magnetic field produced attracts the
soft iron core and draws it into the coil against the action of a spring. When current to the coil of the
electro-magnet is switched off the electro-magnetic field collapses and the spring forces the core out
of the coil. The linear motion of the core may be used to operate a variety of mechanical devices
such as electrical contact points, valves and circuit breakers.
124. Usually the core of a solenoid consists of two parts, a non-magnetic sleeve fixed within the
coil windings and a soft iron core that slides within the sleeve. A solenoid is illustrated at
Figure 7-29.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-29
Solenoid
125. The major advantage of solenoids is their suitability for remote operation. They can be sited
almost anywhere within the aircraft and controlled from a remote position using low power switches
or control units and circuitry.
Electro-Magnetic Induction
126. Induction is the name given to the transference of electrical energy without the aid of
conductors. When this transfer of energy is achieved by means of a magnetic field it is known as
electro-magnetic induction.

Electrics-DC
127. Electro-magnetic induction occurs when there is relative movement between a conductor and
a magnetic field such that the conductor is cutting across the lines of magnetic flux. If the conductor
moves parallel to the lines of flux, there is no electro-magnetic induction. The relative movement
may be achieved either by a moving conductor in a stationary field or a stationary conductor in a
moving field. The field flux may be made to move by mechanically moving a magnet, as in some
generators, or by varying the strength of the current in an electro-magnet, as in a transformer. The
subject of transformers is discussed in the Power Distribution section of AC Electrics.
128. The principle of generator action, in which electro-magnetic induction produces power, is
illustrated at Figure 7-30.
FIGURE 7-30
Generator Action
129. As the conductor is moved across the magnetic flux field an electromotive force (emf), or
voltage, is induced in it. The voltage will cause current to flow, and thus power to be produced, if the
conductor forms a complete electrical circuit, as at Figure 7-30. The direction in which the induced
emf acts is determined by Fleming's right hand rule. This is illustrated at Figure 7-31.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-31
Flemings Right
Hand Rule
The Laws of Electro-Magnetic Induction
The important laws concerning electro-magnetic induction are those laid down by Faraday and Lenz.
Faraday's Laws state that:
1st Law. An induced emf is established in a circuit whenever the magnetic field linked with the
circuit changes. (in intensity or polarity).
2nd Law. The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic
flux linked with the circuit.
Lenz's Law states that:

Electrics-DC
The induced emf acts to circulate a current in a direction that opposes the change in flux that causes
the emf.
Generators
130. It was shown in section 2.127 that movement of a conductor within a magnetic field results in
the induction of an emf in the conductor. It follows that, for continuous generation of emf in the
conductor, there must be continuous relative movement between conductor and magnetic field. This
is achieved by rotating a conducting loop within the flux field between the poles of a magnet.
131. Figure 7-32 shows a simple generator consisting of a conducting loop, or armature, placed in
the field between the poles of a permanent magnet and rotated by an external mechanical drive (in an
aircraft this drive is from the engine). As the armature loop rotates, the sides of the loop cut through
the flux field and this relative movement between conducting loop and field induces an emf in the
loop.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-32
Simple Generator

Electrics-DC
132. Attached to each end of the loop is a conducting slip ring, which is in contact with a
stationary brush made of carbon. The two brushes are connected to an electrical circuit in which is
placed a load. The emf induced in the armature loop causes current to flow through the complete
circuit formed by the armature and load circuit.
133. The progressive rotation of the armature in the stationary magnetic field is shown in
Figure 7-32.
134. At point 1 the sides of the armature loop are moving parallel to the flux field. Hence, there is
no relative movement between conductor and field and therefore no induced emf. This is also
indicated on the output curve at Figure 7-32.
135. At point 2 the loop has rotated through 90 and the sides of the loop are moving at right
angles to the field; relative movement is at its greatest and induced emf is maximum. This is
indicated on the output curve.
136. At point 3 the situation is the same as at point 1, except that the armature has rotated
through 180.
137. At point 4 the situation is the same as at point 2, except that the armature has rotated
through 270 in the stationary field, so the sides of the armature are moving in the opposite direction
relative to the field. Induced emf is at a maximum, but is now of opposite polarity. Since,
conventionally, current flows from positive to negative if the electrical polarity is reversed the current
flow will be reversed. This is indicated by the reversal of the output curve at Figure 7-32.

Electrics-DC
138. At point 5 the armature has completed a full revolution and the situation is the same as at
point 1. From the foregoing it will be seen that the voltage output of this simple generator reverses in
polarity and fluctuates in magnitude from zero to a maximum every half cycle, or half revolution of
the armature. Any current flowing in a circuit connected to the terminals of the brushes will reverse
in direction and fluctuate in magnitude every half cycle. Such current is known as alternating current
(AC). All rotary generators produce AC in their armature loops, or windings.
139. The device illustrated above is a simple AC generator, or alternator. Most modern aircraft use
alternators as their primary source of electrical power, but clearly the output of the alternator cannot
be used where DC is required, such as for battery charging. Consequently, the output of the
alternator must be converted to DC, by means of a rectifier to meet such requirements. Virtually all
modern, light piston-engine aircraft are equipped with engine-driven alternators whose output is
rectified and distributed to all the major electrical components as DC. Larger commercial aircraft
are equipped with AC Generators (big alternators) whose output is distributed as AC and only a few
services use rectified AC (i.e. DC).
DC Generator
140. An alternative to rectification of the output of an alternator is to produce direct current at the
outset, by means of a DC generator. Because DC generators are heavier than alternators, and
generally require more maintenance, their use in modern aircraft is limited almost entirely to a
combined engine starter motor and generator (starter generator) found in some small turbine
powered aircraft
141. The construction of a simple DC generator is very similar to that of the simple AC generator
described previously.

Electrics-DC
142. Figure 7-33 shows a simple DC generator from which a pulsating DC can be obtained by
replacing the slip rings of the AC generator with a two-part slip ring, or split ring, known as a
commutator. Each end of the armature loop is attached to one half of the commutator split ring and
the two halves are insulated from each other, usually by a strip of mica.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-33
Simple DC
Generator

Electrics-DC
143. The stationary brushes are placed opposite each other so that, as the commutator rotates, the
brushes pass from one commutator segment to the next as the current flow in the armature has
ceased flowing in one direction and is about to start flowing in the opposite direction. This ensures
that the potential (emf difference) between the commutator segments is minimal at this point of
changeover, or switching. The effect of the commutator is to ensure that the electrical polarity of the
brushes remains constant and so the direction of current flow in the load circuit remains constant.
144. As can be seen from the output curve at Figure 7-33 the DC produced by such a generator is
pulsating and this is unsatisfactory for many current-consuming devices, which require constant
voltage supply. This can be very nearly achieved by increasing the number of armature loops and the
number of magnetic poles, producing a voltage and current flow which has only a slight pulsation,
known as commutator ripple.
145. Figure 7-34 illustrates the change from pulsating DC produced by a single armature loop to
the ripple DC achieved by four armature loops. It should be appreciated that, in the latter, the
commutator would consist of eight segments instead of two.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-34
DC from Four
Armature Loops
146. Clearly the output of any generator using only one rotating loop of wire would be minute.
Consequently many thousands of loops are wound onto a soft iron core to form the armature coil, or
winding. The core serves additionally as a means of concentrating the magnetic field into the desired
area.

Electrics-DC
Field Excitation
147. A fundamental requirement of any electrical distribution system is that the voltage delivered
to the bus bar should be maintained constant under all conditions of electrical load. The aircraft
generator, whether AC or DC, is driven by the aircraft engine and therefore its speed of rotation is
variable, especially in the case of the piston engine aircraft.
148. Referring back to Faradays second law it is apparent that the emf induced in the armature
windings of a generator will vary directly with the speed of rotation of the armature. However, it is
clearly not a practical proposition to use generator variable speed control as a means of controlling
the emf induced and therefore the output voltage.
149. The magnitude of the emf induced in a conductor by electro-magnetic induction is dependent
upon the following factors:
(a) The rate at which the conductor is cut by the lines of magnetic flux (in this case speed
of armature rotation).
(b) The length of the conductor (determined by the number of turns in the armature
winding).
(c) The flux density (the strength of the magnetic field).
150. We have already seen that it is not practical to use the first factor as a means of generator
output voltage control, and the second is fixed during manufacture. This leaves only one option
remaining, variation of the strength of the magnetic field within which the armature rotates.

Electrics-DC
151. In the simple generators illustrated at Figure 7-32 and Figure 7-33 the generator field is
produced by a permanent magnet and is therefore clearly not variable. However, as was shown in
the previous chapter, passing a current through a conductor and varying the current strength can
produce a variable strength magnetic field. If the conductor is wound around a soft iron core the
magnetic field will be concentrated in the core and the device will be an electro-magnet, the flux
density of which can be varied from zero to saturation level. This is known as field excitation.
152. By this means the emf induced in the generator armature, and therefore the generator output
voltage, can be controlled regardless of generator speed or electrical load by varying the current
supplied to the core winding of the electro-magnet. This core winding is known as the generator
field winding and the current supplied to it as the generator field current. Figure 7-35 illustrates the
basic concept.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-35
Field Excitation
153. In the diagram at Figure 7-35a the field current is supplied from a battery and the strength of
the field current is controlled by means of a variable resistance. Decreasing the resistance at the
controller allows more current to flow to the field coil, which increases the flux density in the core
and thus the strength of the magnetic field in which the armature loop is turning. Consequently,
greater emf is induced in the armature and the generator output voltage rises. Increasing the
resistance at the controller has the opposite effect.

Electrics-DC
154. Figure 7-35b shows the field excitation circuit in schematic form. When the generator field
current is supplied from an external source of direct current, as in this case, this is known as external,
or separate excitation. Field current must be DC in order to maintain constant polarity of the
magnetic field so the source of field current for an externally excited generator is normally the
aircraft battery.
155. In DC generators the current to the field coil is usually taken from the generator output, and
this is known as self-excitation. This arrangement is shown schematically at Figure 7-36. From the
output (positive) terminal of the generator current is supplied to the field coil through a controlling
variable resistance to the field winding.
FIGURE 7-36

Electrics-DC
156. It will be noted that the field winding is in parallel with the generator armature, this is known
as a shunt-wound generator and is the usual configuration. The current flow through the field
winding is quite separate from that flowing from the generator to the distribution system loads and is
therefore relatively simple to control, in order to maintain constant output voltage.
157. In the purely diagrammatic representation at Figure 7-35 a single electro-magnet is shown,
but in practice there are a number of electro-magnets spaced evenly around the armature.
158. The soft iron of the electro-magnets retains a small amount of magnetism, known as residual
magnetism, even when there is no field current. This residual magnetism is sufficient to induce an
emf in the armature of the generator when it first starts to rotate, which initiates a current flow from
the generator. This current flow supplies the field coils, increasing the magnetic field of the
electromagnets, increasing induced emf in the armature, and so on.
159. Residual magnetism may be lost, or its polarisation reversed, due to excess heat, shock or
reversal of field current flow. The residual magnetism can be restored by briefly passing a current
through the field. This is known as field flashing, or flashing the field.
160. In circumstances where the generator speed can be maintained constant and load variations
are relatively small it possible to configure the DC generator such that the field windings are in series
with the armature (and therefore the load). Also, a type of generator in which some of the field
windings are in series, and some in parallel with the load, known as a compound-wound machine is
sometimes used. In summary it can be said that generator voltage depends on the number of turns in
the armature, the strength of the field, the rpm of the armature and the supplied load.

Electrics-DC
Alternators
161. Many light single and twin-engined aircraft use direct current power distribution supplied
from alternating current generators (alternators), the alternator AC output being rectified to DC at
source. Alternators are lighter than DC generators and do not suffer from the problems of arcing
(and the consequent radio interference) produced by commutation.
162. Because the alternator does not require a rotating commutator there is no need for the
armature to be mounted on the rotor and the large load current to be transferred to the output
terminals through slip rings and brushes. Instead, the armature winding is in the stationary casing of
the machine and the generator field windings and their electro-magnets are on the rotor.
Consequently, only the relatively small field current need be passed through brushes and slip rings to
the rotating field windings.
163. Thus, in aircraft alternators, the rotating magnetic field cuts through the stationary
conductors of the armature winding, inducing emf. The armature winding is connected to the output
terminals of the alternator, from which the load current is supplied to the distribution bus bars
through a rectification system that converts the AC output to DC.
164. Figure 7-37 shows a simple alternator arrangement. The machine illustrated would produce
single-phase alternating current. Single-phase and three-phase AC is explained in paragraphs 306-
321.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-37
Simple Alternator

Electrics-DC
165. The alternator output voltage is automatically controlled by regulating the current supplied
to the field windings in the rotor. This is done by means of a variable resistance in series with the
field windings called a voltage regulator. Figure 7-38 shows a schematic alternator circuit for a light
aircraft 28-volt DC distribution system.
FIGURE 7-38
Alternator Circuit
166. The field current for the separately excited alternator is supplied from the aircraft battery.

Electrics-DC
167. A rectifier is a static semiconductor device that permits current flow in one direction only and
thereby converts bi-directional AC into unidirectional DC.
Control and Protection

168. The control and protection devices needed for an alternator supplying DC to the electrical
distribution system of a light aircraft are a voltage regulator and a current limiter. In the majority of
systems the current limiter is simply a circuit breaker that automatically opens if load becomes
excessive.
169. Voltage regulators work on the principle of sensing the alternator output voltage and
adjusting field current to maintain voltage at a constant value. Typically the voltage regulator is a
transistorised unit that allows a set current to flow to the alternator field coil when alternator output
voltage falls below a set value (say 27.5 volts). When output voltage rises above a set value (say 28.5
volts) it cuts off the current supply to the field coil. This cycle is repeated about 2000 times per
second, maintaining alternator output voltage at about 28 volts.
170. An older version of the same principle is the vibrating contact voltage regulator. In light
aircraft, using comparatively low output generators, voltage regulation is often by means of a
vibrating contact regulator. The regulator contains a voltage coil, which regulates generator voltage
and current. A vibrating contact regulator system is illustrated at Figure 7-39.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-39
Vibrating Contact
Regulator
171. The regulator contains a fixed resistance that is switched in or out of the field circuit by an
electro-magnetically-controlled spring-loaded switch (the vibrating contact). The contact points are
held closed by the spring until the current flow through the voltage coil creates sufficient
electromagnetism to attract the ferritic contact armature and open the points against the force of the
adjustable spring.
172. When generator voltage is low the current flow through the voltage coil is insufficient to open
the contact points. Field current to the shunt field winding flows through the points, creating a
strong generator magnetic field and causing output voltage to rise.

Electrics-DC
173. When output voltage reaches a predetermined level, current flow through the voltage coil
becomes sufficient to create an electromagnet of sufficient strength to open the contact points. Field
current can now only reach the shunt field winding via a fixed resistance. The low resultant field
current reduces output voltage, and electromagnetic strength of the voltage coil, until the spring
closes the contact points once more.
174. This process is repeated at between 50 and 200 cycles per second, maintaining an essentially
steady voltage. The generator output control voltage is adjusted by adjusting the tension of the
spring. Vibrating contact regulators are only suitable for use with generators where the field current
is low (less than 8 amps). Above this level the vibrating contact points would become overheated
and possibly fuse together.
Monitoring Devices
175. There are basically only two monitoring instruments required for an alternator-supplied DC
distribution system. These instruments are an ammeter to show current flow and a voltmeter to
indicate proper functioning of the voltage regulator. Of these two instruments, the ammeter is the
more important and most single engine aircraft are not fitted with voltmeters, only with a warning
indication if voltage strays outside preset limits.
176. Ammeters and voltmeters are remarkably similar in construction. An ammeter is connected
in series with each generator to show the output current (load). A voltmeter is connected in parallel
with circuit loads to show circuit voltage. Both instruments are usually of the permanent magnet
moving coil type, shown at Figure 7-40.

Electrics-DC
177. Voltmeters usually have the required resistance built into the instrument itself. Increasing the
measuring range of the voltmeter can be achieved by the use of additional resistances connected in
series with the instrument. The resistances are called multipliers. Increasing the measuring range of
an ammeter is achieved by the addition of a resistor connected in parallel with the instrument. This is
called a shunt resistance.
FIGURE 7-40
Moving Coil
Instrument
178. A coil is wound around a former mounted upon a soft iron core. The core is carried on a
spindle supported by a bearing, so that it is free to rotate between the poles of a permanent magnet.
Rotation of the core is limited, however, by a hairspring, one end of which is attached to the core
spindle and the other to the casing of the instrument.

Electrics-DC
179. Current flow through the coil sets up a magnetic field, which interacts with the permanent
field and causes the coil and core to rotate towards the weakened field, against the hairspring. The
greater the current flow, the greater the extent of rotation. Attached to the rotating core is a pointer
that moves against a fixed scale, calibrated in amps or volts as required.
180. Reversal of current flow through the coil reverses the direction of the rotary movement and
this is employed in the centre-zero arc scale type of ammeter used in conjunction with batteries to
show charge or discharge, see Figure 7-41. Reversible moving coil indicators employ two hairsprings
with opposite winding, to restrict rotation of the core in either direction.
FIGURE 7-41
Centre-Zero
Ammeter
181. A generator ammeter, or loadmeter, is of the left-zero type, illustrated at Figure 7-42, which
shows an increased deflection in a clockwise direction with increased current flow through the coil.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-42
Left-Zero
Ammeter
FIGURE 7-43
Voltmeter Circuit
182. Ammeters are connected in series with the load and are designed to offer a very low
resistance. Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the load and are designed to offer a very high
resistance, so that the majority of the current flows through the load and not through the voltmeter.
Current flow is proportional to the voltage in a circuit of fixed resistance, so the scale of the
instrument can be calibrated in volts for a range of current flows. See Figure 7-43.

Electrics-DC
Wheatstone Bridge
183. A typical bridge circuit is illustrated at Figure 7-44. The bridge circuit is in balance if the four
resistances R1, R2, R3 and RV are equal i.e. 100 ohms. Now consider the variable resistance RV
changes to a value of 200 ohms. It can be seen that one side of the bridge has a total resistance of 200
ohms R2 + R3 and the other side R1+RV a total resistance of 300 ohms. Applying ohms law (V = I x
R) with the supply voltage of 24V the current flow through R2 and R3 is .12 amps (24 = I x 200) and
the current flow through R1 and RV is .08 amps (24 = I x 300). Using these values we can calculate
the voltage drop R2/R3 and R1+RV Points B and D. Voltage drop across R1 is 8V (V = 0.8 x 100).
Therefore potential at B = 24 - 8 = 16V. Voltage drop across R2 = 12V (V = .12 x 100). Therefore
potential at D = 24 - 12 = 12V. If an instrument is placed between points B and D, current will flow
from Point B (16V) to Point D (12V). Measurement of this current can be represented on a suitably
calibrated scale i.e. fuel contents gauge.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-44
Annunciators
184. Display of normal, abnormal, malfunctioning or failure of various systems in an aircraft can
be indicated by using various coloured lights for instance, warning lights are red, caution lights -
amber and indicating lights - blue/green. Some aircraft incorporate magnetic indicators (MIs) as a
form of annunciation. Some annunciations can be pre empted or accompanied by aural warnings
(bells and chimes).

Electrics-DC
DC Motors
185. There are a number of instances where it is necessary for an electric motor to operate from
the aircraft battery, rather than from the engine-driven alternator. An obvious example of this is the
engine starter motor. Clearly such a motor must be capable of operating from a direct current supply.
Compared with its AC equivalent, the DC motor is capable of producing greater starting torque and
so is preferable, even when AC power is available, in certain applications. Examples of these are
wing flap motors and landing gear.
186. A DC motor comprises an armature mounted in bearings and that is free to rotate within a
stationary magnetic field. The armature is a conducting loop supplied with direct current and the
stationary magnetic field may be supplied by a permanent magnet or it may be electro-magnetic.
Direct current is supplied to the rotating armature via stationary carbon brushes that are in contact
with the two halves of a longitudinally split cylinder known as a commutator. Figure 7-45 illustrates
a very simple DC motor in which the armature consists of a single conducting loop and the
stationary field is supplied by a permanent magnet. In practical motors the armature comprises many
conducting loops and the stationary field is controlled electro-magnetically.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-45
Simple DC Motor
187. Electric motors operate according to Flemings Left Hand Rule. To demonstrate this the
thumb, first and second fingers of the left hand are arranged such that they are mutually at right
angles to each other. With the first finger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field (N to S) and
the second finger pointing in the direction of conventional flow within the conductor, the thumb will
point in the direction the conductor will tend to move. This is illustrated at Figure 7-46.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-46
Flemings Left
Hand Rule

Electrics-DC
DC Motor Principle of Operation

188. The movement of a current carrying conductor within a magnetic field is due to the
interaction between the static field and the flux created around the conductor by the current flowing
through it. Figure 7-47 shows the simple DC motor of Figure 7-45 with the direction of current flow
in the armature indicated by a cross and a dot, and the consequent flux field produced. The cross
indicates current flowing away from the viewer and the dot indicates current flowing toward the
viewer. Since, in magnetism, like poles repel and unlike poles attract the armature in the diagram is
compelled to rotate in a clockwise direction.
FIGURE 7-47
DC Motor
Principle (1)

Electrics-DC
189. With refernce to Figure 7-47, current is being supplied through the left hand half of the
commutator and is returning through the right hand half. This current flow through the armature
loop, indicated by the cross and dot symbols, has produced an electro-magnetic field as described in
the preceeding paragraph. The consequent repulsion and attraction produces a torque force to rotate
the armature in a clockwise direction.
FIGURE 7-48
DC Motor
Principle (2)
190. After a quarter of a revolution the armature and its attached commutator will have reached
the position shown at Figure 7-48. Because of the gaps in the commutator there is now no current
flow through the armature and therefore no electro-magnetic flux. However, inertia will keep the
armature rotating.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-49
DC Motor
Principle (3)
191. It will be seen from Figure 7-49 that as the armature passes beyond the quarter turn position,
current once again flows through the commutator halves in the same direction as before. The
polarity of the electro-magnetic field is thus maintained constant, maintaining the direction of
torque.

Electrics-DC
Back emf and Net emf

192. It has already been shown that when a conductor is moved relative to a magnetic field an emf
is induced in the conductor. The loop of an armature is moving through the stationary field as the
armature rotates and this inevitably induces an emf in the armature. This emf produces a current
flow that opposes the applied current from the battery and therefore reduces the total armature
current flow. The induced voltage is known as back emf.
193. The difference between the applied emf and the back emf is known as the net emf, and it is
this that determines the torque produced in the armature shaft. In order to ensure that the net emf is
sufficient the resistance of the armature windings is kept as low as possible.
194. The initial current flow through the armature, before it begins to rotate, is determined by the
applied voltage and the armature resistance. If the resistance is low the current flow will be very high.
As the motor gains speed the back emf increases and reduces the current flow through the armature.
This explains why the current to a DC motor shows a surge on starting and then quickly falls to a
much lower value. To avoid excess starting current, some DC motors have a resistance built in to the
armature windings, which automatically cuts out as motor speed increases.
Types of DC Motors and their Characterstics

195. The stationary field of a DC motor is invariably produced electro-magnetically, so that
varying the current flow through the field windings will vary the field strength. DC motors fall into
three types, according to the arrangement of the field windings in respect to the armature windings.
These types are series wound, shunt wound and compound wound, They are illustrated
diagrammatically at Figure 7-50, Figure 7-51 and Figure 7-52.

Electrics-DC
Series Wound Motor

196. In the series wound motor the field coils are connected in series with the armature. Thus, the
current flow through both is the same and the magnetic flux induced in both armature and field coils
will be strong, producing high torque in the armature shaft. This is particularly true at starting, when
the current flow is very high. Consequently a characteristic of the series wound motor is high starting
torque. This is useful in circumstances where the motor will be required to start against a high load
and where the running load is also high. The schematic wiring arrangement for a series wound motor
is shown at Figure 7-50.
197. Examples of instances where series wound motors are used are engine starter motors, flap
operating motors and landing gear operating motors.
198. Series wound motors should never never be allowed to operate without a mechanical load
applied. This is because they are liable to overspeed, possibly to destruction. The reason for this is
that, as the armature speed increases the induced back emf reduces the net emf and therefore the
current flow through both armature and field windings. The reduced current flow through the field
windings reduces the strength of the stationary magnetic field, preventing the back emf from
reaching a value where the net emf is zero. Hence there is always a net emf to continue accelerating
the unloaded motor.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-50
Series Wound
FIGURE 7-51
Shunt Wound

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-52
Compound
Wound
Shunt Wound Motors

199. This schematic arrangement of the wiring for a shunt (or parallel) wound DC motor is shown
an Figure 7-51. From this it will be seen that the field coils are connected in parallel with the
armature windings. The resistance of the field coils is deliberately set to limit the field current to that
required for normal operation of the motor, and is much higher than the armature resistance. This is
usually achieved by using many thousands of turns of very fine wire for the field windings.
200. On start up the current flow through the armature is high, because of its low resistance. The
current flow through the field coils is low however, because of their relatively high resistance, and
field strength is correspondingly weak. Consequently, a characteristic of the shunt wound DC motor
is low starting torque.

Electrics-DC
201. As the armature speed increases, increasing back emf will cause the armature current to
decrease. Because the back emf does not affect the current flow through the field coils, since they are
in parallel to the armature, the relative value of the field current to the armature current increases
with increased motor speed. The result is that the torque increases until back emf almost equals
applied emf and the motor settles at its normal operating speed. This speed is virtually constant
within the design mechanical load range of the motor.
202. Shunt wound motors are used when starting torque is low and increases with motor speed.
They are particularly useful where constant speed under varying load conditions is a requirement.
Typical applications in aircraft are fuel pumps and fans.
Compound Wound Motors

203. Figure 7-52 shows the schematic arrangement of a compound wound DC motor. This has
two sets of field windings, one connected in series with the armature and the other in parallel. The
low resistance series windings are shown in heavy lining, the higher resistance shunt windings in
lighter lining. The compund wound motor combines the characteristics of the series wound and the
shunt wound motor. It is capable of high starting torque, but will not overspeed under light
mechanical loading and will maintain a reasonably constant speed under varying conditions of load.
204. The compound wound motor is suited to applications where loads may vary from zero to
maximum and where starting loads may be high. In aircraft they are often used to drive hydraulic
pumps.

Electrics-DC
Reversible DC Motors
205. In certain aircraft applications, such as motor-operated flaps and landing gear, it is necessary
for the motor to be reversible. Clearly this could be achieved by means of a switching arrangement
that reversed the polarity of the DC supply to either the field or the armature (but not both). This
would reverse the magnetic attraction and repulsion and thus reverse the direction of rotation of the
armature. However, such switching would be complex and it is more usual to employ a spli-field
motor where it is necessary for the motor to rotate in either direction.
206. In a split-field motor there are two sets of field windings, either wound in opposite directions
on a common pole (or core) or on alternate poles around the inside of the motor casing. The motor is
controlled by a single-pole double throw (SPDT) switch that can be placed in one of three positions.
When the switch is placed in the mid-position the supply to the motor is broken. When thrown in
one direction one set of field coils is energised and the motor rotates in (say) the clockwise direction.
When thrown in the opposite direction the alternate field coils are energised, the field polarity is
reversed and the motor rotates in the anti-clockwise direction. A split-field schematic circuit is shown
at Figure 7-53.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-53
Schematic Circuit
Diagram for a
Split-Field Motor
207. Since the type of applications requiring a reversible motor also uses series wound motors, the
field coils are in series with the armature and must therefore be wound with thick, low resistance
wire. Reversible motors with a rating higher than 20 amps or so employ a remotely operated
switching relay in the supply to the field coils.
208. Some low powered DC motors use a magnet instead of a field coil and in these the direction
of rotation is reversed by reversing the polarity of the DC supply. Since only the armature supply
need be reversed the switching is simple. Light aircraft flap systems often use permanent magnet
reversible motors.

Electrics-DC
Aircraft DC Motors
209. In order to keep weight to a minimum it is important that aircraft electric motors have a high
power-to-weight ratio. To achieve this they operate at considerably higher rotary speeds than in
industrial applications and at higher armature currents. There is consequently a tendency for aircraft
motors to operate at high temperatures and air-cooling is usually necessary to dissipate the heat
generated. To keep centrifugal forces as low as possible armature diameters are deliberately kept
small.
210. When DC motors are operated under emergency load conditions a cooling period is often
necessary before they can be used again. Some motors are rated for intermittent duty only and these
will overheat and the internal insulation may burn if they are operated continuously. Continuous
duty motors are necessarily of a lower power-to-weight ratio. The type of duty for which a motor is
rated is listed in the manufacturers specifications and, possibly, on a rating plate attached to the
motor casing.
DC Motor Construction
211. The major components of a typical aircraft DC motor are the armature, the yoke (or casing)
and the field coils.
212. The armature is typically a soft iron drum mounted on the motor shaft, with the armature
conductors set axially into the surface of the drum. Also mounted on the armature shaft are the
commutator segments, to which the armature conductors are connected. The armature shaft is
mounted in ball bearings at each end, the bearings being held in the ends of the motor casing.
213. The field windings are attached to the inside of the yoke and form two poles fitting closely
around the armature with a running clearance of about 2.5mm.

Electrics-DC
214. A schematic drawing showing a section through a DC motor is at Figure 7-54.
FIGURE 7-54
Section Through a
DC Motor
(Schematic)

Electrics-DC
Starter Generator
215. Some small turbine-powered aircraft use a generator that doubles as the engine starter motor.
Typically the machine has two sets of field windings. During engine start, when the starter generator
is acting as a motor, a low-resistance series field winding is used. This permits a high current flow
through the field winding to give the high torque needed for turning the engine.
216. Once the engine is operating the series field winding is switched out and a shunt winding
energised in its place, so that the machine becomes a shunt-wound DC generator supplying current to
the aircrafts electrical system at 28 volts and up to 300 amps.
DC Power Distribution
217. In any aircraft, electrical power will be distributed to the various items of electrical equipment
by one of two methods.
FIGURE 7-55
Single Pole
Distribution
System

Electrics-DC
218. The single pole (unit pole) or earth return system is used on aircraft of metal construction.
In this system one wire (the single pole) connects the electrical power supply to the equipment, and
the return path from the equipment to the power source is via the aircraft structure itself, as shown at
Figure 7-55. The dipole or two-pole system is used on aircraft that are not constructed entirely of
conductive materials. Here one wire connects the electrical power supply to the equipment, and the
return path from the equipment to the power source is via a second, earth wire, as shown at
Figure 7-56.
FIGURE 7-56
Two Pole (Dipole)
Distribution
System
219. All aircraft electrical systems use at least one bus bar, which is simply a copper strip acting as
a junction for the generator(s), battery and the various loads. However, distribution is complicated
by the need to provide for abnormal conditions such as loss of a power source or faults in the
distribution system.
220. In single-engine aircraft it is normal for the alternator and the battery to be connected to a
single bus bar, from which the relatively few consumer services are drawn, through fuses or circuit
breakers of suitable rating. A simple DC power distribution schematic is illustrated by Figure 7-57.
The system consists of a battery circuit, an alternator circuit, an engine starter circuit, a bus bar with
circuit breakers and lighting circuits. Not shown are the connection and protection for the radio
circuits. High current carrying cables are connected between battery and master solenoid, starter

Electrics-DC
solenoid and starter motor and between alternator and main bus bar. All the normal loads are
supplied by the alternator once on and running. Failure of the alternator output is indicated by a
warning light. The loads are fed from the main bus and protected by individual circuit breakers (CB).
Any wires that are not protected by CBs should be as short as practical and well insulated. Note
that this schematic is a negative earth return system. When the alternator is running and connected to
the bus, the ammeter will indicate the electrical load being supplied to the consumers. This system
shows the option to incorporate an external DC power connection.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-57

Electrics-DC
221. If the generator fails in flight on a single engined aircraft, the only remaining source of
electrical power is the battery. It will be necessary to reduce electrical loading to a minimum and to
land as soon as practical. If the generator and battery fail simultaneously a landing should be made
as soon as possible. A battery should provide enough power for thirty minutes flying following
failure of a generator.
222. Should the presence of fire be detected other than an engine it is most likely to be an electrical
problem. The source could be identified by a process of isolating various circuits in turn by use of
circuit breakers. On a single engined aircraft it may be necessary to turn off the generator or battery
(or both). Once again a landing should be made as soon as possible.
223. Typical requirements of an aircraft electrical system are:

(a) Supply to all equipment must be maintained unless the total power demand exceeds
available supply.
(b) System faults (earths, short-circuits, etc) should have the least possible effect on
overall system functioning.
(c) A fault on one piece of equipment should not affect the power supply to the remainder
of the system.
224. These requirements may be met by parallel operation of generators. The second and third
requirements are achieved by arranging for faulty systems to be isolated from the distribution
network by means of fuses and/or circuit breakers. The minimum disruption to services is ensured
by providing each power source with its own bus bar, and prioritisation of consumer services into
three categories; vital, essential and non-essential.

Electrics-DC
225. Vital consumers are those services required in an emergency when all main power sources,
normally the engine-driven generators, are lost. These services, which include emergency lighting
and fire detection/protection, are provided from a bus bar connected directly to the aircraft battery
supply.
226. Essential consumers are those services necessary for safe flight in an emergency situation.
They are connected to a bus bar that can always be supplied either from a generator or the aircraft
batteries.
227. Non-Essential Consumers are those services that can be safely disconnected during an in-
flight emergency, for purposes of load shedding. These are supplied from the generator bus bars.
228. Figure 7-58 shows a basic twin-engined aircraft bus bar DC distribution system designed to
conform to the above categories.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-58
DC Bus Bar
Distribution

Electrics-DC
229. Note that the system includes inverters. These convert DC to AC, which is necessary for
many of the flight instruments, radios, and navigation systems (avionics in modern jargon). The
system is designed for parallel operation of the generators through a combining bus bar. In the event
of failure a generator can be isolated, by opening its circuit breaker, and the remaining generator can
supply all services.
230. Vital services are taken from the Battery Bus Bar, where power (at 24v) is always available.
Essential services are supplied from the Combining Bus Bar, fed by either generator and/or Batteries
and therefore not subject to interruption. Non-Essential services are supplied from the Generator
Bus Bars and could be subject to interruption, but this is unimportant and makes load shedding easy
when necessary. The inverters would, typically, supply 115v AC at a frequency of 400 Hz.
231. Inverters may be either rotary or static. In either case they are used to convert direct current
(DC) to alternating current (AC). In the case of the rotary inverter, DC is used to drive a DC motor
at constant speed. This in turn drives an alternator (AC generator) to provide alternating current at
constant frequency (usually 115 volt, 3 phase AC at 400 Hz).
232. Static inverters, as their name suggests, have no moving parts and achieve the same result
electronically. They are much more common in modern aircraft. The circuitry of the static inverter
contains such electronic components as diodes, transistors, capacitors and transformers, all of which
are explained in later sections. These solid-state components form an oscillator circuit that converts
DC input into a 400 Hz constant frequency AC output. Static inverters are usually designed to
produce single phase AC.
233. System monitoring typically comprises a single ammeter with switching to select load
monitoring of one alternator at a time. A circuit breaker or fuse of suitable rating protects each of
the consumer services at their connections to the bus bars and the alternators are typically connected
to their bus bars through current limiting fuses.

Electrics-DC
234. A ground power source can be connected to the bus bar distribution system thus allowing all
electrical systems to be powered independently of aircraft battery or generating systems. The source
can be either a motorised generating unit or a battery unit. An alternative at some airports is to
connect up to a cable from a ground supply routed to the dispersal. It is important that the unit is of
correct voltage and polarity and that maximum amperage loading is not exceeded. When connecting
or withdrawing the connection it is advisable to switch the unit off first. An aircraft should not be
left unattended if a ground power supply is connected and supplying the aircraft systems.
Elementary Switching Circuits

235. In Figure 7-57 it will be noted that the battery master switch, situated in the cockpit, operates
a remotely located solenoid-operated switch. Similarly, the engine starter switch operates a remotely
located relay. Relay- and solenoid-operated switching circuits are widely used in aircraft electrical
distribution systems, not only for remote operation of switches in heavily loaded circuits, but also for
sequential switching functions.
236. For example, in non-paralleled (split bus bar) distribution systems in twin-engined aircraft the
generators are connected to their own bus bars in the normal way, but the generator buses must
never be cross-connected with both generators operating, since the generators are not equipped to
operate in parallel. However, should either generator fail it is important that supply to all essential
services be maintained without interruption.
237. A simple split bus bar system is shown at Figure 7-59. A switch called a bus tie breaker (BTB)
is situated between the two generator buses, which will cross-connect them when it is closed.
However, the BTB can only be closed if one or both GCBs are open.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-59
Split Bus Bar
System
238. The bus tie breaker is held open when both generator circuit breakers (GCB) are closed, but it
will automatically close if either generator circuit breaker is opened, keeping both bus bars energised
and maintaining electrical services. A switching circuit to achieve this is illustrated at Figure 7-60.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-60
Switching Circuit -
Split Bus Bar
System

Electrics-DC
239. The generator switches in the cockpit operate their respective GCB solenoids. When a
generator switch is closed a 28-volt DC supply energises the appropriate GCB solenoid, which closes
to connect the generator to its bus bar. The GCB solenoids operate double-pole switches, which also
control a 28-volt DC supply to the BTB solenoid. If either generator switch is opened its associated
GCB solenoid will be de-energised, disconnecting the generator from its bus bar and connecting the
28-volt DC supply to the BTB solenoid, closing the BTB and cross-connecting the generator bus bars.
240. If both generator switches are open, both GCB solenoids will be de-energised and both
generators isolated from their buses. The BTB solenoid will be energised, cross-connecting the
generator bus bars. This would be the situation with both engines shut down and the aircraft
connected to an external power supply.
241. When both generators are operating and connected to their bus bars the BTB solenoid is
isolated from its 28-volt supply and the generator bus bars are isolated from each other.
Electrical Consumers
242. Some typical electrical consumers (loads) and their uses are as follows:
(a) Lighting. Most aircraft will have some form of lighting. Lights can be powered from
the aircraft main generating system (DC or AC) or from aircraft or separate batteries.
Amongst these will be position lights (Nav lights), anticollision lights, landing lights,
instrument panel lights, warning lights, cabin lights and emergency lights.
(b) Heating. Electrical heating circuits are used for de-icing/ anti-icing of airframe,
propellor, engine, windscreen, pitot probe and stall and warning devices. Some air
conditioning systems use electrical supply to supplement heating.

Electrics-DC
(c) Magnetic Devices. Electrical supply is used to operate various mechanisms using
electro magnets i.e. solenoids, relays and switches. Some indication systems are
magnetically operated i.e. MIs (dolls eye).
(d) Avionic Systems. Aviation electronics (avionics) encompass a variety of electronic

systems. Avionic systems in aircraft can include, communication and navigation radio,
autopilot, weather radar, inertial navigation and flight management systems.
(e) Instruments. Operation of modern aircraft would not be possible without the use of
instruments. Large aircraft have instruments which are electrically or electronically
operated. Instruments measure pressure, temperature, altitude, velocity and rates of
flow. Navigation instruments and auto flight will have a commonality.
Bonding and Screening

243. An aircraft flying through the atmosphere will, to a greater or lesser extent, acquire electro-
static charges in the metallic structure of the airframe. If different sections of the airframe acquire
different electrical potentials then current will flow between them, and sparking (arcing) across small
gaps in the structure is liable to occur. At best this will cause radio interference and at worst it could
lead to fires. In order to prevent this the individual parts of the airframe are electrically bonded
together, using woven copper wire strips to provide a low resistance path to discharge points on the
structure.
244. In flight these points are the static wick dischargers, which are copper strips extending from
points of static concentration such as trailing edges of primary flying control surfaces.

Electrics-DC
245. On the ground the aircraft is earthed to the tarmac through conducting tyres which have a
high proportion of carbon in the tyre material and through which any accumulated static electricity
is discharged. Since these tyres are relatively expensive they are only fitted to the smaller wheels,
normally the nose wheels.
246. Friction due to the flow of liquid in a pipe can also produce electro-static charges. This
accumulation of static is particularly marked during re-fuelling when the atmosphere is dry,
especially in pressure re-fuelling when the rate of flow may be 1,000 gallons per minute or more. It is
therefore essential that before pressure re-fuelling commences the bowser and aircraft are connected
electrically (bonded) to each other, and that both are bonded to earth. In overwing re-fuelling a
further requirement is that the re-fuelling nozzle should be bonded to the aircraft tank filler pipe,
since the static electricity may be induced in the fuel flow as it leaves the nozzle.
247. Screening is incorporated on aircraft to prevent radio interference as a result of sparking in

electrical components. The radio interference can be suppressed by fitting suppressors in the cable
attached to any source of sparking, and by installing a metal sheath around the cables. Ignition
systems, DC generator and motor commutators, and indeed any equipment making and breaking a
circuit (especially at frequencies in excess of 10Hz), need to be either sheathed or suppressed.
248. Suppression is usually achieved by connecting a number of capacitors across the source of
interference, so that they provide a low resistance path for the stray voltages induced by the
fluctuating magnetic fields associated with interruptions of current flow.

Electrics-DC
FIGURE 7-61

021 Airframe & Systems
Electrics-AC
Frequency
Sine Wave Format
RMS Equivalent
Inductance
Inductive Reactance
Capacitance
Capacitive Reactance
Impedance
Single and Three Phase Supplies
Remote CSDU Disconnect
Variable Speed Constant Frequency System (VSCF)
Integrated Drive Generator (IDG)
Real Load Sharing
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Electrics - DC

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021 Airframe & Systems

Basic Principles of DC Electricity

G LONGHURST 1999 All Rights Reserved Worldwide

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Prefix Meaning Examples

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This is usefully given diagrammatically as shown at Figure 7-2.

17. This simplifies transposition of the Ohm's Law equation viz:

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1 Watt = 1 Volt x 1 Amp

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26. Applying Ohm's Law to the circuit:

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32. In this case the total resistance is:

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R 2 and R3 ( 2ohms )V = IR = 6 2 = 12 volts across each

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The total resistance of the circuit (RT) is given by:

R1 + R 2 + R (3,4) = 0.5 + 2 + 1.33 = 3.83 ohms

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58. A capacitor comprises two plates of conducting material, separated by a non-conducting

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89. Construction of NiCad batteries is fundamentally similar to that of Lead-Acid batteries, in

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Magnetism and Electricity

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(a) Hard steel

(d) Alnico (alloy of iron, nickel and cobalt)

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Magnetic Fields Surrounding Current Carrying Cores

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